ajells: awka journal of english and literary studies, volume 4 no 1, 2013 137 making professional ethics count in language teaching and learning in nigeria emmanuel obiudo & lauretta chinyeaka abstract this paper examines the role that professional ethics play in enhancing language teaching and learning. language teaching and learning are like two sides of the same coin. language learning is better enhanced with effective language teaching/lecturing. both are in turn affected by a myriad of factors, including the cultivation and maintenance of professional ethics. that language teaching and learning have suffered serious setbacks in nigeria is evident by the low level of proficiency of language graduates, especially that of english, as well as the perennial poor performance of students at the various levels of education in the country. the paper notes the role that professional ethics would play in arresting the trend. it concludes that the cultivation and maintenance of professional ethics by language teachers/lecturers and students would enhance productivity, restore declining public confidence in teaching as well as promote the level of proficiency of, especially, english language graduates. introduction one of the most challenging domains of decision-making could be located within the sphere of ethics. issues bothering on ethics have been with man right from the beginning. for instance, it is believed that the point where man was required to choose between good and evil marked the origins of ethics. "since then, it has continued to define and re-define the basis for analyzing the conduct of mankind" (obiudo 2). ajells: awka journal of english and literary studies, volume 4 no 1, 2013 138 the 21st century has come with its unique opportunities and challenges, while the professional is under increasing pressures to perform in order to prove his worth and or justify his reward. key factors affect performance and professional ethics have proven to be part of these. the professional must not only show demonstrable competence but must also be known and seen to be guided by high ethical standards, ethics pervade all human disciplines and are critical in delivering value. in an age of increasing knowledge, fast-paced globalization and the advent of the internet, the dividing line between ethical and unethical conduct continues to thin out or disappear altogether. the challenges inherent in these realities are clearly enormous. in the light of the foregoing, the paper examines the issue of professional ethics as they concern language teaching, especially at the tertiary level of education in nigeria. they make a case for the cultivation and application of high ethical standards in the process of language teaching in the country. this is also with particular reference to the teaching of the english language, which is a second language to many nigerians. this will not only add value to teaching but also serve to curb the perennial poor performance in the language in the country. since to be educated was (and still is), in the eyes of many, to be educated in the english language (baldeh 3), the outcome would go a long way in improving the level of education in the country. defining the problem the use of language is indispensable in every field of human endeavour. in nigeria, for instance, the english language is a second language to many nigerians as well as the official language of government business in the country. by its nature, to be educated was (and still is), in the eyes of many to be educated ajells: awka journal of english and literary studies, volume 4 no 1, 2013 139 in the english language (baldeh 3). it is, however, well-known that its teaching and learning in the country are bedeviled by several challenges. the consequence could be seen in the low level of proficiency in english of typical english language and other graduates, and the widespread view that the level of education has fallen in the country. the non-adherence to professional ethics in this important field of learning could well be one of the major contributory factors to this predicament. thus, the need for the cultivation and maintenance of professional ethics becomes paramount. in other words, in what ways and to what degree does the observance of professional ethics contribute to enhancing language teaching and learning in the country? this provides the background for the paper. objectives the paper seeks to achieve the following objectives: • to create awareness on the need to embrace professional ethics in language teaching and learning in nigeria, especially as they pertain to the english language. • to highlight the ways in which professional ethics could enhance language teaching and learning. • to make a case for the development of a code of ethics for language teaching and learning. • to make recommendations in line with the stated objectives of the paper. methodology the analytical method of research provides the framework for the paper. the issues under discussion are well-known, even to the casual observer of the nation's educational system. the essence is to bring salient issues to the fore, while advocating for the ways of improvement in the highlighted areas. ajells: awka journal of english and literary studies, volume 4 no 1, 2013 140 the concept of professional ethics according to the longman dictionary of contemporary english, ethics refer to "moral principles or rules of behaviour for deciding what is right or wrong" (466). it is the moral principles or values that generally govern the conduct of an individual or a group "ethics can be viewed as the standard of behaviour by which conduct is judged" (lamb, hair and mcdaniel 45). while profession relates to a job that needs a high level of education and training, professional ethics concern moral values relating to a particular profession. the need for ethics in order to help employees make right ethical choices, many organizations, including trade associations, have created formal codes outlining what management views as ethical or unethical in the course of discharging their responsibilities. "over 90% of 1 000 largest firms in the united states are known to adopt ethical codes for their employees to make better decisions" (stanton 604). in a recent national study, 60% of companies maintained code of ethics; 33% offered ethics training, while 33% employed ethics officers (45). like other similar institutes and associations, the american marketing association has developed its own code of ethics. in the preamble to the code, it states: "members of the a-m.a. are committed to ethical professional conduct. they have joined together in subscribing to this code of ethics, embracing the following topics": (bovee and thill 57). it then goes on to list the topical issues covered. in concluding, the code notes that "any a.m.a. member found to be in violation of any provision of this c.o.e may have his or her association membership suspended or revoked" (57). in nigeria, the national institute of marketing of nigeria (nimn), like similar institutes, has its own similar code of ethics for its members. ajells: awka journal of english and literary studies, volume 4 no 1, 2013 141 essentially, a code of ethics helps in the following ways: ✓ it helps employees/managers (educators inclusive) to identify what their organizations (or institutions) view as acceptable professional practices. ✓ written codes enable employees avoid confusion when deciding whether their decisions are ethical or not. ✓ a code of ethics serves as an effective internal control mechanism on behaviour, which is preferable to external controls, such as government intervention. ✓ the process of formulating such a code encourages a healthy interaction among employees concerning what is right or wrong. ✓ such a code helps to arrest declining public confidence in the various professions involved. code of ethics for educators paramount in formulating a code of ethics is to decide beforehand the various individuals and interest groups that would be affected by a teacher's or an educator's actions/decisions. typically, it is difficult to please every conceivable interest group. however, formulating and abiding by a code of ethics by professional teachers/lecturers would help to ensure equity, justice and fairness in dealing with the various groups. as a matter fact, the concept of social responsibility enjoins individuals, institutions and organizations, especially those engaged in one form of business or the other, to weigh their actions or decisions in terms of their overall impact on the society as a whole. failure to take cognizance of this has, more often than not, attracted government intervention/regulations. perhaps, in line with this realization, the association of american educators (aae) developed a code of ethics designed to guide educators, both in the public and private educational institutions in the united states. in its overview, the code notes: ajells: awka journal of english and literary studies, volume 4 no 1, 2013 142 ✓ the professional educator strives to create a learning environment that nurtures to fulfillment the potential of all students. ✓ the professional educator acts with conscientious effort to exemplify the highest ethical standards. ✓ the professional educator responsibly accepts that every child has a right to an uninterrupted education free from strikes or any other work stoppage tactics (code of ethics for educators). the code then went on to unveil a list of what is ethically expected of each educator in dealing with such interest groups as students, professional colleagues, practices and performance as well as parents and the community. similarly, the state of florida, in the same united states, came up with a code of ethics for professional educators in the state, with a provision that "violation of any of these principles shall subject the individual to revocation or suspension of the individual educator's certificate or the other penalties as provided by law" (principles of professional conduct for the education profession in florida). it is apparent that these codes were developed in order to ensure high level of professionalism in the teaching profession. ethics for language teaching in nigeria besides the teachers registration council, which was set up not long ago to standardize and regulate the teaching profession, there is not much in the literature to indicate the existence of a code of ethics for teaching, particularly the teaching of a language or languages in nigeria. as such, there are varying degrees of language teaching experiences in higher institutions in the country, depending on the particular institution and the disposition of its management and the teachers/lecturers. this could substantially account for the perennial poor performance of ajells: awka journal of english and literary studies, volume 4 no 1, 2013 143 students in languages, especially english, since most of the teachers are graduates of these higher institutions. there is no doubt that cultivating and abiding by a code of ethics can go a long way in improving both teachers and students' competence and performance in the language. observations/findings professional competence the starting point for developing professional ethics is the cultivation of professional skill and competence. it is the foundation for professional ethical conduct. to make professional ethical demands from an incompetent professional is likened to erecting a giant building using inferior or poor quality materials. the various incidences of collapsed buildings in the country demonstrate the consequences of erecting structures on faulty foundations or with poor quality materials. professionalism entails that an individual must be willing and ready to: ✓ undergo the necessary training in order to acquire the relevant qualifications, skills, knowledge and attitudes necessary to excel in the chosen (teaching) job. ✓ abide by professional ethics set down by the relevant authorities. ✓ fulfill his/her statutory obligations. ✓ be socially responsible and responsive (obiudo 337). there is no doubt that a language teacher possessing this kind of background would be more disposed to abiding by set ethical standards. regular attendance to classes professional ethics demand that language teachers should show a high sense of commitment to their job and students' welfare by attending scheduled classes promptly and taking deliberate steps to effectively cover the specified syllabuses. inability to attend ajells: awka journal of english and literary studies, volume 4 no 1, 2013 144 classes regularly without justification would portray the affected teacher as irresponsible and uncaring. availability of standard texts it has become customary for a teacher/lecturer to make available his/her sponsored publication(s) for students to buy. at its face value, there is nothing wrong with this. however, such texts should meet certain specified standards approved by the relevant authorities and also be offered to the students in a humane manner expected of a dignified academic environment, in some institutions, such texts are submitted to established committees, which recommend or decide whether texts should be sold, including their prices. some even direct that such texts be placed in the bookshops where students could buy them if they so desire. exchange of grades for money the practice of exchanging money for grades, popularly known as "sorting", has gained currency in many higher institutions of learning in the country. this is a height of unethical conduct, and everything must be done to discourage and or eliminate it. sometimes, grades are awarded for other considerations apart from merit. all these are unethical and should be discouraged. victimization of students sometimes, some teachers/lecturers victimize their students based on sentiments or unresolved personal issues. such behaviour is not healthy for proper teaching and learning and must be discouraged as well. the list is a long one, and there is no deliberate attempt to enumerate all of them. the point being made is that high ethical standards are essential for healthy teaching and learning. as such, deliberate efforts should be made to develop a code of ethics for teaching where it does not exist. for the teaching and learning of a second language such as english, the stakes are even higher. ajells: awka journal of english and literary studies, volume 4 no 1, 2013 145 model of ethical decisions it is not always easy to arrive at ethical decisions. the following criteria are, however, suggested as a guide for arriving at ethical decisions: ❖ identify the various decision options and the likely consequences of each course of action, ❖ identify all the individuals and groups that will be affected by such a course of action. ❖ do a cost-benefit analysis of each option from the point of view of the affected parties, taking into consideration their needs and interests. ❖ rank the costs and benefits of each option and make decision(s) (stanton 604). the personalized model takes the form of the following questions: ❖ would i do this to a friend? ❖ would i be willing to have this done to me? ❖ would i be embarrassed if the action is publicized nationally? ❖ how fair is the action to the parties concerned? (stanton 604). conclusion ethical issues will continue to take the frontline in all spheres of human discipline, especially teaching. while making ethical decisions could be quite challenging, the willingness and readiness to be ethical, supported by an enabling environment, can go a long way in making the difference. it will enhance productivity, promote good teacher/student relationship, restore declining public confidence in teaching as well as promote the image of the individuals and institutions involved. ajells: awka journal of english and literary studies, volume 4 no 1, 2013 146 recommendations 1. conscious and deliberate efforts should be made to develop a code of ethics to guide language teaching in the various institutions of higher learning in nigeria, where it does not exist. this must be backed by enforcement in order to make it meaningful. there should be a national code of ethics for all higher institutions in the country on identified common issues, while individual institutions should be encouraged to develop their own codes peculiar to their own local environments. for instance, "sorting", sexual harassment, sale of substandard texts, incompetence, etc. cannot be justified in any higher institution in the country. however, the syllabi to be covered as well as the means of covering them are the prerogatives of individual institutions. 2. besides the teachers registration council, there should be a professional institute or association to regulate language teaching in nigeria. such an agency plays vital roles in formulating a code of ethics and enforcing it among members. 3. there should be continuous training and re-training of language teachers in order to constantly remind and keep them updated on what are expected of them. 4. the government and management of the various institutions should provide the enabling environment for teachers of language to embrace and uphold ethical standards. for instance, teachers should be well remunerated, while incentives should be extended to those who uphold high ethical standards in their jobs 5. ethics officers should be appointed to enforce ethical standards among teachers of language in the various higher institutions in the country. ajells: awka journal of english and literary studies, volume 4 no 1, 2013 147 6. compliance with set ethical standards should form part of the criteria for staff appraisal, especially when the issue of promotion is under consideration. 7. ethics should be incorporated into the teaching and training curricula. emmanuel obiudo, paul university, awka lauretta chinyeaka nnamdi azikiwe university, awka works cited baldeh, f. better english language learning and teaching: nsukka: fulladu publishing company, 1991. bovee, c.l. & j.v. thill. marketing. us: mcgraw hills inc., 1992. lamb, c.w., j.f. hair and carl mcdaniel. essentials of marketing. ohio: south-western college publishing, 1999. obiudo, e.o. "professionalism in marketing". marketing hallmark: journal 5.1 (2007): 331-340. obiudo, e.o. "marketing ethics". a paper presented at the inauguration of the national association of marketing students, st. paul's university college, awka, 2003. stanton, w.j. et al. marketing. international edition. us: irwin/mcgraw hills inc., 1997. "code of ethics for education". association of american educators. google.n.d. i i april 2011. "code of ethicseducation profession". florida department of education. google.n.d. 11 april 2011 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ihezie & akujobi 195 achieving reading readiness in early years chinomnso c. ihezie & odochi s. akujobi, phd department of english language and literature, nnamdiazikiwe university, awka, nigeria email: ichinomnso@gmail.com abstract reading is one of the important skills every individual needs to acquire. if a child is able to speak a language, then it is pertinent that he knows how to read in that language especially for languages with written forms, as this will help him communicate better as well as acquire more knowledge from written texts. however, most individuals today are not reading-ready and if an individual fails to acquire this skill at an early age, it becomes more difficult. hence, this paper tries to examine how reading readiness can be maximally achieved among early year’s pupils as the foundation for reading fluency should be laid at their level, to enhance productivity. the paper examined reading readiness indicators, possible factors that could limit reading readiness and ways to achieve reading readiness. keywords: reading, reading-readiness, fluency, early-years, language introduction reading ranks among the very important skills to be acquired if effective communication is to take place. if one lacks the basic foundation of the reading skill, it can lead to one’s inability to comprehend a text, communicate properly, as well as, deterioration in academic grades. the earlier a child is taught to read, the easier it is for him to learn. reading is one form of communication that must be developed in children right from their early years. it is an activity that every child engages in, from the day the child commences the educational career at the pre-primary level then through the long years at primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education (akpojotor 2013). according to akpojotor, the best opportunity to teach children the skills of reading is in the early grades (2013), or earlier if possible. if this window is missed, then children who have not begun to read and understand what they read will continue to fall behind unless swift action is taken (gove &cvelich 2011). reading yields benefit in the lives of pupils, it develops critical thinking skills in pupils and enhances their ability to comprehend various concepts with ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ihezie & akujobi 196 immense ease. it also improves pupils’ vocabulary, command on the language and communication skills thereby improving their writing skills (ogbemudia&alasa 2014). this is to say that being able to read and indulge in the activity of reading, exposes one to the entire world. one is able to travel round the world by merely being able to read and understand from books, what others have written from their wealth of experience. unfortunately, for someone who does not know how to read, words in books would mean nothing but mere gibberish. reading is the foundation for other learning activities in the classroom. the point of reading is comprehension, and the point of comprehension is learning. children who fail to learn to read in the first few grades of school are handicapped in later grades because they must absorb increasing amounts of instructional content in print form. poor readers cannot develop proper writing skills or become self-guided learners in other subject areas. the basic reading skills necessary to become ‘literate’ do not develop naturally; we have to learn to adapt the part of our brain that recognizes images to be able to recognize written letters and words (wolf qtd. in gove &cvelich 2011). it can be deduced that reading is of utmost importance as it helps not only in enhancing critical thinking, but in comprehension, as well as, broadening the wealth of experience if one would have been able to read a wide variety of information. hence, it is important that this communication skill is developed in people, right from their early years. what then does reading-readiness mean? concept of reading readiness according to smith and chapel (1970), reading readiness is the time at which a child is capable of learning to read. zarry (1985) defines reading readiness as that state which enables a child to learn to read without undue strain or difficulty. previously in the past, it was believed that the state of readiness was closely aligned to age, whereby the mental age of six was considered the time to introduce reading skills to a child (zarry,1985). however, this belief no longer holds strongly as scholars now believe that children’s learning age could vary from child to child depending on the needs of the child. while some might begin to pick up reading at birth; others might become ready at ages one, two, three or even six or later than six. this is why no two persons should be compared, rather the needs of each child should be considered and the best instructional method on how to learn should be adopted depending on individual needs. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ihezie & akujobi 197 ausubell (1959) defined reading readiness as the adequacy of existing capacity in relation to the demands of a given learning task. asubellqtd. in petrich (1997) suggested in this definition of readiness, that what learning to read demands of a child is not one thing, rather a collection of abilities and that the selected teaching method is an important variable. this definition of a child’s readiness for reading has a two-fold focus: (a) the child’s capacity in relation to (b) the particular instruction that will be available. because differences in instruction make for differences in demands, what is adequate for dealing with them also differs (durkin qtd. in petrich 1977). the instructional strategy employed by a teacher in the teaching–learning process is of great importance to the pupils’ readability level. this is because it helps the pupils to have a good understanding of the subject matter being taught by the teacher and it also motivates the pupils to learn and be actively involved in the learning process. hence, in teaching reading, there are different instructional methods or strategies that could be employed such as; 1. jolly phonics instructional strategy and 2. conventional methods – such as i. whole method (look and say method) ii. alphabet methods. (ogbemudia and alasa 2014) to a large extent, this is to say that the learning process is facilitated by the instructional method being employed. hence, it is of great importance to know which method is most effective before making use of any of them. components of reading readiness there are several elements that can aid reading in children without necessarily creating panic. these elements are what this paper has termed as the components of reading readiness. 1. alphabet recognitionlanguages have their alphabet and letters (grapheme). in achieving reading readiness in early years, children should be able to recognize and identify the different alphabets in the target language, as well as, match the alphabet with the different sounds. 2. vocabulary developmenthaving a strong build of vocabulary in a language helps to facilitate understanding when reading. when readers come across familiar words, it becomes easy to read them without tension. but in the case of not being familiar with a lot of words while reading, the level of comprehension of what has been written will be low. this is why vocabulary development is an essential part of reading readiness and any child who must become a fluent reader must consciously develop his vocabulary in the desired target language. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ihezie & akujobi 198 3. good word pronunciationscorrect pronunciation will be realized when a child is phonologically aware of the target language and is able to blend and decode words rightly. 4. good auditory discriminationauditory discrimination has to do with how we are able to perceive sounds. as part of reading readiness, children are supposed to know how to differentiate the different sounds in their target language. a good understanding of the phonological structure of the language will go a long way in determining how well their auditory discrimination will be. learning to decode sounds and blend sounds to pronounce words is important and is an integral part of reading readiness. 5. good visual discriminationa child should be able to see and differentiate printed texts. reading requires adequate skill in differentiating words. being able to distinguish the similarities and differences between words is an important skill to be learned. reading readiness indicators how do you know if a child is ready to read? there are several signs or indicators that a child is ready to read. nonetheless, not every child will show all the signs before you know they are ready to read. some may possess a few at an earlier age and add up others as they grow and progress in reading. what is important is that they begin to develop the signs. the reading readiness indicators include: 1. keen interestthe best and fastest way to learn is to have an interest in what you want to learn. it is that interest that becomes a drive to learn more. if a child must learn how to read, he must have keen interest in reading. therefore, it is an indicator that the child is reading-ready. 2. correct alphabet recitationthis paper had earlier listed alphabet recognition as one of the components of reading readiness. that is to say that correct recognition and recitation of the alphabet of the target language is important and is a sign that the child is ready to read. 3. decoding and blendingwhen a child is phonologically and phonemically aware, to the extent that he begins decoding sounds and blends them appropriately to pronounce words, that child is reading ready. 4. proper book handling-there is a right way to open books and read and there is a wrong way to do so too. when given a book to read, if the child can hold up the front and the right-side-up, it then means he understands that books should be read from right to left and back to right again. he would also be handling the book properly if he is aware that he should turn one page at a time. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ihezie & akujobi 199 however, smith and chapel (1970), are of the opinion that a child is ready to read when he has reached readiness in four different aspects of growth; physiological, psychological (emotional and intellectual), educational and sociological (cultural and environmental). factors responsible for low level reading readiness 1. economic factorthe economic state of a parent can affect the reading readiness of a child. this can happen when the parents or guardian of a child do not have enough resources to get the required materials such as books, internet and many more for enhancing reading. it's only rational that children who are exposed to these things at an early age are likely to start reading early and vice versa. 2. educational and socio-economic background of parentsthe educational background of the parents or guardians have great influence on how well a child will do when it comes to reading. if the parents happen to come from homes where they had sound education and come from a good socio-economic class, the chances that they are fluent readers is high. the children begin to follow suit as even the parents would not want anything less for their children from what they already have. if a child comes from a family that is poor and have no form of formal education, chances also have it that they will not be fluent readers, hence, will not be able to teach their children how to read neither will they have the resources to employ someone who can coach the children on how to read. 3. parental knowledge and experience-it is one thing to have the resources needed and another thing to know exactly how to channel those resources for the benefit of the children. parents need to be aware of the books, games, and activities to engage their children with to enhance their reading readiness. proper exposure will spur the interest of the children to read more. parents could also take out time to read stories to their children from colorful, interesting and educative books during their playtime or bed time. parents who do not have this knowledge or experience may fail in this aspect. this is why it is necessary to make them aware. 4. insufficient phonemic awarenessone of the basics for knowing how to read is to have a good understanding of the sound structure of the target language. a child who is not phonemic awareness is characterized in terms of the facility of the language learner to ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ihezie & akujobi 200 manipulate the sounds of oral speech. the question then is; how can phonemic awareness work to facilitate reading readiness? 5. poor reading culturesome children find it difficult to read due to poor or no reading culture at home. parental involvement is of great necessity in helping their children develop good reading culture at home. if they are exposed to reading a lot at home, it is likely that they will be stimulated to read more. strategies for enhancing reading readiness in early-year pupils if we must achieve reading readiness among the early years, then several strategies must be considered and implemented. i. it is important to build a strong foundation. the early years which consist of all the levels before the primary stage should be the focus in starting to learn reading as they are the foundation on which reading fluency is laid. once it is missed at this stage, it becomes a little more difficult at the next stage. thus, parents, teachers and the pupils should ensure that reading starts taking place at this stage. ii. identifying the needs of each child. each child has his own peculiarity and needs. this is why no two children should be compared. it is very important to identify the specific need of every child to enable the child learn how to read through the best method to meet his needs. children with special needs such as autism, dyslexia etc. have to be put into consideration,hence, they will not be expected to learn at the same pace and with the same method as everyone else. iii. adopting the right instructional method. it is not enough to identify the needs of a child. one needs to go a step further in ensuring that the child learns how to read by employing the best instructional method to suit the child’s needs. iv. parental involvementparents need to get involved in the educational progress of their children. this can be achieved by implementing some practices in the home. they can make substantial financial commitments to aid getting the resources for learning how to read and by reading to the children on a daily basis. if daily reading of books by parents to the children isn’t achievable on a daily basis, then some days of the week could be picked out for this exercise. there is also need to build a healthy reading culture by allowing your children see you read daily. it is most likely that children will do the same things they see their parents do, so when they see you obtain useful information from ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ihezie & akujobi 201 reading books and other written texts; it will spur them to develop a reading culture as well. as parents, time could be created for reading and telling interesting short stories right from their early years. as you read together with them, you can teach them some of the sounds and how to blend them to pronounce some of the words they might find difficult while reading. it is important to start with stories with simple short words. once they have mastered how to blend those short words and pronounce them rightly, it will become easier for them to learn how to read more difficult and complex words. v. another thing that can help children to get ready to read is if they are frequently made to read books, particularly, interesting stories for their age and then made to retell those stories. this practice exposes learners to reading. the learners progress through various stages of reading, by looking at pictures in books, then reading the pictures, and then making up a story about the pictures. eventually learners learn letter sounds and make words by liking the sounds together. learners then start incidentally, reading words that they see often, such as simple cvc words and logos (plessis, 2016). conclusion this paper has examined the concept of reading and how important it is to acquire the reading skill especially at an early grade level because children at young ages tend to be more receptive at that age. if the reading skill is missed at that early stage, it doesn’t necessarily become impossible to read, but rather, a bit difficult. hence, pupils are advised to become reading ready at an early age. as simple as this may sound, it does not come without various problems when it comes to acquiring the reading skill. there exist several factors that could limit reading readiness in early years. these factors include poor reading culture, lack of parental involvement, parental educational and socio-economic background, inadequate phonological awareness of the target language and lots more. however, these limiting factors do not exist without a working solution. some ideas were recommended in this paper to help enhance reading readiness in early years. some of these ideas include, identifying the needs of each pupil, adopting the right instructional method to suit the individual needs of each child, improving the phonological awareness of the pupils, parents making out time to read stories to their children, as well as, making substantial financial commitments, developing good reading culture in the home, exposing the young ones to books at early ages to enable them start reading and retelling the stories and lots more. if these ideas recommended in this paper are put to work, reading readiness in early years will be achievable. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ihezie & akujobi 202 works cited akpojotor, r. u. (2013). effect of phonics in reading strategy on pupils’ achievement in word recognition in oshimili south local government area. m.ed thesis. university of nigeria, nsukka. ausubel, d. (1959). viewpoint from related disciplines: human growth and development. teachers college record. 60. 245-254. durkin, d. (1976). teaching young children to read. boston. allyn and bacon inc. gove, a. and cvelich p. (2011). early reading: igniting education for all. a report by the early grade learning community of practice.revised edition. research triangle institute ogbemudia, m. i &alasa, v. m. (2014). jolly phonics instructional strategy: a panacea to reading difficulty in childhood education’. journal of education research and behavioural sciences. vol. 3(1) pp 001-006. plessis, s. (2016). factors affecting the reading readinesss of grade r learners in selected preschools in gauteng province.m.ed thesis. university of south africa. smith, e. d. & chapel, r. j. (1970). ‘reading readiness’. reading horizons: a journal of literacy and language arts vol. 10 no. 2 pp 58-62. zarry, l. (1985). reading readiness in kindergarten: evaluation of a computer assisted program. mcgill journal of education, vol. 20 no. 2 pp 189-196 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 28 a pragmatic analysis of nelson mandela’s inaugural speech chinwe theresa eze okongwu memorial grammar school, nnewi, anambra state email: ezetessy16@gmail.com abstract language according to sapir is a human and noninstinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. speech act is doing something using language. when we say something, we are requesting, appreciating, appealing, commanding, ordering or proposing. this study is a pragmatic analysis of nelson mandela’s inaugural speech presented at a critical moment of south africa’s history. it is aimed at examining what nelson mandela’s inaugural speech may have meant to his people whom he represented in the fight for freedom. the locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary aspects of his inaugural speech were examined using the speech acts theory to ascertain the extent to which his inaugural speech acts met the felicity condition as spelt out by j.l austin. data was collected through internet and library sources. the analysis was done using j.l. austin’s speech acts theory. the researcher dwells on the illocutionary act namely the assertive, commissives, directives, and expressives. it is observed that in the representative or assertive acts that nelson mandela was explaining, informing, asserting, proving and stating the facts of the situation at hand. his speech met j. l austin’s felicity conditions. from the analysis of his speech, we find mandela as a great orator and achiever. we also observed the speaker’s cultural influence in terms of greeting, appreciating and thanking his audience. nelson mandela brought an end to apartheid using his communicative competence which helped in the complete eradication of apartheid in south africa. keywords: pragmatics, speech acts theory, nelson mandela introduction nelson mandela was known as one of the greatest leaders of all times. the media have written so much on his ascendancy to south africa's presidency many years after his imprisonment. his speeches provide an opportunity for academicians to gain insight into who mandela was, and how the black south africans perceived him during those trying periods. nelson mandela's speech of may 10, 1994 marked his inauguration as the first black south africa'spresident after apartheid was abolished. how did the audience of black south african audiencereceive the speech? to what extent did the speech meet the felicity conditions as spelt out by j. l. austin’s speech acts ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 29 theory? a pragmatic analysis of the inaugural speech of nelson mandela became necessary to answer the above questions. his inaugural speech gives an insight intowho nelson mandela was and how the south africans perceived him during and after the apartheid. the paper also looks at the specific context of the speeches and gives a full explanation of the pragmatic analysis of the speech. the researcher focused on critically analyzingthe inaugural speech of nelson mandela considering the context of his political experiences. the researcher did this based on the conversational principles of pragmatics with great recourse to j. l austin’s speech act theory. it is really the message and intentions of the speakers that bring about theperlocutionary act of the language. ojukwu, chika kate (121). theoretical framework speech act theory tries to explain how speakers use language to get the intended meaning andhearers get the intended meaning from what the speaker said. speech act theory was firstdefined by austin j. l (30). hedid not use the term ‘speech acts’, but ‘performative sentence’ or ‘performative utterance’ which indicated that the issuing of the utterance is the performance of an action. the term itselfwas first used by searle (22) asserting that "talking is performing acts according to rules" and that “speech acts are the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication”(16). meanwhile, according to yule (47), “people perform action through utterances when they attempt to express themselves and the actions they perform through utterances are generally called speech action.” austin in levinson's pragmatics (236) recommends three basic acts in presenting anutterance. they are locutionary act illocutionary act perlocutionary act these are the three levels of analysis that project the meaning of utterances. the locutionaryact simply shows its sense and reference. it performs the act of saying something. theillocutionary act makes statements, offer, promise etc. illocutionary act is the purpose behind making an utterance. the perlocutionary act provokes the effect on the audience by uttering asentence. the effects of the perlocutionary acts are enlightening, persuading, convincing, inspiring someone to realize something, whether intended or not (austin, 30). theillocutionary act is the real action performed by the utterance where both saying and doingare conducted at the same time, such as betting, warning, ordering (kempson, 51). thus, searle in his classification of illoucationary acts (1 -23) proposesfive types of speech act, namely: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 30 assertives (presents the way things are): these are statements that describe a state of affairs in the world which could be true or false. directives (instruct somebody to do something): these are statements that compel another person's action to fit the propositional elements. it is used to give orders thereby causing the hearer to take a particular action, request, command or advice. commissives (commits oneself): it commits the speaker to certain future action. it could be in the form of promise thereby committing the speaker to a course of action. expressives (express feelings and attitude): it is used to express sincerity of the speech act like excuses and sympathy thereby reflecting the feelings of the speaker. verdictives/declaration: that brings about change with the use of utterance. these statements are used to say something and make it so, such as pronouncing someone guilty and declaring a war. this is used by the speaker to weigh the action of another person often the hearer. these are words and expressions like i bet, i resign and i declare. conditions that must be fulfilled for actual realization of illocutionary acts are called felicity conditions. felicity conditions refer to conditions necessary for the success of a speech act.the name is derived from a latin root "felix" or "happy". they are conditions necessary forthe fulfillment of a performative. ndimele (139) has it that the concept of felicity condition wasproposed by j. l austin as those criteria which must be satisfied by a speech act if it must betermed successful to achieve its communicative purpose. according to searle, there is ageneral condition for all speech acts so that the hearer must hear and understand the language. an illocutionary act is adjudged felicitous if it meets conditions spelt out by j. l austin (72).the felicity conditions are given below: sincerity conditionthis shows how sincere the speaker is with a certain illocutionary act. preparatory condition shows how appropriate the participants are in the speech act as well as the circumstances of the speech act for the successful performance of the speechact. executive condition indicates whether the speech is properly executed. if yes, then the speech is felicitous on this ground. fulfillment condition this shows the perlocutionary effect of the speech act. if it has the desired effect, then it is also felicitous. actually, when those felicity conditions are met by an illocutionary act, then it is said to be felicitous and it met j.l austin’s speech act. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 31 speech acts analysis of nelson mandela’s inaugural speeches the speech acts performed in the inaugural speech selected are classified based on searle'sclassification of illocutionary acts. these speeches constituted a number of utterances, sentences and phrases have been selected for analysis as assertive, directive commissive and expressive acts in order to project their illocutionary imports. assertives/representatives these are utterances in the inaugural speech that make assertions about the state of affairsin the world with particular reference to the south african socio-political context. theassertive acts in our data are for explaining, informing, proving, asserting and stating facts. the following assertives are extracted from the speech: extract 1 today we are entering a new era for our country and its people today we celebrate not the victory of a party but a victory for all the people ofsouth africa. extract 2 to my compatriots, i have no hesitation in saying that each one of us is asintimately attached to the soil of this beautiful country as are the famousjacaranda trees of pretoria and the mimosa trees of the bushveld. extract 1 is an assertive speech act as the speaker informs his people that they are in a new of freedom for south africa. the speaker had just won anelection as the first black president in their country, south africa and he is being inauguratedas president. the use of "we" implies himself and the people of south africa and also the deictic pronoun “our” suggests that south africa istheir own. in the past, south africa has always been ruled by the oppressive white minorityand this latest period is that in which there is a change in the mantle of leadership. the utterance also makes a statement of fact. nelson mandela states that they are not rejoicing over a partyconquest but for the whole of south africa as a country. in extract 2 the tone of the speaker is made clear "to my compatriots" is an utterance ofendearment by a faithful leader who speaks to fellow citizens to assure them of their closerelationships since they are from the same country and has won the victory together. this assertion commits the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition. the utterance is not like the empty promises of nigerian politicians looking for votes but an assertion that reassures the citizenry of the mind of a leader to carry his people along and allow themenjoy the fruits of their struggle together. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 32 directive acts directive acts involves persuasion. in the directive acts, the speaker tries to get the hearer to do something. it includes the act of commanding, advising, warning, persuading, condemning and urging. the following directives are extracted from his inaugural speeches. extract 3 out of the experience of an extraordinary human disaster that lasted too long, must be born a society of which all human will be proud. we must therefore act together as united people, for national reconciliation. extract 4 let there be justice and peace for all let there be work, bread, water and salt for all. in extract 3, nelson mandela admonishes the out of the unusual disaster that lasted too long, should be born a society in which all mankind will be proud. nelson mandela insists that they as a group should unite for national resolution, nation building and the birth of a new human race. the use of the modal auxiliary verb ‘must’ emphasizes this determination by the speaker. the use of the deictic pronoun “we” intensifies the strong unity that they require to achieve their freedom from apartheid. in extract 4, nelson mandela appeals for justice for all and request for peace. in extract 4, nelson mandela asks for better living condition such as work, bread, water and salt. he made the request with the use of the verb “let”. commissive acts these statements commit the speaker to certain future action. it could be in the form of promise, pledge and offer thereby committing the speaker to a course of action. below are the commissive parts of the inaugural speech: extract 5 and the change is what they will get we will tackle the widespread poverty so pervasive among the majority of our people ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 33 extract 6 as a government, the anc will create a legal framework that will assist rather than impede the awesome task of reconciliation and reconstruction and development of our battered society. in extract 5, mandela promises that change is what they will get. the use of the verb phrase “will get” indicates future implication. they really had need for a change in south africa which is a common knowledge to the africans in the context and so, mandela is promising this real change in government. nelson mandela distinguishes himself as a patriot. this change is not the kind of change we experience in nigeria. “they” in this context, means “his people”. he went on to speak on tackling the extensive poverty among his people. he actually promised to do something. in extract 6, the speaker promised that the anc will create a legal framework that will exist rather than slow down the tremendous duty of rebuilding our battered society. expressive acts the expressive acts reveal the psychological state of the speaker. it talks about the state of affairs which the illocutionary presuppose. it is often used to communicate the speaker’s intention in relation to the situation. the following are expressive acts of mandela’s speech. extract 7 we thank all our distinguished international guests for having come to take possession with the people of our country of what is, after all, common victory for justice, for peace, for human dignity. extract 8 we deeply appreciate the role that the masses of our people and their political mass democratic, religious women, youth, business, tradition and other leaders have played to bring about this conclusion. god bless africa! thank you. in extract 7 and 8 above, nelson mandela really expresses his inner state of mind by using the deictic pronoun “we” to show a collective identity or a group membership and solidarity which he enjoys. he uses the performative verb “thank” to show his being grateful for having come to be the president and to control his country at last. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 34 in extract 8, mandela uses the adverb “deeply” to modify the verb appreciate. he shows appreciation to every group for their success and a lasting peace for everybody. nelson mandela’s inaugural speech tends to expose or reveal his experiences, the pains and the eventual gains of the struggle. he really appreciates all that has identified with the struggle as individuals and corporate bodies to show that the victory is not his victory but the victory of south africans and freedom to africa as a whole. perlocutionary acts of the inaugural speeches the perlocutionary acts points to the intended and unintended effect of the linguistic act on the hearer or audience. in all the speeches made by mandela during his inauguration, he proved his intended meaning to his audience. in extract 1 and 2, he tried to remind and assert to his audience that the destruction caused by the apartheid to africa is so much. mandela enlightens and convinces the audience about the evil effect of apartheid and the need to break down the walls of segregation so that his people will enjoy the fruits of freedom. he cheers his audience that they celebrate not just the victory of the party but a victory for all. he stirs his audience to appreciate the after effect of their labour and persuades his audience to accept the winning party as a faithful organ of future peace and fulfillment. nelson mandela requires the south africans to place their vision of a new constitution for south africa on the table as a way to extend the olive branch of cooperation. he encourageshis people to partner with him as they were partners in the battle for freedom. mandelaasserts that the national mood changes as time changes. the spiritual and physicalagreement they share as a group in their homeland proves the intensity of the hurt theyexperiencein their hearts as their motherland disintegrated as a result of racial discrimination which cut them off from the rest ofworld. nelson mandela went on to condemn the oppressors. he believes that out of their unusualhuman disaster that lasted for so long should be born a society in which mankind will livewith hope and pride. he requests for better life in general in such areas as work, bread, waterand salt. the speaker promises that the anc will create a legal framework that will propel rebuilding and proving the battered society. he resolved to be committed to the spirit of agovernment of national agreement and stand firm to initiate and bring about the change theydesired. mandela promised seriously a virile country in which all south africans both blackand white will enjoy the right to human dignity. he was happy in extract 7 and 8, as heexpresses joy when the situation of south africa changes from oppression to liberty. these speeches have far reaching ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 35 effects that sustained the struggle for freedom and in so doing ensuredthat freedom is achieved and that the fruits will be enjoyed by all (ojukwu 121). felicity conditions of the speeches in this analysis, we shall subject nelson mandela's inaugural speech to the felicity conditions as spelt out by austin j.l to assess their effectiveness. sincerity condition the sincerity condition is an important felicity condition as thisspeech really provoked necessary reaction needed in the circumstance. the informationhere constitutes some promises made by mandela towards the eradication of apartheid in southafrica. the speeches based on performative are uttered by the right person at the right time in the right situation and effectively accomplished the social act. he promised to build a societyin which south africans both black and white walk tall without fear in their hearts. racial discrimination or apartheid was abolished in 1990 and in 1994, nelson mandela was elected first black president of south africa. nelson mandela has fulfilled all thesepromises and therefore, these speeches are sincere -true and hence felicitous. preparatory condition preparatory felicity condition seeks to reveal the appropriateness of the participants in the discourse and the successful performance of the speech act. nelson mandela, an african activist brought an end to apartheid. he was ready to die for this course by making much sacrifice to achieve that. he really committed himself to the struggle to obtain equality for all south africans. nelson mandela's inaugural speech at pretoria is a highly sensational address and his speech is made under the right circumstances hence the illocutionary actare felicitous having fulfilled austin j.l. felicitous condition. executive condition this shows whether the speeches were properly executed. nelson mandela's communicative competence is a key part in eradicating apartheid. nelson mandela is a great communicator who uses the power of language to explain, inspire, persuade advice and express his psychological state of mind by making promises for future actions. he properly executed his speeches and these speeches are therefore felicitous. fulfillment condition the fulfillment condition really answers the research questions what nelson mandela's inaugural speech may have meant for his people and if it meets j. l.austin’s felicity condition. this speech has the desired effect on the participants as nelsonmandela persuades, enlightens, convinces and inspires ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 36 his audience to accept his own opinion.all these speeches broke the solid rock of apartheid and ensured peaceful transfer of power in the harsh segregated nation. nelson mandela's inaugural speech achieved the desiredpurposes as they fulfill the necessary felicity conditions (ojukwu 121). conclusion the language of nelson mandela is studied through the inaugural speech in order to get to his thoughts. in this study, the researcher examines what nelson mandela's inauguralspeech may have meant to his people who he represented in the fight for freedom. theresearcher uses speech acts theory to interpret mandela's speech and determine theperloctionary acts of the inaugural speech in order to judge if his speech met thefelicity conditions as spelt out by j. l. austin's speech acts theory. referring to searle's taxonomyof illocutionary acts, the researcher found out that the four categories of searle's speech acts -assertive, directive, commissives and expressives manifested in these speeches. theselected speeches are powerful, enlightening convincing, inspiring and memorable both innational and international forums. nelson mandela expressed joy and happiness when thesituation of south african changed from oppression to liberty. he demonstrated happiness by blessing africa. the effect of the speech excites his audienceso that they share with him in the joy for the positive change. these speeches ensured that freedom is achieved and that the fruits will be enjoyed by all. he emphasizes that the victoryis not just victory for the party alone but a victory for all lovers of freedom in south africa and the international community who actually contributed in different ways to sustain thetempo of the struggle and in so doing, democracy was achieved. works cited austin, john lang. shaw: how to do things with words. oxford: clarendo press, 1962. hardy, c. discourse and power. london: sage, 2002, print. kempson, r. presupposition and delimitation of semantics. cambridge: cambridgeuniversity press, 1975 print. levinson, stephen c. pragmatics. longman: cambridge university press, 200 print. maiyanga, a. a. "a semantic and pragmatic analysis of selected national pay speeches ofnigerian head of state" unpublished m. phil. dissertation, university of ibadan 1989print. mandela, nelson. longwwalk to freedom: the autobiography of nelson mandela. usa backbay book/little, brown and company hachette book group. 1994 print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 37 …. "inauguration speech" selected speeches; statements and writing of nelson mandela.may, 1994. retrieved 14 november, 2016. http://www.anc.org. z/ ancdocs. history, mandela/1994/inaugural. html. ….the struggle is my life: his speeches and writing brought together with historicaldocuments and accounts of mandela in prison by fellow prisoner. london: international defense and aid fund for southern african. 1990. print. --"speech on release from prison". selected speeches, statements and writing of nelsonmandela. 11h february, 1990. retrieved /10h october, 2016. http://www. anc.org za/ancd/ocs/history /mandela /1960 strivoniahtml. meredith, martuin. nelson mandela: a biography. london: harish hamilton, 1997. print. ---pragmatic: an introduction (2md edition) oxford: black well publishing 2001, print. ndimele, ozo –mekuri.semantics and the frontiers of communication (2nd edition).port harcourt, nigeria: university of port harcourt press, 2007 print. ojukwu c. k. "a pragmatic analysis of selected political speeches of nelson mandela".an unpublished ph.d thesis department of english and literacy studies universityof nigeria nsukka. sampson, anthony. mandela: the authorized biography. london: harpercollins, 1999.print. searle, john r. indirecet speech acts. in peter and i. m. jerry (eds) syntax and semantics 3(pp 59 82). new york: new york academic press, 1979. print. yule, george. pragmatics. oxford: university press, 1996. print. internet sources: http://www.southafrica.info/travel/cultural/sterkfontein.htm. http:www southafrica.info/about/history/52107.htm. http://abudira.files. word press. com/2011/10/the history of pragmatics. pptx ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 90 nwabunwanne & nnamdi-eruchalu phonological use of the weak forms of prepositions by the educated igbo speakers of english nwabunwanne igweadiani department of english and literary studies, alex ekwueme federal university, ndufu-alike, ebonyi, nigeria email: nwabu5555@gmail.com & dr. geraldine ifesinachi nnamdi-eruchalu department of english and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria abstract the spread and use of the english language has brought about varieties in the language which is reflective of its geographical spread and contact with the local languages. one area that is greatly affected by the contact between the english language and the local languages is pronunciation. this study examines the phonological use of the weak forms of prepositions among the educated igbo speakers of english. the study also examines gender differences in the phonological use of the weak forms of prepositions. sixty educated igbo speakers of english as a second language comprising thirty males and thirty females who have no less than two years of post secondary education selected through a purposive random sampling technique participated in the study. the data were collected by getting the subjects to read a passage that contains prepositions that are supposed to be pronounced in their weak forms in connected speech into a recording device and was analysed perceptually. the study which relied on labov’s theory of variation observed that educated igbo speakers of english manifested variation in their production of weak forms when compared with rp. the study also observed that there is no gender differences in the manner in which educated male and female igbo speakers produced the weak forms of the english prepositions keywords: the strong and weak forms, variation theory, the english grammatical words introduction many centuries ago, the english language was a local language spoken mainly by monolinguals within the shores of britain. but today, the english language is a global language. the spread and use of the english language has brought about varieties in the language which is reflective of its geographical spread and contact with the local languages. one area that is greatly affected by the contact between the english language and the local languages is pronunciation. okoro (159) attests that ‘geographical and regional varieties of english are usually most noticeable on the level of phonology’. the works of labov (1963) and (1966) which were attempts to track the social variations of the features of a language have been inspiring researchers to map the differences between standard british usage (rp) and regional varieties, and to account for the linguistic and social variables that are responsible for the observed differences. a characteristic feature of natural connected speech in the english language is the weakening of grammatical words (also referred to as function words). the english grammatical words are realised in two ways in the spoken form. they could be realised in the strong form or in the weak form. suffice to say that the english grammatical words undergo a set of modifications in natural connected speech. the modifications in natural connected speech of the english grammatical words are not arbitrarily done. it is context specific. there are certain contexts where only the strong form is acceptable and others where the weak form is the normal pronunciation. why is it important to learn how weak forms are used? roach provides answers to the question and it is worth quoting in extenso: there are two reasons; first, most native speakers of english find an ‘all strong-form’ pronunciation unnatural and foreign sounding, something that most learners would wish to avoid. second, and more importantly, speakers who are not familiar with the use of weak forms are likely to have difficulty understanding speakers who do use the weak forms; since practically all native speakers of british english use them, learners of the language need to learn about these weak forms to help them understand what they hear. (roach, 112) mailto:nwabu5555@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 91 nwabunwanne & nnamdi-eruchalu the igbo speech community which is located in the south-eastern part of nigeria is made up of people that are highly educated, averagely educated and non-educated. the english language is their second language and their window to the world. the igbo people, especially the educated ones, use the english language in the international community and in nigeria for among other things, the purpose of academic exploits, trade, workshop, tourism, diplomacy, official governmental businesses etc. expectedly, they are supposed to use the weak forms of the grammatical words of the english language properly so as to enhance mutual intelligibility in their conversations with people internationally and within the country. bearing in mind that speakers who are not familiar with the use of weak forms are likely to have difficulty understanding speakers who do use the weak forms, as well as the need to avoid sounding unnatural before the competent users of weak forms, this study sets out to investigate and characterize the phonological use of weak forms by educated igbo speakers of english with focus on pronouns across social variables of age and gender. research questions the following questions will guide the study: i. how do educated igbo speakers of english pronounce the weak forms of prepositions? ii. what is the level of gender differences in the articulation of the weak forms among the educated igbo speakers of english? the english grammatical words yadugiri (68) explains the english grammatical words as those words that do not have a dictionary meaning in the way that we normally expects nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs to have. these grammatical words are auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, determiners and pronouns. the english grammatical words serve as grammatical cement holding content words together. they help to maintain relationships between higher syntactic units such as phrases and clauses. in other words, the english grammatical words are used to express structural relationship with other words in a sentence. in sum, one can say that the english grammatical words have little semantic content of its own and chiefly indicate a grammatical relationship among words in a sentence. the strong and the weak forms as already hinted in the subsection above, the english grammatical words manifest in two ways in their spoken form – the strong and the weak forms. the strong form is stressed and it is the pronunciation form that is usually found in the dictionary entry of word. suffice to say that the strong forms are produced with greater muscular energy and thus more prominent when compared with the weak forms. laoubi (35) states that it is the first form to which foreign learners of english are introduced. on the other hand, the weak forms are unstressed, less prominent and phonemically different from the strong form in quality. the common way of weakening grammatical words is reduction in vowel quality. this is done usually by the replacement of the word’s vowel by a weaker one mainly the schwa /ə/ sound. besides, weakening of grammatical words may be caused by change of consonants and appearance of syllabic consonants. for roach (112), this variance in pronunciation is a significant characteristic of the way english pronunciation is modified. the reasons for weakening grammatical words there are a number of reasons for the weakening of english grammatical words. the reasons are usually linked to the supra-segmental aspects of english. one of the reasons for weakening grammatical words is to achieve regularity in the rhythm of english. the english language is a stresstimes language. this means that it is the number of stressed syllables in an english utterance that usually determines the time it would take to say the utterance. it also means that at the sentence level, there is an equal interval between stressed syllables. to maintain the rhythmic regularity of the english language, laoubi (22) affirms that some syllables have to be compressed in a way that fits this ‘rhythm’. he further affirms that the english grammatical words of english are normally reduced to achieve the rhythmic regularity of the language. suffice it to say that inappropriate pronunciation of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 92 nwabunwanne & nnamdi-eruchalu the weak forms distorts the rhythm of the english speech and therefore could lead to constant misunderstanding. spoken english owes its rhythm to the appropriate use of the strong and the weak forms. furthermore, weakening of the english grammatical words is a logical result of appropriate application of english sentence-stress which helps in conveying the appropriate meaning to the listener. laoubi (22) states that regular weakening of the grammatical words helps the listener to perceive the prominent (stressed) words in the text and, thus, getting a correct interpretation of the intended meaning. if we stress all the words in a sentence, the prominent feature in the speech will be compromised and there would be no distinction between stressed and unstressed words which will affect the intended meaning of the utterance. in addition, the grammatical words are weakened because they convey little information when compared to content words. in connected speech uttered in english, content words are usually stressed because they carry the semantic load of the sentences. take for instance the sentence: ‘i … student … nnamdi azikiwe university.’ in the sentence, even if the grammatical words are omitted, we can understand its meaning. content words convey all the meaning and are, consequently, more important. therefore, the weakening of the grammatical words is attributed to the little information they convey in sentences. besides, weakening of the grammatical words helps to achieve ease in pronunciation. when we produce all the grammatical words in a sentence in strong form, it negatively affects our economy of speech production which affects ease of pronunciation. during sound production in connected speech, speakers modify their speech sounds in different contexts in order to facilitate ease of pronunciation. weakening the grammatical words is one way oaf achieving ease in pronunciation in connected speech. the strong and weak phonological forms of the english grammatical words (prepositions) (a) prepositions strong form weak form to /tu:/ /tə/ for /fͻ:/ /fə/ before consonants /fər/ before vowels of /ɒv/ /əv/ at /æt/ /ət/ from /frɒm/ /frəm/ as /æz/ /əz/ than /ðæn/ /ðən/ the contexts for using strong and weak phonological forms the english grammatical words are used in the weak forms in all parts of the sentence except: i. when they occur at the end of a sentence. example: i’m fond of chips [ aɪm fɒnd əv ʧɪps] chips are what i’m fond of [ʧɪps ə wɒt aɪm fɒnd ɒv] ii. when they are used for contrastive effect. example: is this train from awka? [ɪz ðɪz treɪn frəm ͻ:kə] it is not the train from awka, it is the train to awka [ɪt ɪz nɒt ðə treɪn frɒm ͻ:kə ɪt ɪz ðə treɪn tu: ͻ:kə] the letter’s from him, not to him [ðə letəz frɒm ɪm nɒt tu: ɪm] iii. where prepositions are co-ordinated. example the trains to and from awka are always crowded. [ðə treɪnz tu: ən frɒm ͻ:kə ə ͻ:lweɪz kraudɪd] a work of and about literature [ə wɜ:k ɒv ən əbaut lɪtrəʧə] iv. when they are being “cited” or “quoted” in contrast to being “used” ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 93 nwabunwanne & nnamdi-eruchalu let us study how “the” and “a” are used in english. [let əs st˄dɪ hau ðɪ: ən eɪ ə ju:zd ɪn ɪŋglɪʃ] you shouldn’t put “and” at the end of a sentence. [ju ʃudnt put ænd ət ðɪ end əv ə sentens] another point to remember is that when the weak-form words whose spelling begins with “h” (e.g. ‘her’, ‘have’) occur at the beginning of a sentence, the pronunciation is with initial h, even though this is usually omitted in other contexts. (adapted from roach 2000, yadugiri 2008, akinjobi, 2009) theoretical framework this study adopts the variation theory propounded by william labov (1963, 1966). the theory holds that language is in constant process of change, and this change diffuses over geographical, social and linguistic spaces of users. the main goal of variation theory is to account for the variations that exist in language use across individuals and speech communities. the theory is built on the idea that language is inherently variable at different structural levels of phonology, morphology and syntax and that it is a generally recognized fact that no two utterances of the same word by the same speaker are ever exactly alike. the same language varies from speaker to speaker or from community to community. the speaker variables commonly used for this purpose are socioeconomic class, age of the speaker, sex (gender) of the speaker, ethnic group of speaker and social network. this study is however restricted to the social variables of gender and age. the strength of this theory lies in its ability to help researchers gain insight from studying language from a socially realistic perspective that takes into account how diverse range of speakers use the language in everyday situations. thus the theory does not rely on the intuition of a native speaker but rather relies on observing naturally produced speech. methodology the study adopted descriptive research design. the data for this study were collected from 60 educated igbo speakers of english in anambra state who had no less than two years of post secondary education. the study adopted a purposive random sampling technique in selecting the subjects to meet the social variables of age and gender. the subjects of the study were made up of 30 males and 30 females. for the social variable of age, the subjects were made up of 30 young (17years – 40years) igbo speakers of english and 30 old (41years and above) igbo speakers of english. the instruments for data collection were questionnaire that sought information on gender and age bracket of the subjects and a reading passage. a recording device was used in recording the reading passage as the subjects were reading and analysed perceptually. an appropriate use of weak forms was allotted one mark and the total score for all the participants was converted to a percentage. results and discussion research question 1: how do educated igbo speakers of english pronounce the weak forms of prepositions? table 1: the realization of the weak forms of prepositions by educated igbo speakers of english. words rp number of educated igbo speakers variants (60) percentage of educated igbo english variants to [tə] 30 28 2 [tʊ] 50% [to] 47% [tə] 3% for [fə], [fər] 56 4 [fɔ] 93% [fɔr] 7% of [əv] 60 [ɔf] 100% at [ət] 58 [at] 97% ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 94 nwabunwanne & nnamdi-eruchalu 2 [ət] 3% from [frəm] 56 4 [frɔm] 93% [frəm] 7% as [əz] 56 4 [as] 93% [əz] 7% than [ðən] 4 56 [ðən] 7% [dan] 93% in standard english, to is realised as [tə] in english sentences where it is supposed to be realised in the weak form. table 1 shows that only 3% of the subjects realised to as [tə]. 50% of the subjects realised to as [tʊ] while 47% of the subjects realised to as [to]. the preposition for which is expected to be realised as [fə] or [fər] (before vowels) in the contexts of weak forms was realised as [fɔ] by 93% of the subjects while only 7% of the subjects realised for as [fɔr] before vowels. as regards the preposition of, all the subjects realised the word as [ɔf]. the word at is supposed to be realised as [ət] in sentences in standard english. just 3% of the subjects realised the word as [ət] while 97% of the subjects realised the word at as [at]. the preposition from which is expected to be realised as [frəm] in the context of weak form in standard english is realised by 7% of the subjects as [frəm] while 93% of the subjects realised from as [frɔm]. where the word as is expected to be realised as [əz], 93% of the subjects realised the word as [as]. only 7% of the subjects realised the sound as [əz]. for the word than which is expected to be realised as [ðən] in standard english, only 7% of the subjects realised it as [ðən] while 93% of the subjects realised it as [dan]. obviously from the table, there is variation in the phonological use of weak forms by the educated igbo speakers of english when compared with rp. the findings are in line with the findings of akinjobi (2009) who studied the use of the weak forms of the english grammatical words by educated yoruba english speakers in nigeria and reported variation in the articulation of the weak forms when compared with rp. it seems therefore that the variation observed among igbo speakers of english studied upholds the core tenet of labov’s theory which believes that language is in constant process of change, and this change diffuses over geographical, social and linguistic spaces of users. research question 2: what is the level of gender differences in the articulation of the weak forms among the educated igbo speakers of english. table 2: male and female realization of weak forms by educated igbo users of english word rp number of male educated igbo speakers variation (30) male educated igbo english variants number of female educated igbo speakers variation (30) female educated igbo english variants to [tə] 15 14 1 [tʊ] 50% [to] 47% [tə] 3% 15 14 1 [tʊ] 50% [to] 47% [tə] 3% for [fə], [fər] 28 2 [fɔ] 93% [fɔr] 7% 28 2 [fɔ] 93% [fɔr] 7% of [əv] 30 [ɔf] 100% 30 [ɔf] 100% at [ət] 29 1 [at] 97% [ət] 3% 29 1 [at] 97% [ət] 3% ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 95 nwabunwanne & nnamdi-eruchalu from [frəm] 28 2 [frɔm] 93% [frəm] 7% 28 2 [frɔm] 93% [frəm] 7% as [əz] 28 2 [as] 93% [əz] 7% 28 2 [as] 93% [əz] 7% than [ðən] 2 28 [ðən] 7% [dan] 93% 2 28 [ðən] 7% [dan] 93% from table 2 above, it is observed that when compared to rp, male and female participants manifested variations in the articulation of weak forms. it is equally observed that there are no gender differences in the realization of weak forms by the educated igbo users of the english language. one would, therefore, conclude that both male and female educated igbo speakers of english who were subjects of this study are at the same in the realization of the weak forms of the english language in sentences particularly with reference to prepositions which is the focus of this study. summary of findings the investigation of the use of the weak forms of prepositions shows that the educated igbo speakers of english have problem with the pronunciation of weak forms of prepositions as they manifested variation in their use of the weak forms when compared with rp. the study equally observed that there is no gender difference in the realization of the weak forms of the prepositions. conclusion the study sets out to investigate the phonological use of the weak forms of prepositions among the educated igbo speakers of english. the study also investigated gender dimension to the use of the weak forms of prepositions. the study used labov’s variation theory. from the findings of the study, it can be concluded that the educated igbo speakers of english manifested variation in their use of the weak forms of prepositions when compared with rp. this study therefore upholds the core tenet of labov’s theory which believes that language is in constant process of change, and this change diffuses over geographical, social and linguistic spaces of users. works cited akinjobi, a. (2009). a study of the use of the weak forms of english grammatical words by educated yoruba english speakers. african research review journal 3(3), 81-94 labov, w. (1963). the social motivation of a sound change. word 19, 273-309 labov, w. (1966). the social stratification of english in the new york. washington d.c: centre for applied linguistics laoubi, m. (2010). the importance of learning strong and weak forms in listening comprehension: the case of third year students at the department of english, constantine university. unpublished master’s dissertation, constantine university algeria roach, p. (2002). english phonetics and phonology. 3rd ed. uk: cambridge university press okoro, o. (2009). the identification of standard nigeria english usage. in a.b.k dadzie & s. awonusi (eds), nigeria english: influences and characteristics. lagos: sam iroanusi publications yadugiri, m. a. (2008). making sense of english: a textbook of sounds, words and grammar. new delhi: viva books private ltd ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 116 an overview of adverbs for the proficient use of the english language lauretta chinyeaka abstract this study highlights an in-depth study of adverbs for easy understanding and appropriate use. the paper introduces the adjective to distinguish it from the adverb. sequel to this explanation of what adverbs are, types, their functions, the words or groups of words they modify and their notable significance in the english language are established. an adverb is perhaps the most difficult element to identify in an english sentence. this could be attributed to the fact that an adverb can usually be shifted around (a movable modifier) and as such it is often difficult to pin it down to a fixed position in the sentence structure. furthermore, only one type of adverbial adjunct (adjunct of place) may occur as obligatory element in the structure. to make matters more complicated, any one of the four major classes of words can also perform the function of an adverb in the sentence. it is, therefore, often taken that if a word cannot be placed with any of the three other classes, it must be an adverb. as a result of this negative test, the different items that are generally labeled as adverbials have acted as a dustbin of english grammar. again, both adjectives and adverbs as modifiers have different uses. people and esl learners in particular are not always certain about which modifier to use in a particular situation. the misuse and ignorance prevalent in the use of adverbs prompted this paper. this study will be of immense help to both students and teachers in the second language situation. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 117 introduction words are the basic rudiments of the human language. they follow a logical pattern in sentence formation with each performing a peculiar function. eyisi (15) observes that when we group them into various classes by taking cognisance of their different functions, we refer to each class as a part of speech. norwood (67) notes however that the part of speech of a word depends on how the word is used in a sentence. he explains that the same word can be one of several parts of speech, depending on its use in a particular sentence. he illustrates this with the word 'but' which is commonly used as a conjunction, as in the sentence: mary went to the beach but i stayed at home. on the other hand, the same word 'but' is a preposition in the sentence everyone went to the championship game but me. the english language according to eyisi (15) has seven well-defined parts of speech although some grammarians recognize eight or more. the english parts of speech are divided into two main categories, namely: i. the major parts of speech ii. the minor parts of speech the major parts of speech include the nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. they are so referred because they belong to the open system and so can admit new members. words that constitute each of these wordclasses are unlimited because they continue to grow as new words are added to their groups. the minor parts of speech on the other hand include pronouns, prepositions and conjunctions. they are referred to as the closed system because they do not admit new members. the number of english words called ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 118 pronouns, prepositions and conjunctions are more or less fixed. some characteristics which distinguish the major parts of speech from the minor ones as pointed out by eyisi (16) are: 1. it is only the major parts of speech that have lexical or dictionary meanings. 2. they constitute an open system and so admit new members. 3. they constitute the largest part of the vocabulary of the english language. 4. they undergo inflectional changes. this implies that each of them can change its form according to the demands of sentence construction. the minor parts of speech she states, lack all the above characteristics for which the major parts of speech are recognized. 1. they do not have dictionary meanings 2. they do not admit new words; they constitute a closed system. 3. they are limited in the english vocabulary 4. they do not undergo inflectional changes. the adverbs as already noted belong to the major parts of speech which are also described as the open system. adverb according to the complete english companion is "a term used in the grammatical classification of words to refer to a heterogeneous group of items whose most frequent function is to specify the mode of the verb". what are adverbs? adverbs like adjectives describe other words or make other words more specific. an adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or an adverb. langan (485) points out that the adverb in describing verbs, adjectives and other adverbs usually end in -ly: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 119 the referee suddenly stopped the fight (the adverb suddenly describes the verb stopped). her pink dress is absolutely beautiful (the adverb absolutely describes the adjective beautiful). the auctioneer spoke so terribly fast that i couldn't understand him. (the adverb terribly describes the adverb fast). recognizing and using adverbs it is often widely thought especially by esl learners that the ending -ly is a sufficient sign that a word is an adverb but this is not true. much as a large number of adverbs do end in -ly, this does not mean that the -ly ending is wholly a dependable guide to identifying an adverb. according to boadi, et al (102-103), there are some reasonable number of words with -ly endings which are not adverbs. these include words like brotherly, sisterly, fatherly, masterly, deadly, sickly. although they have -ly endings, these words are classed as adjectives not adverbs. on the other hand, there are many adverbs such as here, there, seldom, up, down, never, often, which do not end in -ly. certain formal markers according to them however do exist although none of them is a certain indication that a particular word is an adverb: l. a-prefixed to nouns, adjectives and verbs, e.g aloud, abroad, away, astern, ahead, astir, anew etc, 2. wise affixed to nouns: lengthwise, air wise etc. 3. wards or -ward affixed to a limited sub-class of nouns: backwards; forwards; homewards; etc. 4. some-, any-, every-, and noprefixed to certain nouns and structural words: anyway; somewhere; anywhere; everywhere; nowhere; sometimes; anyhow etc., ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 120 5. certain adverbs are identical with prepositions except that in a sentence the adverb usually receives a primary stress and the corresponding prepositions a weak one. the guard stood [] by (adverb) the guard [], stood by the [] wall (preposition) others in this sub-class are: in, out, up, down, over, under, inside, outside, out, around, about, above, across, after, along, before, behind, below, beneath, between, beyond, near, off, on, to, underneath, with, within, past, round, since, through, etc. types of adverbs according to world bank reference set grammar and style guide (79) adverbs usually answer the questions how? when? where or to what extent? examples mark walked slowly (slowly modifies the verb walked and tells how) i will leave soon (soon modifies the verb leave and tells when) let's go out. (out modifies the verb go and tells where) sally is not late. (not modifies the adjective late and tells to what extent) the elderly man moved quite gingerly. (quite modifies the adverb gingerly and tells to what extent) adverbs that tell ‘how' are called adverbs of manner. some examples are beautifully, energetically, happily, quickly, fast. adverbs that tell 'when ' are called adverbs of time. some examples are now, soon, then, before, later. adverbs that tell 'where' are called adverbs of place. some examples are in, out, near, up, down, forward, there. some ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 121 adverbs of place can also function as prepositions. examples: let's climb up the kitten climbed up the tree (preposition) adverbs that tell to what extent are called adverbs of degree. some examples are very, extremely, rather, somewhat, quite, and almost. the above terms (adverbs of manner, time, place, and degree) classify adverbs according to their meaning. another way to classify adverbs according to grammar and style guide (80) is by their function. interrogative adverbs introduce questions. some examples are: why, when, where and how when did you go? where have you been? relative adverbs introduce subordinate clauses. some examples are: when, why. i will meet you when classes are over. do you know why max was angry? conjunctive adverbs (sometimes called transitional adverbs) join two independent clauses or sentences and modify them. some examples are: hence, however, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, still, therefore, thus. we followed the recipe; however, the casserole was not so good as we'd hoped. sara liked the dress; nevertheless, she did not buy it. functions of adverbs as noted in houghton mifflin english grammar and composition (39, 42), the most common function of an adverb is to modify a verb. an adverb that modifies a verb ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 122 modifies the entire verb phrase which includes the main verb and its auxiliary verbs. the driver was honking his horn desperately. an adverb that modifies a verb does not always appear next to the verb in the sentence. next to verb the police suddenly arrived at the scene. at beginning suddenly the police arrived at the scene at end the police arrived at the scene suddenly an adverb sometimes interrupts a verb phrase. an adverb in this position modifies all parts of the verb phrase. adverbs may also modify adjectives. an adverb that modifies an adjective usually comes just before the adjective that it modifies. examples our dog is quite deaf [quite tells to what degree the dog is deaf] your ideas are usually brilliant [usually tells how often the ideas are brilliant] adverbs that modify adjectives are sometimes called qualifying adverbs or qualifier (glencoe english 279). sometimes adverbs modify adverbs. such adverbs usually come just before the adverbs that they modify, and they usually tell to what degree or extent: examples: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 123 we were laughing quite loudly. [loudly is an adverb that modifies ‘were laughing’. ‘quite’ tells to what extent we were laughing loudly] the principal spoke rather sharply. [sharply is an adverb that modifies ‘spoke’. ‘rather’ tells to what extent the principal spoke sharply]. an adverb, because it specifies the degree or intensity of the modified adjective or adverb, such an adverb according to prentice hall writing and grammar (390) is often called an intensifier. quirk and greenbaum (127) add that the most frequently used intensifier is ‘very’. others include so, pretty, rather, unusually, quite, unbelievably (tall). many are restricted to a small set of lexical items e.g. deeply (anxious), highly (intelligent), strikingly (handsome), sharply (critical). many intensifiers, they note, can modify adjectives, adverbs and verbs alike. adverbs as premodifiers of adjective may also be 'view point' as in politically expedient (‘expedient from a political point of view’), technically possible, theoretically sound. they pointed out that viewpoint adjuncts that appear after the noun phrase are related to the pre-modifying adjective within the phrase. a good paper editorially can also be a good paper commercially. or an editorially good paper can also be a commercially good paper. adverbs as parts of verbs adverbs also function as parts of verbs. as exposited in prentice hall writing and grammar (390), some verbs require an adverb to complete their meaning. adverbs used this way are considered part of the verb. however, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 124 an adverb functioning as part of a verb does not answer the usual questions for adverbs. example: the tractor backed up alongside the field. nouns functioning as adverbs several nouns can function as adverbs that answer the questions where? or when? some of these words are home, yesterday, today, tomorrow, mornings, afternoons, evenings, nights, week, month, and year. nouns used as adverbs nouns as adverbs evenings are restful times. i work evenings my home is miles from here. let's head home adverbs as adverbials quirk and greenbaum (126) note that an adverb may function as adverbial, a constituent distinct from subject, verb, object and complement, adverbials according to woodsand coppieters (75) give additional information about an action, happening or state as described by the rest of the sentence. oji adds that the adverbials include not only single-word adverbs but also particles and phrases. the term, he notes, is therefore more embracing than 'adverb' (60). they have a number of different forms: • adverbs, adverb phrases, noun phrases, prepositional phrases. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 125 • finite clauses, non-finite clauses (infinitives, -ing and — ed participles), verbal clauses. quirk and greenbaum (126) on their part postulate three classes of adverbial: adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts. adjuncts are integrated within the structure of the clause to at least some extent. example: they are waiting outside. i can now understand it. he spoke to me calmly. disjuncts and conjuncts however are not integrated within the clause. according to them, semantically disjuncts express an evaluation of what is being said either with respect to the form of the communication or to its content. example: frankly, i am tired. fortunately, no one complained they are probably at home. semantically, conjuncts have a connective function. they indicate the connection between what is being said and what was said before. example: we have complained several times about the noise, and yet he does nothing about it. i have not looked into his qualifications. he seems very intelligent though. in the structure of the sentence, the adverbial function is crucial. when the adverbial is absent, the sentence is not complete. for instance: john is in the park sva s v a ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 126 i put the food in the pot . sva s v oa adverbial group types baruah (120), expositing with the headed groups, limited the term adverbial group to cover only those groups that have an adverb as their head. he states that the adverbial group usually consists of a single adverb, with or without an intensifier. according to him, the adverbial group and all other items that can function as an adverb are together known as adverbials. since an adverb too can have degree form just like an adjective, the head may also be preceded by the structural words such as more, most, less, least or as/so. the common adverbial group-types may therefore be type i head alone, e.g; frequently type 2 intensifier + head, e.g; very soon type 3 more/most, etc + head, e.g., more often, as often (as). more than one adverbial group may occur in the same sentence or in the same position in the sentence. further, as already mentioned, many other items may occur in these positions and function as an adverb. the following according to him are the common adverbials: i. the adverbial group, e.g. he will come very soon. ii. the prepositional phrase, e.g. he opened the box with a knife. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 127 iii. finite clause, e.g. when i reached the station, the train had already left. iv. non-finite clause, e.g. he came to see me. classification of adverbials adverbs are, usually, classified according to their meaning or their position in the sentence, the classification according to meaning as posited by baruah (123) is essentially a logical one and can be extended or sub-divided according to necessity. some of the familiar classes of this type consists the adverbials of time, adverbials of place, adverbials of frequency, adverbials of manner etc. he points out that adverbials can also be classified according to the three adverb positions (end-position, mid-position, front-position). but as already mentioned, adverbials are highly mobile elements and the same adverbial may occur in all the three positions. however, some adverbials have their favourite position in the sentence and on this basis it is possible to assign them to these positional classes. here are some common adverbials with their typical positions. i. front-position adverbials interrogative adverbs: although, besides, generally, 'however, kindly, otherwise, unfortunately, usually, therefore etc. ii. mid-position adverbials: already, always, ever, frequently, just, merely, never, often, actually, yet etc., iii. end-position adverbials ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 128 prepositional phrases, clauses, badly, carefully, easily, recently, soon, there, well, yesterday etc. (baruah 123). comparison of adverbs according to quirk and greenbaum (135) for a small number of adverbs, the inflected forms used for comparison are identified with those for adjectives. as noted in grammar and style guide (80-81) adverbs of manner like adjectives may be compared upward and downward in three degrees: positive, comparative, and superlative. like adjectives, adverbs can be compared upward by two different methods 1. most adverbs are compared by using "more" for the comparative degree and "most" for the superlative degree. positive comparative superlative happily more happily more happily quickly more quickly most quickly accurately more accurately most accurately a few adverbs are compared upwards by using -er for the comparative degree and -est for the superlative degree. positive comparative superlative soon sooner soonest near nearer nearest early earlier earliest all adverbs are compared downward by using "less" for the comparative degree and "least" for the superlative degree. positive comparative superlative early less early least early happily less happily least happily ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 129 quickly less quickly least quickly accurately less accurately least accurately some adverbs are compared irregularly. positive comparative superlative badly worse worst far farther farthest little less least much more most well better best distinguishing between adjective and adverbs it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a word is an adjective or an adverb. a large number of adverbs end in ly but so do some adjectives. adverb the guide yelled loudly adjective the bear seemed friendly. sometimes the same word may be used as either an adjective or an adverb. adverb everyone worked hard adjective this is hard work to decide whether a modifier is an adjective or an adverb, figure out what part of speech the modified word is. if the modified word is a noun or a pronoun, the modifier is an adjective or an adverb, the modifier is an adverb. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 130 you can also tell whether a modifier is an adjective or an adverb by deciding which question the modifier answers. adjective adverb 1. which 1. how or in what manner? 2. what kind? 2. when? 3. how many? 3. where? 4. how often? 5. to what extent or degree? adjectivejan is .an early riser [think: earlv tells what kind of riser, which is a noun. early is therefore an adjective] adverb jan left early. [think: early tells when jan left, which is an adverb. early is therefore an adverb] (culled from houghton mifflin english grammar and composition 43 44) significance of adverbs adverbs are useful tools of language. apart from giving or expanding information about the verb, adverbs specify the degree or intensity of the modified adjective or adverb in which case it is called an intensifier. for example: he worked very competently (adverb modifying adverb). they are also required to complete the meaning of some verbs. in this position, they are considered as part of a verb. an adverb functioning as part of a verb does not answer the usual questions of adverbs e.g. 'the tractor backed up alongside the field. adverbs, when they function as adverbials, talk about the whole clause. for ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 131 example, definitely, that is what they meant. they could also be used to portray attitude of movement indicating negativity as in he walked slowly to the police cell. conclusion an adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. functionally, adverbs describe other words or make other words more specific. a good knowledge of this major part of speech will enhance the proficient use of the english language. works cited baruah, t. c. the english teaching handbook. new delhi: sterling publishers private limited, 2006. print boadi, l. a., d. w. grieve and b. nwankwo. grammatical structure and its teaching. ibadan: african universities press, 1968. print. brown, ann cole. houghten english grammar and composition. boston: houghton mifflin english gramma, 1984. print eyisi, joy. a. grammar of english composition revised edition. nimo: rex charles and patrick ltd., 2006. print. glencoe english. encino: glecoe publishing co, inc., 1981. print langan, john. english skills ninth edition. new york: mcgraw: mcgraw-hill higher education, 2008. print ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, volume 6 no 1, 2015 132 norwood, selby. essential college english: grammar and punctuation workbook third edition. new york: happer collins publishers, 1991. print oji, nzebunachi. english grammar for advanced students. obosi: pacific publishers, 2001. print prentice hall writing and grammar diamond level. boston: pearson education, inc., 2004. print. quirk, randolph and sidney greenbaum. a university grammar of english. essex: pearson educational limited, 1973. print. the complete english language composition. new larnark: geddes & gresset, 2007. print the world bank reference set grammar and style guide. chicago: world book encyclopedia, inc. 1985. print woods, edward and rudy coppieters. the communicative grammar of english workbook. harlow: pearson educational limited 2002. print ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 233 an analysis of metaphoric expressions against the female gender: a study of sefi atta’s everything good will come nnenna roseline uche-okoro department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email:ucheokororoseline@gmailcom abstract this paper critically analyses the metaphoric expressions against the female gender in sefi atta’s everything good will come. metaphor is part of our everyday life and it is a matter of language, thought and action. however, linguistic expressions being containers of meaning equate two things that are not the same even the state of mind. history reveals that the metaphoric expressions against the female are geared towards their tainting, humiliation and oppression. this work seeks to unveil some of them and sensitize the female gender to ignore them and be the best they are created to be. the researcher hinged on critical discourse analysis (cda) as a model that takes account of the social context and explores the links between textual structures and their function in social interaction to analyze the metaphoric expressions in sefi atta’s everything good will come. the findings show that expressions against the female gender are culturally and socially inculcated. key words: critical discourse analysis, metaphors, social interaction introduction language helps in maintaining social relationship. it also aids the stratification of group identity, social stratification and social ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 234 grooming. this enigmatic nature of language is evident in its use in virtually all areas of human endeavour. language however is most often used to alienate the female gender in the society having been oppressed mentally, physically and emotionally. this is perpetuated by choice of language in various interactions. ogunyemi stresses that; language is sometimes used in an oppressive way to tailor the satisfaction of the heterosexual beings and that reductionist concept of subjecting the woman based on genderisation is illuminated when crude words like ‘prostitution’, ‘harlot’ among others are freely used by male chauvinist to poor presentation and projection in some post-colonial literature.(48) this implies that expressions against the female gender is meant to make the males look, feel, and act superior over the females and buttresses akujobi’s point that “this expression especially in its metaphoric forms makes one feel victimized, dominated and inferior”(4). this situation further explains the “unproblematic unity that evokes solidarity of identity in the areas of sex and identity” (butler as quoted in ogunyemi, 48). ogunyemi explains that butler observes that witting's observation of the male gender’s handling of language places the female gender as a subordinate entity and further argues that women are projected as ‘materialists’ when placed as a subordinate but rather, there is need for another order of ‘materiality’. what butler means is that language is sometimes used in gender and identity to tailor the satisfaction of the heterosexual beings. udenweze stresses that; our cultural practices denigrate the image and status of women in the society mostly by the language we ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 235 use on them because male and female children right from birth are assigned different roles, values and status by the society where they are born by continuous use of different languages meant particularly for each sex group but surprisingly, the female gender is usually addressed using negative metaphoric expressions unlike that used to address the male gender. (1) gender based oppression is the “oppression that reflects the existing asymmetry in the power relations between men and women and perpetrates the subordination and devaluation of the female as opposed to the male” (ngendahayo, 2014). ngendahayo further explains that gender based oppression exists within the framework of patriarchy as a symbolic system that engenders an array of day to day practices which represent the female gender poorly with the aim of oppressing them and relating them to the background. gender based oppression comes in form of sexual, physical, mental and verbal oppressions. the underlying factor in patriarchy is power and status. stressing further, ifechelobi (18) says that “traditional african society as a patriarchal society is characterized by current and historic unequal power relations between women and men where women are systematically disadvantaged, subdued and oppressed”.“patriarchy is a broad network or system of hierarchical organization that cuts across political, economic, social, religion, cultural, industrial and financial spheres, under which the overwhelming number of upper positions in society are either occupied or controlled and dominated by men” (okpe as qtd in makama, 117). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 236 in fact, any system that gives men undue advantage over women is considered patriarchal and oppressive against the female gender. a male is considered the head of the household and he controls productive resources, and reproductive capacities based on the notions that he is superior while the female is inferior. ogbazi wraps it up by saying that “first, patriarchy, essentially, makes reference to a male–dominated world, a world that has been strengthened by cultural prejudices and assigning traditional gender roles to the male and female sexes” (17). oppression breads injustice which is discriminatory, dehumanizing and inferiority. it is usually imposed by the oppressors upon dominated and exploited individuals. it further serves as a means of enforcing oppression in order to secure advantageous conditions of living for its perpetrators.“oppression means the exercise of tyranny by a ruling group (men) which creates injustice in other circumstances as well and not only cruel tyrant with bad intentions that oppress people but a well-intentioned democratic society can place system-wide constraints on groups and limit their freedom, choices and liberty” (young,33). metaphoric expressions against the female gender is a form of verbal oppression and manifests in form of regarding the female gender as a sex object/machine, an ever-dependent variable, a money-making machine, a baby factory and an incomplete individual without marriage. individuals are part of the society, their existence is shaped and influenced by the language they use and the individual's language use is constrained by the conventional and unconventional provisions of the society they live in. therefore, part of the individual's approach to issues is conditioned by society, and society thrives on language. in essence, language, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 237 gender and culture are knotted. language helps in shaping peoples' culture and gender issues are language influenced in line with cameron's argument that: our linguistic habits often reflect and perpetuate ideas about things which are no longer embodied in law, but which continue to have covert significance in the culture. this is one reason why feminists have often paid detailed attention to language and discourse: our ways of talking about things reveals attitudes and assumption we might consciously disown, thus, testifying to the deep-rootedness of sexism. (16) conceptual metaphor as revolutionized by lakoff and johnson (1980) “is not just a characteristics of language alone, a mere rhetorical ornament or literary device but a powerful means by which individuals make sense of selves and the world around them” (ahmed, 90). zubair (766) observes that “metaphors are reflective of the modes thought of the members of the linguistic community that employ them”. metaphor, in this view, is seen “not as a literary form or as a deviation from some supposedly literal language, but rather as one of the building blocks of our thinking, at both the level of language acquisition and languageuse” (montasheri,107).metaphors are used to “enrich language or to understand something abstract in more straight forward terms. it equates two things that are not the same; it goes beyond physical resemblances to compare complex state of feeling” (ezeife, 143). from the above scholars, it is now clear that metaphor is a daily affair that is already inculcated in our lives and has formed part of our culture. in sefi atta’s everything good will come, the writer depicts societal happenings and views about the female gender and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 238 refocuses the attention of the society on the right and correct views of whom the female gender is, using the characters. cultural beliefs and tradition are interwoven in language which is an aspect of culture. sefi atta brings into limelight in a literally discourse what has been inculcated in the minds of the individuals unconsciously but is a major cankerworm that has eaten the society deeply especially the female gender. however, the social relevance of discourse makes it give rise to the issues of power. discursive practices can help (re) produce unequal power relations through the manner in which they represent things and people and are happenings that fall into the categories of the (re) production of social, historical and cultural life manifesting not only linguistic mechanisms but also devices of a different order, such as those which reproduce ideology and maintain the power structure. the study of implicit ideologies is a major preoccupation of cda: a theory that seeks to unravel connections between discourse practices, social practices, and social structures, connections that may be opaque to text consumers. it is important to realize that discursive practice is constitutive of social structures, just as social structures determine discursive practice. therefore, discourse is not only socially constitutive but also socially conditioned. that is, it constitutes situations, objects of knowledge, and the social identities or relationships which exist between people and groups of people. the social relevance of discourse makes it give rise to the issues of power. sefi atta gives a textual analysis of the social structures and social practices by creating some metaphoric expressions that has been inculcated in the day to day affairs of the individuals. woman as sex toy /machinethe female gender is portrayed as a body or entity which is composited of sexual meaning. women ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 239 in general are turned into items which men exploit for their sexual pleasure. this concept regards woman as a sex piece; an item to be used as toy for sexual satisfaction by man. in this concept, the woman is exploited for sex by the man. this metaphoric measure is characterized by words/expressions relating to sex, sexuality or the sexual organs of a woman just as the narrator says;"i was walking the streets, one foolish man approached me ... the fool touched my breasts, i slapped his face. he pushed me to the ground."... (egwc,265) a woman that is faced with the worst difficult time of her life lost her husband to the cold hands of death, denied access to her children (a set of twins), stalked naked and alone in a room and forced to drink her late husband's bath water to prove of her innocence. walking around with sorrow in her heart, she was now approached by a man who only came to take advantage of her. a man who sees a stranger and moves to her directly to rape her is a proof of what he takes the female gender to be an object for sexual satisfaction. her rights are never considered. woman as money-making machine the female gender is being portrayed as the bread winner in their families which is originally regarded as the sole responsibility of the males. but the humiliating part of this is that the male gender now shifted the responsibility of providing money for the family to the female gender without any remorse for their idleness or low income but with all pride and arrogance that the female gender should do it as part of their duty. the male gender now approaches a female for marriage with consideration to her earnings and the possibility of inheriting her wealth with the sole reason of being her husband.sunny, enitan’s father boldly told enitan this; my mother's mother was a trader. she saved money for her children's education under her mattress. one ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 240 day my grandfather took the money she'd been saving and used it to pay the dowry for a second wife. (egwc,151) woman as a baby factory the responsibility of procreation is laid on the female gender. nature designed her with the properties that give her the ability of nursing a younger one in her and bring her/him forth to life. this makes it that whenever a woman is unable to give birth to children, she is always blamed and regarded as the worst and even addressed as so. worst still, if a woman gives birth only to female children, she is being cajoled, abused and oppressed using different languages. enitan narrates her ordeal in the hands of her family members, in-laws, friends and even her personal self. i got pregnant and shortly after had a miscarriage.... i cried until i soaked my pillow. i got pregnant again. this time, the baby grew out of my womb and could have killed me had it not been for one smart doctor. i had to have an emergency operation. the doctor told us my chances of having after that were reduced. 'but keep trying," he said. a year later, we stillwere, niyi's relation began to press, "is everything all right?" they looked at my stomach before looking at my face. some scolded me outright. "what are you waiting for? my mother invited me to her vigils; my father offered to send me overseas to see other doctors. i asked why they harassed women this way. (egwc,185) why should enitan soak her pillow with her tears? this is because she knows that all fingers are pointed at her and has accepted that giving birth to a child is the only proof of being a female. sheri who is enitan’s friend stressed it harder when she says; ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 241 better to be ugly, to be crippled, to be a thief even, than to be barren. we had both been raised to believe that our greatest days would be; the birth of our first child, our wedding and graduation days in that order. a woman may be forgiven for having a child out of wedlock if she had no hope of getting married, and she would be dissuaded from getting married if she didn't have a degree. marriage could immediately wipe out a sluttish past, but angel or not, a woman had to have a child. (egwc,105 7) woman as everdependent variable it has been believed and accepted by the society that the males are superior while the females are inferior and should be dependent on the male gender. the female gender is believed to be receivers of instructions while the male gender is the instructors. enitan on her bid for freedom and quest for fairness says; “in my country, women are praised the more they surrender their rights to protest. in the end they may die with nothing but selflessness to pass on to their daughters, a startling legacy, like tears down a parched thwart”. (egwc,117) enitan complains on why the female gender should be so dependent on the male. a woman's muteness is praised and appreciated but the moment she got an idea to share, it is regarded as abnormal and she is taken to be wild. she however, have no choice than to suffer in silence and also advices her daughters to follow the same footsteps as to avoid being labelled "wild". "in the end it will be a startling legacy, like tears down a parched thwart”. woman as incomplete without marriage the oxford english mini dictionary defines marriage as “the formal union of a man and a woman as husband and wife” (354). marriage has been ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 242 regarded as the highest honour that a woman can attain. once a female gender reached a particular age that she is believed to be better positioned by a man's side, it becomes a concern to the female herself, family and well-wishers. they become restless and ready to give her away to whoever that asks for her hand in marriage just to ensure that she is married off else, she will be regarded as an ill-mannered and not fit for any man. the researcher examines the words of sheri with the today’s happenings in the society. enitan is married, sheri is not married. enitan complains of her experiences in the hands of her husband and reconsiders sheri as being happier in her unmarried state but unknown to her that sheri is not happy in her unmarried state. sheri opens up for enitan in her words as follows;she shook her head. “it is not easy on your own. men thinking you want them; women pitying you and not wanting you around their homes. your own mother talking about you as if you have terminal cancer: ah enitan, she's still with us. ah, enitan, we pray” (egwc,245). conclusion sensitization and education; the way out the era of limiting the females either with words or actions is obviously over. the females are created with equal biological attributes with the males and so should not be oppressed because of their sex. the education of the female should go beyond acquiring the skills in the kitchen to proper formal education with open opportunities that will help them harness their special god-given talents. a woman lost her husband to the cold hands of death and they wanted her to drink his bath water as to proof of her innocence but she blatantly refused. in her despair, a man comes to take advantage of her condition to rape her. the man called her hey baby but she immediately let ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 243 him know that she must not be addressed in such a manner that she is well educated and knows her rights.“i was walking the streets. one foolish man approached me. he called me hey baby”. “i said i'm not hey baby. i'm a secretary typist, qualified1988” (egwc, 265). proper sensitization and education made it happen. enitan having acquired education made her own efforts at sensitizing sherifat who is her childhood friend. enitan counselled sheri to stop the illicit love relationship she was having with brigadier, a polygamist and whose first daughter is around sheri’s age. brigadier keeps sheri at home for preparing all kinds of dishes for him and his friends and must not find her absent on his return. enitan counselled sheri to start –up a catering business with that, she will be getting money to solve her needs and not being a sexual victim to brigadier for the sake of money. their conversation goes thus; ibrahim wants me to stop my business; what will happen to me when my rent is due? bid time, i said. until your next rent is paid. after that, find more clients. there are weddings, burials, christenings, every weekend in this place. next year, you ‘be paying your own rent. you're bright, you're young and this man is treating you like his house girl… (egwc, 138). works cited ahmed, umar. “metaphor in the construction of gender in media discourse: analysis of metaphors used to describe women in newspapers”. international journal of gender and women’s studies. 6:1(2018). 88-99.web. akujobi, remi. the burden of conforming to culture and tradition: the afemai woman's experience. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 244 unpublished article. 2011. covenant university.edu.ngweb 3/11/2018. atta, sefi. everything good will come. nigeria: kachifo.2006.print. ezeife, amaka. c. gender ideology and lexicalisation. university of ibadan: phd dissertations.2013. print. ezeifeka, chinwe. discourse analysis: concepts and approaches. awka: patrobas nigeria limited2018. print ifechelobi, j.n. “feminism: silence and voicelessness as tools of patriarchy in chimamanda adichie’s purple hibiscus”. ethiopia: african research review: an internationalmultidisplinaryjournal.8:4(2014).web.doi http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.2/10/2018. makama, godiya allanana. partriachy and gender inequality: the way forward.european scientificjournal.9:17.(2013).web12/10/2018.file:///c:/u sers/hp%20folio/desktop/documents/download/1161 -3466-1-pb.pdf montashery, iraj. “figurative construction of gender through metaphor and metonymy united states”.world science publisher.6.1.(2013).web.4/8/2018. ngendahayo, j.d.the impact of women oppression on the societal destruction. a case study of chinua achebe “things fall apart” (2014). retrieved on4/8/2018.file:///c:/users/hp%20folio/desktop/doc uments/download/412367.html ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 245 ogbazi, ifeyinwa. history and the voiceless: yvonne vera and postcolonial zimbabwe.uk: lap lambert academic publishing. 2012. print. ogunyemi, christopher babatunde. “the configuration of gender and identity in nigerian literature”. lnternational journal of gender and women's studies.2:2. 43-59. america: research institute for police development. 2014. web. retrieved on june 2018. okpe, o. mainstreaming gender in the african development process: a critic of nepad and the women question. nigeria: bsu press, 2005. thorn borrow, joanne & wareing shain. patterns in language: an introduction to language and literary style. london: routledge, 1998. udenweze, maureen uche. structures of female oppression in selected african novels. nsukka: ma thesis, (2009).doi web.17/8/2018 wodak, ruth.the discourse-historical approach: methods of critical discourse analysis.eds. r. wodak and m. meyer. london: sage publications, 2009. young, iris marrion. punishment, treatment, empowerment: three approaches to policy for pregnant addicts. feminist studies. 20:1(1994). 33-57. van dijk, teunintroduction: discourse as a new crossdiscipline. handbookof discourse analysis. 1.(1991).110. web. 19th october, 2018. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 246 fairclough and ruth wodak. critical discourse analysis. discourse as social interaction.ed. vandijk.t. london: sage, 1997. zubair, s. “silent birds: metaphoric constructions of literacy and gender identity in women’s talk”. discourse studies. 9(6) (2007), 766-783. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 149 chukwu & amadi connotation as a rhetorical device in obasanjo’s open letter to jonathan prof. ephriam chukwu department of eng language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: ea.chukwu@unziki.edu.ng & andrew ndiwe amadi school of general studies imo state polytechnic, imo state email: ndiweamadi16@gmail.com abstract political leaders in every society, with their power of oratory and influences, play dominant roles in shaping the political landscape of their countries or communities. this study analysed how former president olusegun obasanjo persuaded nigerians to perceive former president goodluck jonathan in a bad light thereby paving the way for jonathan’s exit from the seat of nigeria’s presidency in 2015. the study specifically analysed the use of connotative expressions and words as a rhetorical strategy employed by obasanjo to achieve his goals. data were collected from the open letter – before it is too late – written by obasanjo to jonathan before the heat of the 2015 campaigns/general elections. thirteen words/expressions used connotatively in the letter were randomly selected and analysed. the findings revealed that connotative expressions can effectively be utilised as a weapon for achieving persuasion in (especially political) speeches. obasanjo was therefore, projected as one of the notable nigerian politicians who have successfully employed this tool in his political speeches. key words: connotation, rhetoric, open letter, obasanjo, jonathan introduction the importance of language in political communication has persisted over the ages. political leaders, in every society, leverage on the veritable instrument of language to shape the political landscape of their countries or communities. through language, they determine who occupies what (political) position or the other in the society at any given time. as chilton (199) posits, “at the heart of what we call ‘politics’ is the attempt to get others to ‘share a common view’ about what is useful-harmful, good-evil, just-unjust. language is the only means for doing this”. furthermore, de wet points out that “politicians rise to power mainly because they can talk persuasively to voters and political elites … politicians are endlessly geared to persuading voters to their own party’s point of view” (103). in fact, using their power of oratory and other influences, political leaders strive to mobilise and convince the electorates to do their whims and caprices. former president of the federal republic of nigeria, chief olusegun mathew obasanjo gcfr, is one such leader who is notable for playing ‘god-fatherism’ in the nigerian political space. he has anointed many political leaders of this country including, arguably, former president goodluck ebele jonathan gcfr. when obasanjo’s relationship with jonathan seemingly became sour, he came out of his sleeves to tarnish jonathan’s political image and to unmake what he made in 2011. that necessitated his open letter – before it is too late – which ordinarily could have been kept secret as normal correspondences are done. while embarking on such journey of persuading the electorates cum general public to abandon jonathan, especially in his political bids, obasanjo employed some rhetorical strategies, among which was a veiled approach. this manifested in his preponderant use of connotative words and expressions. such expressions were used to complain, warn, request, advise, threaten and ultimately persuade the nigerian populace to see jonathan in a bad light and work towards his exit from the seat of nigeria’s presidency in 2015. it is noteworthy that studies on obasanjo’s speeches, and even on political leaders in nigeria, have concentrated on the stylistic, pragmatic and rhetorical points of view. even those that dwelt on ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 150 chukwu & amadi rhetorical perspective did not explore connotation as a strategy for achieving persuasion in the speeches. moreover, more studies on obasanjo had concentrated on his speeches than his open letters. by adopting the aristotelian rhetoric as a framework, this study sets out to explore the extent to which obasanjo maximally employed connotative expressions in his open letter to jonathan to achieve persuasion, and the effects of that on the electorates. 2. conceptual elucidation it is pertinent, at this juncture, to discuss two important operational concepts in this study in order to enhance the reader’s understanding. these are rhetoric and connotation or connotative meaning. 2.1. rhetoric the term “rhetoric” is an age-long concept that is sometimes seen as an associate of both logic and politics. it is a viable weapon used to influence politics and genuine arguments. according to the father of rhetoric, aristotle, it is “the faculty of observing, in any given case, the available means of persuasion” (garvey 57). he further notes that rhetoric is a practical discipline which aims at “exerting a persuasive action” (aristotle 15). in fact, rhetoric generally concerns itself with the act of using language to persuade others towards the speaker’s predetermined intention. it equally concerns itself with persuasion in public and political settings. rhetoric is “the persuasive means of communication, which focuses on ways of bringing about a change in the thinking of the listener as desired by the persuader” (ashipu 117). this view is equally shared by george (103) who posits that “rhetoric has the power to shape communities, form character of citizens and greatly affect civic life”. more clearly, brembeck and hewell sum it as “a conscious attempt to modify the thoughts and actions by manipulating predetermined end” (70). rhetoric is indeed the act of effective speaking and writing. it is concerned with what is being said as well as the method and means of communication, all targeted at swaying the listener into actions hitherto unimagined by him. the nature of politics which requires political actors and leaders to have dominant control of their nation’s resources as well as those who oversee the affairs of the public constrain these actors to effectively indulge in the act of rhetoric. thus, they constantly evolve strategies for manipulating the actions of the citizens. this method and means of communication include the use of words and expressions connotatively. that is investigated in this work. beer and de landtsheer (2004), quoted in alo (n. pg), explain that rhetoric has three dimensions: logos, ethos and pathos. ethos looks at the speaker’s ability to portray himself as being creditable and trustworthy. pathos deals with the speaker’s power of evoking the emotions of the readers i.e. the audience. logos concentrates on the speaker’s power to provide truth using rational argument. the above entails that a writer/speaker must show evidence of good character and personality with regard to the issues he raises in order to convince the audience. in fact, these three dimensions of rhetoric must be combined and applied by any good orator to achieve the needed persuasion aimed at making the audience toe the line of the speaker in a given matter. indeed, these features of rhetoric were prominent in obasanjo’s “open letter” and are investigated in this work. 2.2. connotation connotation is the secondary, implied or extended meaning of a word. it is the feelings and set of associations which a word arouses. according to kirszner and mandell (559-60), “a word’s connotations are the emotional, social, and political associations it has in addition to its denotative meaning”. in other words, when words are used connotatively, they carry wider meanings than would ordinarily be attributed to them. this “hidden” meaning is, of course, determined by the context of the word’s usage. it is noteworthy that the further meaning attached to a word comes from its reference or other things in the real world. thus, ndimele posits that “connotative meaning can be described as that type of meaning which an expression has by virtue of what it refers to over and above its purely conceptual context” (36). indeed, connotative expressions are used mainly in propaganda (political) and subjective writings. when writers employ connotation in their writings, they intend to evoke specific ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 151 chukwu & amadi emotions in their readers without explicitly telling them what to feel. it is in this light that obasanjo strategically uses it in his “open letter” to jonathan to paint clearly his perceived picture of the latter to the nigerian populace and beyond. the target, thus, is to persuade the masses towards imbibing obasanjo’s predetermined intention of ensuring jonathan’s exit from the seat of nigeria’s presidency. 3. analysis of connotative expressions in before it is too late the data used for this analysis were drawn from obasanjo’s open letter titled before it is too late (2013) to then incumbent president jonathan. the researcher identifies words and expressions used connotatively and for rhetorical effects in the letter. for want of space, however, seventeen of such expressions were randomly selected and discussed. their rhetorical imports were as well pointed out. sample 1: open letter this phrase connotes the perception of public information as against confidential information. the expression entails a letter that is available to everybody – the press, nigerians and even in social media. the rhetorical essence of referring to it as an “open letter” is to draw attention to the fact of intended public outcry and criticism. as an open letter, therefore, open responses are also solicited; hence the privacy of the content should not be bothered about. sample 2: abacha era this is an allusion meant to rhetorically recall a past or historic event. the fact is that history is very important for contemporary decision. “abacha era” connotes unpalatable circumstances or historical period of national pains, chaos, anarchy, dictatorship, underdevelopment, austerity and mutual suspicion. reference to abacha era constitutes warning against repetition of unpalatable history. the import of the allusion is the recollection of the past for sustenance of informed decision at the present. sample 3: what you will want to hear this clausal expression is of vitality to the speech and the speech maker. it is an expression that connotes frankness from the speaker. it addresses the owner of the letter and connotes the idea of superiority of the writer over the recipient. the expression is preceded with negation, “not”, which portends the idea of deception that comes from jonathan’s “selfish aides”. it, therefore, connotes denial of correct and genuine information from jonathan by the “self-centred” aides. it is further a warning to the recipient to be cautious with pieces of information that come to him from his aides. sample 4: the signs and the measures on the ground this phrasal expression exemplifies observable facts. it is meant to tell the recipient and indeed the reading public that beyond immediate and verbal denial, jonathan is towing the dishonourable path of re-contesting for president in the 2015 elections. the rhetorical implication is to emphasise the needlessness of denial of provable facts. it also, rhetorically, connotes the contradictory realities found in the denial. the pluralised “signs” and “measures” explicate the multiplicity of the evidence which nullify the denial. the populace is, by implication, informed that jonathan would contest the 2015 general elections of which obasanjo disapproves. sample 5: more credible and more honourable path the use of comparative adjective “more” to modify “credible” and “honourable” is to create rhetorical emphasis. qualifying “credible” and “honourable” with the word “more” connotes the impression of higher expectations i.e. going beyond superficial understanding of “credible” and “honourable” to another level of responsibility. the connotative implication is that jonathan should live up to expectations by upholding the earlier “agreement” with obasanjo to leave office after one term. sample 6: sacrifices this is a religious terminology or register. the use of it here is basically for rhetorical essence. as used in the letter, it connotes giving up something important or valuable in order to get or do something that seems more important. rhetorically, the word emphasises the valuables such as time, money, lives, property etc. some citizens, like obasanjo, have given up. “sacrifice” deepens the understanding of other succeeding expressions like “giving up their lives”, “shedding their blood” and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 152 chukwu & amadi “going to prison”. these expressions are the summit of the word “sacrifice”. it, not only suggests supremacy of loss, but also provides an onomatopoeic sense and feeling of suffering and loss. the rhetorical essence is ultimately to magnify the extent of obasanjo’s commitment to the sustenance of one nigeria and well-being of nigerians thereby persuading the electorates to buy into obasanjo’s political leadership which includes heeding his call for them to abandon jonathan in his 2015 presidential bid. sample 7: my country i hold dear this is more of poetic expression which portrays deep reverence and utmost regard for one’s country. rhetorically, it signifies higher sense of patriotism, civism and nationalism. the expression connotatively reflects the extent to which obasanjo is espoused to the country. it is a country that he can die for, or do anything within his physical and spiritual strength to protect. the expression is targeted at arousing sympathy for obasanjo and to make people feel his impulse and sense of devotion to his country. in fact, the entirety of the content of this letter is prompted by this expression. sample 8: trust and honour these words are not only ingredients of character but also virtues that prompt patriotism and nationalism. “trust” is confidence in or reliance on some person or quality. it is synonymous with faith and so has integral association with patriotism. “honour”, on its part implies favourable reputation, dignity and sense of self-worth. “trust” and “honour” are not synonymous but share commonality in their orientation and target objectifications. they, thus, connote the highest virtues expected of any person at the exalted position of president. the use of “trust” and “honour” here constitutes and streamlines the expectancy level and demand of nigerians from jonathan in terms of moral rectitude. sample 9: game of denial the expression is idiomatic and has rhetorical implications. it is a systematic way of calling somebody a liar. it is also a rhetorical way of expressing doubt about a person’s character. it, therefore, connotes insincerity, untrustworthiness, unreliability and loss of confidence. it sounds as a warning but that which is advice oriented. in fact, obasanjo used this expression to portray that jonathan does not mean well for nigeria and so must be shown the way out. sample 10: … altar of your personal and political interest this is an affront on the personality of the recipient of the letter. it is a direct allegation with some degree of surety. the use of “your” indicates direct taunt; it signifies a statement from a superior to the subordinate or elder to younger. the expression opens up a vista of hidden aspects of jonathan and therefore creates a questionable and negative impression against him, from the public. the expression reflects bitterness and anger from obasanjo and broadens hatred for jonathan. the use of “personal” rhetorically highlights jonathan’s vice of selfishness; “altar” denotes highest sacred place for worship but in the context of its use here, it connotes self made ambitious decision that affects the general or popular interest. on the whole, the expression decimates all the virtuous character of jonathan and presents him in a bad light. sample 11: nigeria is bleeding this is a hyperbolic expression which underscores the extent of suffering nigerians are passing through. first, “nigeria” is personified and allegorical image of the citizens is created. second, “bleeding” is used to underline the degree of the pains. the word “bleeding” relates to blood, and blood here is associated with human beings. “bleed” is biological and relates to loss of blood through an injured blood vessel. as a rhetorical strategy, “nigeria is bleeding” connotes the exceeding loss of human and natural resources as effects of boko haram and other products of the jonathan’s poor governance. given such gravity of loss, the writer advocates an urgent need to manage the haemorrhage which is by ensuring the perpetrator of the “bleeding”, jonathan, exits the presidential office. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 153 chukwu & amadi sample 12: where were they when god used others to achieve his will in your life this is a rhetorical question that is subject to varying interpretations. “they” refers to the president’s “satanic” aides and collaborators who merely benefit despite the fact that they did not actually contribute in making jonathan president. from the expression, the researcher deduces that obasanjo re-asserts his involvement in political god-fatherism. but he clothed it in the manner that he was the instrument god used to make jonathan rise to his political height. rhetorically, the expression projects jonathan as being ungrateful, unappreciative and perhaps divisive. in essence, it actually kept the president silhouetted from the public and made him almost stand alone in his second term bid. this expression is a powerful rhetorical strategy of warning/advising important personalities and bourgeoisie who would have wanted to support jonathan to stay away from him in his next political bid. it informs them that jonathan would ever go for those who never contributed when the chips are down. sample 13: after my prison experience … alive and well this is a recollection of obasanjo’s personal history. the essence of this memoir is to portray obasanjo as fearless and daring. furthermore, it is to emphasise his commitments for well being of nigeria. on the other hand, as a rhetorical strategy, it arouses sympathy for obasanjo and possibly a genuine need for citizens to do his bid. his experience in prison is compared with the experiences of nigerians who are unnecessarily silenced by jonathan and who inadvertently accept quietude for fear of prison experience. 4. discussion and conclusion the analyses in this work have shown that language can be used to make or unmake, build or destroy, depending on how one uses it. ogwumike, ndimele and innocent explain that “the role of the communicator is to inject his ideas into the hearer’s brain” (683). since language is seen as an action, using it to achieve the speaker’s intention, i.e. persuading the listener to accept the speaker’s ideas or point of view, and making the listener to act accordingly require oratory (rhetoric) power. one such skill that has proved to be viable in this regard, as this study has revealed, is the use of words and expressions connotatively. obasanjo employed this rhetorical tool effectively to mobilise against jonathan’s perceived interest in retaining the seat of nigeria’s presidency in 2015. through the use of connotative language instrument, obasanjo ably projected himself as one who is morally upright, cares for nigeria and holds it to the highest esteem. he equally used this tool to appeal to the emotions of the nigerian electorates and to offer genuine reasons why the electorates should abandon jonathan in his second term presidential bid. that being the case, nigerians could but heed his advice, hence majority of the electorates voted against jonathan in the 2015 presidential election in nigeria. this confirms the position that “a successful orator was necessarily morally virtuous and could persuade if his behavior met with social approval” (alo n. pg). by taking the above posture, obasanjo used connotative expressions to proclaim and x-ray his allegations of mass corruption, dictatorship, deception, political insecurity, ethnicism and other vices inherent in the jonathan’s government. such choice of veiled approach portrayed obasanjo as a master rhetorical strategist who knows how to communicate serious issues and intentions in a subtle way. this study, therefore, reveals an important tool of rhetoric/persuasion, connotation, in political and general discourses which requires necessary attention. works cited alo, m. a. “rhetorical analysis of selected political speeches of prominent african leaders”. journal of arts and social sciences vol. 10, no. 1. 2012. web. 15 november 2017. aristotle. the art of rhetoric. english translation by john henry freese. cambridge: cambridge university press. 1994. print. ashipu, k.b.c. “introduction to rhetoric 1: the meaning and elements of rhetoric” communication in english for polytechnics and other colleges. ed. a.a. onukaogu. calabar: bon universal ltd. 1999. pp. 116-138. print. brembeck, c. and d. hewell. persuasion. netherland: methuam pub. 1971. print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 154 chukwu & amadi chilton, paul. analysing political discourse: theory and practice. london and new york: routledge. 2004. print. de wet, j.c. the art of persuasive communication – a process. claremont: juta and company ltd. 2010. print. garvey, e. aristotle’s rhetoric. chicago: university of chicago press. 1994. print. george, k.a. classical rhetoric and its christian and secular tradition. chapel hill: university of north carolina press. 1999. print. kirszner, laurie g. and stephen r. mandell. the wadsworth handbook. 8th ed. boston: wadsworth. 2008. print. ndimele, ozo-mekuri. semantics and the frontiers of communication. port harcourt: university of port harcourt press. 1999. print. obasanjo, olusegun. before it is too late. 2013. web. 15 august 2017. ogwumike, chibuike, ozo-mekuri ndimele and kasarachi h. innocent. “fundamentals of human communication”. issues in the study of language and literature: theory and practice. ed. i. kamalu and i. tamunobelema. ibadan: kraft books limited. 2015. pp. 683-704. print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 89 ogbazi & okache ‘virus of departure’: migration and (dis) illusion(ment) in tahar ben jelloun’s leaving tangier prof. ifeyinwa ogbazi department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka & okache c. odey department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka co.odey@stu.unizik.edu.ng abstract the dispersion of people from countries in africa to the west is usually triggered by sociopolitical and economic dislocations and the quest for a better life elsewhere. the paper looks at how tahar ben jelloun’s novel, leaving tangier captures migration, illusion (an idea or assumption that may not be true in reality) and disillusionment. the concern of this paper is to examine how migration can shatter illusions and change the perception of individuals in a foreign country. this paper draws from paul gilroy’s postcolonial concepts to explore the social realities of african immigrants in post-imperial spain. the paper concludes that migration to western countries is not really a solution to the condition of poverty in africa and also, african political leaders must provide the enabling environment that will curb outmigration from the continent. keywords: migration, illusion, disillusionment, postcolonial melancholia, conviviality introduction people leave their homeland to other places for reasons such as socio-political and economic crisis, famine, war and a quest for a better life. disillusionment with the socio-economic realities of one’s homeland could create the illusion that the grass is greener in another place and this is the normative perception among many africans. so across the continent, year after year, africans are leaving in droves to the west with the hope of a better life because according to taiye selasi their “countries hurt them” (240). the postcolonial situation in many countries in africa, according to maximilian feldner, is driving “african migration movement, which, albeit is often caused by constrained circumstances, is largely voluntary, as many africans leave homes to seek work and better opportunities elsewhere, particularly in the united states and europe” (15). there is the illusion by many africans that life is far better in the west and that the continent offers a bleak prospect and so they migrate to western continents especially europe and north america in order to reorder their lives. endalkachew hailu guluma argues in his essay that “disillusionment is often rarely defined as its meaning is often taken for granted. as the word indicates, there is an ‘illusion’ and there is a failure to realize or achieve that ‘illusion’ resulting in disillusion.” (75) this paper, therefore, examines the illusion that is birthing the flight to the west by many africans and the disillusionment these africans experience as they negotiate their place in the host country. the host country is not usually how they perceive it to be and that is the root of the disillusionment that many african immigrants experience in europe and the united states of america. chinua achebe asserts that the dreamy african immigrant discovers that “europe has made no real provision for his participation. that discovery that one is somehow ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 90 ogbazi & okache superfluous is there, waiting at journey’s end, for the weary traveler from the provinces” (98). the realization that the dream of the good life is largely unrealizable usually breaks the spirit of many african immigrants in the west as they face the stark reality of being an outsider in a foreign land. huggin writes about “the painful dislocation immigrants experience as they live removed from home in a place that treat them as ‘others.’(24) in many african diaspora novels, the protagonist never remains the same as a result of the barriers to assimilation he encounter as he tries to integrate in a foreign land which is akin to paul gilroy’s assertion in the black atlantic that the personalities of individuals are altered as a result of migration. the diaspora space (between leaving home and settling in the new society) usually purges the immigrant of illusions as he is shaped by his experiences as avtar brah argues that “by memories of what was recently left behind and by the experiences of disruption and displacement as one tries to reorientate, to form new social networks, and learn to negotiate new economic, political and cultural realties” (201) of the host country. tahar ben jelloun is a moroccan novelist that captured the issues of migration, illusion and disillusionment in his fictional work. the central characters in his novel flee their homeland with the hope of a better life in spain and as feldner observes that just like other new african diaspora fiction that: these novels illustrate the transcultural identities of protagonists who move between different societies, cultures, and language. they depict the present of the migratory experience, which is connected to the past through the memories of the migrant’s country of origin and to the future through the hopes for a better life in the new country. they suggest the feelings of displacement, uprootedness, and unbelonging that can be and often are the consequence of movement, and that can lead to alienation and to a loss or splitting of identity. (107) tahar ben jelloun in leaving tangier explores in the fraught drama of mediterranean migration and personal frustration (that is commingled with the notion of hope) which drives it. as one of tahar ben jelloun’s characters expresses it, “yes, spain, france, whatever, i’m already living there in my dreams” (2). the fascination with spain and france is largely due to the fact that morocco was divided between the two european countries in 1912 and it was not until 1956 that the kingdom became free from the two foreign powers. so it is understandable when the central characters in the two novels leave tangier, a port city in morocco, to spain according to paul gilroy “the immigrant is now here because britain, europe, was once out there.” (100) or like virinder kalra, raminder k. kaur and john hutnyk opine that “in the post colonial context, the reason for the presence of racialized group has to do with the colony past” (26). the migratory characters in the novel flee their homeland because they anticipate a bleak future and when they arrive in spain, they are not given a pleasant welcome from those who were ‘once out there’ to visit them when they decide to reciprocate the gesture and this paper draws from paul gilroy’s theoretical concepts of postcolonial melancholia and conviviality to explore the spatial space between the post-colonial citizen and the their former colonial master. the characters in the north african novel reveals that moving to europe is fraught with challenges as a result of racism, loneliness, difference and many other barriers to assimilation as they try to settle down in spain. these barriers may lead to disillusionment as immigrants according to edward said “deal with or lived in a culture so profoundly different from their own” (260). the novel also in certain ways, counters the assumption by many africans ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 91 ogbazi & okache especially nigerians that migration to europe is a solution for the harrowing poverty they experience in their home countries. this paper examines migration, illusion and disillusionment in tahar ben jelloun’s leaving tangier by drawing from gilroy’s theoretical concepts of melancholia and conviviality. the paper draws from paul gilroy’s postcolonial concepts of melancholia and conviviality which examine the social realities of immigrants in post-imperial britain and postcolonial cities elsewhere. tahar ben jelloun’s leaving tangier can be interpreted by employing gilroy’s concepts of postcolonial melancholia and conviviality. melancholia and conviviality are concepts introduced by paul gilroy to interpret diaspora issues which are hinged on difference of the ‘other’. melancholia according to gilroy in britain’s and other post-imperial countries is “intensified by feelings resentment, rejection, and fear at the prospect of open interaction with an otherness, which could only be imagined as loss and jeopardy” (102). again to gilroy it is the feelings of aggression, guilt and fear directed at citizens of former colonies by citizens of ex-imperial countries as a “response to diversity, plurality and differentiation” (109). gilroy refers to conviviality as “the process of cohabitation and interaction that have made multiculture an ordinary feature of social life in britain’s urban areas and in postcolonial cities elsewhere” (xi). gilroy argues for solidarity among people in multicultural societies all over the world to be recognized as human irrespective of differences and for all former colonial powers should come to terms with the brutalities of their colonial past. ‘virus of departure’: illusion and disillusionment in tahar ben jelloun’s leaving tangier leaving tangier is 2006 novel by the moroccan novelist, tahar ben jelloun that recounts the story of a moroccan brother and sister who both migrated to spain in search of a better life. at the heart of the novel are issues such as taking leave of one’s homeland, loneliness, deception and disillusionment. in an illuminating 2011 essay “immigration, literature – monde, and universality: the strange fate of the african writer,” the congolese writer and academic alain mabanckou alludes to the shift in african writing “from a literature campaigning to recover an identity… to an introspective literature concerned with the condition of black people around the world” (75). no contemporary novel illustrates mabanckou’s thesis more acutely than tahar ben jelloun’s leaving tangier. even though ben jelloun, as a moroccan émigré writer, may not strictly be regarded as depicting “the condition of black people”, his themes in the novelmigration, disillusionment, exile, adopted identities – are of a piece with those of a writer like tendai huchu. the irony of ben jelloun’s narrative is that it is inspired by a moroccan enclave, tangier, that has historically been a haven for european and american artists, radicals, and outsiders; in other words, individuals seeking to escape the strictures of western life. the novel is a tale of two individuals frustrated by the socio-economic and political woes of their country and who both eventually migrated to spain. the major and marginal characters in the novel are all deeply obsessed with moving to spain with the hope of a better life. so to one of the central characters, azel: “leaving the country it was an obsession, a kind of madness that ate him day and night… leaving, abandoning this land that wants nothing more to do with its children, leaving to save your life, even as you risk losing it” (15). in the novel, the idea of migrating to spain is an obsession with many characters and azel extends it even to a cat that is always trying to jump into a ship heading for spain: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 92 ogbazi & okache about his stubborn desire to get out of morocco. even the cat was fed up: he, too, wanted something else from life. the cat wanted to go away because he knew instinctively that it was better “over there,” and he had his obsessions like everyone else, coming stubbornly every day to try his best to jump onto that vessel bound for europe. when he encountered the cat, he greeted him as if he’d been human. “so you want to leave as well, you’ve caught the virus of departure too, haven’t you you don’t feel at home here, where you’re mistreated, kicked, you dream of a better, more comfortable life in a big bourgeois house…. hey, don’t give up, you’ll get there someday.” (36-37) the obsession with migrating to europe to azel is like a virus that has not only infected him but it seems nearly everyone including animals. kenza, azel’s sister and siham his girlfriend are also “surrounded by young people who thought of only fleeing, leaving, working anywhere at all” (74). they are all hopeful of a better life ‘over there’ in spain. azel’s dream of migrating to spain is realized through a chance meeting with a wealthy spaniard miguel who saves him from beating by two attackers. miguel’s chance rescuing of azel though magnanimous at first is not entirely an altruistic act as events later will reveal. why, then, did miguel want to tear azel from his own world to take him home to spain? at first, he wanted to help azel. only after seeing him a few times did he realize that a fling or even a serious affair was possible. he loved the ‘awkwardness’ of moroccan men, by which he meant their sexual ambiguity. he loved the olive sheen of their skin. and he loved their availability, which marked the inequality in which the relationship was formed, for the lover by night was thus the servant by day. (40-41) azel’s relationship with miguel brings to light the political and economic inequality between morocco and spain during the colonial and postcolonial period. miguel travels just like his forebears to the orient to realize his desire. it shows the exploitative nature of the incursion of europeans countries in africa and also a reflection of said’s observation of the sexual appeal of the orients to europeans: “just as the various colonial possessions – quite apart from their economic benefit to metropolitan europe – were useful as places to send wayward sons, superfluous population of delinquents, poor people, and other undesirables, so the orient was a place where one could look for sexual experience unobtainable in europe.” (190) azel realizes that sticking with miguel will get him to his dream life in spain so he exploits their relationship fully. his obsession with leaving morocco at this point shows that he is ready to do anything. just like faten, azel is ready to offer his body to enter spain. through miguel, azel is able to travel to spain legally unlike the migratory characters in lalia lalami’s hope and other dangerous pursuits. so rather than travelling in a dangerous way by a rickety boat across the mediterranean sea, azel arrives in spain by boarding a plane. kenza also travels to spain legally through an arranged marriage to miguel. in spain, azel and kenza’s illusions begin to dissolve. it takes azel just a little while to realize that “the paradise he’d dreamed of couldn’t possibly resemble a little attic room in a big villa, or this loneliness that was keeping him awake” (71). in one of his letters to his country, he says, “i’m in my little room, it smells musty in here; there’s only one window and i don’t dare open ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 93 ogbazi & okache it. i admit that i’m disappointed…wiped out by fear, the fear of what’s new, of not being able to cope” (71). tahar ben jelloun’s leaving tangier shows the fate of african immigrants who travel to europe with the hope of a better life and finding instead, a harsh and difficult environment. azel and kenza migrated to spain because of the socio-political and economic walls in their country morocco that they could not break down in order to realize their dreams only to confront other walls in the host country. azel amorous relationship with miguel has a damaging effect on his sexual performance with siham and his mistress soumaya. he also discovers that “europe doesn’t want us. islam frightens them. racism is everywhere” (72). while miguel is welcoming of immigrants, many spaniards are not and their responses to immigrants come in various forms like anxiety, fear, hostility and violence which are what gilroy refers to as postcolonial melancholic. azel and kenza and the other immigrants encounter hostility from citizens of the host country because as kwame anthony appiah rightly asserts “difference always carries some risks of creating ill-will” (94). azel eventually parts with miguel in an acrimonious manner and that begins his spiraling into the abyss of despair. he finds the atmosphere in spain unbearable as he can no longer access the good things that miguel provides him. he gets to a point where madrid is not different to tangier. he becomes disillusioned with spain and he realizes that his dream “was broken beyond repairs” (231) azel’s experience in spain buttress isidore okpewho’s argument about the divergent experiences of african immigrants in the europe and the united states that “some eventually attain their goal; the rest are broken by despair” (22). the disillionment of azel in spain places him in the category of those okpewho argues are “broken by despair.” in a bid to put together his disintegrating life, azel decides to spy on a terrorist group in spain for the spanish police, a move that will get him beheaded by the group. kenza fares better in spain because she is able to adapt unlike her brother but after she discovers shocking information about her turkish lover, nazim, it shatters her illusion about love and life in spain. the fate of the two siblings opens the eyes of their benefactors about the life of an immigrant. “miguel now realized that there was something terrifying about the loneliness of immigration, a kind of descent into a void, a tunnel of shadows that warped reality. kenza had let herself be caught in the maze, and azel, well, he had gone desperately wrong. exile revealed the true dimensions of calamity.” (243) miguel is both a force of good and bad in the life of the siblings. just like his country colonial past in morocco, miguel brings both order and disorder to azel and his sister. he provides the notion of gilroy’s concept of conviviality which is the possibility in postcolonial western societies to celebrate diversity and cohabitation of people in a multicultural society without becoming anxious, violent and fearful of the other. miguel understands just as appiah opines “the simple idea that in the human community, as in national communities, we need to develop habits of coexistence: conversation in its older meaning, of living together, association” (xvii). his interaction with azel and kenza is devoid of hostility, fear and anxiety because he is much at home in a multicultural society. he does not consider difference as reason for fear or violent but an opportunity to value otherness. tahar ben jelloun’s characters in leaving tangier are largely disillusioned with their life in spain and just like in morocco, they are people “who have not found their place in life” (252). while in spain, azel finds his dreams “broken beyond repair” his sister’s life is “shaken, and some memories have fallen free like fruit from a tree” (256). they escape walls in morocco that stand between them and their dreams only to find different dimensions of walls in spain. tahar ben jelloun explores migration as a site for change and also, where immigrants’ illusory perceptions of western countries are sometimes shattered. and the characters are shaped in ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 94 ogbazi & okache different ways by their experiences. the novel is important in shaping how we think about migration and the dream of a better life in europe. conclusion leaving africa for western countries is now an obsession for many people in africa especially in nigeria. it is like many africans, to borrow azel’s words have ‘caught the virus of departure,’ a burning obsession with fleeing the continent. the significance of tahar ben jelloun’s novel is that it draws attention to the reason why africans are fleeing and what governments across the continent must urgently do to keep their citizens from embarking on a dangerous pursuit of a better life in the west. political leaders must tackle the roots of despair that is birthing the exodus of africans to western countries. this paper suggests that gilroy’s concept of conviviality which is simply an acknowledgement of diversity or the recognition of otherness in multicultural societies as demonstrated in the interaction between miguel and the moroccan siblings in leaving tangier will bring about a more inclusive society in post-imperial countries such as britain, spain, belgium and other postcolonial countries. works cited achebe, chinua. home and exile: london: heineman, 2000. appiah, kwame. anthony. cosmopolitanism: ethics in a world of strangers. london: penguin books, 2006. appiah, kwame. anthony. the lies that bind: rethinking identity. london: profile books, 2019 bhabha, homi. the location of culutre. new york: routledge, 1994 brah, avtar. cartographies of diapora. london and new york: routledge, 1996. cooper, brenda. a generation of african writers: migration, material, culture and language. scottsville university of kwazulu-natal press, 2008. feldner, maximilian. narrating the new african diaspora: 21st century nigerian literature in context. graz: palgrave macmillan, 2019. gilroy, paul. the black atlantic: modernity and double consciousness. london: verso, 1993. gilroy, paul. (after empire: melancholia or convivial culture. london: routledge, 2004. guluma, endalkachew. hailu. disillusionment as central in the lives of the african diaspora: the case of two ethiopian diaspora novels. ejbss,2 (1) (2019): 71-88. higgins, maryellen. from negritude to migritude?moussasene absa’s ainsimeurent les anges (and so angels die). film in african literature today, 28, (2010): 24-25. helen, yitah. and okyerefo, michael.p.k. migration, cultural memory and identity in benjamin kwakye’s the other crucifix. diaspora and returns in fiction. african literaure today. 34, (2016): 82-101. kalra, virinder, raminder k. kalhon, hutynuk john. diaspora and hybridity. london: sage, 2005. jelloun, ben tahar. leaving tangier. london: penguin books, 2006. lalami, lalai. hope and other dangerous pursuits. new york: harvest book, 2005. mabanckou, alain. immigration, literature-monde, and universality: the strange fate of the african writer. yale french studies, francophone sub-saharan african literature in global contents, 120, (2011): 70-80. okpewho, isidore. introduction: can we “go home again”? in i. okpewho and n. nzegwu (ed) the new african diaspora. bloomington: indiana university press, 2009. said, edward. orientalism. london. penguin books, 1978. selasi, taiye. ghana must go. new york: penguin press, 2013. thomas, dominic. the global mediterranean literature and migration. yale french studies, francophone sub-saharan african literature in global contexts, 120, (2011): 140-149 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 142 ifechelobi & ilodinso multimodal study of selected cartoons in nigerian newspapers prof. jane ifechelobi department of eng language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: jn.ifechelobi@unizik.edu.ng & chiamaka rosemary ilodinso email: cilodinso@yahoo.com abstract this study aimed to identify the different modes of communication and how they correlated or act independently in communication using visual semiotic theory. multimodality perceives communication to be more than verbal or written language. it propagates that communication has always involve diverse modes, like images, colour, layout; all which has its own meaning potentials. using visual semiotic theory, the study analyzed the pragmatic implications of the components of visual so as to interpret and understand visuals as an aspect of mode. the analysis indeed showed that cartoon is a visual semiotic mode that would expand the readers’ interpretative repertoires and also strengthen their capacity in constructing and interpreting multimodal texts. keywords: multimodality, mode, visual semiotics introduction in as much as language is an indispensable tool used by human beings and forms part of our existence, it is just one of the many possible systems for producing meaning. there are diverse possible systems of producing meaning which can intertwine with language or act solely to enhance meaning. according to gee, language is not the only important communication system in digital media; visual symbols and signs are as significant as written or spoken language. words, images, colour, layout are mostly integrated in varieties of ways in web pages, newspapers and magazines, as well as in textbooks all to enhance meaning and proper interpretation. invariably, communication is increasingly becoming multimodal, as it draws on wide range of semiotic resources for the projection of meaning. halliday (4) supporting this opines that “…there are many other modes of meaning, in any culture, which are outside the realm of language and these modes can operate independently or interdependently in different levels in a multimodal text”. gee stresses that each of these genres or semiotic modes has its own set of rules and requirements and can as well function as a meaning repertoire. the study hopes to explore the pragmatic implications and identify the visual cues of the components of visuals. semiotic mode a mode refers to a semiotic system or resource for expressing meaning that has a distinct method of representation. mode as defined by kress is: a socially shaped and culturally given semiotic resource for making meaning and it is …that which a community, a group of people who work in similar ways around similar issues, has decided to treat as a mode” (36). this means that modes take shape and acquire meaning over time within cultures and reflects culturally explicit and recognizable ideals of the society. he (39) explains that for something to be a mode, there need to be a shared cultural sense within a community of its usage and then how it can be organized to realize meaning. this is to say that the joining of alphabetic scripts can be recognized within socially specific groups (readers of english). primarily, modes take shape and acquire meaning over time within cultures. kress also opines that, visual modes have taken on a culturally significant meaning, so that color, dress, font, size, layout, and bodily gesture, as well as auditory elements (music, sound, speech) have the ability to convey socially constructed or socially semiotic meanings, with each mode representing mailto:cilodinso@yahoo.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 143 ifechelobi & ilodinso a similar socially constructed knowledge differently (39). therefore, the use of different modes allows the producer of a text multiple choices for creating meaning and this choice of resources for meaningmaking is linked to the notion of modal affordance in other words the “meaning-making potential” or the “potentials and limitations” of certain semiotic resources or modes in a specific situation. multimodal discourse according to van leeuwen (28), multimodality is the combination of different semiotic modes, for example; language and music in a communicative artifact or event. baldry and thibault, refer it to the use of diverse ways in which a number of distinct semiotic resource systems are both co-deployed and co-contextualized in the making of a text-specific meaning. multimodality discourse focuses mainly on the study of the interrelationships between various communicative modes, be it visual or auditory, words or image. synder (24) defines multimodal discourse as the study of the intersection and interdependence of various modalities of communication within a given context’. o’halloran et al (32) gave a more specific definition to it. they opine that “a multimodal discourse involves the interaction of multiple semiotic resources such as language, gesture, dress, architecture, proximity lighting, movement, gaze, camera angle, and so on” in sum, multimodal discourse studies the many different modes that people use to communicate with each other and express themselves. it propagates that people communicate and interact with each other, not just through writing (which is one mode) but also through speaking, gesture, gaze, and visual forms which are different modes. jewitt (35) in line with this, puts forward that “multimodality describes approaches that understand communication and representation to be more than about language, and which attend to the full range of communicational forms people use; image, gesture, gaze, posture, and so on and the relationships between them”. cartoon as a multimodal discourse onakpa (5) defines cartoon as an illustration showing the features of subjects or objects in a humorously exaggerated way. cartoons are intended for satire, caricature or humour. due to the nature of cartoons, they are often considered to be direct and easy-to-process means of communicating a message. cartoons can be considered as a specific kind of semiotic domain and as a multimodal discourse, it mostly comprises of different semiotic resources like signs, words, image, layout, colours, music and sounds as can be seen in printed and animated videos. gee (18) defines a semiotic domain “as any set of practices that recruits one or more modalities to communicate distinctive type of meaning”. cartoon makes use of the verbal, visual, colour, music to enhance its meaning. its humor, effect and message can result not only from the image and text interaction, but also from colour, gaze, layout as may be the case. therefore in the study cartoons, the reader should pay attention to all verbal and visual details made available in order to grasp the meaning of the cartoon, since cartoons in newspapers constitutes one of the most strategic and vital medium of disseminating information and reorienting the public on current issues reflecting social realities of a particular society at a particular time. in addition o this, its persuasive techniques which are literary technique use to present ideas through reason and logic like symbols, labeling, analogy irony, exaggeration & distortion should be on the lookout. theoretical framework of visual social semiotics theory the visual social semiotics is an adaptation from halliday’s language metafunctions namely; the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual metafunctions. kress and van (20) considered that “the visual, like all semiotic modes, has to serve several communicational and representational requirements, in order to function as a full system of communication”. they assume that image, color, music, typography and other visual modes are similar to language and they can simultaneously fulfill and realize these three broad communicative metafunctions as language does; representational, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 144 ifechelobi & ilodinso interactive and compositional metafunctions. in view of this, image and other visual modes can represent objects and their relations in the world and they often communicate things other than words. methodology the data for the analysis are cartoons from the two national newspapers; vanguard and punch. both the online and printed forms were used. the analysis uses two metafunctions. these two metafunctions are: representational and interactive metafunctions representational metafunction: this analysis is associated with the processes or the activity described the attributes or the qualities of the participants and, then the circumstances in which the action is being developed (kress and van leewen, 25). when participants are connected by vectors of motion (actional process) or by eyelines (reactional process), presenting unfolding actions and events, it is called a narrative structure. other processes are; transactional and non transactional, speech process. it also has conceptual patterns, where participants are represented in terms of their class, structure or meaning (kress & van leeuwen 28). in this aspect, we have the classificational, analytical and symbolical processes. classificational processes relate participants to each other; there is always a subordinate for a superordinate. analytical processes connect participants in terms of partwhole structures; the parts/possessive attributes belong to the whole/carrier while symbolic processes depict what a participant is or means. this can be attributive or symbolic. interpersonal metafunction: this analysis presents features of multimodal texts, the relationships between the visual, the producer and the viewer, together with the analysis of the intersemiotic mood in both verbal and visual modes (unsworth and wheeler, 69–70; unsworth, 70). in the verbal mode, writers address their readers by making statements, asking questions, making offers or requiring some kind of action of them. royce (71–72) states that among the visual techniques used to analyze interpersonal meaning are the absence or presence of facial expressions towards the viewer, gestures which make demands or offers information to the viewer. demands are considered to establish an imaginary relation with the viewer since they address her/him directly. offer, on the other hand, address the viewer indirectly, as there is no ‘gaze’ contact between participants. it depicts the represented participants impersonally as items of information or objects for contemplation. interactive meaning are also defined on the basis of perspective and social distance, the level of involvement by the viewer, the power relations between the viewer and the represented participants and, finally, the degrees of social distance and intimacy. the level of involvement between the image-producer, the viewers and the rps in a visual is encoded in the horizontal angle, which is concerned with frontal and oblique planes. the vertical angle transmits power relationships between the represented participants and the viewer within an image. royce (72) states that the high angle forces the viewers to look down on the rps, which is suggestive of superiority to them, or of their significance. a low angle forces the viewers to look up to them, which is suggestive of the viewer’s inferior position, or of the importance of the portrayed participant(s). an eye-level angle is suggestive of a sense of equality between the viewer and the represented participants. data analysis image 1: the sad reality (vanguard, 1st dec, 2018. pg 18) the carton depicts a voting process in nigeria. the participants (voters) are all blindfolded with different national interests like “same” religion or ethnic group, poverty and these are the rationale for ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 145 ifechelobi & ilodinso their voting while the partially blind man leading them is considered as a politician has a personal interest. representational metafunction the participants represented above are icons depicting a voting process. vectors are formed by limbs, the hands they placed on each other’s shoulder which serves as an act of (guide to) movement and this serves as chain that binds them. the participant that creates the vector is the politician who is the ‘actor’ while the voters receive the action and they are the ‘goal’. in the conceptual process, the symbolic attributes of the picture are the box and staff carried by the politician which the box can be attributed to contain the stipends or gifts given to the voters for selling their votes while the staff of authority shows his social status. the mercenary is made to stand, represented in a dark shade. this signifies evil and implies shadiness and thirst for blood as he is a voter being used by the politician to achieve electoral rigging. the baton which he uses to urge the people, symbolizes the gun or instrument of torture used to achieve this feat. the voters are being led as slaves following their master. interactive metafunction from the image, the gaze of the represented participants is not on the viewer so this is referred to as ‘offer’ image. this means that cartoonist presents the participants as an object to be contemplated, acknowledged or contradicted. the angle from which these participants are presented is from the side which is an oblique horizontal plane. as a result, the viewer is detached from the participants, but there is a sense of equality between the represented participants and the viewer(s). the colour creates a feeling of distaste over the electoral affairs of the country. this cartoon captioned “blindfolded since 1999… the sad reality” implies that since the military handed governance to the civilian government in 1999, nigerian nation has not witnessed an unbiased or uncorrupted election process as to be blindfolded means to tie one’s head to cover the eyes so as to disable the sight. image 2: we can’t pay new minimum wage (vanguard march 17th, 2018) this image centers on the new national minimum wage bill of n30, 000 signed into law by the president, mohammed buhari on april 18th, 2019. this new national minimum wage met stiff refusal by some state governors to adhere to this law, hence the leaders of nigeria labour congress nlc, trade union congress of nigeria ulc, threaten to go on a national indefinite strike on november 6th, 2019, if the new minimum wage will not be implemented by the governors in all the 36 states of the federation. this image portrays the obvious situations of the workers, as battered, bruised by hardship, starvation and suffering as a result of poor salary structure. representational meaning these participants are in a minor narrative transactional process where their glances are directed at each other as they are engaged in a conversation. they are connected by a vector which is their gazes on each other and this is a reactional process. they are both reacting to the issue on ground, which is on the impending strike. the worker looks at the governor with wonder on his unflinching altitude. interactive meaning the image act of the picture is that of demand since the participants do not look at the viewer directly, rather at one another and this makes the participants to have a direct relationship with each other, owing that they direct each other personally. the relationship between the worker and the governor is ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 146 ifechelobi & ilodinso defined by the distance between them in the cartoon which is a far social distance as there is visible space between the participants. the governor is viewed from a high level which is a vertical angel relations and their eye level is used to maintain equal relation as both is bent on their respective decisions. the colour used in the cartoon is synonymous with the event portrayed. image 3: soliciting for foreign aid (punch, october 18th, 2018). this graphic representation is sarcasm on president buhari’s address at the 72nd session of the united nations general assembly (unga) held at new york on tuesday, september 19th, 2017. the annual debate is an occasion where world leaders gather to discuss global issues. president buhari on this occasion decried the ethnic killing and persecution of muslims in myanmar, beckon the aid of the united nations to halt this atrocious act so as to stop the massacre of muslims in myanmar. representational meaning from the image, two represented participants are used, a man and a boy. the participants are in a narrative process, as they are both engrossed in an action, being surrounded by burning fire. these participants are connected by a vector as they appear looking at the crisis and so they are both reacting to the chaotic environment. they are in a transactional process. their utterances are being linked to them by an arrow pointing each to his utterance. again the participants are in a classificational process where the first participant is superordinate to the second who is subordinate and they can be identified due to a number of signifiers. the first participant is the president and the signifiers are his physical appearance and way of dressing, (spectacle, agbada) while the second participant could be referred to a child, which stands to represent the nigerian masses. the first participant is portrayed in pains, signified by the presence of tears drops. he is soliciting for foreign aid to stop the killing of rohingya muslims in myanmar. the second participant on the other hand is tapping the first participant, drawing his attention to boko haram and fulani-herdsmen killing in his own country nigeria interactive meaning the image act is that of an offer as neither the participants directed its gaze at the viewer or to each other; each is engrossed in different matters. this act leaves the viewers to contemplate on the message of the image. the distance between the participants and the viewer is a close social distance, an impersonal relation, but there is no equal view between the boy and the man, since the man is so engrossed in a different matter. the man is viewed on a high angle and this suggests its superiority while the boy is on a level angle. image 4: office of the governor imo state (punch, january 3rd, 2019). this graphic has the setting of the office of the past governor of imo state in the person of mr. rochas okorocha as can be seen by caption on the table. he is shown reading a paper. this image presents a dissatisfied and angry man in his office, reading a newspaper that has written probably a tabloid on him. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 147 ifechelobi & ilodinso representational meaning the represented participant is presented to the viewers as someone in his office reading a newspaper. this would be attributed to be conceptual process where represented participants are static and are in terms of their more generalized and more or less stable timeless essence, (kress & van leeuwen 36). this process is divided into classificational, analytical and symbolical. in analytical process, studying the image above the possessive attributes in this image are the flags, table and chair and they are possessive attribute of the office, which is the carrier. the setting fits in together and this can be referred to as structured analytical process. this image presents a dissatisfied and angry man in his office, reading a newspaper. interactive meaning in the interactive meaning, the participant’s eyes appear to be looking at something the viewer cannot see. an eye-line is formed as a vector emanating from the participant to the unknown object, and this makes it an image act of offer. the participant is reacting to the unknown object or subject which is oblivious to the reader/viewer. the absence of a phenomenon further classifies the image as a nontransactional reactional process and this makes the viewer to imagine what the participant is looking or reading in the newspaper. this creates a powerful sense of apprehension to the readers of the cartoon. the social distance is a close personal distance, which is an intimate relationship with the participant and the viewer, showing affinity or respect. the colour of the image portrays the chaotic environment. conclusion in summary, the framework of visual social semiotics proposed by kress and van leeuwen, highlights how visuals or images are used in communication. it buttresses the fact that language is by no means the only means of communication or disseminating information, although it is the primary mode of communication. in most cases, other semiotic modes can function solely or intertwine with language to enhance meaning. in line with this, this study pointed out that images can be studied in correlation with other modes, other than language and can also combine with written word as can be seen in the cases of labeling and speech processes. it also pointed out that there are some relationships between the image and language, yet image is not dependent on the language explanation for it has its own structure and organization. the language explanation makes the concrete image more specific and reflects the image more clearly, while the image makes the content of the language more vivid, bringing to focus, fore messages which ordinarily might be difficult to express. from this study, it can be concluded that, in this multi-media age, traditional literacy is not enough. the combination of language with other social semiotics resources and keen attention to the function of all of them (image, music, colour, language and so on) would communicate meaning more comprehensively and efficiently. works cited adami, elisabetta (2016). “multimodality” in o. garcìa, n. flores and m. spotti (eds.) oxford handbook of language and society. oxford: oxford university press. a.jesu ´s moya guijarro and marı ´a jesu ´s pinar sanz. “compositional, interpersonal and representational meanings in a children’s narrrative, a multimodal discourse analysis” in journal of pragmatics. pp 1601–1619, 2008. baldry, anthony and thibault, paul. multimodal transcription and text analysis.a multimedia toolkit and coursebook. london, equinox, 2006. chae kwan jung. “mutimodal discourse: a visual design analysis of two advertising images” in international journal of contents, vol.11, no.2, jun. 2015 dai, sin. “the origin and development of multimodal discourse analysis”. foreign language research, 2, 17-23. 2013. el refaie, elisabeth, &hörschelmann, k. “young people’s readings of a political cartoon and the concept of multimodal literacy”.discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education, 31(2), 195–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01596301003679719, 2010, (accessed on 27th may, 2019). http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01596301003679719 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 148 ifechelobi & ilodinso gee, james paul. what video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. palgrave macmillan, new york. 2003. halliday, michael. language as social semiotic: the social interpretation of language and meaning. london: edward arnold, 1978. jewitt, carey. “an introduction to multimodality”. in c. jewitt (ed.) theroutledge handbook of multimodal analysis, 2nd ed. (london: routledge) 2010. kress, gunther. multimodality: a social semiotic approach to contemporary communication. london: routledge, 2009. kress gunther and, van leeuwen theo. multimodal discourse: the modes and media of contemporary communication. london: arnold, 2001. o’halloran, kay and smith, bradley. multimodal studies: exploring issues and domains. new york & london: routledge, 2011. onakpa, mohammed. “cartoons, cartoonists and effective communication in the nigeria print media”, in an international multidisciplinary journal, ethiopia vol. 8 (1), serial no. 32. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v8i1.3, 2014. (accessed on 12th march, 2019). royce, terry d. “intersemiotic complementarity: a framework for multimodaldiscourse analysis” in: royce, t.d., bowcher, w.l. (eds.), new directions in the analysis of multimodal discourse. lawrence erlbaum, mahwah, pp. 63–110. 2007 sapir, edward. language. new york: harcourt brace and world, 1921. stoian. claudia. “analysing images: a social semiotic perspective” in scientific bulletin of the politehnica university of timişoara transactions on modern languages vol. 14, no. 1. 2015. synder, jamie. applying multimodal discourse analysis to study image – enabled communication. http://www.ideal.illinois.edu/bitsream 2009. (accessed on 24th january, 2019). unsworth, len. multimodal semiotics functional analysis in contexts of education. london: continuum, 2008. unsworth, len, wheeler, janet. “re-valuing the role of images in reviewing picture books”. reading: language and literacy 36 (2), 68–74, 2002. yang, yang. a social semiotic approach to multimodal discourse of the badge of xi’an jiaotong university. 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0608.11 (accessed on january 28th, 2019) zhu, yongsheng. “theory and methodology of multimodal discourse analysis”. foreign languages research, 5, 82-86. 2007 http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v8i1.3 http://www.ideal.illinois.edu/bitsream http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0608.11 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 egbedi 59 helon habila’s waiting for an angel: the political bildungsroman martha omotetobore egbedi department of english language & literature nnamdi azikiwe university, akwa email: egbedimartha87@gmail.com abstract this article examines the bildungsroman tradition in helon habila’s waiting for an angel.it argues that habila hasmodified and indigenized the form, in order to confront thepolitical realities of his time. most studies on third generation nigerian novels asbildungsromanare female centered. this paper concentrates onthe male protagonist’s process of maturationacross geographical and social boarders in order to emphasize the flexibility of the bildungsroman and to create gender balance. it also reveals the extent to which the selected text represents or reverses features of the bildungsroman. the paper adopts karen horney’s psychoanalytic social theory which is built on the assumption that interpersonal relationship, apart from early childhood experiences play significant role in the development of personality, and argues for a close reading and analysis of the novel as a unique example of postcolonial nigerian bildungsroman. it equally shows a broad extension of the genre to include the experience of contemporary nigerians in diaspora. the findings above imply that third generation nigerian novelists have reformulated and adjusted the form to suit their environment and time. keywords: bildungsroman, psychoanalytic social theory, diaspora introduction helon habila was born in 1967. he grew up during the period of political dysfunction and military dictatorship in nigeria.waiting for an angel, his first novel establishes him as one among the voices of a new generation of nigerian writers whom pius adesanmi and chris dunton describe as ‘third generation’ (7). the novel concentrates on the effects of military dictatorship on writers and journalists from the eyes of a youthful protagonist. habila takes the reader through the plane of history, especially, the period of abacha’s rule which is marked by gross human rights abuse, political killings, imprisonment of intellectuals and revolt on the part of the masses. writers, the political class and organised civil society were all victims of the state police (waiting 128). according to ikechukwu asika, “habila expresses the situation of terror, anguish, victimization, molestation and slavery meted on the citizens of nigeria during military era in politics” (283). clement nwankwo adds that: “the general abacha – babangida junta was marked by gross human rights mailto:egbedimartha87@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 egbedi 60 abuse, outrageous executions, and imprisonment of human rights activists, including ken saro – wiwa. many intellectuals were either executed or driven into exile” (157). the harsh environment in nigeria at the time results in mass exodus of nigerians to different parts of the world, to the extent that the nigerian government launched an advert of “andrew” (enebeli elebuwa who died in 2012) who had become fed-up with the nigerian situation and wanted to “check – out”. it turned out to be a vain attempt at assuring nigerians that their problems will soon be a thing of the past. since then, many “andrews” have left the shores of nigeria, had children and grandchildren, without any hope of ever returning to their motherland. more so, since the nigerian situation seems to be getting worse. a literary renaissance began with nigerians who left the country and nigerians who were born abroad and still living in diaspora. failure of both military and democratic rules in nigeria since independence created the room to shift their themes to the life of young or adolescent protagonists, trying to construct identity for themselves.thus, most of their novels display features of the bildungsroman tradition. the bildungsroman source bildungsroman is a german term for novels that follow the physical, spiritual, mental, moral and psychological growth of the main character in which change is vital. the goal of maturity or integration is achieved gradually with difficulty, after painful experiences and encounters with the outside world. karl morgenstern who first used the term define it thus: “we may call a novel a bildungsroman, first and foremost on account of its content, but also represents the development of the hero in its beginning and progresses to a certain state of completeness, but also, because the depiction promotes the development of the reader to a greater extent than any other novel” (644-45). one peculiarity of the bildungsroman according to mikhail bakhtin is that it describes“a man in the process of becoming” (19). the focus on youth as a crucial stage in human development and change in the main character differentiates the form from other novels that deal with youthful protagonists. as the bildungsroman spreadsto other cultures of the world, it adapts to changes with variations and slight modifications to suit its new environment. jerome hamilton buckley stresses that the form occurs according to a specific pattern and mentions key elements of a typical bildungsroman such as childhood, journey, alienation,ordeal by love, mentorship,the search for a vocationand a working philosophy” (18). he asserts that no single novel precisely follows this pattern, but none that ignores more than two or three of the principal elements answers the the requirement of a bildungsroman. scholars of african literature have notoutlined what should constitute ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 egbedi 61 distinctive features of the african bildungsroman. they are concerned with just applying the european model into african literature. this is why buckley’s description of the structure of the form, which is popular among critics, will be useful to this study. third generation nigerian novelists seem to be narrating the tortuous events of their growing up years which is a unique experience. this is why the bildungsroman in this context is not just a physical journey of integration or accommodation into the society, but, the dominant feature is change. the change is not just physical, but also psychological.thenovelslack harmonious reconciliation of the protagonist with the society, but emphasises that economic and socio – political factors prevent the protagonist from achieving self – realisation. hence, the protagonist needs a second journey. the import of this study lies in the fact that the journey of the protagonist is a unique contribution, and example of variations in third generation nigerianbildungsroman. to locate these distinctions, the socio-cultural context of the novel is considered. this determines the growth process of the protagonists from childlike features to a more mature understanding of his world and situation. this is so because according to karen horney, the environment plays a significant role in the maturation process of the individual. horney’s psychoanalytic social theory explains human behavioural problems in terms of its social and cultural context.people who grow up under favourable conditions turn out to be responsible human-beings. those whose need for affection is denied develop basic anxiety which they combat by moving towards, moving against or moving away from people (newways, 18). waiting for an angel: the political bildungsroman the narrative maps out the growth of lomba frompolitical ignorance to awareness. waiting is exclusively realised through the character of lomba. his early childhood experience is unknown. however, lomba’s reaction to his environment enables us to analyse his character. according to horney, people develop basic anxiety due to unfavourable conditions or hostile environment (self…91). the narrative begins with lomba in prison, weaving other characters and ends with series of events that leads do his arrest and detention.waitingforanangel is a bildungsroman since itfollows the main character’spsychologicaland moral development, and consists of features such as (a) childhood, (b) education and career, (c)family and friendship, (d) experience of love affairs, (e) mentorship (f)the portrait of lomba as a journalist. childhood habila does not provide the reader with details of lomba’s childhood years, his family or the environment where he comes from in the northern part of the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 egbedi 62 country. the narrative introduces lomba as an undergraduate in an unnamed university in lagos. habila deviates from the traditional pattern that requires childhood experiences of the protagonist as a characteristic of the male bildungsroman (buckley 18). lomba seems to be an orphan character in the text, since no mention is made of his family background. he is made to seek a substitute family in lagos where he spends his vacations with bola and other characters who facilitates his bildung. in this respect, the narrative follows the female pattern whose growth begins from adolescence. education and career lomba moves into a larger society where he encounters real life. he is an intelligent student who prefers to spend his leisure hours with his lecturer, dr kareem, in his office. he enjoys “discussing his poetry with the older lecturer …. to have his poems discussed and argued; it gave him a kind of vague hope, a sense of place in the larger scheme of things” (waiting 80). the university plays a significant role in lomba’s career as an intellectual. he expresses his artistic talents for writing poems and short stories. lomba’s desire to be published is so strong that he tells alice, “i’ll become a writer. novels and poems” (waiting 91). he is forced to drop out in the second year due to military intervention and incessant closure of the school. the trauma of the loss of his roommate’s family and the destruction of his literary works by the military facilitate his exit from the university. according to lomba, “when school began to look like prison, i had to get out” (waiting 107). the fact that lomba’s university education is incomplete marks a deviation from the requirements of the standard of a typical bildungsroman. nevertheless, he undergoes and completes informal education under the tutelage of his mentor and role model, james fiki. family and friendship regarding family and friendship, lomba’s only best friend is bola, his roommate in the university. lomba describes bola as a person that is so trusting, so guileless and loyal (57). he is not alienated from bola’s family. he states: “i started spending my vacations with his family after the first semester” (58). bola is carried away in the wave of students’ protest against the military government. he joins the other students in the rally instigated by sankara, the president of the students’ union. that night, he had a terrible dream about “dead bodies and fire” (waiting, 47). bola’s personal tragedy only one day after the students’ demonstration affects lomba. his dream for the future is crushed as he abandons school and chooses a life of solitude in his one room apartment on morgan street. this is in line with horneyan principle that the protagonist moves away from people to combat basic anxiety (self…, 91). though he retreats into his own world, the narrative entangles him and makes him part of the political struggle against oppressive domination of the military. lomba remains in his room for two years, trying, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 egbedi 63 without success, to write a novel. lomba talks less to his neighbours. apart from bola, lomba’s short interaction with kela encourages him to cover the demonstration. habila gives little attention to family and friendship in the novel. experience of love affairs a typical bildungsroman hero must undergo two obligatory love affairs. buckley states that one must be debasing and the other exalting (18). lomba had love affairs with two different women, alice and sariman, who abandon him for other men. lomba first meets alice in dr kareem’s office. alice is described as the not too intelligent daughter of a general (waiting, 83). nevertheless, she manages to complete her university education. with alice, lomba experiences romantic love. their love affair is short and brief, disrupted by military intervention. lomba meets alice many years after, while covering an article for the dial at the mercy hospital. she still loves him, but she cannot marry him because she needs money to pay for her mother’s medical bills (waiting,100). lomba encounters alice a third time while in prison from her wedding photographs, which he found in an old newspaper. as lomba looks at the photographs, all he could see is alice’s pleading eyes, begging and saying: “lomba, i am sorry, so sorry. you must hate me now. do you?” (waiting, 101). lomba dedicates most of his prison poems to alice, just as he had promised. sariman walks out of lomba’s life, having lived together with him for one year. like alice, she abandons lomba for economic reasons. lomba also loves sariman sincerely. he states that he “tries to ignore the pain in the bleeding hollow where his heart used to be” (waiting,187). sariman consoles the poor lomba, “you’ll find somebody else, you’ll love again” (waiting,196). although lomba engages in two love affairs, both relationships leave him shattered. his mentor tells him: “don’t worry about her, you’ll find love again” (waitin, 271). his relationship with alice and, later, sariman is shattered by lack of economic sustenance. lomba never experiences real love. the reader gets the impression that lomba’s love for alice kept him strong even though it is not reciprocated. habila’s portrayal of two unsuccessful love affairs deviates from buckley’s standards. mentorship the first mentor lomba encounters is dr kazeem. he discovers lomba’s artistic talents and invites his friend, james fiki, the editor of thedial, to the listen to his reading. james publishes lomba’s essay unaltered and tells him: “come, write for us when you graduate” (waiting,107). when lomba drops out of school, james offers him a job in art and culture department. lomba desires to be a novelist. he had hoped that he could even win the commonwealth prize for literature. james helps lomba to see beyond the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 egbedi 64 self, and takes him through series of awakenings. he tells lomba: “we are talking theory now because in reality you won’t a publisher for it in this country...nigeria was thrown of commonwealth of nations this morning” (waiting, 192)lomba accepts training from his mentor and undergoes complete change by the end of the narrative. the portrait of lomba as a journalist when lomba drops out of school, he continues to write in the solitary of his one room apartment on morgan street. he later turns to james for a job. lomba rejects his first political assignment for the dialnewspaperwhenhestates: “i am not very political” (waiting, 108). james informs him that it is very difficult to escape politics because “in this country, the air we breathe is politics” (waiting 108). government’s unending transition programmes, coupled with fuel scarcity and political unrest, is what james calls “the general disillusionment” (waiting, 108). james reminds lomba again: “everything is politics in this country, don’t forget that” (waiting, 113). he leads lomba to see the symbiotic relationship between arts and politics. lomba experiences complete awakening and acceptance of his limitations. what emerges is shame and complete silence: “suddenly, he felt ashamed that he has shown himself to be insensitive, even morally wanting. he nods, “i understood … i am sorry: james is his mentor; the one person he’d choose if he were to choose a role model” (waiting,193). he experiences complete change of attitude as he accompanies james to bagadary slave port. james tells him “sorry i had to be brutal – but you need it. you can’t write with chains in your hands… we are in this together” (waiting, 193). james urges lomba to follow his steps closely. the lesson is direct and effective, like a blow to lomba’s stomach. he comprehends fully the challenges of journalism in a military state. james knows that “there will be a few bruises, even death” (waiting, 195). but he persuades lomba to cover the demonstration. he takes lomba along with him as he attends a writers retreat. lomba becomes aware that writers are not afraid of arrest, imprisonment or even death. he bonds with known and unknown journalists and writers as they continue to fight against injustice and oppression. lomba accepts training from his mentor and experiences complete metamorphosis when he states flatly: “i have to cover the demonstration” (waiting, 218). although lomba is arrested, he does not regret his decision. he continues to write in prison. lomba’s bildung is complete when he becomes accommodated into the society of writers. he allows james to mentor him to self – realisation as he follows james to a gathering of poets, where james refuses the offer to leave the country in order to escape arrest or possible death. lomba observes that ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 egbedi 65 james “looks old …so grey, so wrinkled, so bowed, so tired” (waiting,216), but his determination to use his pen as weapon of freedom against state oppression inspires lomba. his contact with poets, novelists and journalists in the residence of emeka davis further heightens his determination to cover the peaceful demonstration. these gentlemen of the pen are not afraid of arrest. a female painter advises lomba, “you really must get arrested, that’s the quickest way to make it as a poet. you’ll have no problem with visas after that, you might even get an international award” (waiting, 215). although lomba does not want to be arrested, he realises that “it is important to agitate against injustice, no matter the consequences” (waiting,127). he goes ahead to cover the demonstration despite the likelihood of an arrest, showing that he has come to a selfrealisation that the popularity of a writer is tied to his arrest and imprisonment as earlier stated by the female painter. lomba also notes the defiant attitude of the writers when he informed them that thedial office has been razed down. one of the young poets responds, “i’ll write that into my new poem,” while another said that, “i’ll use it as a prologue to my new book, it’s just the symbolism i’ve been searching for” (waiting,213). lomba has come to the cognition that as a writer, he has made himself an enemy of the state. he decides to answer the call of journalism. like other journalists, he states, “i have to cover a demonstration” (waiting,219). by accepting to cover the demonstration, lomba recognises his new status which aptly locates the novel within the bildungsroman tradition. lomba seeks to be arrested in order to gain self – advancement and popularity that might help him, “get out of this fucking country” (waiting, 215). lomba’s arrest and imprisonment remind the reader of the symbol of oppression in form of the slaves’ mouth – locks. lomba is not allowed a lawyer, visitors or any means of voicing. according to him, “i have been forgotten” (waiting,15). lomba refuses to be silenced by prison chains; he finds a way of personal expression by keeping a secret diary. in prison, lomba continues as a journalist and poet, writing letters and poems to express freedom of his imagination. lomba decides to dedicate his life to journalism and experiences complete metamorphosis at the end of the novel. conclusion waiting for an angel reflects the socio-political concerns of neo-colonial nigeria. the seemingly endless challenges faced by the protagonist inhibit his growth/development and make it impossible for him to come to an end point in his journey. it is hoped that upon lomba’s release from prison, he would continue with the profession of journalism.waiting for an angel presents an older hero who matures from ignorance to awareness. he experiences selfdiscovery and change, as determining factors of a successful bildungsroman.the novel also educates the readers who follow closely and carefully the mistakes and successe of the protagonist and learn from them. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 egbedi 66 works cited adééko, adéléke. “power shift: america in the new nigerian imagination.” global south, vol. 2, no. 2, 2008, pp. 10 – 30. https://english. osu. edu. adesanmi, pius, and chris dunton, “nigerian third generation writing: historiography and preliminary theatrical considerations.” english in africa, vol. 32, no. 1, 2005, pp. 7 – 19. jstor, https://www. jstor asika, ikechukwu, “military dictatorship in nigeria: astudyof helonhabila’s waiting for an angel and chinua achebe’s anthills of the savannah.” africanresearchreview, vol 5, no. 3, 2011, pp. 275 – 298. https://www. the book banque bakhtin,milhail m. “the bildungsroman and its significance in the history of realism (towards a historical typology of the novel).” speech genres and other late essays. edited by michael holoquist. united of texas press, 1986. boes, tobias. “modernist studies and the bildungsroman: a historical survey of critical trends.” literaturecompass, vol. 3, no. 2, 2006. pp. 230 – 234. buckley, jerome hamilton. season of youth: the bildungsroman from dickson to golding. harvard up, 1974. collins, walter, p. tracing personal expansion: reading selected novels as modern african bildungsroman. u p of america, 2006. coker, oluwole. “between law and literature: the quest for justice in post – independence nigerian fiction.” marang: journal of language and literature, vol. 24, 2014, pp. 137 – 157. ---. “theorizing third – generation nigerian novels.” the guardian nigerian newspaper online, 23 april 2017. http://guardian. >theori... garuba, harry. “the unbearable lightness of being: re-figuring trends in recent nigerian poetry.” english in africa, vol. 32, no. 1, 2005, pp. 51-72. golban, petru. a modernist insight into character formation: thebildungsroman and its thematic perspective in jacob room. iridous varsity press. 2015. ---. ahistoryofthebildungsromanfromancientbeginningtoromantism. cambridge scholars publishing. 2017. habila, helon. waiting for an angel. penguin 2002. horney, karen. new ways in psychoanalysis. w.w. norton, 1940. --neurosis and human growth. w. w. norton, 1950. mikelson, david. “the bildungsroman in africa: a case of mission terminee.” thefrench review. vol. 59, no. 3, 1986, pp. 418-427. morgenstern, karl. “on the nature of the bildungsroman.” translated by tobias boes plma.vol. 124, no, 2, 2009. pp. 641-659. nwankwo, clement. “monitoring nigeria’s election.” journal of democracy. vol. 10, no. 4, 1999. pp. 156 – 165. https://english/ https://www/ https://www/ http://guardian/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 egbedi 67 nnolim, charles. “african literature of the 21st century: challenges for writers and critics.” new directions in african literature. vol. 25, 2006, pp. 1-9. ---. issues in african literature.malt house limited, 2010. okuyade, ogaga. “weaving memories of childhood: the new african novel and the genre of the bildungsroman.” ariel: a review of international english literature. vol. 4, no. 13, 2011, pp. 137-16 terhemba, sija. “the nigerian fiction of the 21st century and its postmodernist imperative.” journalofliterature, language and linguistics. vol. 14, 2015, pp. 1-7. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 76 ononye & anyanwu a stylistic study of akachi adimora's roses and bullets chiamaka ogugua ononye & dr. esther anyanwu department of english language and literature nnamdi azikwe university, awka email: ec.anyanwu@unizik.edu.ng abstract this paper centres on the language and style of akachi adimora in roses and bullets. the aim is to find out how she creatively manipulated language so as to pass her message across to her readers. this study takes a different approach as it delves into analyzing some linguistic aspects like linguistic appositioning, conversational framing and discourse implicature which were not accounted for in the previous researches. data was gotten through a close critical reading of the novel, important points in the secondary sources were also taken through extracting words, phrases which prove useful to the study. her language geared primarily towards the promotion of her culture as observed from the analyzed data. the research therefore recommends that young writers can use adimora's style of writing since the aim of studying style is to improve the vigour of the writer's ability to communicate effectively. however, these languages should be effectively translated either directly or contextually so as to enhance the flow of meaning for non-native speakers of those languages. keywords: style, stylistics, transliteration, language, culture introduction the work of literature is written and showcased in diverse ways in order to bring out its creative nature. to accomplish this, the writer uses his/her unique manners, peculiar diction and form in presenting his/her message. this is what style is known for. style encompasses a writer’s choice of words, narrative techniques, linguistic foregrounding, sentence patterning and structuring, direct transliteration, descriptive quality, tonal level and speech pattern among other distinctive qualities that distinguishes one out of a group of the likes of him or her. style cannot be expressed and understood in vague, that is to say that it is done with a tool of language. language, being a key point in stylistics is the means by which a writer reveals his/her thoughts. we can only begin to comprehend in a small way the identity of a writer if we know his/her language. this can also be reflected in the writer’s religious beliefs, folklore, proverbs, superstitions, attitudes towards life and death. we can therefore say that language and styles are intertwined in the stylistics analysis of any literary text. most african writers have their stories revolving round the themes of exploitation, oppression, war etc. akachi adimora is not exception as her work centre on the theme of war. the language of literature is unique as it is formal and is different from other kinds of language use. according to akpan, "the language of literature is the language used in writing which differs in lexis and syntax from the language used in speech"(1). creative writers use language in different ways and this use of language is determined by various factors ranging from subject matter, theme, purpose or intention, to the particular genre in which he/she is writing. language is a medium of literature. through it, knowledge, culture and tradition are maintained and transferred onto generations. literary writers create style using language as a tool. according to syal and jindal, this is done by deliberate choice, sometimes by deviation from or violation of the rules of grammar (4). the stylistic perceptivity that we get from a literary text can vary from one writer to another. this is because the language of literature is a highly shiftable aspect of writing. the writer is confronted with a wide range of linguistic options from which he/she makes choices of words with which he communicates his/her message. this choice is influenced by such variables as subject matter, setting, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 77 ononye & anyanwu mood, the writer’s vocabulary stock and other related factors. however, the shared trait among novelists is that they present words in such a way that they capture the attention of the readers. the linguistic options selected by writers in a fictional work have a way of improving the understanding of texts. crystal and davy are of the view that: the composition of good diction, figure of speech, idioms and idiomatic expression, the effective use of collocation, good and alternating sentence types, active and passive voices and a good knowledge of linguistic and extra-linguistic environment can produce a fine blend of a good piece of writing. (67) language which is central to literature must be put together in such a way that it conveys the message it carries while appealing to the reader’s attention at the same time. the focus should be on using a language endowed with enough literariness (components/characteristics of literature) as to distinguish and highlight it from ordinary language. the african prose writer is expected to bring about an intelligible piece of writing which carries the intended message and has aesthetic value as well. in addition to that, the text must have a dense texture to be qualified as a text. these are requirements that must be met by the african writer and the task is made even more challenging by the fact that he/she is writing in a second language. to produce a work which has texture, a writer needs to structure the information he/she seeks to convey in accordance with halliday and hasan’s view that: if a passage of english containing more than one sentence is perceived as a text, there will be certain linguistic features present in that passage which can be identified as contributing to its total unity and giving it texture. (2) the concept of style and stylistics stylistics is a broad term that has shouldered diverse meaning from different linguistic scholars. but it can simply be put to be the study of style. style on its own as defined by lucas is “the effective use of language especially in prose, whether to make statements or to arouse emotions. it involves of all the power to put fact with clarity and brevity” (9). style has also been defined as the description and analysis of the modifiable forms of linguistics articles in actual language use. the concept of style and stylistics interpretation in language is hinged on the prevalent idea that in language system, the content can be enshrined in more than one linguistic form. thus, it is viable for it to exist in all the linguistic levels such as phonological, lexical and syntactic. therefore, style may be regarded as a preference of linguistic items, as a total departure from the models of language use, as recurrent features of linguistic forms and as comparisons. leech and short see style as the linguistic characteristics of a particular text (11). style however, is a relative term since it does not just refer to characteristics of language use but correlates these with extra linguistic factors such as context of situation and the likes. leech and short go further to explain that style is rarely studied for its own sake, that is, simply for finding out what use is made of language in text, but because we want to explain something (12). according to chapman (11), style is the usual adoption of a register by a number of people in a particular recurring situation. abrams (190-191) defines style as a manner of linguistic expression in prose or verse ". he moreover explains that the distinguishing trait of a writer may be analyzed in terms of its diction, or choice of its word and structuring of the sentence (193). ademilokun posits that stylistics seeks to account for the recurrent pattern of linguistic features, which characterize texts, literary and non-literary (263). similarly, turner defines stylistics as the study of style, particularly in literary text and more particularly with a view of replicating the relationship between the form of the text and it's potential for interpretation (68). however, adejare is of the view that style and stylistics are virtually synonyms (1). the core difference between then is in usage, as style is favoured by the critic while stylistics preferred by the linguist. fankuade (ed) also posits that: one major concern of stylistics is to check or validate intuition by detailed analysis, but stylistics is also a dialogue between literary reader and linguistic observer, in which insight, not mere objectivity is the goal. (15) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 78 ononye & anyanwu he is of the view that linguistic does not replace the reader's intuition but it may prompt, direct and shape it into an understanding. while reviewing the generality of stylistics, it is also crucial to give attention to the idea of preference in the line of an author because preference is an important tool of stylistics since it deals with the variations and the choices that are available to an author. traugott and pratt (29-30) clarify the connection between language and choice as the distinguishing trait exhibited in a text. with the writer’s choice, there is a reflection of his/her self-esteem and the social condition of her environment. the different definitions of style as discussed above suggest that style is something that has to do with individuality and personality. language and culture language is an indispensable tool used by a speech community to interact with one another. ogene defines language as a subset of vocals symbols by means of which human being communicate (6). he further says that language works according to the ability and disposition of the mind of the user as well as the purpose to which it is put and the situation in which it is used. the language we are dealing with is the language that brings about the literariness of a literary work; a language which jacobson says is the kind that represents "an organized violence committed on ordinary speech” (quoted in eagleton, 2). it is with language that adimora was able to show the reader that "like history, literature helps to imagine those events we did not have the opportunity to witnessslavery, earliest day of colonization, traditionalist etc "(ezugu 179). moreover, language and culture are interwoven and interrelated. language is embedded in culture and it is one of the means of transmitting and expressing one’s culture. according to wardhaugh, "culture is the know-how that a person must possess to get through the task of daily living" (215). an individual’s culture is evident in his/her day-to-day activities including their speeches and writing. language is an integral and vital part of culture. one’s language therefore depicts one’s culture, and language talks more about one’s cultural background. to transmit culture is one of the functions of language. a writer’s thought revolves around his/her belief, exposure and way of life. in affirmation of this assertion therefore, wardhaugh states that “the culture of a people is clearly seen in the language they employ: because they value particular things and do them in certain ways, they come to use their language in ways that reflect what they value and what they don’t" (216). our use of language can tell our listeners or readers a great deal about us, in particular, our regional origins, social backgrounds, occupation, age, level of education and sex. furthermore, language presents the belief, thoughts and norms of the people through what onwudiwe calls “local colour”. as he puts: a writer’s background is discovered in his work as he cannot completely hide his identity as he writes. some of it he shows in his choice of words. these things come from the writer’s wealth of knowledge which is built in his culture (21). transliteration markers despite adimora's linguistic/cultural patriotism, she put in mind her non-igbo speakers and even igbo speakers who do not understand the language. despite her wide range of code mixing and code switching in her novels, she succeeded in taking the non-igbo and even hausa in the flow of meaning. a careful study of her work reveals that all non-english words/expressions central to the derivation of meaning from the text are either directly stated or implied such as in context. onukaogu and onyerionwu stated three main strategies in the realization of the meaning of non-english expressions. the three main strategies are linguistic appositioning, conversational/narrative framing and discourse implicature (291). linguistic appositioning "this is the process of placing igbo expressions side by side with their direct or contextual english equivalents in the narration. in this strategy, the meaning of the igbo word, phrase or sentence is ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 79 ononye & anyanwu located in the very next or previous or almost next english word, phrases and sentence to it". (onukaogu, 275) narrative / conversational framing in narrative/conversational framing, the meaning of the igbo expression is farther, deeper in the narrative, sometimes as far as a paragraph away. according to onukaogu (276), most times the direct translation of the igbo words comes up but within the narrative frame, not next or almost to the igbo expression that usually demands interpretation. discourse implicature this is the most indirect linkage technique that is used in realizing the meanings of igbo expressions in a work of art (ezechi 12). unlike the other two strategies, there is no direct clue to the meanings of the igbo expressions. this does not mean that the meanings of the igbo expressions are not traceable. they merely allow the reader to drill meaning from the flow of the narrative, thereby exercising his or her liberty to imply. (igboanusi 56) data analysis to bring out the aesthetic beauty of her work, adimora used different techniques to achieve that. the techniques as discussed above include: linguistic appositioning examples “adamma, beautiful daughter, welcome to my house”, she greeted ginika. (roses and bullets, 61) “nwakire, nno, welcome back”, lizzy said as she got up to follow ubaka. (roses and bullets, 46) “there was hardly any warning before katakata, confusion and commotion engulfed the whole town (45). “ijeoma,nwam. safe journey” she called out to him. (roses and bullets, 43) “aunty lizzy sighted several women sitting behind tables on which abacha, edible shredded and dried tapioca was displayed”. (roses and bullets, 14) “miss ezeuko, kedu? how are you?” (roses and bullets, 21). “the stocky one called the other ogwu azu, fish bone”. (roses and bullets, 31) adimora's style of writing consists of certain narrative strategies that are used in a bid to make the works appear truly and genuinely nigerian, but still remaining in the english context. the narrative strategy in the novel includes untranslated words, syntactic fusion and code-switching. in the examples given above, a sentence in igbo is accompanied by the exact english translation. those phrases are not strategically vital in the narrative, but still it is clear that igbo rhetoric has adorned the text. it is strongly visible in some dialogues like, "...there was hardly any warning before katakata, confusion and commotion engulfed the whole town" (roses and bullets, 45). so, the meanings of those igbo phrases are placed immediately or in few sentences after it. narrative/conversational framing here, adimora did not give a direct translation of the igbo expression as factors of content will enhance meaning. example 1 “by the way, is it not the one people call “chop-and-go council? mama nnukwu, my uncle’s wife calls it olokara kansul because, according to her, members of the council embezzle funds meant for executing the war and steal relief material meant for their refugees (roses and bullets, 66) example 2 “…and what is the meaning of your name, osondu”? does it mean “race for survival” (roses and bullets, 39) “look at the ngidi where we sit to do it. he pointed, directing eloka’s gaze to a raised platform with a hole configured to perfectly accommodate human buttocks. (roses and bullets, 91) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 80 ononye & anyanwu “ginika, the akara looks and smells so nice. where did you learn to fry akara like this? ... ginika smiled as she removed the golden bean cakes from the frying pan and put them in a large sieve”. (roses and bullets, 195). in order to realize the meaning of these expressions, the reader has to take into consideration the narrative environment and the kernel of discussion. an anaphoric reference in a narrative framing gives the meaning of the igbo word ‘osondu’ which is “race for survival”. in the last example given, the writer didn't give a direct translation of akara. she allows the reader to drill the meaning of the igbo word from the content of the narrative. so, we can deduce that akara means golden bean cake, owing to the environment in which the word was used. 'ngidi' in example 2 also explains or suggests a type of chair/stool that has a hole-like structure or shape. there was no translated meaning attached to the igbo phrase 'ngidi', we only had to deduce the meaning from the content of use. discourse implicature in this technique, there is no direct clue to the meanings of igbo expressions. adimora allows the reader to drill meaning from the flow of the narrative. example 1 “…and the other a bowl filled with udara. as soon as she had washed her hands, ginika fell to; she ate and ate until she was tired. the gummy juice of fruit smeared her lips and she had to use her finger to rub it off”. (roses and bullets, 66) example 2 “ginika was overjoyed; she loved udara and she was sure udo would welcome her with a hug, for he too enjoyed the succulent fruit with hard seeds the colour of red wine.” (roses and bullets, 59) we could deduce from the discourse environment in (66) that the word ‘udara’ is a kind of a gummy juicy fruit. there is also a subtype of discourse implicature. in this type, the class of phenomena to which the particular object or thing designated by the igbo expressions belong is placed close to it, so that it is easy to imply a memberclass relationship. example 3 ube and udara trees (roses and bullets, 59) ata grass (roses and bullets, 41) oha soup (roses and bullets, 63) okays drivers (roses and bullets, 9) onugbu leaves and uziza seeds (roses and bullets, 167) if we cannot get the exact english language, lexical or phrasal equivalents of the aforementioned, we can best settle for the discovery that the first example are kinds of tree, the second is a kind of grass, the third is a kind of soup, the fourth is a kind of drive and the last is a type of leaf and sees respectively. code alternation for gap-filling there are many lexical gaps between english and other indigenous languages in nigeria based on typological differences. writers/speakers switch codes partly to fill these gaps. example 1 “she was certain she wanted to be a dancer, not a drummer or an udu beater” (roses and bullets ,156) example 2 “he swung his left arm and then the right to adjust his agbada” (roses and bullets, 89) example 3 "he hated eating garri with fork and knife..." (roses and bullets, 94) example 4 "i have been talking to you and you just look at me like a moo-moo" (roses and bullets, 129) 'udu' is a special drum used by the igbo especially during ceremonies, 'agbada' means local embroidery worn mostly by yoruba chief while 'garri' is a type of food made from cassava. moomoo is when someone bears a look that shows foolishness. the writer used the nature/cultural terms ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 81 ononye & anyanwu to capture the concepts vividly. this is because there are no words that can adequately express their meanings. it is therefore not a surprise that adimora borrows from the indigenous codes because by doing so, she distinguishes the nigerian variety of the english language from the british and other native varieties. conclusion the stylistic features found in the novel have been enumerated with examples from the text. through her narration, adimora argue for a subtle harmony between the foreign language and the indigenous one forged through artistic expertise and narrative ingenuity. the author used different techniques to accomplish her goals. these techniques have helped in portraying the author’s feelings, her mastery of artistic craft of storytelling and the disastrous effect of the civil war on the society. her portrayal of vision and artistry is superb not only through the point of view and characterization but in her manipulation of language. the success of the narrative lies on her ability to create psychologically and physically balanced characters who portray her themes and culture. nigerians and africans at large should always try to reflect their cultures and languages in their works. the pride they feel for africa, their homeland should be reflected in their language. in doing this however, they should put their readers in mind and like the writer skillfully interpreted non-english expressions whether directly or contextually, because it helps sharpens the perception of readers and arouses their interest. readers also should not be hasty drawing meaning of words from a text because some words depend on the context to get the meaning; their meaning cannot be derived directly. works cited abrams, m.n. glossary of literary terms: fourth edition. new york: carnell university, 1983. print. adejare, o. language and style in soyinka: a systemic text linguistic study of a literary idiolect. nigeria girarde press, 1992. print. adedimeji and alabi. basic elements of english language grammar: studies and discourse in english language. ilorin: haytee, 2003. print. adegbite, w. english language usage, uses and misuse(s) in a non-host second language context, nigeria. inaugural lecture series 231. obafemi awolowo university press, 2010. print ademilokun. papers in english and linguistics (pec) vol. 12, 2011. print. adimora-ezigbo, akachi. roses and bullets. ibadan: university press, 2011. print adimora-ezigbo, akachi. “interview” by sumaila umaisha. new nigerian newspaper, 2011. print ayeomoni, moses. the role of stylistics in literary studies. ile-ife: obafemi awolowo university press, 2003. print awolaja, o and awolaja a. university english courses and applied linguistic courses book 1. ilorin: ibitola printing press, 2012. print. chapman, r. linguistics and literature: an introduction to literary stylistics. london: edward arnold ltd, 1973. print. crystal, david and davy derek. investigating english style. london, 1969. print daria, t. style beyond borders: language in recent nigerian fiction. belgium: university of liege, 2009. print igboanusi, herbert. igbo english in the nigerian novel. ibadan: enicrownfit publishers. 2002. print okolo, i. indigenous thought in african urban fiction. unpublished ma dissertation. university of ibadan, nigeria, 2008. onukaogu, a.a and onyerionwu, e. chimamanda ngozi adichie: the aesthetics of commitment and narrative. ibadan: kraft books, 2010. print onwukwe, e. an introduction to general stylistics. owerri: alphabet nigeria publishers, 2019. print orakwue, e. e. a linguistic stylistic analysis of chimamanda adichie's purple hibiscus and half of a yellow sun. unpublished paper. ahmadu bello university zaria, 2014. owolabi, d. the domestication of the english language for literary purpose in nigeria: creating a national identity. international journal of social science and humanities, 2(6), 488-492. 2012. print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 135 umetiti & ezeifeka analysis of newspaper reports of the indigenous people of biafra (ipob) chidimma p. umetiti email: umetitichidimma@gmail.com & dr. chinwe ezeifeka department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: cr.ezeifeka@unizik.edu.ng abstract the study aimed to critically analyse the media's reports about ipob using critical discourse analysis (cda). cda sees language as a social practice and hence, the use of specific lexeme or vocabulary indicates certain ideological standpoint. cda believes no use of words is neutral, that there are certain ideologies or principles that guide discussants in discourse. it is therefore necessary to analyse the media and try to uncover the ideological standpoints in their reports about the secessionist group ipob. the analysis indeed showed that the media is not a neutral channel as they claim to be. they are sites of ideological struggles and these ideologies influenced their reports about ipob. key words: cda, ipob, media discourse, ideology, discursive strategies, newspaper reports introduction besides the basic function of language as the medium for communication and exchange of ideas and information, it is also the medium for the construction of individual and collective worldviews. gee (1), supporting this notion, opines that "language is not just about giving and receiving information but to scaffold the performance of social activities and to scaffold human affiliation within cultural and social groups and institutions." these functions are related because social groups and institutions can shape social activities and beliefs. one of the social institutions that can shape social activities and beliefs is the media. the media are the custodian for gathering and disseminating information. most of our view points on certain issues and ideas are influenced and formed by the media. the media is not just a medium for disseminating information on the happenings of the world, it is also a site laden with ideologies, which are carefully embedded in their discourse. these ideologies play a big role in news report and are meant to create certain feelings and view points in the minds of the audience. this study hopes to explore the linguistic features and discursive strategies used by selected newspapers to report the activities of the group indigenous people of biafra ipob. the indigenous people of biafra (ipob) ipob can be said to be a social 'left behind' group. social 'left behind' groups, in the words of goodwin and heath (1), can be defined as: social groups that are united by a general sense of insecurity, pessimism and marginalisation who do not feel as though elites... share their values, represent their interests or genuinely empathise with their intense angst about rapid social, economic and cultural change. the definition captured the essence of the group ipob. they are known as a separatist group made up of south eastern nigerians who want to secede from the country and become an independent state. the group was initially formed after decades the nigerian-biafran war ended (july 7, 1967 january 15, 1970). according to ugorji (4), ipob is a new faction formed from the former group -movement for the actualisation of the sovereign state of biaframassob. in 2014, nnamdi kanu formed another group named "indigenous people of biafra" ipob. he did this using the social media and an online radio he named after the defunct biafran radio station "radio biafra." the launching and revitalisation of the radio biafra and his use of the social media was seen as a smart move, (ugorji, mailto:umetitichidimma@gmail.com mailto:cr.ezeifeka@unizik.edu.ng ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 136 umetiti & ezeifeka 5). he garnered support and sympathy from a lot of people, both locally and internationally. he also used provocative languages in advancing the biafran cause. he often referred to nigeria as "zoo" and nigerians as "animals." most of his speeches were termed "hate speech" because they seem to incite his listeners into violence. he kept calling for a referendum by the nigerian government. the ipob is a group reckoned with their forceful use of words. they tend to threaten and insult anybody or any group against them. they were also said to have threatened the nigerian government when it declared "no referendum, no election" in anambra state. they were known to use such derogatory words as "animals", "zoo", "efulefu", and so on, on people who disagree with their point of view, which makes them unpopular with a lot of people and the powers to be. the activities and speeches of ipob garnered extensive media coverage in 2017 and featured a heated media and social media debates between people and groups who support the biafran course and those who do not. this created an avenue for the media to use certain language to influence the audience to accept certain points of view concerning ipob and it is therefore necessary to critically analyse the media's report. critical discourse analysis critical discourse analysis, often shortened to cda, to van dijk (135), is a type of discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way social power, abuse, dominance and inequality are enacted, reproduced and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context. to fairclough, critical discourse analysis is analysis which aims to systematically explore often opaque relationships of causality and determination between (a) discursive practices, events and texts and (b) wider social and cultural structures, relations and processes, to investigating how such practices, events and texts arise out of and are ideologically shaped by relations of power and struggle over power, and to explore how the opacity of these relationships between discourse and society is itself a factor security power and hegemony (132). in sum, critical discourse analysis aims at making transparent the connections, among discourse practices, social practices and social structures, connections that might be opaque to a lay person. van dijk is of the view that critical discourse analysis focuses on social problems and the role of discourse in production and reproduction of power abuse, ideology and dominance (135). it looks at why speakers or writers make use of certain words among other words available to them. ideological square theory the theory of ideological square according to van djik (17), can be used to analyze ideologies in every level of discourse. he is of the opinion that, "discourse is so complex and therefore ideological structures can be expressed in so many different ways, it therefore becomes useful to have a more practical heuristic method to find ideology in text and talk." he propounded the theory of ideological square with the notion to help expose the inequality and racism, the media helps to reproduce and entrench in the society. he believes that a number of ideologies are relevant in situations of competition, conflict, domination and resistance between groups. this tells why ideological practices are polarized on the basis of "us" and "them" the theory of ideological square concentrates on positive "in-group" and negative "out-group" description (18). he opines that ideological square acts as a kind of justification for the presence of inequality in the society by placing in-groups and out-groups in opposite sides through the process of emphasizing "our" good quality and actions and "their" bad qualities and actions. to makamani (20), the ideological square is simply a framework that studies how different groups are represented or talked about in the society. he asserts that a group is more likely to talk about the good things about themselves and the bad things of others which is in line with van djik's submission of, "say positive things about us and negative things about them. also, do not say negative things about us and do not say positive things about them."(17). to van djik, ideology is a form of identity of a person or a group, it is what separates one group from another and it is also accountable for the organization of people and society in polarized terms. he further states that group membership has to do with who belongs and does not belong to "us" and how we distinguish ourselves from others by ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 137 umetiti & ezeifeka our actions, aims and norms. he later modified the four principles of the ideological square to: emphasize positive things about us and emphasize negative things about them. de-emphasize negative things about us and de-emphasize positive things about them newspaper headlines newspaper headlines are a very integral part and element of a newspaper. they are usually the first element of the newspaper a potential reader gets to see and to an extent everyone that buys a newspaper usually glances at the headlines before deciding to buy or not. isani (81) considers headlines as one of the most creative areas of journalistic writing and in some aspects, comparable to poetry in that it burrows extensively from linguistic features generally associated with versification as they are normally written in a way to arouse reader’s interest and curiosity.. headlines impact is usually stronger on the onlookers and readers because they tend to be memorable and concise. discourse analysis has been drawn to the language of newspaper headlines as editors and journalists tend to persuade and swerve the readers and onlookers to their side on issues contained in the report. media discursive strategies discursive strategies can be defined as linguistic devices that writers and speakers employ in communication in order to achieve a particular desired effect or goal. they are actually called discursive practices but wodak and busch (794), chose to call them "discursive strategies" according to them, "actors utilise these strategies to announce and persuade audience through different semiotic practices”, (794). discursive strategies can be seen as specific, not always intentional or conscious, ways of employing different discourses or discursive resources to establish certain interests. van dijk whose major work was on racist discourse propounded about 25 discursive and ideological strategies the media used to influence audience. some of the strategies include: simplification: a complex and serious event is reported in a simpler, less serious and off handedness manner polarization: attention is called to opposites. intensification: attention is called to conflicts rather than consensus. concealment: withdrawing relevant information i.e. not telling the whole truth. distortion of various degrees: manipulation of facts by exaggeration, minimization or equivocation. falsification: presenting an untrue fact, that is lying, (67). methodology the data for the study are national newspapers. the headlines of the newspapers, both online and printed form will be used. also, the discursive strategies employed in the headlines of the newspapers will be revealed and discussed using van dijk’s ideological square theory of critical discourse analysis. data analysis will be carried out in a three stage analysis which are: (1). layout and structural organisation : this stage looks at the surface elements of the text like the title of the newspaper, date of publication, the news writer and so on. these surface indicators according to bardici (12), says something by themselves about the news report. (2)discursive and ideological strategies: this refers to how language is used to depict the social actors and object. it also refers to use of language persuasively and effectively. according to bardici (12), quoting van dijk, rhetoric is concerned with persuasive moves through such devices as metaphors, hyperbolic enhancement, quoting credible sources and other rhetorical figures employed in the text. (3). ideological standpoints: ideology is a very important part of texts. it influences the way in which a text is formulated and its meaning constructed. it is therefore, pertinent to study the ideological standpoints of the media to help uncover their hidden messages. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 138 umetiti & ezeifeka data analysis the newspapers whose headlines are selected for this study are vanguard and the guardian newspaper. the two newspapers are selected for their wide readership which in turn gives them certain amounts of power to wield over their readers. however, the newspaper headlines will focus on two issues: the ipob/military clash and ipob's sitat -home order. vanguard newspaper biafra: south east group blames kanu over ipob’s face off with military ipob, is mostly made up of people from the south east. the journalist craftily mentions that a group from south east blamed nnamdi kanu over the clash ipob had with the military, but deftly didn’t mention the name of the group, may be because they are not popular and not worth mentioning or just to subtly hint that not everybody or every group in south east supports nnamdi kanu and ipob. discursive strategies there are two discursive strategies employed in the above headline: concealment: in the headline, the name of the group is concealed. it could be that the group is not popular or deemed irrelevant by the journalist. or the journalist could be subtly drawing attention to the fact that not everybody or every group in south east supports nnamdi kanu. victimisation: nnamdi kanu was victimised in the headline. he was held responsible for the clash between ipob and the military while ipob and the military who were involved in the clash were exonerated. ideological standpoint nnamdi kanu is responsible for ipob's face off with the military. if not for him, the military wouldn't have attacked his hometown, ipob wouldn't have clashed with them and many wouldn't have been injured or dead from the clash. an xie ty ov er ip ob s i t -a t -ho me o rder the headline hints that there were fear and nervousness over the order to sit at home on may, 30th by ipob. military men were deployed in major cities in the south east to quell whatever the ipob planned, and people were beginning to panic over a possible chaos and crisis. discursive strategies the discursive strategy inherent in the headline is the intensification strategy. it intensified the feelings of people over the sit-at-home order. it also, paints the picture that people were in fear and panic over the order. ideological standpoint the ideology inherent from the headline is that ipob's order was met with fear and nervousness. this will play a role in carrying out the order. total shut down in south east the headline shuts down every anxiety as there was a total adherence to the order. no economic activity or movement was recorded. the complete adherence could be because of love or fear for ipob. hence, there was no need for the military intervention. discursive strategies consensus and exaggeration: the headline, "total shut down in s/east" suggests that there was no single movement recorded in the whole of south east. this is exaggeration because there is no way in the whole of south east for people not to move about, even in smaller villages. also, there is the consensual strategy implied in the headline. it suggests that there was a general consensus among the south easterners to obey the sit-at-home order, hence no movement was recorded ideological standpoint the sit-at-home order given by ipob which was reported to being received with anxiety was later carried out to the latter. the total obedience to the order could be out fear for ipob since the order was initially met with anxiety or could be out of support for the biafran dream. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 139 umetiti & ezeifeka the guardian newspaper analysis many feared dead as military lay siege to nnamdi kanu’s home just as vanguard newspaper reported, the military that were sent to bring ‘peace’ in umuahia went to attack nnamdi kanu’s home. the guardian reported that the military ‘lay siege’ i.e. they surrounded the home of nnamdi kanu and were ready to attack. this was the opposite of what they were supposedly sent to do and it resulted in a clash with ipob. the headline reported that many people were ‘feared’, not certain that they were dead. the journalist however, deftly did not mention if it was ipob members or the military or both parties were feared dead. this could be a deliberate ploy. discursive strategies the journalist used euphemism strategy. this strategy is used to report events that may trigger panic and fear in the minds of people in a mild manner. the report could have read, "many dead..."but it added the adjective “feared" to make the report mild or not provocative. ideological standpoint many people maybe dead in the military attack in umuahia. this may incite people into war and more hate speech, hence, the adjective "feared." northern groups support military operation in s’east this headline came a day after the report of military / ipob clash which many were feared to be dead. it was earlier reported that military laid siege in kanu’s home. therefore, the unnamed groups in the north supporting military attack in the south east are simply urging more deaths and injured people. also, the journalist may deliberately leave out the names of these groups in order not to provoke more hate between the north and the east or he/she thinks the groups are not popular or relevant enough to be mentioned. this however, leaves a lot to be imagined. discursive strategies two discursive strategies are prominent in the above headline: euphemism and concealment euphemism: the headline reports that some northern groups were in support of military operation in south east where it was reported that the troops laid siege in kanu's home. therefore, the groups supporting the military operation are in actual sense supporting the attack, killing and injuring of people going on in the east. the phrase, "military operation" is used in order not to make it blatant what the northern groups are actually supporting. concealment: the journalist also deftly concealed the names of these northern groups. maybe, so as not to intensify the tension between the northerners and easterners or maybe the groups are not influential enough to be mentioned. whichever the case, it leaves a lot to be imagined why the names of the groups were concealed. ideological standpoint some unnamed groups in the north support the killing and injuring of people going on in the east. obviously, they do not care about the lives of easterners being wasted neither the chaos being unleashed in the south east. sit-at-home order grounds south east the above headline denotes ipob as a social actor whose order was observed by the whole of south east admonishes. the ipob always remember her fallen heroes every 30th may by engaging in no economic activity and no-movement. on this particular year, they ipob – gave an order for every igbo to remain at home and no movement should be carried out. the journalist captured the total adherence to this order by using the verb ‘grounds’ which denotes a prohibition to a usual activity. discursive strategies the strategy employed in the headline is sharpening strategy. the use of the word, "grounds" brings a certain edge to the report. it sharpens the report and brings into focus that normal activities were stopped in south east. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 140 umetiti & ezeifeka ideological standpoint the sit-at-home order brought every activity and movement in south east to a halt. everybody and every movement in south east stood at a standstill in honour of the order by ipob. conclusion in summary, the media is not a neutral site. it is a site laden with ideologies; these ideologies influence the way they represent an individual or group in their reports. they often use negative words for groups they do not support and positive words for groups they support. they would often report more negative and inaccurate events about an individual or group they do not support and put out more positive and exaggerated reports about individuals and groups they support their ideals. the media, from the analysis carried out often use different discursive strategies to influence their readers. such discursive strategies include authorization, victimization, moral evaluation, use of metaphors, euphemism, ideological square, concealment, distortion of facts, falsification and so on. from the analysis, it can be deduced that vanguard newspaper are anti-ipob while the guardian newspaper are pro-ipob and this influenced the way they use words in reporting ipob. the research set out to show that the media, assumed to be neutral on news report, are indeed not neutral. it revealed that for every issue, the media has an ideology concerning the issue and this ideology influences their report on the issue. with the help of cda, the analysis was carried out to reveal a plethora of linguistic and discursive strategies the media used in reporting ipob. these strategies were employed to drive the reader to a preferred reading. the preferred reading being what the media wants the reader to believe and think. hence, the two newspapers studied have each, different ideology about ipob which was revealed in the analysis. readers and audience are advised to read and think critically about issues before drawing conclusions. this will help to broaden their opinions and views about such issues, as opposed to depending on the media to give accurate and detached reports about issues works cited ali, rahimi. a critical discourse analysis of discursive structures in a political text. accessed from https://www. 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(2017). exploring the linguistics features of philippines headlines in on-line newspaper. retrieved from https://www.lin833d-worldenglishes.com. on 10th july, 2018. gee, james. an introduction to discourse analysis: theory and method, 2017. retrieved from taylor and francis e-library, 15th october, 2018. goodwin, matthew and oliver heath. the 2016 referendum, brexit and the left behind: an aggregate level analysis of the result. 2016. the political quarterly, 8(2), 45-56. lang, kevin and gladys lang. an exploration of the agenda building process. in de leeuwen, van. discourse and practice: new tools for critical discourse analysis. new york: oxford university press, 2008. makamani, rewai. linguistic and discursive strategies in media representations of hiv/aids health care in zimbabwe: a critical discourse analysis of selected printed discourse in shona and english. an unpublished ph.d dissertation, department of african languages, university of south africa, 2017. retrieved from http://www.thesisfinalb3.pdf 20th july, 2018. mikola, mikka. discursive (de) – legitimation strategies in the media. alto: aalto university school of business press, 2017 ugwuona, crescentia. asuu strike discourse in nigeria: a critical discourse analysis. in mediterranean journal of social sciences, 2, (3),435 – 443, 2017. ugorji, basil. indigenous people of biafra (ipob): a revitalized social movement in nigeria. jounral of international studies for ethno-religious mediation. 2017. retrieved from https://www.ethno-religiouscentre.org. 10th march, 2017. https://www.lin833d-worldenglishes.com/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 141 umetiti & ezeifeka van dijk, teun. discourse and context: a socio cognitive approach. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2008. van dijk, teun. communication racism: ethnic prejudice in thought and talk. new bury park: sage publications 1987. van dijk, teun. ideology: a multi disciplinary approach. london: sage, 1998./ weiss, gilbert. and ruth wodak. (eds). critical discourse analysis: theory and interdisciplinarity. new york: palgrave macmillan, 2003. wimmer, r. and dominik, j. mass media research. (eds.). new york: cengage learning, 2012. wodak, ruth and brigitta busch. approaches to media texts. the sage handbook of media studies. london: sage publications, 2004. wodak, ruth and michael meyer. (eds). methods of critical discourse analysis: introducing qualitative methods. london: sage, 2010. newspapers chioma gabriel and emma nnadozie. total shutdown in s/east. vanguard.31st may, 2017. pp1 murtala, adewalle, lawrence njoku, abba anwar and oludare richards. northern youths support military operation in s’east. the guardian. 14th september, 2017. pps 1-8 njoku, lawrence and joe onyekwere. sit -athome order grounds south east. the guardian. 31st may, 2017. pps 1-6 okoli, ananyo, peter okotu and nwabueze okonkwo. anxiety over ipob sit-at-home order. vanguard. 30th may, 2017/pp1. olaniyi, segun and gordi udeajah. many feared killed as military lay siege to nnamdi kamu’s home. the guardian.13th september, 2017.pps1-2 oliseh, ebele. biafra:south east group blames kanu over ipob clash with the military vanguard. 15th september, 2017. pps13-15 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 41 nnyagu parsing the past and present nigerian novels: a comparative study of achebe and adichie dr. uche nnyagu department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: eu.nnyagu@unizik.edu.ng abstract fiction is a mirror through which the society is seen. it is a work of imagination. however, the writer draws his or her inspiration from what happens around him or her. this is why we have certain works of art that fall within a particular age; the happenings of the age influence the writer. the reader who perhaps was not born within the age decodes the activities of the age and understands how life was lived within the era. in this essence, literature helps us to appreciate life as lived within the period as well as why things are the way they are today. in this article, the researcher examines the life of the african within the pre-colonial/colonial and the contemporary eras as perceived by achebe and adichie with the aim of making the audience see the semblance in the belief system of the african in the past and present despite the profuse transformation that has taken place since the 20th century. keywords: fiction, proverbs, historical realities, society, culture introduction anderson (1999) observes that the main aim of discourse analysis is to give an answer to the question, how it is possible for us to make sense of what we read in texts, understand what the writer means, recognize a coherent discourse as opposed to an incoherent one. according to him, to arrive at an interpretation of a text, we rely on our grammatical, formal and structural knowledge; but we do have a lot more knowledge than that (3). to determine whether a set of sentences do or do not constitute a text is dependent on the cohesive relation. we know that a text has a texture and this texture is created by the cohesive relations. the europeans’ view about africa before things fall apart was published in 1958, the europeans had believed that nothing good could ever come from africa. to them, africa was such a primitive place and that africans were not different from lower animals. herodotus, a greek geographer in his book, the history, has described africa as the land where huge serpents were found, and lions, and also wild men and wild women. similarly the 19th century german philosophy, george hegel made an aggravating statement about africa when he said, “what we properly understand by africa, is the unhistorical, underdeveloped spirit, still involved in the conditions of mere nature…. at this point we leave africa, not even to mention it again, for it is no historical part of the world; it has no movement or development to exhibit….”their views about africa were well x-rayed in their presentation of characters in their novels set in africa. according to emenyonu (1991), before things fall apart was published, most novels about africa had been written by europeans, and they largely portrayed africans as savages who needed to be enlightened by europeans. joseph conrad’s classic tale, hearth of darkness {1899}, for instance, presents africa as a wild, dark and uncivilized continent. in his mister johnson {1939}, an irishman, joyce cary’s protagonist is a semi educated, childish african who, on the whole, reinforces colonialist stereotypes about africans. a discourse on achebe in things fall apart achebe categorically made it clear that africans did not hear of culture for the first time from the europeans. things fall apart, portrays the igbo society with specificity and sympathy and examines the effects of european colonialism from an african perspective. achebe is meticulous in managing his setting to aptly cohere with the characters. umuofia is a typical rural area inhabited by people whose philosophies are in line with the setting. with the traditional setting and its inhabitants, achebe chronicles the rich igbo tradition and culture. we understand through the chief character, okonkwo that a typical igbo man should be industrious because the igbo ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 42 nnyagu people are not lazy. this explains why igbo tales are told only at night, a time for relaxation after working so hard in his farm place in the daytime. unoka is abhorred because he does not live up to the expectation of the igbos. he is seen as a loafer because he is not indefatigable. in igbo land, children aspire to be like their fathers only when their fathers are known for something good. in the case of unoka, okonkwo vows and decides to be everything his father was not. in the beginning of the novel, we are told that okonkwo is a brave man. he threw amalinze the cat in a combat. in spite of all odds too, he is determined to survive. he goes to nwakibie and borrows yam seedlings. he marries many wives and his farm lands are enormous. in the view of emenyonu (1987), achebe’s novels are set in a historical perspective and reflect the process of change in the igbo society from the mid-nineteenth century to the 1960s, the first postindependence decade. the first among his novels, things fall apart {1958}, is set at a time when early europeans were first coming to igbo land. the novel is all about european culture contacting and conflicting with traditional igbo culture. things fall apart as the ethnography of the igbo through the novel, the reader understands that the people of umuofia depend for their livelihood on men cultivating the soil to plant yam. unoka is laughed at for not being an ambitious person. this is why his son, okonkwo determines, as a typical igbo man, not to be as lazy as his father. the people of umuofia admire okonkwo because of his fame; a man who has a big compound with wives, many children, large farms and yam bans is admired in the igbo society. the novel chronicles aspects of the igbo traditions and culture such as the new yam festival, the egwugwu masquerade cult, wrestling and marriage rites in such a way that a nonigbo who reads it tends to appreciate the way of life of the igbos. we equally understand that in a typical igbo society, when certain crimes are committed, it has to be atoned. okonkwo has to go on self exile with his entire family when accidentally, his gun explodes and kills ogbuefi ezeudu’s son. the extensive use of the igbo proverbs gives credence to the novel. achebe himself believes that a typical igbo man must be one who knows the igbo proverbs, understands proverbs and knows how to apply them in natural context, hence he sees proverbs as the oil with which igbo people eat words. he also maintains that any igbo man to whom proverb is used and interpreted, that the bride price paid by his father to marry his mother is a waste. nnolim (2009), says that achebe tells about the most powerful and most secret cult in the clan (163). in the society, men are the most powerful. from the way okonkwo rules his household, the audience immediately understands that in a typical traditional igbo society, women’s voice is not to be heard. okonkwo has three wives and they cower at the sight of him. achebe’s portrayal of women in the novel as the weak folk unable to help themselves; is an apt representation of women in the historical igbo society. in the contemporary igbo society, polygamy is no longer a norm and any man in the present day society who tries to act like okonkwo would have himself to blame. eugene achike in adichie’s purple hibiscus is poisoned by his lone wife for being autocratic in his home. anybody who reads things fall apart, not only sees and understands the way of life of the traditional igbos, but also the changes which have taken place in igbo as a result of the encounter between europeans and africa during the imperial colonial period. adichie’s style and its affinity with achebe's many critics believe that adichie’s purple hibiscus has an affinity with achebe’s things fall apart. though adichie’s is a contemporary nigerian novel, it still consolidates on achebe’s theme of culture contact and conflict. according to wallaco, cynthia r, "the opening sentence, an allusion to chinua achebe’s things fall apart, invites readers to interpret adichie’s novel in the light of achebe’s exploration of the patriarchy of igbo culture and the arrival of colonizing christian missionaries in a traditional village." ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 43 nnyagu recall that adichie’s purple hibiscus has started with, "things started to fall apart at home when my brother, jaja, did not go to communion and papa flung his heavy missal across the room and broke the figurine on the étagère.”the opening of the novel immediately gives the audience the impression that all is not well. it also tells the audience that the novel is either a post independence or contemporary novel for the novel establishes that the white man’s religion has come to stay. through the naïve narrator, kambili and her lone brother, jaja, adichie is able to pass across her message as well as explore the way of life of the contemporary igbo people represented by the characters and the setting, abba. the structural criticism maintains that the meaning of the literary text is dependent on the text itself and has nothing to do with any historical realities. in line with that, to some, adichie’s novel would only be seen as a display of fictitious characters and fictitious setting well united to have the aesthetic quality it has. however, for the purpose of this research, historical criticism would more appropriately be applied so that both adichie and achebe’s novels under review would be seen as representing the igbo societies at different periods of time; achebe’s during the precolonial and colonial eras while adichie’s is a contemporary era. oseloke obezi has vividly described purple hibiscus as a contemporary nigerian novel set to mirror the enchanting beauty and richness of the country without shying away from capturing its trauma, tragedy, desperation, resignation and political tribulations. to him, to read purple hibiscus is to relive life in nigeria for those who know it and a shock therapy education in the vagaries of everyday life. for those who perchance, might have been insinuated into nigeria by ms. adichie. this is a book about nigeria, its culture, extended family system, human desire, most so those adolescent, and the crash of africa and western norms. obaze’s analysis reveals to the audience at once that the novel is an x-ray of the nigerian way of life, particularly, igbo. like achebe’s things fall apart, purple hibiscus affirms that in igbo society, even in the 21st century, women, like snails are made to perpetually remain in their shells and never to react against any afflictions. this is well dramatized by the author in the presentation of eugene achike’s means of handling his wife. he beats her every moment which severally lead to miscarriages. in spite of that, she remains passive and life continues. we can recall that on one occasion when she can no longer bear the perils, she runs to aunty ifeoma in nsukka where her children had been. after relating to aunty ifeoma how she was brutally beaten, leading to her miscarriage, aunty ifeoma advises her to jilt him but she quickly reminds her that if she leaves eugene, the next moment, another woman would take her position. according to her, many people want eugene to take their daughters even as a second wife. this simply brings to bare the fact that igbo people are indeed, materialistic. another fact to be decoded from the text, is the social fact that in our society today, polygamy is abhorred and would not be tolerated by the igbo women in this modern era. when beatrice could no longer bear her husband’s ill treatments, she poisons him. in achebe’s era no woman would dare poison her husband for not treating her well. though in a different dimension, adichie’s purple hibiscus shares the same theme of culture conflict with achebe’s things fall apart. eugene achike on one side, represents the modern igbo man who imbibed the white man’s culture. papa nnukwu on the other part, represents the traditional igbo man holding firm on the traditional african culture. though they are a father and a son, eugene, like okonkwo, abhors everything about his father because his father is a traditionalist. achike himself is a super fanatic who is more catholic than the pope. he is in enmity with his own father and never wishes to have anything with him; he always severally punishes his children for being under the same roof with papa nnukwu in aunty ifeoma’s place all because his father fails to be converted to catholicism. eugene achike’s wealth is so enormous that his fame as a rich man is heard everywhere he also uses the wealth to help all and sundry. no wonder, in abba, he is given the title “omeluora”. he pays school fees for many and pays hospital bills for indigent people even in foreign hospitals yet his own father wallows in penury and dies of illness he could have survived had adequate care been given to him. in a dialogue that ensued between papa nnukwu and aunty ifeoma, we can surmise that eugene’s philistine attitude towards him heralds his death. papa nnukwu laments thus “…. nekenem, look at me. my son owns that house that can fit in every man in abba and yet many times, i have nothing to put on my plate. i should not have let him follow those missionaries.” (p 91). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 44 nnyagu papa nnukwu’s regret is akin to ezeulu’s when his son oduche who is sent to be his father's eye in the white man’s religion, disappoints him. when aunty ifeoma reminds him that eugene’s ill behavior was not because he joined the missionary, after all, she equally joined, papa nnukwu quickly reminded her that she is a woman and that as a woman, she does not count. this quickly reveals to the audience the belief system of the igbo in both the traditional and modern igbo societies about the perceived less importance of women. to adichie, in most cases, women are more important than men in many households. she makes this categorical through aunty ifeoma’s response when she says to him, “eh? so i don’t count? has eugene ever asked about your aching leg? if i do not count, then i will stop asking if you rose well in the morning.” like achebe who indicts the europeans for putting a sword on the thing that held us together resulting in our loss of unity, adichie blames the white man for corrupting our people. papa nnukwu still not convinced that the white man’s religion had not made his son a beast, says “still, i say it was the missionaries that mislead my son.” he further reminisces and narrates to his daughter a story of his encounter with the missionaries to get his daughter convinced that it is the christian belief that jesus and his father are equal that has in the actual sense, corrupted the minds of the converts. he recounts: i remember the first one that came to abba, the one they called father john. his face was red like palm oil, they say our type of sun does not shine in the white man’s land. he had a helper, a man from nimo called jude. in the afternoon they gathered the children under the ukwa tree in the mission and taught them their religion. i did not join them, kpa, but i went sometimes to see what they were doing. one day i said to them, where is this god you worship? they said he was in the sky. i asked then, who is the person that was killed, the person that hangs on the wood outside the mission? they said the son, but that son and the father are equal. it was then that i knew that the white man was mad. the father and the son equal? tufia! do you not see? that is why eugene can disregard me, because he thinks we are equal. (p92). adichie, through the voice of papa nnukwu gives us a historical rundown of colonialism; how christianity entered the igbo land. her view is similar to achebe’s diachronic exposition, using obierika and okonkwo to x-ray the ills the coming of the white man has caused the igbo belief system. obierika had said, “does the white man understand our custom about land” and okonkwo aptly responds; “how can he when he does not even speak our tongue? but he says that our customs are bad; and our own brothers who have taken up his religion also say that our customs are bad." he laments about the docility of the igbo who joined hands with the european to annihilate the igbo tradition. he says, "how do you think we can fight when our own brothers have turned against us? the white man is very clever. he came quickly and peaceably with his religion. we were amused at his foolishness and allowed him to stay. now he has won our brothers and our clan can no longer act as one. he has put a knife on the things that held us together and we have fallen apart” {tfa, p125}. adichie did not see differently from achebe, the ills of the western tradition to our society. adichie indicts our people who develop strong penchant for western culture to the detriment of their own tradition. eugene achike is typical of such people who believe that their own tradition and culture are barbaric because of their foolish embrace of the white man’s tradition. he seems to forget that even christianity preaches the love of one’s parents and that christ did not come for the righteous but for the sinners. he abhors his father that even his death does not appeal to his emotions. at a time, we wonder if eugene is still normal or has he actually gone mad because of catholicism? the type of punishment meted to his children for being under the same roof with papa nnukwu makes us ponder over his sanity. kambili, the naïve narrator aptly captures the temperament of her father thus: then i noticed the kettle on the floor, close to papa’s feet, the green kettle sisi used to boil hot water for tea and garri, the one that whistled when the water started to boil, papa picked it up. “you knew your grandfather was coming to nsukka, did you not?” ...he poured the hot ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 45 nnyagu water on my feet slowly, as if he was conducting an experiment and wanted to see what would happen…. (pp200-201) like achebe’s, things fall apart, adichie’s purple hibiscus can be discussed under sociological approach. it is all about the way of life of the igbos in the post colonial era. walter benjamin has adequately discussed the relationship between the novel and the nation in nigeria. benjamin believes that the novel mirrors the modern igbo society hence the assertion that the novel neither comes from oral tradition nor goes into it. the function of literature in the society aristotle, an ancient greek thinker has disclosed that literature mirrors the society. niyi osunbade in a journal article in nordic journal of african studies, states that like most african writers, adichie has demonstrated concerns for the happenings, in her society. she is therefore preoccupied with the reflections of the historical and socio political condition of her society. she is particularly concerned with the exposition of the ills {social, political, economic, and religious} in her society and the attack of their imperfections. the attack is however governed by love for the society rather than by disenchantment with it. significantly, her works generally enjoy the representation of the fictional reality through her incisive, graphic and apt use of language (p140). adichie, like other concerned writers, agrees with the neo-classical writers, represented by john dryden and alexander pope, that literature {satire} is the best tool for tackling ills of the society and individual. adichie vividly condemns the state of insecurity in the society, poor administration in our institutions and in politics as well, government’s philistine attitudes towards the welfare of her workers among other things. adichie’s novel aptly mirrors the contemporary society. according to osunbade, purple hibiscus for instance, cinematically presents the oddities in nigeria as well as africa in general. particularly, it x-rays the tyrannical trauma of anarchical – cum draconian leaderships {both within the family and society at large} being experienced by the africans. this is portrayed through the family of eugene achike blessed with material wealth, but mined tragically by the cruel abuse of his father turned callous by a conservative form of catholicism {140} adichie dispassionately, through the killing of ade coker, akin to the killing of dele giwa via letter bomb shows the state of insecurity in the society. however, she does not intend to paint the society black, but she believes that not until the ills in the society are fiercely pointed out and criticized, there would be no reformation. in her own words; .... the baby was nearby, in a high chair, his wife was spooning cerelac into the baby’s mouth. ade coker was blown up when he opened the package – a package everybody would have known was from the head of the state even if his wife, yewande had not said that ade coker looked at the envelope and said “it had the state house seal” before opening it {p212} adichie had earlier pointed out that what eventually leads to ade’s death is because he never compromised the truth. as the editor of “the standard”, eugene’s newspaper, he always indicted the government where necessary, but the military government never wanted the truth to be told so ade was first arrested and imprisoned for saying the truth. eventually with the aid of eugene, he regains freedom only to be killed for not laying his pen to rest. adichie is of the view that the worst that can happen to any society is military regime. not only that the military regime had many innocent citizens unjustly killed, life was made miserable during the military rule in nigeria. auntie ifeoma laments “look what this military tyrant is doing to our country.” purple hibiscus aptly mirrors the society in such a way that anybody who reads it needs not wonder about the author’s focus. although adichie did not use fictional settings, her use of real locations as abba, enugu, nsukka and so on authenticates the fact that she focuses on using satire to correct social ills. almost all societal ills are mirrored in such a way that the ill can be remedied. through the vivid illustration of aunty ifeoma’s suffering to give papa-nnukwu medical attention to save his life and of course, the eventual death of papa-nnukwu is the author’s response to the incessant strike actions in ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 46 nnyagu the country. the author’s massage generally is that strike is not a good thing and that any government that has the well being of her people at heart would not allow her workers to embark on strike. workers deserve to be paid as and when due for it is their rights to receive their remunerations for working for the government. in nigeria, the rulers and other political leaders amass wealth, that is meant for paying the government workers and they expect the workers not to revolt. the incessant strike in the country constitutes a lot of perils to the people. a lot of people die untimely mainly because their people cannot afford to pay the exorbitant hospital bills in private hospitals. this is well dramatized by the author, thus “will you take him to the medical centre today or tomorrow morning, mom?” amaka asked “have you forgotten, imarozi, that the doctors went on strike just before christmas? i called doctor nduoma before i left, though, and he said he will come by this evening.” …. but since the doctors’ strike had started, he had run a small clinic in town. the clinic was cramped, amaka said. adichie is of the view that the perennial industrial actions have given the doctors the opportunity to set up their own private clinics which they pay more attention to than the government hospitals where they receive their wages. also social ills meted to widows in the igbo society are unveiled and condemned. aunty ifeoma’s husband has died in an accident but her in-laws indict her of abetting the death of her husband. adichie, through the voice of aunty ifeoma, satirizes the follies of igbo people who encourage such ill practices. aunty ifeoma in a dialogue with mama, says: “i don’t have the strength for ifediora’s family right now. they eat more and more shit every year. the people in his umunna said he left money somewhere and i have been hiding it. last christmas, one of the women from their compound even told me that i had killed him. i wanted to stuff sand in her mouth. then i thought that i should sit her down, eh, and explain that you do not kill a husband you love, that you do not orchestrate a car accident in which a trailer rams into your husband’s car, but again, why waste my time? they all have the brains of guinea fowls? {p82} adichie’s narrative techniques in narrating her tale, adichie prefers to use one of her characters in the novel. kambili the naïve narrator tells the story as she perceives it, thus the use of the first person point of view. according to wilbur (2004), the style is not widely used like the third person point of view. however, adichie, painstakingly used the style to effectively pass her message. the style made the novel unique and natural. this is the area her novel slightly differs from achebe's. however, the way she punctuates her sentences with certain igbo words and phrases is akin to achebe's and it goes a long way in showing national identity. conclusion although the two authors belong to different ages, their works have areas of semblance. some critics are of the view that adichie is a literary daughter of achebe because adichie copiously imitates achebe's style. like achebe, adichie’s deals on the theme of culture contact and culture conflict. one reading purple hibiscus would think that adichie experienced the history she has chronicled. besides, she has equally demonstrated her ingenuity in the use of the igbo proverbs. like achebe, adichie has effectively applied the proverbs in natural context. the two novels aptly mirror the ways of life of the african man in both the pre-colonial and post colonial era. works cited abrams, m.h.a glossary of literary terms. usa: thomas wadswoth, 2005. achebe, chinua. things fall apart. london: heinemann, 1958. adichie, chimammada n.purple hibiscus. yaba: kachifo ltd, 2006. anderson, jan. backgrounds to world literature. {2nd edition} vol.1. florida: a bekabook, 1999 baldick, chris. concise dictionary of literary terms. new york: oxford university press, 2004. benjamin, w. illuminations. schocken, 2007. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 47 nnyagu conrad, joseph. heart of darkness. great britain: wordsworth classics, 1999. carpenter, jack and peter neumeyer. elements of fiction. iowa: www brown co pub, 1974. conrad, j. heart of darkness. great britain: wordsworth classics, 1999. davies, daries. aesthetics and literature. london: continuum,2007. dobie, ann b. an introduction to literary criticism. usa: wadsworth, 2012. drabble, margaret and jenny stinger. concise companion to english literature. new york: oxford university press, 2003. emenyonu, ernest. the rise of the igbo novel. ibadan: university press ltd, 1987. .... studies on nigerian novel. ibadan: heinemann, 1991. nnolim, charles e. issues in african literature.yenagoa: treasure resource, 2009. nwahunanya, chinyere. literary criticism, critical theory and post colonial african literature.owerri: springfield pub. ltd, 2007. obaze, o. review of purple hibiscus, by chimamandangoziadichi. https//kwenu.com/bookreview/obaze/chimamanda_adichie.htm olaniyan, tejumola and atoquayson. african literature an anthology of criticism and theory. singapore, 2009. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 40 ifechelobi & akabuike experiential meaning in chimamanda adichie’s purple hibiscus: a linguistic analysis prof. jane n. ifechelobi department of english language & literature, nnamdi azikiwe university awka jn.ifechelobi@unizik.edu.ng & ifeoma grace akabuike department of english chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university igbariam campus ifyakabuike2014@gmail.com abstract this paper explored language use in chimamanda ngozi adichie’s purple hibiscus. the aim is to describe the experiential meaning of the text and how adichie’s lexico-grammatical choices reflect her experiences and worldviews of the post-colonial nigeria. the study adopted halliday’s transitivity model of the systemic functional linguistic (sfl) to analyze clauses. textual data comprises excerpts purposively drawn from the novel. clauses were identified, classified according to the participant-process-circumstance elements of the transitivity. data were analyzed based on the principles of the transitivity model of sfl. the study revealed that adichie utilized majority material processes to represent the actions, events, happenings and doings of papa eugene achike. again, that transitivity is a viable tool to reflect theme. the paper concludes that the lexico-grammatical choices of transitivity in the novel under study helped in the interpretation of the experiential meanings. keywords: experiential meaning, transitivity, processes, participants, circumstances introduction the creative writer’s tool for expressing his/her sensations, perceptions, themes among others is primarily by means of language. every creative writer wrestles with words and meaning in order to convey his/her unique vision. this includes the nigerian creative writers. in novels, writers embody in language, their experience of the phenomenon of the real world (halliday, 184). language encodes the individual and collective experiences of its users by the meaningful choices they make out of the totality of the potential choices made available to them by the network of options in the linguistic system. the actual choices writers use make manifest in the form of texts, which halliday (40) referred to as “the actualized meaning potential”. texts contain the writer’s experience and worldview; that is, the way the writer chooses to project his/her experience of reality and the roles he/she wishes to assign to each character in the novel. halliday and matthiessien (26) opine that “we use language to make sense of our experience and to carry out our interactions with other people”. from the opinion of halliday and matthiessien above, it is the obligation of the writer to turn experience into meaningful texts as language is a resource for making meaning and through the lexico-grammatical choices we make. the aim of this paper is to analyze the lexicogrammatical choices made by the writer in purple hibiscus and how it reflects her experiences of reality. purple hibiscus by chimamanda ngozi adichie explores the themes of domestic violence, religious hypocrisy, denial of rights, feminism, social relation extreme demonstration of power among others, through the story of kambili achike, a young nigerian lady trapped in a world ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 41 ifechelobi & akabuike of conflict and strife. kambili comes from an affluent, devout catholic family. her father, papa eugene achike is famous,wealthy, a factory owner, newspaper publisher but very strict, and he physically and emotionally abuses kambili, his brother jaja and mother; beatrice. eugene even disowned his father simply because he is an idol worshipper. aunty ifeoma (papa’s sister) a university lecturer, lives in nsukka. jaja and kambili visit their aunt in nsukka and discover a life beyond the confines of their father’s authority. this made a lot of difference in their lives. papa dies suddenly. the autopsy reveals he died of poison. violence permeates the novel as we see eugene achike wreaks untold and mindless havoc on his family; kambili for eating ten minutes before mass; flinging the missal at jaja for not attending the communion; pouring hot water on his children’s feet for staying under the same roof at nsukka with their grandfather (papa nnukwu) an idol worshipper; ruining of jaja’s finger when he was barely ten years old for missing two questions on his catechism test; and beating his wife beatrice, to the point of losing her pregnancy among others. these instances of violence are part of the experiences of reality adichie represented as texts through the lexicogrammatical choices she made in her novel purple hibiscus. methodology this paper aims at analyzing the experiential meaning (how language was used to represent the writer’s experience of reality and world views of post-colonial nigeria) in purple hibiscus. to achieve this aim, sixty (60) excerpts from the novel were drawn. the sixty (6) clauses were identified, listed and further classified and analyzed according to the participant-processcircumstance types of transitivity within the systemic functional linguistics framework. simple percentages were used to find the frequency of occurrence of each of the process types. following the sfl framework, qualitative and quantitative method, meaning will be revealed through the findings interpretation. theoretical framework systemic functional linguistics this study adopts michael halliday’s transitivity model of the systemic functional linguistic (sfl). sfl studies the relationship between language and its functions in a social context. that is to say that sfl places higher importance on the concept of ‘meaning as choice’ and language function (halliday, 11) halliday (12) identifies three ‘meaning potentials’; ideational, interpersonal, and textual and referred to them as ‘metafunctions’. a writer chooses from the potential options available in the linguistic system to produce intended meaning which is significant to how she wishes to portray them in discourse. the actual choice made is a text which is meant to serve the writer’s communicative purposes. meaning is said to be an interface between contextual dimensions of field, tenor and mode; and lexicogrammatical dimensions of transitivity, mood and theme; and this simultaneously form what halliday (39) calls “social semiotic”. texts are said to relate to its context through its register and its genre, and to the lexicogrammar through its choice of participant roles, role relationships and how the text relates to itself to form texture so as to be meaningful to the reader. ideational meaning the ideational metafunction is concerned with clause as a representation. its function is that of representing “process” or experience. though this function, “language provides a theory of human experience, (halliday,) ezeifeka (175) says that the ideational meaning has two components, “the experiential and the logical metafunctions’. halliday (106) agreeing with the above asserts that “the experiential function belongs to the ideational metafunction, and the transitivity system construes the world of experience into manageable sets of process types, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 42 ifechelobi & akabuike which is also termed as the clause of representation”. while experiential meaning relates to how language represents experiences; the doings, happenings, state of being and other locations that relates to how we do things in the world, logical metafunction on the other hand, relate to how language structures these experiences, the interdependencies of clause nexuses that construe these experiences. experiential metafunction is realized by the lexicogrammatical feature of transitivity. transitivity according to morley (9) aims at “identifying the participants or things which are involved, the action and events taking place, and any relevant attending circumstance”. halliday (107) states that “transitivity translates the world of experience into a manageable set of process types”. richardson (54) notes that “the essence of representation is in the relationship of who is doing what? to whom? the experiential ideational metafunciton is at the crux of this paper. the aim of this paper is to analyze the experiential clauses using halliday’s transitivity and how the writer’s lexicogrammatical choices reflect her experiences of reality. experiential meaning is realized in the grammar of the clause by the lexicogrammatical system of transitivity. (halliday & matthiessien). this paper is strictly restricted to experiential meaning, therefore, logical, interpersonal and textual metafunctions, though realized simultaneously in the grammar of the clause, are not discussed here because they are outside our scope. transitvity aims at identifying the participants or things which are involved, the actions and events taking place, and any relevant surrounding circumstance (morley, 9). halliday (107) states that “transitivity translates the world of experience into manageable set of process types. these our world of experiences include the goings-on doing, happening, sensing, being, saying, behaving, existing, which are carried out by people. these happenings, sensing and others are called ‘processes’ halliday 9106) explains that processes are six (6) in number. they include: material, mental, relational, verbal, behavioural and existential. the people and entities that share these experiences are called ‘participants’. halliday & matthiessien (181) states that the participants carry out the processes under circumstances which may be constrained by time, location, manner, extent, contingency, accompaniment role and cause. eggins (222) adds that “circumstances are usually marked by adverbial groups or prepositional phrase”. hence, the structure forming elements of the transitivity system is the participant-process-circumstance configuration. halliday (222) adds that “the process is realized by the verbal group, participant by the nominal group and the circumstantial elements by the adverbial and prepositional phrases. table 1 below summarizes the process types, their meaning and characteristics participants. table 1: process types, their meanings and participants process types material: action event category meaning ‘doing’ ‘doing’ ‘happening’ participant directly involved actor, goal participants obliquely involved recipient; scope client attribute behavioural ‘behaving’ behavior behavior mental: perception ‘sensing’ ‘seeing’ senser, phenomenon inducer ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 43 ifechelobi & akabuike cognition desideration emotion ‘thinking’ ‘wanting’ ‘feeling’ verbal ‘saying’ sayer, target receiver, verbiage relational: attribution identification ‘being’ ‘attributing’ ‘identifying’ carrier, attribute identified, identifier token, value attributor, beneficiary assigner existential ‘existing’ existent adapted from halliday and matthiessen’s introduction to functional grammar p.311 data analysis and findings analysis of experiential meaning through the lexicogrammatical features of transitivity. the statistical results of the analysis carried out in the selected excerpts from the novel under study are presented below: table 2: percentage of transitivity analysis no processes number percentage 1 material 35 58.3 2 mental 4 6.7 3 relational 8 13.3 4 verbal 9 15 5 behavioural 4 6.7 total 60 100 table 2 above shows high prevalence of material clause (35), mental clause (4) relational (8), verbal (9) and behavioural (4). there is a low occurrence of mental and behavioural clauses. existential did not reflect at all. owing to the low occurrence of mental and behavioural clauses, we still cease to make reference to them as they are not significant for this study. material process a material process is the process of doing or happening in the transitive or intransitive clause which shows actions, activities and events. in this analysis, we will categorize the various material processes from the excerpts in appendix a as follows: 1. operative process – actor – goal speaker as actor (singular ‘i’) speaker + others as actor (plural ‘we’) 2. receptive process (goal with actor omitted) 3. lexically indeterminate evasive process (material process shading into mental ones). a. operative process speaker as actor (‘i’) 1. i started to wolf the cereal down 2. 1 put the bowl down in these two excerpts, we saw the actor (the one that does the action – that is, the one that brings about the change) as singular and in the subject positions. here, the actor is personal (a human being) charged with the role of subject. this means that ‘i’ in the subject position is the one carrying out the action. b. speaker + other as actor (plural ‘we’) 3. we never broke the eucharistic fast (p.109) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 44 ifechelobi & akabuike 4. but we would not eat until we came back home the use of ‘we’ as the actor is not much in the excerpts. the use of ‘we’ makes the speaker (kambili) to hide in the crowd of other participants. this goes to show that she is not directly responsible for the particular action carried out 2. receptive process (goal with actor omitted) receptive process allows the speaker/writer to omit the actor – the ‘doer’ of the action. it was observed that the excerpts did not make use of receptive process simply because it is a narrative told from the first person narrative point, one of the major characters in the novel. so, kambili made use of first, second and third person singular. subject pronouns like ‘i’, you, he, she and it. they were observed to be prevalent in the clauses, for instance, 5. he picked the missal 6. it missed jaja 7. he unbuckled his belt slowly 8. he poured hot water on my feet 9. it cracked the top shelf 3. lexically – indeterminate operational process with speaker as actor (material process shading into mental processes) 10. i started to wolf the cereal down 11. i wanted to say yes the indeterminate operational process types were observed to be very few. they reveal actions that are weak. in the excerpts, the writer made use of both transitive and intransitive verbs to construe actions/events/happenings. examples of such verbs are: missed, took, gave, locked, came, drove, poured, wanted to say took, lowered among others. 12. mama gave me the panadol tablets 13. he unbuckled his belt 14. it landed on jaja 15. your father broke it on my belly 16. the belt stopped the actor (mama) is the topical theme of clause 15. mama consciously performs the action of the material process of “doing” by giving kambili the panadol tablets. kambili received the action of ‘giving’ so also, the actions of ‘broke’ ‘unbuckled’ and ‘landed’. these were some of the material processes that adichie chose to construe the actions of papa eugene in the novel. in 13, the action of the transitivity verb ‘unbuckled’ allowsfor transfer of activity from the actor, papa eugene to the goal ‘belt’ and another action was performed ‘landed’ signifying ‘beating’ which was received by the goal ‘jaja”. the material processes we saw in clauses 12, 13, 14, 15 above are effective and has a high transitivity function because it has an end point. however, the example in clause 16 ‘stopped’ did not extend to any entity in the clause. the actors in the material clauses above are mainly humans and less of inanimate objects. the actor brings out the action of the verb in the external world. the active transitivity clauses allow the writer the option of placing the participants in the theme position and therefore, representing ‘concrete’ physical events. this made it possible for adichie to pass her domestic violence message across. transitivity options express the main theme of the clause which is represented in the form of process with associated participants and circumstances. verbal process in the excerpts, there are eight clauses containing verbal processes. one of the clauses is: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 45 ifechelobi & akabuike 17. ‘jaja you did not go to communion’ (verbiage), papa (sayer) said (verbal) quietly (cir: manner) a verbal process is the process of saying. the participant who says is known as the sayer. in clause 17 above, the sayer is papa eugene achike. jaja missed the holy communion and especially on a palm sunday. papa being a religious fanatic, he never expected anyone to miss communion not to talk of his own family member. another participant in the saying is the ‘verbiage’ verbiage is the content (message) of what is said or name of the saying. verbiage in clause 17 was addressing jaja, papa is inquiring to know why jaja missed the communion. the verbal clause are usually accompanied by quotes but when reported, it is not in quotes. adichie used verbal clauses in the novel to develop accounts of dialogue together with quotes of what was said. the essence is to bring out the typical voices of the characters in its natural way. another participant of the verbal clause is the ‘recipient’ or ‘receiver’. below is an example: 18. “eat a little cornflakes, quickly” (verbiage: quoted) mama (sayer) said (verbal) almost in a whisper (cir: manner), you (recipient) need something in your stomach to hold the panadol. in example 18 above, mama is the sayer, addressing kambili (the recipient) relational process a relational process is known as the processes of ‘being’ and ‘having’ not ‘doing’ or ‘sensing’. relational clauses construe changes without transferring any action on any participant. relational process can be classified into three types: attributive, identifying and possessive processes. in the examples below, we have attributive relational process clauses. 19. wafer (carrier) was (relational) too secular (attributive) 20. it (carrier) was (relational) a heavy belt (attribute). the wafer in clause 19 refers to the ‘host’ (bread) which signifies the body of christ as we receive communion. jaja preferred to call it wafer but papa eugene sees it as being too common. rather, it should be called host. in example 20 above, the belt that papa beat the family members with, was being described. adichie uses relational process to describe things. circumstance the circumstances found in the processes as evident in the excerpts from adichie’s purplehibiscus are mainly those of location, time and manner. adichie used ‘location’ to show the places where the action took place, she as well used the circumstantial element of manner to describe how the action was carried out. adichie used ‘manner’ to describe the pain kambili, jaja and beatrice felt each time papa eugene descends on them. for example: he (actor) unbuckled (material) his belt (goal) slowly (manner) in the example above, adichie told us how papa eugene unbuckled his heavy belt before the belt started landing on them. the clause above shows the manner papa’s action was carried out. conclusion in this paper, we tried to find out how the lexicogrammatical choice in the transitivity system made by adichie in her novel reflected the experiential meaning of the characters, the actions and happenings stated in the novel. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 46 ifechelobi & akabuike it was found out that adichie made the most use of material processes which shows that the choice of transitive and intransitive verbs depict actions. this is to say that the lexicogrammatical choices made determines the type of process in the clause. again, the findings reveal that transitivity analysis can be expressed as the main theme of the clause or text. theme of domestic violence was represented in the excerpts analyzed through the choice of verbs the writer made. such verbs like; broke, unbuckled, hit, poured, among others depict violence. the use of verbal clause was to develop accounts of dialogue and to depict the voice of the characters in its natural way. also, relational clauses were used to assign attribute to actions, events, ideas, feelings, opinions and behaviours. the actions of the characters were not brought to bare on these processes the circumstances were used to show the location (places) the actions/events took place, and also to describe how (manner) the action happened. finally, we want to categorically state that the lexicogrammatical choices of transitivity in the novel under study helped us in the interpretation of the experiential meanings in the novel. it is established that transitivity system can facilitate the interpretation of language use in context and portrays how the clause and its parts are potential sources of information. works cited adichie, ngozi chimamanda. purple hibiscus. lagos: farafina publications, 2003. eggins, susan. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: continuum, 2004. ezeifeka, chinwe. “analysis of experiential meaning in selected inaugural political speeches in nigeria”. affrev laligens, vol. 2 (1), february, 2013. halliday, michael alexander kirkwood. language as a social semiotics. the social interpretation of language and meaning. london: edward arnold, 1978. halliday, michael alexander kirkwood.an introduction to functional grammar. london: edward arnold, 1985. halliday, michael alexander kirkwood.an introduction to functional grammar. london: edward arnold,1994. halliday, michael alexander kirkwood & christian m.i.m matthiessien. an introduction to functional grammar (4th ed.) london and new york: routledge, 2014. appendix purple hibiscus (ph) excerpts 1 1. “jaja, you did not go to communion”, (verbiage: quoted) papa (sayer) said (verbal) quietly; almost a question (cir: manner). (pg. 14)2.jaja (behavior) starred (behavioural) at the missal on the table (cir: location)3.as though he (carrier) were (relational) not addressing it (attributes)4.the wafer (actor) gives (material) me (beneficiary) bad breath (goal)5.i (behavior) starred (behavioural) at jaja6. had something (carrier) come (relational) loose (attribute) in his head (cir: location)?7.papa (sayer) insisted (verbal) we call it host (verbiage)8. “wafer” (carrier) was (relational) too secular (attribute) 9. papa (senser) looked (mental) around the room (phenomenon) quickly (cir: manner)10. he (actor) picked (material) the missal (goal) 11. and flung (material) it (goal) across the room, towards jaja (cir: location) 12. it (actor) missed (material) jaja (goal) completely (cir: manner) 13. but it (actor) hit (material) the glass etagere (goal)14.which mama (actor) polished (material) often. (cir: extent)15.it (actor) cracked (material) the top shelf (goal) … (pgs 14-15)16.we (actor) never broke (material) the eucharistic ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 47 ifechelobi & akabuike fast (goal) (pg. 109)17.the table (carrier) was (relational) set (attribute) for breakfast with teacups and cereal bowls side by side (cir: manner)18.but we (actor) would not eat (material) until we came back home (cir: extent) 19.“eat a little corn flakes, quickly” (verbiage: quoted) mama (sayer) said (verbal) almost in a whisper (cir: manner). “you (recipient) need something in your stomach to hold the panadol” (verbiage: quoted) 20. i (actor) started to wolf (material) the cereal (goal) down (cir: location)21.mama (actor) gave (material) me (beneficiary) the panadol tablets (goal) still in the silver coloured foil (cir: location)22.jaja (actor) had not put (material) much cereal (goal) in the bowl (cir: location)23.when the door (actor) opened (material).24.and papa (actor) came (material) in (cir: location) 25.“you are eating ten minutes before mass? (verbiage: quoted) “her period started and she has cramps” (verbiage: quoted) mama (sayer) said (verbal) 26.“has the devil (sayer) asked (verbal) all (recipient) to go on errand for him?” verbiage: quoted)27. he (actor) unbuckled (material) his belt (goal) slowly (cir: manner)28.it (carrier) was (relational) a heavy belt (attribute) made of layers of brown leather with a sedate leathercovered buckle (circumstance: manner)29.it (actor) landed (material) on jaja (goal) first across his shoulder (cir: location) 30.the mama (actor) raised (material) her hands (goal) as it landed on her upper arm (cir: location) 31.i (actor) put (material) the bowl (goal) down just as the belt landed on my back (cir: location) 32.the belt (actor) stopped (material) 33. and papa (behavior) starred (behavioural) at the leather in his hand (cir: location) 34.mama (actor) took (material) the belt (goal) from him (beneficiary) and laid it on the table (cir: location) (pg. 109-110)35. your father (actor) broke (material) it on my belly (goal) (pg. 253) 36. “my blood finished on the floor even before he took me to st. agnes, (verbiage: quoted) my doctor (sayer) said (verbal) there was nothing he could do to save it” (verbiage: quoted) (pg. 253) 37. i (carrier) was (relational) six weeks gone (phenomenon) (pg. 253)38 when he was ten (cir: time) he (actor) had missed (material) two questions (goal) on his catechism test (cir: location).39.and was not (relational) named the best (attribute) in his first holy communion class (cir: location)40.papa (actor) took (material) him (goal) upstairs.41.and locked (material) the door (goal) 42.jaja (actor) in tears (cir: manner) came (material) out (cir: location) supporting his left hand with his right (cir: manner)43.and papa (actor) drove (material) him (goal) to st. agnes hospital (cir: location)44. papa was crying (material), too as he carried jaja in his arms like a baby (cir: manner) all the way to the car (cir: location) 45. later (cir: time) jaja (actor) told (material) me (goal) that papa (actor) had avoided (material) his right hand because it is the hand he writes with (cir: season) (pg. 53) 46.“you knew your grandfather was coming to nsukka, did you not” (verbiage: quoted) he (sayer) asked (verbal) in igbo (cir: manner)47.“you knew you would be sleeping in the same house as a heathen” (verbiage: quoted)48.“kambili, you are precious” (verbiage quoted) his (sayer) voice quavered (verbal) like someone speaking at a funeral choked with emotion (cir: manner)49.he (actor) lowered (material) the kettle (goal) into the tub (cir: location) tilted it towards my feet (cir: manner) 50.he (actor) poured (material) the hot water (goal) on my feet (cir: location) slowly (cir: manner) 51.he (carrier) was (relation) crying (attribute) now (cir: time) 52.i (senser) saw (material) the moist stream (phenomenon) 53.before (cir: time) i (senser) saw (mental) the water (phenomenon)54.i (sense) watched (mental) the water (phenomenon) leave the kettle flowing almost in show emotion (cir: manner) and are to my feet (cir: location) 55.the pain of contact (carrier) was (related) so pure (attribute), so scalding (cir: extent) 56.i (senser) felt (mental) for a second (phenomenon) 57.and then (cir: time) i (behaver) screamed (behavioural)58.“that is what you do to yourself when you walk into sin, you burn your feet” verbiage (quoted) he (sayer) said (verbal) 59.i (actor) wanted to say (material) yes, papa “because he was right (reason) 60.but the burning on my feet (cir: location) was (relational) up, (cir: location) in swift courses of excruciating pain (manner) to my head, lips and eyes (location) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 69 ude cohesion and coherence in selected sermons of church leaders: archbishop obinna and late pastor bimbo odukoya chika queen ude department of english language and literature alvan ikoku federal college of education, owerri e-mail: chykad2002@yahoo.com abstract although religious discourse has been given research attention, language as used by christian leaders especially in nigeria has not enjoyed wide linguistic investigation. this work is poised to investigate the texture of selected christian sermons by notable church leaders with a view to laying bare the cohesive ingredients these leaders have used to bring about texture and coherence in the sermons and, as a result, command large followership among the christian faithful. two sermons each of archbishop anthony obinna and (late) pastor mrs. bimbo odukoya are purposively selected and some utterances were subjected to descriptive analysis relying on insights from the hallidayan systemic functional linguistics (sfl). analysis reveals intricately woven and coherent texts which are only made possible as a result of the church leaders’ unique deployment of such cohesive ingredients as reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion in the texts. with these linguistic tools intricately deployed, leaders are able to command ample followership while discharging their spiritual duties. the paper affirms that cohesion and coherence are necessities for preachers who wish to command spiritual leadership among their followers. keywords: cohesion, coherence, church leaders, christian sermons introduction discourse occurs when two or more individuals or groups engage in a conversation, whether spoken or written. discourse is concerned with language in action: the way it is used by the speaker and what the speaker uses it to achieve in the listeners. for a language to be appreciated, it has to be meaningfully strung together. this can only happen when there are devices present that make the parts hang together towards achieving the speaker's intention. these devices are the discourse structures which refer to those elements or features employed by the writer or speaker, in order to make the readers or hearers make sense of what is read or listened to. these elements make a text, written or spoken, to be recognized as well-constructed, as opposed to those that are jumbled or incoherent and so, the language user knows if communication has successfully taken place. the ability of an efficient language user to interact or communicate in a given context, variety/style or register influences others to respond or react in a particular way. different social groups thus manipulate language to suit their communication needs. the convincing and persuasive effect of language during communication is most predominantly noticed in such genres as legalese, journalese, political speeches and religious speeches. religion usually changes the status of any associated language. religious language gives an aura of sanctity even when its intention is to communicate certain messages as it tries to persuade its audience. an instance of religious language is sermon, which is the focus of this research work. quite a large body of research has been carried out on religious speeches (sermons) by religious leaders across different world religions. some of these works include bahago (1999), onoja (2010), gibbs (2010), esimaje (2012), hyles (2015) and, acheoah and abdulraheem (2015). although these works are concerned with linguistic investigation of such sermons, none has been specifically devoted to the study of the coherence and cohesion in sermons of religious leaders. further, none has been preoccupied with studying church leaders’ sermons in nigeria along different christian ideologies. therefore, this paper fills this gap as the researcher seeks to study oral discourse in the form of sermons of archbishop anthony obinna, a male catholic priest and (late) pastor bimbo odukoya, a female pentecostal preacher in an attempt to investigate the features or tools that bind discourses together as meaningful whole. these two individuals are famous leaders of their denominations with massive followership. this study examines how these church leaders have been able to deploy mailto:chykad2002@yahoo.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 70 ude language to relay scriptural messages to their followers over time while still maintaining a firm hold on their numerous followers, by looking into the preachers' linguistic choices in order to characterize or analyze the patterns of linguistic ties that bind linguistic items together. further, this paper examines how the cohesive ingredients have been deployed by the preachers to bring about coherent structures in the sermons. it is our hope that investigating the patterns of cohesive ties in the sermons yields rewarding insights into the nature of the internal structures of sermons and enrich our understanding of the role of language in the discourse between church leaders and followers. sermons as religious discourse sermons in the broad sense are presentations on religious themes. they often contain moral appeal. they are generally believed by christians to be divine or inspired messages presented in churches by authorized persons among the faithful community. in the catholic environment for example, a sermon is understood as homily. it is delivered by priests, bishops or deacons during the holy mass. the homily is patterned on passages from the bible, both the old and new testaments. specifically, a sermon is a message from god, which is intended to be heard or read, and to have an immediate, deep and lasting impact upon the listeners or readers. the word sermon has its origin in a latin word 'sermo', which means a stab or a thrust. this indicates its purpose which according to ephesians 6:17 is to pierce the heart of the hearer with "the sword of the spirit, which is the word of god" (nkjv). by this, preachers often use words that arouse strong emotions in the hearts of their listeners in order to achieve expected response. preachers use language in sermon delivery either for "the conversion of sinners, or the instruction of christians, and is usually manifested as encouragement, motivation, exhortation, persuasion, rebuke, correction or warning" (onoja 70). to achieve the expected reaction during sermon delivery, preachers employ different linguistic resources; they must ensure that the message is conveyed clearly, and they must seek out and utilize acceptable words by which to convey the message and; make the words easy to be understood. rowland notes that a religious sermon is "a word of god, a sacred and sanctimonious creed to be accepted without question or doubt of authenticity" (105). a sermon is usually an oral address based on scriptural truth contained in the bible, "elaborately treated and with a view to persuasion" (gibbs 139). the characterization of sermons usually pitches the preacher and the audience in asymmetrical position with the former on the higher plane. consequently, sermons are often delivered without any appeal to the hearers' sentiments, personal opinions, ego, status, culture or expectations, while the congregation is expected to accept without doubt or bear any grudge against the preacher on the topic preached. berg calls this “an assault” (onoja 71) since at the pulpit, the clergy has immunity, giving him or her authority to use their sermons as they deem best. the congregation only responds to the speech when called to do so. features that characterize sermons as outlined by gibbs are thus: they are oral or spoken address, not something to be read, but heard; they are to the popular mind, which means that it should be couched in language which can be understood by all present; and they are upon scriptural truth contained in the bible. this eliminates those thousands of so-called sermons that are nothing but a disquisition upon the most recent scientific discovery, and sermons from other religions outside christianity. it is elaborately treated, that is to say, the passage is carefully analyzed, the real meaning of its words explained, its truth illustrated and the lesson applied. for gibbs, sermons are strictly oral and, this is supported by adam who views them as specific religious stylistic composition, which is determined for oral presentation (10). however, sermons are not only oral but can also be written. they are not just for christians but also for other religious groups. on the preparation of sermons, hyles notes that "the language of the preacher is his (/her) trowel, his hammer, his (/her) scalpel and the conveyor of his (/her) feelings" (89), and so, it must be well structured to articulate the idea as found in the scriptural text, as succinct as possible, in order to be understood and to persuade the hearers. this, one could say, definitely makes sermon preparation an uphill task. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 71 ude preachers have a variety of sources of activities around them to choose ideas from, but cannot just include every idea they come across into a sermon. rather the preacher should be selective about what is included in the sermon and when, as these shape the sermon. a preacher can only achieve this by using a sermon structure. every part of the sermon must be connected to another for a better understanding on the part of the readers or listeners. it is this type of unity within a text that shows that the text is properly structured. sermons are structured, coherent and meaningful when the words and sentences that make them up are all linked one to another in a fashion that corresponds to conventional formulae. although there is no single mould into which all sermons should be poured, all sermons should follow basic guidelines for the sake of clear and relevant communication. theoretical considerations the study rests on some principles of halliday’s systemic functional linguistics (sfl). mak halliday argues that “language is a resource for making an indefinitely expandable source of meaning potential” (16). for sfl, language is a social semiotic resource with which language users accomplish their purposes of expressing meanings in context (eggins 1). eggins adds that sfl views how people use language with each other to accomplish everyday social life. this points to the fact that sfl accounts for the way language works in a social and cultural setting and sees language as a meaning potential that its users draw upon to construe meaning. the theory fuses language and the social context in which it is used. one of the great strengths of halliday’s theory is its applicability to text analysis. the analysis in this present study has been largely limited to the textual meta-function of language, which is the textforming component in the linguistic system. the textual meta-function is concerned with cohesion on which this research work is based. cohesion is a potential for relating one element of a text to another. it pulls the parts of a text together that they all appear as a unified whole. halliday and hassan assert that “cohesion is the means whereby elements that are structurally unrelated to one another are linked together, through the dependence of one another for its interpretation” (27). the cohesive devices provide inter-textual and intra-textual resonance that bind discourse together. according to halliday and hassan, these text-forming agencies are drawn from a number of areas of the lexico-grammatical system, and they make up the non-structural components of the semantic system (28 29). cohesive devices are tools used to hang pieces of language together and when a text is properly held together as a unit, it is said to be cohesive. according to sfl, the cohesive devices that bind texts together provide inter-textual and intra-textual resonances that tie discourse together. halliday postulates that each element in a language is explained by reference to its function to the total linguistic system. in other words, each part is interpreted as functional with respect to the whole. in this paper, the focus of the researcher is mainly the textual function of language since our goal is to investigate the patterns of cohesion in the texts under study. this way, we shall be examining how and to what extent the church leaders have deployed the cohesive devices in their sermons, how and to what extent the sermons are inter-textually and intra-textually tied together and, to what extent coherence has been achieved in the texts under study. to achieve this, our focus shall be on such cohesive ingredients as reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. data collection procedure data for this study are four (4) church sermons delivered by archbishop anthony john valentine obinna, the catholic archbishop of owerri archdiocese, imo state, and (late) pastor mrs. bimbo odukoya of the fountain of life church, lagos both in nigeria. the researcher collected these sermons as already recorded oral presentations through the tape recorder. these were transcribed for easy and detailed analysis. for ease of analysis, sermons of the catholic archbishop have been tagged ajvo 1 and ajvo 2, while those of the pentecostal preacher are tagged pbo 1 and pbo 2 by the researcher. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 72 ude data presentation and analysis in this section, the analysis shall focus on the following cohesive devices reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical devices and how they have been deployed by the preachers to bring about textuality in the sermons. reference in church leaders’ sermons reference is used profusely in the texts under study. below are a few examples from the texts: ajvo i i. for they listened to him and many who were possessed cried with a loud voice and they who were paralyzed or lame were healed. the above is drawn from the bible reading and the church leader decides to begin his sermon with this expression. from the above, ‘they’ refers to the people who were following jesus christ in the reading while ‘him’ refers to jesus christ. these reference items are exophoric since they refere to characters outside the text. they are used by the leader to shift the attention of the followers to events during the life of christ. ajvo ii i. 1this light represented here by the lumen christi, the light of christ, which was lighted on easter, easter vigil, reminding us that christ is the light of the world. 2that is why we honour this paschal candle. . . . 3that is why we have symbols conveying spiritual messages and we use them forever. from the above excerpt, 'this light' points cataphorically to the 'paschal candle' in sentence 2, which in turn is an exophoric reference item since the item itself is not in the text of the sermon. it follows the demonstrative 'this' to show that it is something present and known to the people present at the occasion. the pronoun ‘us’ in sentence one points forward towards ‘we’ which appears once in sentence two and twice in sentence three. in sentence 3, 'them', points anaphorically to the word 'symbols'. the reference items in the above refer to objects either out of the text or objects to be further referred to. therefore, it appears as if the church leader is concerned with intimating members of new happening, event or information. in another example, we have: pbo i i. you must understand that when the devil wants to set a trap for you, he's gonna let somebody do something to you that will make you yourself think that unforgiveness is what they deserve. here, the reference item ‘you’ points forward towards three other ‘you’ within the sentence, the last of the ‘you’ being emphasized by ‘yourself’ while ‘he’ in ‘he’s’ points backward towards ‘the devil’. further, ‘they’ points anaphorically to ‘somebody’. one may say that the church leaders have mindfully made ample use of personal references so that their audience can individualise the message and feel involved. conjunctions in church leaders’ sermons ajvo i well, i was relaxed as everything went through peacefully with the president of palestine welcoming graciously the holy father. so, while the holy father is in that land, the holy land, here i am in samaria as one of the apostles . . . i take the position of john in your midst while the holy father takes the position of peter in palestine at this moment. 'well' is a conjunctive item, a continuative because it serves to indicate that what follows is in response to a preceding item. it is seen to introduce an explanatory comment. in this case it links and introduces a continuation of the speaker's utterance after a brief pause of laughter from his audience and the feeling of the speaker as he watched the video clip of the pope's visit to palestine. the use of the causal relation 'so' forms a cohesive chain, pulling the pope's visit and the archbishop's together. the preacher uses it to connect these visits to that of jesus' apostles in the bible or, the coming of christ into the world as read prior to the sermon. 'at this time' is a conjunction which shows temporal relations, indicating the actual time of the event. we have another example in ajvo ii: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 73 ude blessed are you if you suffer for the sake of christ, but if you suffer for the sake of stealing or sin, then it's no use. in the above, there is the use of 'but', an adversative conjunction which presents a contrary view to the preceding idea. 'then' which presents a causal and conditional effect hints at the fate of those who suffer for the sake of sin. again in pbo i, we have: now if you notice god speaks about love being a commandment; and when you are talking about commandment, you are not giving the person a choice. you are telling the person 'this is what you have to do.' . . . if i say to you, 'this is an instruction' . . . maybe you might decide, 'well, i don't want to obey that instruction'. but if i say to you, 'this is a commandment', it means you have no choice. the church leader begins her speech with the conjunctive item 'now' to link her next expression to the bible passage previously read. the conjunctive 'now' links the two expressions by its intonation pattern. it opens a new point of argument in the speech. the next sentence begins with an additive 'and' which is used by the speaker to elaborate more on what commandment really means. there is also the use of a conjunctive item 'well' as a continuative. its use in the text seems to give the addressee a freedom of an option. the adversative 'but' introduces a contrary option, pointing to the biblical fact that to love is a commandment, which must be obeyed, and not an instruction, which is optional. from the examples in this subsection, conjunctions have been used by the church leaders primarily to link items together but specifically to add new information, to show contrast, to indicate time and reason for speeches/actions. lexical cohesion in church leaders’ sermons lexical cohesion has also been used profusely in the texts of church leaders. the following are some instances: ajvo i i. all will be vanity. vanity on vanity, all is vanity. ii. so, when people abuse you for being faithful, for doing right, for seeking to live in a chaste way, in an upright way, in an honest way . . . don't you worry . . . . in (i) the lexical item 'vanity' is reiterated. this is for the purpose of emphasis for a more forceful or stronger sermon by the church leader. in (ii), 'doing right', 'a chaste way', 'an upright way' and 'an honest way ' are lexical synonymies especially in the context of a religious sermon. they are all included in the meaning of 'faithful' which can be taken to be their super-ordinate. they are all used emphatically too to buttress the importance of holy living. in ajvo ii, we also have: i. adoration of god, because of his glory, because of the immensity of his goodness, the immensity of his benevolence, the immensity of his forgiveness. in the above sentence, the lexical items 'benevolence', ‘forgiveness’ and 'goodness' are synonyms. they constitute lexical synonymy used by the church leader to emphasise the idea contained in their meaning. there is also the repetition of the word 'immensity'. both the lexical synonymy and the repetition are used to drive home or emphasise the greatness of god’s attributes. another example in this section as seen in pbo i: so, if i say that i want to love, i'm going to work against my flesh; i'm going to work against my desires; i'm going to work against my passion. from the above, the terms 'passion' and 'desires' are lexically synonymous given the religious context in which they are used. 'flesh' is a superodinate, which includes passions and desires. there is also the reiteration of the expression 'i’m going to work against'. this is done on purpose for emphasis. by using lexical synonymy and reiteration, the church leader repeatedly emphasises what believers must do in order to love in a godly way. ellipsis and substitution in church leaders’ sermons there are instances of ellipsis in the sermons, where items which recoverable are omitted completely. some examples are presented here: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 74 ude ajvo i: you have the message of eternal life, and we have come to believe (^). pbo i: the bible says, ‘every desire that i have, whatever i want god to do to me, or do for me, he’s willing to (^). pbo ii: any man that is smart must make sure that he has affairs without his wife knowing (^) . . . when you’re having extra-marital affairs, the wife at home must not know (^) in ajvo i, the end of the sentence is an instance of ellipsis. the expression ‘the message of eternal life’ has been ellipted to avoid a redundant expression. this type of ellipsis is called the nominal (object) ellipsis. in pbo i, we see an instance of verbal ellipsis where the verb ‘do’ is ellipted. in pboii, there are two instances of ellipses. the first is the ellipsis of a nominal clause ‘that he has affairs’. this is an example of a clausal ellipsis. the second another clausal ellipsis of ‘you’re having extra-marital affairs’. ellipses as used here are usually employed to avoid redundancy in expressions and make the expression come together as a coherent whole. however, there is a very sparse use of substitution all through the sermons. this perhaps is because the speakers have employed other cohesive devices mostly for the purpose of emphasis. below is an instance of substitution from pbo i: god said to me, "who is god in your life?" i said, 1"you are the one". as seen in the sentence above, 'one' is a substitute for 'god'. it is a nominal substitution, pointing anaphorically to ‘god’. the substitute is used to achieve economy and variety in the choice of words. it also functions as the main word which it replaces. collocation in church leaders’ sermons collocations are lexical items that co-occur or appear close to one another in discourse. their proximity in a discourse contributes to the texture of the text. the cohesive effect of these pairs of words is not because they share any semantic relationship per se but because they share the same lexical environment. normally, any two lexical items or more tending to appear in similar contexts will generate a cohesive force since the mention of one tends to bring to mind the other. a number of collocations which have helped to generate texture have been identified in the texts and presented below. (ajvo i) – holy spirit . . . god . . . jesus christ . . . lord . . . son . . . father . . . devil . . . saints; pope . . . holy father . . . apostles . . . peter . . . john . . .; jews . . . gentiles . . .; baptised . . . confirmed . . . holy communion; sin . . . eternal life . . . judgement . . . vanity . . . humanity . . . universe; soldiers . . . swords . . . guns. (ajvo ii) – christ . . . father . . . god . . . lord . . . holy spirit; light . . . darkness . . . lumen christi . . . easter . . . paschal candle; humanity . . . world; redemption . . . salvation . . . prayer; state . . . land . . . nation . . . nigeria; wining . . . losing . . . election . . . vote . . . regime . . . governance ; success . . . failure; police . . . army . . . civilian; heaven . . . kingdom . . . earth; bread . . . food; holy . . . sin . . . truth . . . evil; women . . . men; big . . .small; friends . . . enemy; hands . . . feet. (pbo i and pbo ii) – man... woman... male... female... husband... wife... ladies... girls; lies... truth... sin; god... lord... father... spirit... jesus... devil; alleluia...amen; born again...christian; honesty...deceive...trust; courtship...marriage...dating; blessing... curse. conclusion this work has examined the internal structure of christian sermons delivered by selected church leaders in nigeria with a view to exposing the cohesive devices used by these leaders to enhance texture and coherence in the sermons while determining the extent the devices have helped the leaders in commanding large followership among the christians. descriptive analyses of sermons of archbishop anthony obinna and the late pastor mrs bimbo odukoya reveal intricately woven and coherent texts which are only made possible as a result of the church leaders’ unique deployment of such cohesive ingredients as reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 75 ude these cohesive devices have been specifically used to achieve emphasis, to avoid redundancy, link ideas, to direct attention, give information, show contrast, indicate time and show reason for certain speech/ actions. with these linguistic tools intricately deployed, the messages become clear and understood by the faithful, while the leaders are able to command ample followership while discharging their spiritual duties. the paper affirms that cohesion and coherence are necessities for church leaders and preachers who wish to command spiritual leadership among their followers. references acheoah, j.e. & abdulraheem, h. 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(2014). halliday's introduction to functional grammar. new york: routledge. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 114 ike & akujobi widowhood in lonely days: unsung casualties c.b. ike department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria email: cb.ike@unizik.edu.ng & dr. o.s. akujobi department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria abstract the concept of widowhood has been a neglecteddiscourse in nigeria and has not received the adequate attention it deserves through making appropriate governmental policies to protect the rights of widows. little or no attention has been given to the subject matter in literary studies and this is due to the choice of scholars to focus on other areas of interest in women’s affairs than the widow’s plight and widowhood in general. however, widowhood is a very pertinent matter in literary texts and is intricately connected to the outer reality. this paper examines and brings to the fore, the precarious experiences of widows in the african societyportrayed in the lonely days from a feminist perspective. in addition, the widowhood situation, and series of events in bayo adebowale’s lonely days shall be studied on the backdrop of women’s lack of rights, empowerment, and subjugation.yaremi, the protagonist in the novel, lonely days is a figure of the inhuman treatment suffered by widows in kufi land after the demise of their husbands. she is overwhelmed with sorrowful thoughts, but finds solace in the fact that her husband, ajumobi did not die an abominable death. the findings showed that the success of a woman does not depend on the sustainability of a man. keywords: widowhood practices, feminism, women affairs, women empowerment introduction women empowerment and fight against injustice to women has been a global case that has been active since the 18th century. it is in that century that women got to realize the injustices against them and began to seek better laws and rules for themselves. it started off as a series of academic debates before it turned to protests, seeking better laws for themselves. this has improved the level of treatment and equality for them, but this gender maltreatment and inequality continues to be a problematic factor in most places, especially in africa where obnoxious laws are still maintained. the enlightenment and the women’s sudden realization of the importance of the rights of women pushed series of reforms in law making and formation of governments across the world. the realization of the importance of gender equality grew from mere protests to the execution of laws protecting women. however, sadly, the improvement of the situation of women did notaffect all the aspects. munroe in her essay gives a historical look into equal rights citing the importance of mary wollstonecraft in the 18th century, mary wollstonecraft is exemplary of those history-making women. her book, a vindication of the rights of woman, published in 1792, was the first truly feminist treatise acknowledged by the english public. its continuing literary and historical importance is demonstrated by the many recent critics who have addressed wollstonecraft’s sometimes dated, sometimes surprisingly modern, themes, as well as her unusually diverse writing style. (3) the quest of these feminists to seek equal rights does not remove the fact of the localization of the aspects of gender rights as different women in different regions seek different gender law reformations. the aspect of change in gender relations that the european women seek is not the same as the ones sought by africans. thus, the quest for equal rights and better laws for all gender is localized according to different regions of the world and their customs. mailto:cb.ike@unizik.edu.ng ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 115 ike & akujobi in unveiling some of the repugnant practices against widowhood, one can localize the relevance of this issue and topic in africa as of now. the europeans no longer deal with this issue of offensive practices against widows and unfair treatment of bereaved women. it is the african women who must deal with this sort of issue, and aside dangerous and unfair widowhood practices, there are other challenges the female gender encounter in nigeria. yakubu states that, “spousal abuse is common in nigeria, especially wife beating in polygamous families. the penal code permits husbands to use physical means to chastise their wives. polygamy is practiced widely” (8). thus, the nigerian law system is already lopsided and unjust in the treatment and relation of women. there are many laws against women, and these laws hinder their fundamental human rights and progress in the country. this is the fact that women liberators tackle or bring out forth to the public, especially public officials, to make them become aware of the risk and injustice the women undergo daily.the lopsided nigerian law system and organization, clearly affects different classes of women. the effect ranges from the most powerful of women to the most vulnerable. the system and organization of the whole process can be traumatizing to the women. mohammed writes of the situation of nigerian widows as, “widows in nigeria endure adverse and traumatic practices that affect their health, well-being, and their rights as women and citizens of the country” (1). the experiences of these women can be traumatizing and emotional, made worse with the experience of widows in nigeria. this is the nature of experience represented and chronicled in lonely days. this paper will study the representation of widowhood in nigeria as evidently imitated in the text. this study shall be done with a connection to feminism, women empowerment, and liberation. feminism and gender empowerment in any situation that gender maltreatment and inequality is discussed in an intellectual setting, feminism comes up immediately. since the inception of the ideas surrounding “feminism,” it has continued to push for the destruction of gender-bias laws and system in the countries of the world. the concept of widowhood leans towards gender bias and inequality due to the reason that it affects the female gender negatively. widowers do not suffer similar subjugations like their female counterparts. since widowhood affects the female gender negatively, it is in line with proper intellectual discourse for this discussion to fall under feminism and gender empowerment. in order not to lose focus or miss the point, it will be pertinent to understand the concept of feminism fully and how it is entirely connected to the concept of widowhood. feminism has moved on from the movement of emancipation of women to an ideology solid in its bid to push for equal treatment and equal rights of all genders. although it is not as vibrant as it was in the 19th and 20th centuries, it continues to be a strong ideology that is popular throughout the world. suaidi gives a short interpretation of feminism as “a collection of movements and ideologies that share a common goal to define, establish, and achieve equal political, economic, cultural, personal, and social rights for women. this includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employments” (3). the concept of widowhood can easily be deduced as the ill-treatment of the female gender and a situation of brazen lack of equality. the unhealthy experiences of widows are predicated on the institution of obnoxious laws, traditions, and cultures within the african society.to understand feminism and gender inequality properly, millet states that the study of feminism or all forms of gender inequality and maltreatmenthas to be seen through the lens of patriarchy.to millet, all faults associated with gender imbalance arose out of patriarchy. he opines: patriarchy refers to the role of males in the society in which men take the chief responsibility over the community welfare by and large. the word "patriarch" derived from two greek words: “patira,” and “archy” which means family and rule respectively. “traditionally, patriarchy granted the father nearly total ownership over wife or wives and children,” “classically, as head of the family the father is both begetter and owner in a system in which ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 116 ike & akujobi kinship is property." this prompts the making of all nature of laws, especially the laws subjugating women. (67) to women liberators or gender empowerment proposers, patriarchy is a vicious enemy. many genderbias laws are rooted in patriarchy which is considered as an enemy of feminism.however, choosing to focus only on patriarchy as the major reason for the cause of these unjust system and law without viewing the wholeness of feminism and the struggle for equality will be limiting the scope of the situation concerned in this paper. mara in a more generic opinion explains feminism in such a way that it aligns with the situation surrounding the subject matter of discussion. mira writes, it will readily be accepted that women and men have not been treated equally and that a woman was not allowed or was not considered capable enough to participate in the various spheres of the society. feminism is according to my awareness about this fact and a desire to change this state of affairs. this would involve discarding of old assumptions, questioning the pre-defined norms, and inviting new perspectives. it is not possible to define feminism in concrete terms because more than being something tangible it is an ideology and a stance that is taken in favour of a woman. (107) to mira, the importance of feminism lies in challenging the status quo in a male dominated society. situations like widowhood and all the unjust practices that come with it have to be challenged and discarded. it is through feminism and realization of the presence of such injustice that this can be achieved. it is also through feminism that the situation and all the injustices associated with widowhood can be understood. given that feminism has been talked about from the historical approach, halivora delivers a more modern view of feminism. she traces it in history and presents the modern ideology process. she writes of the modern perception of feminism as post-feminism and writes, “post-feminism refers to the perceived failures of the second wave feminism and it continues in fighting for the same beliefs as in the previous waves. however, the movement’s focus has slightly shifted; it is less focused on political processes and on laws but more on the individual self” (17).feminism is also considered as a literary theory on its own by some scholars, for instance, guo writes, “feminist literary criticism has almost gone through two centuries up to now. this literary criticism based on the reflection of women’s situation by themselves in a long term and achievement of their specific and practical action” (3). it is on the backdrop of feminism being utilized like a literary theory that widowhood in the novel shall be established and studied. widowhood practices in nigeria nigeria is a patriarchal country, where laws and systems are made to heavily favour the male population and subjugate the women. the system and processes favouring the men and subjugating the women comes from all angles of the lives of the women. even in the aspect of women’s emotional breakdown and torture, these systems and laws still find a way of getting through to the women. across nigeria, there are systems made to affect the woman who loses her husband. the proponents of these systems may have brought it up for various reasons, but at this present time, these systems are regarded as part and parcel of patriarchy. odimegwu and okemgbo write that “in nigeria, just like other patriarchal societies, women are regarded more as appendages to their husbands. they lack right to ownership of property, they face lots of inhuman traditional practices harmful to their health, such as female genital mutilation and widowhood rituals which both old and young widows are compelled to undergo as part of mourning their dead husbands,” (40). the case of widows is similar to that of other women, where they are disadvantaged by the patriarchal system with laws to subjugate and maltreat them. the women are seen as appendages to their husbands, or at worse, properties, and so they do not have control over how or in what manner their husband’s memory is honoured. in most cases, the woman is expected to be the object of severe pity on behalf of the memory of her husband. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 117 ike & akujobi george o. tayo in his own study of widowhood practices in nigeria focused on awori sub-yoruba cultural group as he explores their most noticeable widowhood rites, confinement. confinement is a widowhood rite that is popular across the country and tayo presents it in a detailed way. he writes, “during confinement occasioned by mourning and observance of widowhood rites, widows are forbidden from engaging in certain acts and practices which are considered detrimental” (14). ihekwuaba and amasiatu give a detailed presentation of the suffering of widows in nigeria. in their study, they present different gruesome and humiliating situations in nigeria, such as proving their innocence by sleeping with the corpse, being part of a ritual to prove innocence and the chasing away of the wife from the matrimonial home. a lot of inhuman actions are carried out by the men and their women enablers. these scholars give a summary of the situation as thus, widowhood has a brutal and often irrevocable harsh economic impact on the widow's children, especially the girl child. poverty may force widows to withdraw children from school, exposing them to exploitation in child labour, prostitution, early or forced marriage, child trafficking, and hawking. widowhood rites enforced on widows mete out different kinds of losses and inevitably expose them to economic hardships, confinement, and illtreatment. (7) these widows grapple with the matter of loss, poverty, and would still be expected to carry out rites and practices enacted for widows. in another instance of these practices against widows, oyeniyiaransiola and ayodeji ige conducted a quantitative study on thirty yoruba widows, one of whom stated, “i was forced to drink the water used to bath my husband’s corpse to prove my innocence of his death” (3). esosa mohammed in another survey carried out about practices against widows state, “twelve out of the twenty widows interviewed said as they transitioned into widowhood, they did not get any support from their in-laws” (89). the fact is that the view of these people that the woman is an appendage of the man, she deserves all that befalls her, especially in the case of her going back to her father’s house and not taking anything of her husband’s. nwogu validates this further when she states, “in nigeria traditional practices have ensured that men retain material, social and moral dominance over women that they are simply unwilling to voluntarily relinquish. its customary laws on marriage, inheritance, succession and property ownership” (1). nwogu goes on further to state that this idea of women being appendages to their husbands and properties gives credence to the inhuman widowhood practices in nigeria, especially in the south east. widowhood practices in bayo adebowale’s lonely days lonely days takes on a different path of story line, choosing to focus on the plight of widows in kufi. yaremi is singled out as the central character, or the point of attraction. it is through yaremi that the widowhood practices in lonely days are better exposed and explored. aside yaremi, there are also other characters that are used to represent these widowhood practices and how they play their roles in the lives of these women. in this text, different forms of widowhood practices are represented. through the actions and interactions of the characters, these widowhood practices are made known to the readers. the plot of the text progresses and reflects thoroughly and widely spread widowhood practices in kufi, the setting of the text. yaremi, like every other widow, at first is exposed to the shock and sadness that comes from the loss of a loved one and husband. this is her first experience as a widow. she comes to terms with the reality of her widowhood--the absence of her love and her husband. the text represents it as this, now alone in the world, yaremi was left to prepare heaps and raise crops, all by herself labouring hour after hour, under the sweltering heat. she had to cut the bushes around the family compound, and appeal to the village men, especially to uncle deyo, ajumobi’s bosom friend to assist in mending the leaking roof and rebuilding the falling walls of her mud house. (5) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 118 ike & akujobi yaremi comes to terms with the absence of her husband. for the first time since she had been married to ajumobi, her husband, she would be needing the help of someone to do things for her. these are things and actions her husband would have done for her if he were alive. yaremiis in pain due to this, her husband’s absence is felt, and she must come around it. this is her first step and introduction to widowhood. her sole companion and source of joy missing, she immerses herself in other duties to keep herself occupied. she must take up tasks to fill the day and take the loneliness out of her. yaremi’s daily activities after ajumobi’s passing is recorded as, “for yaremi, it was now work, work and work a workaholic! the will to survive was there, putting determination into her bones and vigour into her nerves … and gradually, she began to accustom herself to hard fact that she really was a widow,” (11). in another instance, the text also represents the situation of yaremi and her encounter with loneliness after her husband’s demise. the absence of her husband leads to the transfer of most of her time and energy to work. work becomes a substitute for the family she lacks now. the narrator writes, “work to yaremi had become medicine against loneliness and frustration; a close fight to fatigue and boredom with; a cushion for daily lives.” (31).yaremi realizes that she is indeed a widow at the moment. widowhood takes a different and new reality for her. all her life processes and plans are truncated for the kind of life she is to live as a widow. her life takes on a different structure. the text further elaborates this change in her lifestyle as this, that was what yaremi’s life had become now that her husband had died. hot, fire to be handled with extreme care and caution, lest it burned and consumed everything. fire up above, fire down below. she must be prepared to walk through fire, unscratched, the fire of life! (16) the widows just as soon as they had started their lives of widowhood, they do not only come to realize their loneliness, but they also come to realize the ostracising nature of their new lives. the community views them as beings outside the sphere of life of the entire community. it is like being widows have made them different set of humans from the regular humans in the community. these widows get to know each other and share their grief and pain. first, they lament of the loss they experience, the sadness, their new lives. second, the nature of their new lives is discussed, of the new level of interactions they have with the rest of the community, and how they have come to become the other, different from the members of the community. it becomes a new understanding for them that they are on a new level, different from the kind of interaction and relation they had with the community when their husbands were alive. these widows’ discussion goes: three widows, long before yaremi, had trudged this road , and had several issues of interest to discuss. “our hairs are matted and unkept,” they began. “no necklace. no earrings. the world looks at our elongated neck and chuckles.” … “and we are followed, all the time, with suspicious gaze.” (22) these widows undergo a change in their ways of living and relations with others that they are negatively affected in their minds and daily lives. they take on a new role and position in the community and thus become a set of haunted individuals. sometimes, they are not seen as the former individual they used to be, they become objects of suspicion and ridicule. the plight of the widows is further explored as they continue to recount their experience at the hands of the unjust system and laws. it is like in a kind of situation where the society is pitched against them with laws, processes and dictates that hamper their own happiness and growth. the widows in this situation are no longer concerned about growth, they are more concerned about their happiness and their daily lives. these limitations imposed on them greatly affect them. the text recounts another harrowing situation as thus, dedewe, for instance, used to cry all night brooding over the humiliation she had suffered at the hands of her husband’s relatives … when her husband died, they had sat her down alone by the side of the corpse which lay on a wooden slab in the inner apartment of a dark room and had asked to confess her sins. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 119 ike & akujobi “confess, confess, confess, confess,” they had told her. “ask your husband to have mercy.” (25) what can be deduced from the scenario above is the finality of the accusation of people against dedewe, and like every other widow, dedewe is accused of killing her husband with certitude and finality by her husband’s relatives. there is no open space left for doubt or an iota of hope of her innocence, she is blamed already for harming the husband without any form of trial. this is the same widowhood practice that other widows undergo while mourning their husbands. in dedewe’s experience, there is no free mind, free of bias, to look at the matter on a neutral ground. individuals, especially men, empowered by the patriarchal laws and system, do not open their mind to the possibility of her innocence; they judge her and hold the opinion they have of her already. this is exactly what other widows in the text and outside the confines of the text go through. they are accused of things they do not know about. a wife is still reeling from the shock of her husband’s death to be confronted with the accusation of having a hand in her husband’s death. this is a bad widowhood practice that has affected widows adversely. the widowhood practices are not removed from yaremi, too. she undergoes the same bad widowhood practices as the one her fellow widows encounter. at the time her husband died, strong suspicion began to rise, as usual, that she may have had a hand in the death of her husband. though, this view is not strongly held, but it still affects the psyche of yaremi and the way she regards the community after her husband is buried. this experience is captured as this, yaremi’s name had always been linked with the subject of human beings transforming into feathered creatures. when the people saw the hawk which perched on the roof of ajumobi’s house on the day ajumobi died, their suspicion was confirmed. “this woman has killed her husband!” “she turned into a hawk and killed her man!” (43) one can carefully detect that yaremi’s case is similar to dedewe’s. these women encounter situations of false accusations that seem to have become true in the eyes of thie accusers. there is completely no logic presented by these accusers of the assurance of the proof that these widows committed the crime they are accusing them of. there is no logic there at all; the widows are merely accused from speculations and then the accusations are judged as true and valid. this, of course, would be in opposite if it were to be the case of widowers. they won’t be accused in such manner as the text does not present the widowers in the text in this light. widows undergo all these patriarchal widowhood practices and learn how to cope with them. it takes a while to get accustomed to their new lifestyle as widows, but they would surely have to come to terms with it. most of these widows do little or nothing to resist these negative practices. to prove yaremi’s innocence of the crime the people accuse her of, the narrator writes, “but heaven was yaremi’s witness! ajumobi died a natural death. he had returned from the farm feeling very tired and had refused his favourite food. two days after, his condition deteriorated. he was strangely talkative as if unburdening his mind, his typhoid would disappear” (44). yaremi, like other women, is not entirely treated right as a woman. the problem that the women are treated below the level of how they should be treated when their husbands were alive, and it is the same way that it affects their change of status in the community after their husbands’ deaths. as it has been stated earlier in this paper, women are treated like appendages and commodities. this mindset affects how women are treated after the death of their husbands. yaremi loved her husband and adored him very well when he was alive. however, it did not change the fact that she was mistreated sometimes by her husband. this mistreatment is entrenched in the psyche of the men as women are considered as appendages and commodities. it’s these same men who uphold the widowhood practices to the core and support its continuous existence. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 120 ike & akujobi ajumobi uses his physical power to dominate yaremi in the marriage. aside the dominance of ajumobi in the part of finance and food, ajumobi sometimes asserts his dominance in the marriage through force and physical power. the narrator writes of it as this, “in kufi, wife beating was common. it provided outlet for husband’s sense of powerlessness and frustration, in the face of grinding poverty. on a couple of occasions, ajumobi had actually beaten yaremi and yaremi always wondered who on earth, bestowed this right on her husband,” (63). yaremi’s husband, ajumobi, exercises his physical dominance over her that she asks who gave ajumobi the right to beat her, but no one needs to give ajumobi the right to beat her, she is seen as an entity below the status of her husband, and so, ajumobi could as well beat her for correction or in case of any disagreement. this is what the other women in kufi undergo in their marriages. women have little or no rights. the text does not allot space and time for the other women in the text to state their own experience in the hands of their husbands. nevertheless, yaremi’s experience serves as the image of the subjugation of the rest of the women. this level of subjugation makes the women not to challenge the status they have been placed because of the loss of their husbands. these women are assigned new, ostracising, and intimidated status and they stick to it with little or no challenge for the system. in another point of the text, the narrator gives a generic view of the status of women in kufi. women are trained to see their lives revolve around their husband and men. the men rule their lives. this perception of women about their husbands leads to the widowhood practices that come up after the demise of the man. since the man is seen as a higher gender, or the lord of the family, it becomes justified for the practices to continue. the narrator represents it as this, these women always looked eagerly towards the birth of their next babies which would secure them the enhanced status of wifehood and motherhood. women of kufi would spend long time, each day, trying to detect their husband’s mood, pleasure and dispositions, in order to adequately prepare themselves for anticipated resignation or outbursts whichever one came their way and in whatever order. (86) the community accuses the widows of killing their husbands. the same community ostracises them. the men in the community expect them to remarry after mourning their husbands for some time. this remarriage is considered a custom and is compulsory for all the widows in kufi.the remarriage law, like other widowhood practices in the text, is patriarchal in nature. the woman is not permitted to make a decision of whether to marry or not. it is made compulsory for her to get married. the obnoxious law is made by the men and perpetuated by them still. the men elders of the community present the situation as this, time was ripe now for yaremi to choose a new cap to wear. time now for her to cast off the robes of widowhood, and settle down finally with a new husband, according to the demands of tradition.“purification later for yaremi,” the elders argued, “but choosing a new cap to replace the old one is now! now!” (108) it is at this point that yaremi begins to have problem with the entire community as she goes against the tradition in a firm stand against it. she refuses to remarry as the tradition mandates widows. she chooses to remain single, and this causes the biggest tragedy in the text. she is expelled from the community and suffers one of the worst outcomes of widowhood practices in kufi town. conclusion this paper looked at widowhood practices in bayo adebowale’s lonely days beginning from introducing the matter of discussion to rounding it off with the thesis of the paper finally dissected and proven. with the qualitative study embarked in this paper, it is noteworthy to state that there are evidences of the presence of events relating to widowhood practices in the text. widowhood practices in the present nigeria continues to be a continuous problem to the government and the people. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 121 ike & akujobi works cited adebowale, bayo. lonely days. spectrum books limited. 2006. george, o. tayo. “policy response to widowhood to widowhood rites among the awori of ogun state.” american international journal of contemporary research, vol. 2, no. 5, may 2012 guo, rongqiong. “brief analysis of feminist literary criticism.” assehr, vol. 300, 2018 halivora, martina. the development of feminism in english literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. 2016 ihekwuaba, o. nkechi & anthonia amasiatu. “influence of widowhood practices on the psychosocial and physical health of widows in selected states of south-eastern nigeria.” european journal of research & reflection in educational sciences, vol. 4, no. 6, 2016 mohammed, esosa. resilience of nigerian widows in the face of harmful widowhood practices in the southwest nigeria: an interdisciplinary analysis. 2017. munroe, julie. “a feminist vindication of mary wollonstonecraft.” iowa journal of literary studies, vol. 8, issue 1, 1987 nwogu, mary. “the legal anatomy of cultural widowhood practices in south-eastern nigeria: the need for panacea.” global journal politics & law research, vol. 3, no. 1, 2015 suaidi. “feminism reflected in pride and prejudice, novel by jane austen.” jibs, vol. 3, no. 1, june, 2016 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 82 anyakorah & mbanefo religious extremism in unigwe’s on black sisters’ street nneka m. anyakorah anambra state civil service commission, awka email: anyanne2006@yahoo.co.uk & dr. mbanefo s. ogene department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: sm.ogene@unizik.edu.ng abstract there is hardly any shortage of studies on the problem of religious extremism. however, what most studies on religiously motivated terrorism and armed conflict lack is a balanced view, a perspective which recognizes that islamic religion is not the only religion susceptible to extremism. this is the lacuna which this paper seeks to fill, the exploration of extremism in the context of christianity, a religion which all too often claims to distinguish itself from the acts of extremism often pointed out in islam. using the christian religious setting of chika unigwe’s second novel, on black sisters’ street, the researcher through the lens of postcolonial theoretical framework studies the way in which the novel, through the family of brother cyril–ama’s supposed father – represents religious extremism as a menace strangulating the peace and unity of families in post-colonial (post-independence) africa. in detecting and discussing brother cyril’s extremist actions, the paper further employs alex p. schmid’s emi-20, an instrument developed for the detection of extremism using twenty indicators for monitoring extremism. keywords: extremism, rape, emi-20, christianity, fanaticism introduction christian religious extremism is assuredly evident in the writings of african literary writers whose works are set in the colonial african times (for example, ferdinand oyono’s the old man and the medal and mongo beti’s thepoor christ of bomba), these writers’ portrayals of this issue however are nothing compared to what is seen in post-colonial literature, a very typical example being that of chika unigwe’s on black sisters’ street. reading the text, a reader can’t help but see the colonial portrayal of religious extremism as a mere herald of things to come in post-colonial africa. what is most worrisome about this situation is that in these post-colonial texts, the white man is no longer the one perpetuating these acts. rather africans themselves are the ones who, in the name of promoting christianity, have become the extremist adherents of creeds and practices which do not actually align with biblical teachings. this sordid fact can only point to one thing: that the christian religious practices and doctrines instituted in africa by the white men is nothing but a colonial tool which has the goal of subduing the identity of africans while serving the interest of enriching european economy and identity. it is worthy of note that the representation of “family” is one of the core discursive issues in unigwe’s on black sisters’ street. unigwe uses the image of the family as the building block of society to draw attention to the challenges facing african women, girls and children (the weakest elements of society) and thus the challenges facing africans in general. in the text, the role of the father as the protector of the family, the source of strength and courage for the children, and the source of happiness for the wife, is primarily missing, if not challenged. whereas fathers and husbands are generally perceived as the backbone of the family, unigwe’s on black sisters’ street seems to show that due to the perversion of the christian religion, african men – most especially the extremely religious ones – are increasingly failing in this role, becoming instead a source of psychological torment and anguish for their children and wives. ama’s father who is known as brother cyril in ungiwe’s novel is a good example of such men who, in their pursuit of so-called religious interests, extremely oppress their family. the man can fittingly be described as a religious extremist. but first of all, it is important to understand the meaning of this word by exploring its various contemporary semantic shades. mailto:anyanne2006@yahoo.co.uk mailto:sm.ogene@unizik.edu.ng ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 83 anyakorah & mbanefo understanding religious extremism: a review of the term one of the definitive elements of african society is religion. from the sub-saharan regions of west, east and southern africa to the desert countries of north africa, the african man – whether of black ascendency or of fair-skinned arabian descent – is typically a religious man, holding firmly to his belief in, and respect for, god (or, in some cases, a multitude of gods and goddesses). john mbiti puts it this way: “africans are notoriously religious so much so that religion permeates all departments of life so fully that it is not easy or possible always to isolate it” (1). “the individual’s immersion in religious participation”, obaji m. agbiji and ignatius swart assert, “starts before birth and continues after death” (3), such that for the typical african man, “to live is to be caught up in a religious drama” (mbiti 1). this religious drama extends to all facets of african traditional life; both the universe and practically all human activities in it are not only seen but also experienced from a religious perspective (agbiji and swart 3). similarly, nokuzola mndende argues in the context of ritual, saying that in africa, “religion is part of the fibre of society; it is deeply ingrained in social life, and it is impossible to isolate and study it as a distinct phenomenon; therefore, when members of a family clan gather together in a sacrificial ritual for the ancestors, that too is a religious activity”(161). for mbiti, as the religious worldview informs the philosophical understanding of african myths, customs, traditions, beliefs, morals, actions and social relationships, it is almost unthinkable for an african to live without religion (15).in fact, the religious consciousness is so deeply ingrained in the typical african person to such an extent that the resort to religion comes automatically in an unconscious process whether they are in danger, in pain, in the moment of ecstasy, joy, or sorrowing at home or in the diaspora (ezra chitando, afeadogame and bolaji bateye 5-7). however, as with every other cultural commodity which is easily abused when in abundance, the preponderance of religious practices in africa has resulted in various forms of abuse, otherwise seen as religious extremism. however, even though islamic religious extremism has been so loud in recent years following the 9/11 new york bombing, it's extremely violent nature does not becloud the extreme tendencies perceivable in most christian religious groups. in the second to sixth chapters of his book when religion becomes evil: five warning signs, charles kimball points out five warning signs of religious extremism as: absolute truth claims, blind obedience, establishing the “ideal” time, the end justifies any means, and declaring holy war. although these do not all apply to every form of extremism seen in christian religious bodies, there is no gainsaying the fact that today’s christianity is itself a religion built on the dogma of absolute truth and blind obedience, with many contemporary pastors and self-ordained bishops always declaring holy spiritual wars against perceived enemies (neighbours and competitors) and expecting their followers to follow without questioning their moves. christian religious extremism, which constitutes the focus of this research, can be clearly detected using emi-20, that is, the twenty indicators for monitoring extremism, which is an instrument which schmid developed from – most importantly – the works of manus i. midlarsky, origins of political extremism: mass violence in the twentieth century and beyond, and astrid bötticher & miroslav mares and others. according to schmid’s emi-20, extremists tend to do most of these twenty things: (i) “situate themselves outside the mainstream and reject the existing social, political or world order.” they even (ii) “seek to overthrow, with the help of a revolutionary vanguard, the political system in order to (re-) establish what they consider the natural order in society – whether this envisaged order be based on race, class, faith, ethnic superiority, or alleged tradition.” similarly, they usually (iii) “are in possession of an ideological programme or action plan aimed at taking and holding communal or state power.” hence they generally (iv) “reject or, when in power, subvert the liberal-democratic conception of the rule of law; use the political space provided by it to advance their cause in efforts to take state power.” also, they not only (v) “reject universal human rights and show a lack of empathy and disregard for the rights of others” but also (vi) “reject democratic principles based on popular sovereignty.” extremists as well (vii) “reject equal rights for all, especially those of women and minorities;” just as they (viii) “reject diversity and pluralism in favour of their preferred monocultural society, [for example] a worldwide islamic state,” or a colonially christianized africa which is subject to the british empire. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 84 anyakorah & mbanefo furthermore, in order to achieve their goals, extremists (ix) adhere to an ends-justify-the-means philosophy. thus they (x) either actively or inactively “endorse and glorify the use of violence to fight what they consider “evil” and to reach their political objectives (e.g. in the form of jihad)”. corresponding with their endorsement of violent approaches, they (xi) “show a propensity to engage in mass violence against actual and potential enemies when in power or when enjoying impunity.” this propensity speaks of their being (xii) “single-minded (black-or-white) thinkers who want to purify the world and demonise, debase and dehumanise their enemies in hate speech, characterising them as ‘inferior’ and earmarking them, implicitly or explicitly, as expendable.” therefore, as extremists tend to (xiii) “subordinate individual freedoms to collective goals,” they (xiv) “refuse to engage in genuine (as opposed to tactical and temporal) compromises with the other side and ultimately seek to subdue or eliminate the enemy.” they are, as such, (xv) “intolerant to all views other than their own dogma which is expressed in anger, aggressive behaviour and hate speech.” their dogma leads them to (xvi) “exhibit fanaticism, portray themselves as threatened and embrace conspiracy theories without necessarily being irrational in their strategic choices.” more so, they not only (xvii) “exhibit authoritarian, dictatorial or totalitarian traits,” but are equally (xviii) “unwilling to accept criticism, and intimidate and threaten dissenters, heretics and critics with death.” this set of people (xix) “expect obedience to their demands and commands rather than subject[ing] their views and policies to discussion even within their own group.” this is simply because they have (xx) “fixed ideas and closed minds and believe there is only one truth – theirs. in its pursuit, they are often willing to face punishment or even death and sometimes actively seek martyrdom” (schmid 21-22). in africa, for example, religious extremism has rapidly been on the increase over the past few years. there are said to be many factors that are responsible for the present crisis in africa (somali, nigeria, cameroon, etc.), such as: “poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, discrimination and political/economic marginalization”(muhsin hassan 18). consequently, the adverse effects of colonialism, poverty, unemployment, illiteracy and marginalization have forced many people to join violent and non-violent extremist groups. this is so typically portrayed in chika unigwe’s novel, on black sisters’ street, where we see religious extremism thrive within the family of an assistant pastor whose extremist and unjust positions the wife cannot resist because of her poverty and other socioeconomic circumstances. brother cyril as an embodiment of religious extremism in on black sisters’ street in on black sisters’ street, ama’s father is the main embodiment and perpetrator of religious extremism. ama’s father—“whom everybody called brother cyril because he was a christian and belonged to a church where everyone was sister and brother” (unigwe 265) —is not just a member of a church but a member of the echelon, particularly an assistant pastor, in the church. describing him, the omniscient narrator says: “he was an assistant pastor of the church of the twelve apostles of the almighty yahweh, jehovah el shaddai, and jehovah jireh, one of the biggest churches in the city. the devil did not belong anywhere near the house of which he was the head” (obss 266). to safeguard this house from what he calls the influence of the devil, he keeps his daughter ama isolated from her friends: her father did not encourage her friends to visit because he said friends sometimes led one astray. when they did come, he told them ama had to study. from the window of her room, ama would watch young girls from the neighbourhood shouting out to one another as they played oga, their feet raising dust as they stamped on the ground. (obss255-6) for this, ama resents her father. in her heart, she truly “wished she could crumple up her father and hurl him off the balcony. fling him so far that his face would smash into the hills” (obss256). not only does her father prevent ama from the normal process of socialization (with friends and peers) which a girl needs at her young age, he also prevents her from having an enjoyable life and from experiencing the zest of living by stopping her from listening to the kind of music she enjoys. practically locked up in her father’s house, ama will get so bored that the only friend she can talk to is the pink wall. in the height of her boredom, she has learnt to keep herself entertained by listening to the loud music which, from the record store across the street, blares into the house, “loud, happy voices that trembled the house, making her want to tap and dance” (obss266). sadly for her though, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 85 anyakorah & mbanefo her father would have none of those. ‘they are the devil’s music,’ he said. ‘they do not edify the things of our lord. they are the devil’s music [he insists]. the devil shakes his waist and sways his horns when he hears music like that. he claps his hands and stokes his fire for the many souls that he’s winning. . . so instead of the kind of music she heard from across the street, ama’s house was infused with music from voices of the cross, the calvary sisters, jesus is savior band, ndi umuazi jesu. voices that grated on her nerves. she never thought of telling her father that the voices irritated her. she knew what would happen if she did. (obss266) but while her father, as the narrator reveals, seems – at least on the surface level –like a man who believes in the maintenance of holiness in their house, seeing everything religious as something to be treasured above human feelings and emotions, it is worthy of note that he is not really an honest, sincere, caring and loving husband and father. bro cyril’s religious strictness and austerity are, in actuality, mere masks that shield what he truly is: an extremist who uses his position as a pastor to commit and cover up his acts of paedophilia, worse still, the rape of his own daughter. although he preaches that “the things of the lord were not to be abused, nor slighted, nor ridiculed,” a man who believes dictates the laws of his house in firm accord with his religious teachings, he is equally a man who is debased, a rapist who continues to have carnal knowledge of his daughter for many years (from the age of 8 to 11), and who uses harsh and angry words to shut up and control his daughter and wife. describing some of the indicators of extremism, and thus the features of religious extremism, schmid clearly points out that extremists tend to “subordinate individual freedoms to collective goals” (no. 14 of schmid’s emi-20), they “refuse to engage in genuine (as opposed to tactical and temporal) compromises with the other side and ultimately seek to subdue or eliminate the enemy” (no. 14 of schmid’s emi-20). they are, as such, “intolerant to all views other than their own dogma which is expressed in anger, aggressive behaviour and hate speech” (no. 15 of schmid’s emi-20). these are seen clearly in the life of brother cyril who uses aggressive speech and actions against his family in order to perpetually keep ama silent about his raping her. right from ama’s girlhood, his father has devised a means of harshly punishing her in the name of “disciplining” her when she contradicts even his little directives that do not go against moral principles: “her father would put her across his knees and, with her mother watching in a corner, tear into her with a treated koboko, the cow-hide cane that he nicknamed discipline” (obss 267). with his cowhide, he is able to keep ama in constant fear and reverence of her, so that – being in acute fear of him – she easily gives in whenever he comes to her room at night. speaking about the strategies used by terrorists, in other words, extremists, in the pursuit of their goal, andrew h. kydd and barbara f. walter observe that “terrorism works not simply because it instils fear in target populations, but because it causes governments and individuals to respond in ways that aid the terrorists’ cause” (50). they further make the core argument that since extremists are too weak to impose their will directly by force of arms, “they are sometimes strong enough to persuade audiences to do as they wish by altering the audience’s beliefs about such matters as the terrorist’s ability to impose costs (punishments) and their degree of commitment to their cause” (50). similar to the violent extremists, al-qaida and the irish republican army (ira), discussed by kydd and walter, in ama’s case, her father brother cyril uses his constant acts of terror that come in the form of moral discipline to instil fear in his daughter, to make her remain in constant dread of him. as the narrator points out, sometimes when ama thinks of going against her father’s wish, she remembers what the punishment will be, the cow-hide which he will use to flog her to his satisfaction. says the narrator: there was nothing ama feared more than discipline cutting a rawness into her skin that hurt for many days after. discipline also always showed its face when ama disobeyed her parents, because her father was a great believer in “sparing the rod spoils the child.” he even had a wooden tablet with the bible passages alluding to that inscribed in a flourish on it and hung up on the door of ama’s room. “so that you’ll never forget.” (obss 268) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 86 anyakorah & mbanefo while there’s nothing wrong with instilling discipline in a child who errs, brother cyril does not use his so-called disciplinary measures to correct ama’s delinquency (ama is actually not a delinquent child) but to subdue her spirit into submission to rape. just as kydd and walter have pointed out earlier, the extremists often combine violence with persuasiveness in order to push the government and individuals to give in to their demands. the same is true with ama’s father, during ama’s girlhood, he has devised the means of keeping her subdued using force as well as the citing of biblical passages. whenever he sneaks into ama’s room at night to have sex with her, ama tries to put up a resistance: she would hold her body stiff, muscles tense, as if that would make her wish come true. when she did this, her father would demand, ‘what’s the fifth commandment?’ ‘honor thy father and thy mother,’ she would reply, her voice muffled by the collar of her nightgown in her mouth. and then she would relax her muscles, let him in, and imagine that she was flying high above the room. sometimes she saw herself on the ceiling, looking down at a man who looked like her father and a girl who looked like her. when the pain made this difficult, she bit on her lower lip until it became numb. (obss 275) thus brother cyril is not just a religious extremist who uses several antics to maintain a positive public image but also a core hypocrite who uses the deceitful application of scriptural passages to guilt-trap, and thus force, his daughter ama to allow him rape her. ama remembers that this history of raping and defying her has lasted for several years, starting from her eight birthday up until her first experience of menstrual flow at the age of eleven (obss 301). relating the first occurrence of this filthy incident, the narrator explains that it has started the night after a big birthday party has been held for the little girl: for ama’s big party, her father, predictably, wore one of his white safari suits... after the guests had gone and ama had been sent to bed certain that this was the happiest day of her entire life, her father floated into her dark room in his white safari suit. ama thought he was a ghost and would have screamed if he had not pre-empted her by covering her mouth with one broad palm and smothering the scream in her throat. with the other hand, he fumbled under her nightdress, a cotton lavender gown with the print of a huge grinning bear. that was the first time it happened. (obss 273-4) it is not just ironical but also symbolical that brother cyril wears white as a symbol of his holiness, and yet wearing this same colour he goes to rape his daughter. his unleashing sexual violence against ama while wearing his white safari suit not only suggests that he does not really have regard for the holiness he claims to represent but also that this seeming holiness is but a garb meant to conceal the fact that he is a wolf in sheep’s clothing. this indeed is a typical feature of extremists: they pretend to be what they are not and using their persuasiveness, they confuse others in order to gain their sympathy (schmid 12). what makes ama’s situation worse is the fact that she is all alone in her woes and only has the walls of their house to confide in. desperately in need of someone to cry to, ama narrates to the walls how her father has held her nipple between his fingers and squeezed; she tells the walls of the pain of the squeezing and the coldness of her father’s hands. as the rape continues night after night, the wall not only heard of how he ignored her when she said that he was hurting her inside, but also of “how she tried to push him away when he lay on top of her, but he was a mountain and she did not have the strength in her to move a mountain. she told of the grunting and the sticky whiteness like pap that gushed out of him. ‘it’s warm and yucky,’ she complained to her walls. ‘i’ll never eat pap again!’” (obss 276). one can't help but wonder why ama cries to the walls instead of to her mother. why has her mother not noticed her daughter’s dejection or try to find out what ails the little girl? as the narrator reveals, ama’s mother is a totally subdued woman who is living in fear in her husband’s house and who will do everything to prevent being sacked by the husband, brother cyril. ama even suspects that she is not unaware of the fact that her father has been raping her. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 87 anyakorah & mbanefo when ama got older and wiser, she would think that her mother walked around in a deliberate state of blindness. otherwise she would have seen into her heart and asked her, “nwa m, my daughter, what is the matter?” she wished her mother would ask her so that she could tell her, but she never asked, choosing instead to complain about ama’s hair being as tough as sisal. (obss 277-8) ama’s mother is, pure and simple, a subjugated woman who has totally resigned her life to whatever fate her husband dictates. ama sometimes feels sorry for her “the way she had to boilthe clothes the assistant pastor on his way to becoming pastor had to wear so that his purity glowed, the way she walked with her back hunched when the clothes did not come out clean enough and brother cyril, who did not tolerate shortcomings and wanted them all ‘to make it to heaven,’ expiated her sin with a beating” (obss 300). even when, in her adulthood, ama eventually finds the words to tell her mother what her father has done to her for over three years, she has hushed her up and pretended not to believe it. in fact, she has “lifted a hand and slapped [ama] on her mouth,” asking her, “how dare you talk about your father like that? what has taken possession of you? have you gone mad?” (obss 305). it is not that ama’s mother needs any convincing to believe what ama is saying. while she already knows what has been going on behind her back, she wants to be kept in the dark about it so as to maintain her plausible deniability. in fact, ama herself wishes there was a way she could free her mother and herself from the house in enugu with the thirty-two steps leading up to heaven (obss 300). following ama’s revelation of brother cyril’s history of incestuous sexual relation with her, not only does her mother slap her but she also immediately and resolutely takes her husband’s side and does nothing to verify what her daughter has just said. this oppressive tendency and sexual abuse in odinye’s view are “acts of violence which culminate into psychological, physical and health consequences” (63). the father brother cyril himself waves the allegation away as false and unfounded, the rant of a liar. furthermore, he uses the opportunity to announce his disowning of ama as his daughter, and to inform the young girl that he is not his biological father: ‘i am not your father. you hear that? i took in your mother, and this is all the thanks i get. all the thanks i get for saving you from being a bastard. all the years i raised you, fed you, this is all the thanks i get. you know what happens to children without fathers? children who are born at home? father unknown. ime mkpuke. i want you out of my house. i want you out. tata. today! as god is my witness, you shall leave my house today!’ (obss 306-7). in the wake of this revelation, ama feels happy that this extremist she has called father all through her life isn’t really her father. she is delighted at the thought that she has another father who must be a better man than brother cyril—“he had to be. she willed it” (obss 308). back to the question raised earlier: why has ama’s mother done nothing to question her husband or to even complain about the beatings, harsh words and unfair treatment she and ama get from her husband? the reason is that she is a woman who has become a slave to her misguided sense of loyalty and gratefulness for what brother cyril has done for her in the past. being a woman who, in her early adulthood, has been laden with an unwanted pregnancy, with nowhere to live and no one to help her, she has been surprised that brother cyril has then not only taken pity on her but has equally asked to marry her despite the fact that she has been pregnant for another man, an unknown man. for this seemingly benevolent act of brother cyril, she has become heavily indebted to him and, in the course of their marriage, resigned to live with whatever form of brutality, emotional exploitation and inhumane treatment she might get from him. as such, she has sold all her right to brother cyril and is ready to take his own perspective in every matter, even if he says that yellow is green and that red is white. “i made a mistake. one mistake that could have destroyed me completely,” she opens up to ama: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 88 anyakorah & mbanefo yet brother cyril took me in and married me. he saved me from a terrible life. how many men would marry a woman who was carrying a child for another man? tell me, ama, tell me. and you throw all that in his face. what have i done to deserve this? tell me, ama, what have i ever done to deserve this? he could have sent both of us out tonight. many men would. you know that. yet, out of the goodness of his heart, he didn’t. (obss 310) notice in her statement above that her concern is not about whatever brother cyril has done to ama, but about his not throwing her out of the house for her past mistake of underage, unwanted, out-ofwedlock, pregnancy. despite knowing deep in her heart that her husband is an extremist, she still sees him – this religious extremist and rapist – as a man who abounds in the “goodness of [the] heart” (310). what she does not know is that the reason why brother cyril has not asked her out of the house is not because he is a kind man who has a good heart but because he simply cannot afford to lose her. he cannot afford to lose this wife of his, who he has craftily been able to tame and subjugate into becoming an everworking washing machine, a machine ready to do his bidding at all times, ready to boil, soak and bleach the white clothes he wears every day without as much as a grumble let alone a complaint. he, moreover, cannot afford to lose her and risk having his secrets in the public. unfortunately, ama’s mother does not know her worth, her rights as a wife and mother, and thus lives as a slave under the roof of a man who treats her as the lowliest of servants rather than as a wife and companion. her husband’s religious extremism has totally subdued her through and through such that she no longer has any identity or knowledge of herself left apart from the one he confers on her. conclusion the foregoing underscores non-violent religious extremism to be immanent in fanatical christianity, the kind of christianity championed by brother cyril in chika unigwe’s on black sisters’ street. studying the novel using the twenty different indicators for monitoring extremism (emi-20), which was developed by schmid, this research work finds that acts of extremism could be seen in different religions, not just in islam. it is also found that extremism does not constitute in armed violence alone, but involves any form of aggressive, inhumane and cruel action taken either against fellow adherents of the religion or against non-adherents with the claim or pretence of fostering the will of god. as such, cyril’s continual rape of ama for about three years is an act of religious extremism, for not only does cyril claim to be defiling her with moral authority, but he also wants her to believe that god has sanctioned this abhorrent act. similarly, his continual beating and verbal assault of his wife both constitute acts of religious extremism. hence, since religious extremism—both violent and nonviolent—permeates all kinds of religion, it is imperative that the popular view of extremism, mostly portrayed in western media, as having an islamic-only colouration be changed and replaced with a balanced view which accepts and seeks to condemn the existence of religious and secular extremism in all its forms. works cited adichie, chimamanda ngozi. purple hibiscus.farafina, 2006. agbiji, obaji m. and ignatius swart. “religion and social transformation in africa: a 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phenomenology: the geopolitics of knowing and epistemic/ontological colonial differences.” the journal of speculative philosophy, vol. 32, no. 3, 2018, pp. 360-387. mndende, nokuzola. “spiritual reality in south africa.”secular spirituality as a contextual critique of religion, edited by c. du toit and c. mayson, 2006, pp. 153-173. mudimbe, v. y.the invention of africa.indiana university press, 1988. odinye. i.e. “female sexual abuse and the violation of human rights in african fiction: an example of chika unigwe’s on black sisters’ street”. awka journal of english language and literary studies.vol.6. no.2. 2018. 63-82. oyono, ferdinand. the old man and the medal.heinemann, 1975. schmid, alex p. “violent and non-violent extremism: two sides of the same coin?” icct research paper. may 2014. www.icct.nl wibisono, susilo, winnifred r. louis and jolanda jetten.“a multidimensional analysis of religious extremism.”frontiers in psychology, vol. 10, nov 2019, pp. 1-12. https://ctc.usma.edu/understanding-drivers-of-violent-extremism-the-case-of-al-shabab-and-somali-youth/ https://ctc.usma.edu/understanding-drivers-of-violent-extremism-the-case-of-al-shabab-and-somali-youth/ https://www.iris-france.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/obs-religieux-extremism-africa-april-2017.pdf https://www.iris-france.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/obs-religieux-extremism-africa-april-2017.pdf http://www.icct.nl/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 130 ogene & onyejizu writing for the downtrodden in a draconian society: a comparative study of characters in habila’s waiting for an angel and ikerionwu’s heroes of change prof. mbanefo s. ogene department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria. sm.ogene@unizik.edu.ng & raphael chukwuemeka onyejizu department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria. raphaelnjz@gmail.com abstract this scholarship focuses on the plights of the downtrodden in a draconian society. it is predicated on the fact that there is little or no relative study of the plights of the downtrodden characters from the points of convergence and divergence in habila’s waiting for an angel (2003) and ikerionwu’s heroes of change (2015). through a discussion of the role of the (african) writer as a socio-political custodian and moral conscience of the society, the prose texts were reviewed. thus the paper utilized the marxist theoretical approach in the analysis of the selected texts, delving into such plights as poverty, unemployment, police brutality, oppression, marginalization and class conflicts. the method of analysis is qualitative. the paper concluded that the advent of draconian leadership in the african territory had truncated the transformational plans, wishes and aspirations of the masses whose expectations were endangered by successive repressive regimes, even beyond transition to democratic rule. keywords: african writer, draconian, downtrodden, nigerian society introduction that the african writer remains pivotal to the delineation of the socio-political ills, predilections, impediments, hopes and challenges of contemporary society for meaningful change and the promotion of equality, justice and fairness along egalitarian lines, remains a noble course advanced by critics and scholars of african literature for social rejuvenation. in recent times, the african writer has consistently projected multifaceted issues in his works, given the turbulent state of affairs characterized by those complex experiences of history of human relationships, particularly those of leadership problems that seem to have generated myriads of challenges against the aspirations of the common person. indeed, writers derive inspiration from the misgivings and misadventures of society, where they seek to attenuate the sensitive subjects that tug at the heart of humanity in their crafts. to such artists, literary art becomes the fulcrum upon which such creative documentation of such events find common grounds for criticism and probable positive outcome, resulting in ngugi wa thiong’o’s view that the writer’s inspiration is drawn “from the conscious acts of men in society”, and that, “the act of writing implies a social relationship” (5). achebe unequivocally demonstrates that “the writer has a sense of obligation, a strong attachment to a cause… when we speak of a writer’s commitment; we mean his identification with a particular social aim and use of his writing to advance those aims” (182). such a writer does not fail to respond adequately to the wailings, tensions and plights of the masses in society while being preoccupied with other activities that may satisfy the demands toward change. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 131 ogene & onyejizu in consonance with achebe’s position, okoli supports that “writers assigned themselves the noble tasks to educate and inform, dispel ignorance, superstition and myth: to liberate the mind and enthrone reason and critical appreciation of society, its institutions and values” (73). thus, the african writer must endeavour to put things right as osundare posits that “the writer by his ability to transcend quotidian reality, has a duty to relate not only how things are, but how they could or should be” (12). obiechina reaffirms that the writer should be “ a reformist and a crusader for social justice, for the rights of the individual, for the dispelling of ignorance and superstition and all those forces upon which the oppressors and exploiters have played over the centuries in their attempt to hold the people down” (4). obi captures the view on literature and its social essence that it is an “… important means of understanding and interpreting human beings and aspects of society such as politics, religion, economics, social conflicts, class struggles and the human condition through the medium of language” (487). in a classconscious society, the writer belongs to the masses whose disposition is influenced by the marxist philosopher and his endeavour must reflect those of the oppressed and marginalized in that society. thus, ngugi reaffirming, believes that the writer is a product of society, he belongs to a certain class and he is inevitably a participant in the class struggle…” (76). waiting for an angel is a uniquely written prose fiction by helon habila, which won the coveted prestigious caine prize in 2001. an examination of the novel reveals multifaceted standpoints in scholarly accounts on the style, themes and techniques used by the writer. the times literary supplement notes that “habila skillfully evokes an atmosphere of tension and fear. a powerful picture of a critical period in nigerian history” (25). however, ngozi chumaudeh opines that: the journalists and the writers were the most wanted quarries. they were the most dreaded enemies of the government… once in the government net, they were placed in conditions where their squirms and squeaks resounded into nothingness-top-security prisons. (368) the resurgence of militarization as revealed by habila recounts the regimes of babangida in the 80s through the despotic rulership of general sani abacha in the 90s. anthony elaborates further that: from the subtle but repressive government of babangida to the crude and unbridled dictatorship of abacha, were the periods characterized by the muzzling of the press and radical intellectuals by various agencies of the military. the masses were not spared; they languished in abject poverty, misery and general social malaise that were as a result of harsh economic policies, most especially the structural adjustment programme (sap) of the babangida era. (169-170) more so, mary whipper gives her standpoint in an article titled: “we are dying from a lack of hope”, where she notes that “nigeria in 1990 was a police state with human rights abuses so staggering that the country was expelled from the commonwealth of nations and faced with worldwide sanctions” (5). heroes of change is leonard ikerionwu’s debut novel, which x-rays the socio-political milieu of the nigerian environment and makes a strong inquiry into the lived conditions of the citizens. as a very recent novel, very little is reviewed about it. the handy comments available come from the blurb and a recent online publication. the prose fiction focuses on the revolutionary agenda of socio-political change that is people-oriented; it accentuates its artistic trajectory and formative ideology into the theoretical account of marxism as it concerns the social strata and the classes of the nigerian downtrodden society, especially of the machination between its elites and the poor masses. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 132 ogene & onyejizu the novel is set in wazobia with major events revolving around umuowa, another setting in the prose. wazobia is governed by a tyrant, brigadier banjo in whose presence the rotten eggs of corruption and leadership misrule are swiftly hatched; he does little to assuage the plights of the poor masses in his domain. in the novel, ikerionwu satirizes other social anomalies that becloud wazobia with umuowa as a case in point, which is a microcosmic symbol of the nigerian society. this is informed by his consciousness and subsequent ‘ideological’ dispositions towards his society. in a recent article, onyejizu notes that: leonard ikerionwu tailors his scathing criticism towards the nigerian terrain, examining extensively, the manifold crisis of human existence that has unnaturally become a common pastime in the lives of civilians. he registers his voice with a prose fiction that cast critical glances at nigeria’s recent history, suggesting a revolutionary modicum of liberating it…. (3) the novel is a satire whose aims are to ridicule, conscientize and instruct in order to trigger the expected change in the nigerian enclave and by extension. it addresses critical issues, which tug at the very heart of the masses in the hands of a draconian leader whose stuck-in-trade is the constant harassment of proletariats whose consciousness and revolutionary anger culminates in the change of a failed regime that is far removed from democratic humanism. much of the social issues discussed in the novel dominate that of oppression, which seems quite distinct from the thematic centrality of politics. the didactic perspective to the novel is that the failure of political leadership is inimical to the social existence of nigerians and in turn, fails in governance. the consequence is a protest, which snowballs into an unrecoverable revolutionary temper. what makes the novel unique is its bold but realistic depiction of the palpable experiences and plights of citizens, from the youths to the elder statesmen. from the foregoing, it is obvious that the novels under study are strong indictments of the political/ruling/bourgeoise class, who are devoid of passion for the masses over their sociopolitical conditions. hence, the works under study are angling for sociopolitical and socioeconomic change, by a change of tyrannical/dictatorial leadership where the poor, marginalized and oppressed in society by the privileged few who wield power, are liberated. the ruling class is so powerful due to their stronghold on the economy and security apparatus of their societies. upon denial of these resources, the masses become angry, furious, frustrated, disillusioned, disenchanted, marooned, silenced, raped, humiliated and marginalized. theoretical framework: marxism marxism is a theory of social change, which embodies a wide spectrum of relationships with many fields of human and scholarly endeavours. the theory is drawn from the scholarly outputs of marx and engels in the works titled the communist manifesto (1848) and the german ideology (1932). dobie informs that: “although it is often thought of as a twentieth-century phenomenon, partly because it was the basis of the social-governmental system of the soviet union, it reaches back to the thinking of karl heinrich marx, a nineteenth-century (1818 1883) german philosopher and economist (8). abram explains that: according to marxists to other scholars, in fact, literature reflects those social institutions out of which it emerges and is itself a social institution with a particular ideological function. literature reflects class struggle and materialism: think how often the quest for wealth traditionally defines characters. so marxist generally view literature “not as works created in accordance with timeless artistic criteria, but as ‘product’ of economic and ideological determinants specific to the era. (149) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 133 ogene & onyejizu marxism reflects the concerns that characterize social life and shows the relationship between form and content. according to arvon “in the relationship between the economic base and the ideological superstructure, content is the governing factor, and through the form, in the final analysis, is always necessarily subservient to it” (90). it is a theory that is based on the critiques of the ideology and culture of marx and engel. it develops an interest in the mode of material production, which constitute the economic or material base of society. eagleton views marxism as “a scientific theory of human societies and the practice of transforming them” (111). in literature, the marxist has to deliver the story particularly of the struggles of men and women to liberate themselves from certain forms of exploitation and opposition. francis mulhern cited in eagleton states that “marxism is not merely sociology of literature” and that it emphasizes “sensitive attention to its form, style and meaning” (200). ken smith avers that “marxism adds to an understanding of the capitalist world and how to change it” (1). for the marxist, therefore, social change is the numero uno. shaw informs that marxism is “a system of thought which explains that throughout history, the state has exploited the masses” (221). ryan confirms that “…the purpose of marxism is to enable an understanding of the social and cultural world that will contribute to its transformation” (145). nwahunaya captures a broad overview of marxism that: what is often considered an extreme view of the sociological approach is the marxist approach, which ties literature to the economic base and ideological superstructure in its system of dialectical materialism. it champions the downtrodden of socio-economic class, critiquing texts that assume a class society of economic elitism and hegemony, and champions texts that support the common man. (34) to utilize marxist ideas in literature is to concern oneself with the relationship between the bourgeoisie and the downtrodden class and the economic factors. trotsky, however, argues that “marxism in itself cannot provide the criteria for literary criticism” (116). it makes sense that trotsky has given into the view that formalism can at least, particularly be employed with marxist literary theory. advocates of marxism are of the view that writers should be at the vanguard of projecting man from sufferings and that literary creativity should be part of man’s struggle against nature. they ask the writer to use his work as a weapon to expose the injustice of the bourgeois culture. they maintain that art should become a propagandist tool for the liberation of the society where humans will attain full happiness and freedom. the marxist probes whether or not the work helps to suppress and advance the situation of the proletariat within the society. viewed as a distinctive aspect of the sociological approach to examining literature, marxist criticism projects the assumption that literature holds life reflections concerning man’s social existence. the critic, therefore, must note the time, history and background of the people in the literature to help him gain a holistic view of the work. thus to eagleton “marxist criticism wants a writer to devote his work to the cause of the proletariat” (38). textual analysis waiting for an angel is peopled with downtrodden characters and dissenting groups of people who feel dissatisfied with the state of affairs in a draconian-led society. the downtrodden characters face many challenges ranging from socio-political decay, police brutality, inequality, oppression, humiliation, victimization, extreme violence and other forms of human rights violations, particularly in regimes of generals ibrahim badamosi babangida, sani abacha and abdulsalam abubakar. characters like lomba, boy, bola, alice, sankarah, james, joseph, joshua amusa, kela, etc are direct and indirect victims of several brutal political and socio-economic oppression of a repressive and draconian regime in nigeria. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 134 ogene & onyejizu furthermore, habila’s account of draconian leadership of the 90s in nigeria which recounts the intense but rapid deterioration of the human self and psycho-social will to survive during the epoch where state police symbolized not only a debilitating force against mass protest, agitations and radical awakening but also a gruesome model of public chastisement. the story of lomba’s hard times in prison is told and revealed in a diary and poems written by him. it captures his days in the university, coupled with his life with alice who later was compelled to get married to an army general, ngai. the event in the novel moves back and forth in an illogical and non-chronological manner. details of bola, his friend who lost his parents and sister to a road accident and how he became trauma-driven and insane, were exposed. the story further projects lomba as a school dropout and a frustrated youth resident in morgan street. it also tells about james, the editor of the dial magazine, who employed lomba, who also challenges the military regime and had his office destroyed. he admonishes lomba to cover a peaceful demonstration led by joshua (the radical leader and teacher) at poverty street. it is in the eyes of kela that we learn the plight and fate of residents of poverty street. lomba’s involvement in the protest earned him incarceration without trial. through habila’s artistic xray of the draconian terror and its horrifying hold on the lives of the populace; he presents lomba, a representation of the intellectual class, a centrifugal character through whose account of suffering and terror is aptly felt in solitary confinement, as a frustrated political prisoner whose anger knew no bounds: “here in prison loss of self is often expressed as anger. anger is the baffled prisoner’s attempt to re-crystallize his slowly dissolving self” (9-10). the depiction of a warder manhandling an inmate before lomba further highlights a point on draconian oppression. like violence, it simply shows that anger begets vengeful anger. the various stiffening of humanity and apparent citizen’s rights abuse and value system at the national stage was apparent. like lomba, the social existence of nigerians found its commonplace in a prison-like scenario, where nigerians had nowhere to seek asylum, far from the attendant vicissitudes of life in the 1990s; a situation where one’s mental, physical, psychological freedom was frequently curtailed. compared with the inmates in jails around the globe, nigerians were terror-struck. anger, a potent emotional tendency in a man dominated the very sphere of people’s existence to fight for their right to equality, justice and freedom, though in perpetual fear but with resounding, hope. lomba narrates the intense manifestations of the anger he felt in jail, thus he says, “sometimes the anger leaves you as suddenly as it appeared, then you enter a state of tranquil acceptance. you realise the absolute puerility of your anger: it was nothing but acid, cancer, eating away your bowels in the dark” (10). another perfect symbol of the use of draconian coercion is muftau as represented in habila’s waiting, towards lomba. this is holistically captured in a sensational manner, where muftau constantly made lomba write romantic and intelligent poems, which he uses to woo janice. janice upon discovering that the poems she receives from him were originally written by lomba, tells muftua the condition for their consummation was only when he gets lomba out of prison. nevertheless, muftau declined and she says: “if you can’t do that, then forget you ever knew me” (30). muftau’s attitude towards lomba speaks of hatred, disdain, in the manner lomba was treated in prison and accused of colluding with the protesters, and the subsequent brutal measures dished out to him, thus: “all i felt was the crashing blow on the back of my neck. i pitched forward stunned by my pain and the unexpectedness of it. my face struck the door bars … before the superintendent’s boot” (14). the height of draconian extremism was so severe, so much, so that the common wealth of nations suspended the country during sani abacha’s regime. the masses such as men, women and youths – all lost their voice as the military leaders were hell-bent on demoralizing and disenchanting the public. journalists and writers, who are perceived as conscientious advocates ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 135 ogene & onyejizu of the masses, given their intellectual merit and influence, were tagged as genuine enemies of the government in power. literary and political activists were searched for and executed without trial. the murders of dele giwa (editor of newswatch through a letter bomb), m.k.o. abiola, kudirat abiola and ken saro wiwa are real cases that point to the evils of the ibb and abacha military regimes. habila uses the angel of death, israfel, to depict the draconian regime in a bar where he anticipated the arrival of soldiers who shot him for being resistant to their coercive appeal. ironically, he remarks: “but when i turn, it is not a soldier standing there. it is an angel” (38). and as he bled, he beheld “a huge bird shape flying out of the bar ascending with the sound of a thousand wings” (38). this disenchantment culminates in students’ revolutionary temper and protests all over nigerian universities. the students’ angry protest by boycotting lectures in all the universities following sankara’s address to the student body is vividly captured in the succeeding quote: “‘remember what soyinka wrote, ‘the man dies in him who stands silent in the face of tyranny!”(40). further, he reveals his displeasure with the transitional government’s policy towards change that is nothing but a mirage, “we are tired of phantom transition programmes that are nothing but grand designs to embezzle our money” (40). his conclusive remarks by martin luther that “…it is the duty of every citizen to oppose unjust authority…” (41), becomes the rational slogan on the lips of the protesters, to angrily end this oppressive but violent affair against humanity. the protest is taken beyond the school premises and environment to the streets on billboards that lomba recounts: “i stared out of the window at the walls and billboards, flying past by the roadside, most of them defaced with anti-military slogan: ibb must go! no more soja!” (43). university students embarked on a protest – a kind of peaceful demonstration against ibb regime. the demonstration snowballs into full-fledged violence as the police used tear gas to disrupt the situation. this culminated in the use of rubber bullets. the consequence is both a police officer died and a student died, while many students were seriously injured. sankara is caught and arrested by the police officers while his school is shut down. during the ibb and abacha regimes, there was apparent widespread distrust, absence of integrity and moral truth in the draconian governance of the 1990s. all publications that greeted publishing houses were scrutinized and censored. intellectual succour was cut short by the government. lomba is accused of treason and incarcerated without trial. bola, who losses both parents to an accident is demented due to the measure of psychological brutality from the treatment he received at the hands of military officers. brother, an impoverished character in the novel, takes to alcoholism and marijuana. nancy expresses her frustration and discontent through her paintings. nkem takes to stealing to survive the harsh socio-economic hardship in the country. joshua’s female pupil (girlfriend) takes to prostitution. their worlds, together with those of the masses were consumed with uncertainty and fear of what the future may hold to the point that some of them sought a seer’s help to know their destinies. habila depicts brother’s residential street as something dotted with filthy trash and garbage, where people are encumbered in a life of hopelessness and insanity, only to live in a dreamlike or utopian life in a pauperized location renamed poverty street (initially called morgan street). brother, a one-legged character and tailor in the novel, sustained a gruesome injury on his leg fighting the soldiers, hence his physical deformity. his comic but realistic drama often conjures up the images of wealth and utopian expectations through his exposition of the affairs ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 136 ogene & onyejizu of the residents of poverty street; this lends credence to the dissonances of civilians under the military regime: “we don finally reach the end of road….” (98). the level of disillusionment and disenchantment in the nigerian society as it affects lomba, kela, brother, joshua, bola, nancy, kela, hagar, auntie rachael, sankara, james and other characters in the novel was explicitly explored. the adamant attitude of the armed forces to the underlying social contradiction of the masses and their overall experiences sparks off despotism in their projection of social injustice and inequality; hence the need to express their anger and frustrations through uncontrolled protests. social injustice is demonstrated by the absence of equality, fairness and justice in the granting of opportunity for all persons irrespective of affiliations. there was a widespread scarcity of fuel, absence of standard clinics, poverty, environmental pollution, political maladministration and murders of civilians without proper trial. a case in point on social injustice is poverty. it is a state of lack in virtually all aspects of human endeavours. poverty street is a haven for all kinds of social delinquency and immorality, a place where rogues, hooligans and the wretched of the earth live. characters like lomba, brother, auntie rachael, kela, nkem all live in poverty street, which is described as a decrepit, disease-ridden quarters that dotted the city of lagos like ringworm on a beggar’s body (97). everything about poverty street was unusually usual. from the poor roads to the shanty residential structures and the constant rancid stench oozing away from gutters, a pile of garbage and trashes – it was a tale of full-blown penury and wretched living, there are pieces of evidence of a sharp class divide between the corrupt and affluent military personnel and the masses. this call to mind the ideological claim by karl marx on society and social stratification where society divides across economic lines. in the events leading up to the peaceful demonstration to protest the socio-economic and physical conditions of poverty street, auntie raphael reminds the leader of the protest, joshua that such protests are not peaceful. she further cautions kela to flee when the demonstration turns violent. the zenith of the protest is well-handled by the author through joseph who exposed the sole administrator’s refusal to pay heed to their pleas for an immediate change of the system. this left no doubt in the mind of the speaker to visit the administration since he has failed to come to them. the succeeding revelation is apt and unveils the barefaced treachery of the administrator: we have a right to complain to him, even though we did not vote him into office … and in a sense, this address is an accusation of this entire regime. (122-123). the areas of neglect by the administrator includes the absence of a borehole, clinic, well-equipped school facility for learning purposes and the lack of space enough to contain their children. these are the basic requirements that enhance human existence. the insensitivity of the administrator describes the military as anti-people, anti-democratic and anti-egalitarian. joshua’s concluding remark on the military reveals the degree of cruelty manifest in the attendant problem bedevilling residents of poverty street: “we don’t know who morgan was some colonial administrator perhaps, a reminder of our hopeless, subjected state” (123). what appeared as a peaceful protest snowballed into a violent affair for the protesters as fifty police officers, armed to the teeth, dispersed the people with tear gas. all protesters witnessed the horrible scene of human brutality and in their attempt to escape the wrath of the police officers, saw some women and children crushed by some speeding vehicles. clear pictures of the rancorous event become harsh realities on the sensibilities of the reader, thus: “the people, scared witless, hemmed in on all sides, stupefied by choking tear gas, ran out in all directions, like quails beaten out of their hiding places, coughing and falling.” (134). the people decry the total abandonment of their neighbourhood with a glaring expression of hopelessness that was ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 137 ogene & onyejizu manifest in despair and bleakness. thus, the outcome of the agitation and revolutionary activism did not culminate in the change they yearned for but rather, ended in violence and casualties, thus: “we are dying from lack of hope. his friend joshua says at the demonstration. the unarmed protesters are suddenly attacked by 50-armed riot police, tear gas is exploded, the women and children killed by cars speeding on the adjacent highway” (174). like all radical writers, habila has refused to cower nor treat the preceding issues discussed with a kid’s glove. his refusal to be silent in the face of draconian leadership, tyranny, dictatorship, oppression, marginalization, police brutality, corruption, class inequality and injustice towards the common person, pits him as an advocate of the masses in the quest for social transformation and radical change. he acknowledges the power of intellectualism that flows from the ink of the writer through the media that “every oppressor knows that when one word is formed to another word to form a sentence, there will be a revolt. that is our work, the media, to refuse to be silent, to follow legitimate criticism whenever we find it” (186). heroes of change is filled with downtrodden characters whose lived experiences are nothing to write home about; it exposes the themes of poverty, insecurity, police harassment, unemployment, class struggle and the many issues plaguing wazobia and umuowa, which continues to stimulate a social awakening. it is the quest for change of the status quo that the writer deployed heroic humanism, culminating in the depiction of nigeria’s real problems. one of the themes of the novel is marginalization. in wazobia as well as in umuowa, marginalization is treated as a variant of oppression among the ordinary members of the military. the writer reckons that it assumes a rather frightening form of enslavement built on the hills of hierarchy, elitism and determined by education. a case in point abounds in the foregoing analysis when saturday, africa’s father, who is a peasant ex-soldier, recounts his ordeal in the hands of senior military officers who oppress lower-ranked recruits. he has fought in the civil and liberian wars but “was never given any benefit for his contribution to keeping the nation a united entity” (18), because of his lack of little education as a peasant fighter. through him, we gain firsthand knowledge of the reminiscence of war; how the war led to the premature death of his father. the most startling aspect of his personal story rests in his lack of education, which leads to his “unselective military recruitment and hasty training which did not turn him out as a highly qualified soldier” (23). also, whereas the lower-ranked soldiers take to menial jobs and often end up as war casualties, the higher ranking officers, dubbed as elites/bourgeoisie, who occupy the aristocratic space in the military especially based on their education and status “…felt that they were the jet probers of war” (26). they do not go to the war front to confront the enemy. saturday remarks: “they stayed in their air-conditioned flats, which are well and exclusively furnished….” (26). this inequality in the military between the recruits and the elite soldiers creates a lasting problem within and accounts for the degree of marginalization he and other recruits experienced, given the numerous casualties witnessed on the part of the peasant soldiers during national or foreign missions. poverty and social inequality are products of a draconian government. a draconian government is the same as a military government where human rights abuse and all measures of oppressions prevail. it is a system of government that is antithetical to democratic rule where the people play pivotal role in the socio-political transformation of their society. it breeds elitist corruption and greed, built on the pedestal of the economy. in terms of poverty, it is a state of lack while the former is its by-product. in terms of the government’s ill response to soldiers’ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 138 ogene & onyejizu unpaid allowances, after several successful war missions, saturday ends up a palm wine tapper with little or no support from the government who fails to compensate him, leaving him to dwell in abject poverty. a clear comparison between his shanty home and the lifestyles of the wealthy is aptly depicted. thus, as the writer notes, his “walls cracked which allow bats, rats, insects and reptiles to forge inside the walls and fences are too low and some parts fall which allow goats, stray dogs, drunks and mad people to take refuge at will” (128). consequently, this social situation forces africa to decry his father’s impoverished condition; he makes a sharp comparison between the ruling government and the peasant before brigadier banjo at umuowa. this sharp divide between the haves and have-nots is potently captured thus: we do not know the meaning of electricity, clean water and social amenities that can give joy, pleasure and longevity….” (128). his verbal responses unveil unequal circumstances of class division, which is part and parcel of human existence at wazobia and by extension, umuowa. the dichotomy between the ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’ is what the writer addresses. this is centred on nigerian society in terms of lack of social amenities, which cuts across the two classes. in a society run by dictators and tyrants, such a society often grapples with many challenges that relate to class struggle and/or social inequality. the emphasis on class and social inequality revolves around saturday and the family of mr ogbaduju. meanwhile, saturday’s proceeds, which come from palm-wine sales and distribution, are hardly enough to feed his family let alone foot his son’s secondary education bills. his business fails to yield profit due to the reluctance of debtors like banjo to pay up their depths in due time. consequently, africa is unable to continue his secondary school education, after gaining admission into wazobian model secondary school. he languishes at home running unsuitable errands for his father, while mr friday ogbaduju’s economic condition worsens daily following the downturn he witnesses in the wake of economic recession.this leads regina ogbaduju to remark that the country is a place “where just a few are milking the joys of the state while the majority are wallowing in poverty. they cart away the oil in barrels to foreign countries to make estacodes for themselves while the masses starve” (110). again, the protection of lives and properties of the citizens remain one of the prime points of the military profession. however, this is the contrary. the military personnel champion the course of corruption, brutality, oppression, exploitation and further extort money from citizens of the country, putting them in perpetual fear and momentary panic with loaded rifles, as they drive along nigerian roads: “both the soldiers and nigerian police at most checkpoints have not only tortured and exploited private and public drivers but have made them fill the compunction for … driving on the road” (56). these soldiers and police officers take laws into their hands to harass ‘those they are supposed to protect’. the warnings of their actions may culminate in the disaster which is made reference to apo six mayhem, an unfortunate event in nigeria’s history, which recounts the deaths of innocent nigerian citizens, but “has not taught our security officers a lesson” (56). interestingly too, much of the bitter denunciation of exploitation and harassment is directed at brigadier banjo who introduces the sanity control scheme, managed by three para-military men who are bent on harassing innocent market women at umuowa, rather than engender peace and mutual co-existence. such a scheme headed by banjo seeks to sexually harass women unduly: “the wretched market women carrying their wares on the head to the market…they would ask the market women to undress; feeling that they carry around heavy loincloth belt with a huge amount of money….” (122). godwin okpara, an energetic graduate (in accountancy) from a nigerian polytechnic cannot secure a job with his degree certificate for a decade, because the unjust social system is fraught ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 139 ogene & onyejizu with corrupt faces whose wealthy backgrounds determine their fate. this makes him “…despondent and disillusioned against those government officials who, after conducting examinations and subsequent interviews will replace the best and successful candidates with mediocre” (102). miss christabel ogbaduju, the first daughter of mr friday and regina ogbaduju’s eleven children remains jobless at home when all attempts to secure a better job to help her poor household proves abortive. her father’s vulcanizing business and mother’s petty trading in perishable goods is not enough to cater for the family. under much pressure, she yields to the exploitative tendencies of wealthy men, cheats and pleasure seekers, who constantly prowl at her threshold for some ulterior motives. thus, she becomes prey having being exploited by “…several unsuspecting men…” who “… had either crossed legs with her or duped her with some reasonable amount of money, giving her the hope of getting her job” (104). her impoverished circumstance compels her to become alhaji dansuki’s mistress, an illiterate millionaire and capitalist, who has six wives and twenty-eight children. alhaji capitalizes on her unemployed situation to exploit her. he furnishes her apartment and satisfies her material needs as a condition for greater material benefits, and nurtures the prospect of making her the seventh wife. this situation negates her will as a young and ambitious lady and places some constraints on her values. she vehemently refuses. her refusal strains their relationship with alhaji. consequently, her fantasies and utopian lifestyles are cut short as he dishes out to her a sinister plan which is executed by three hefty men who “… drugged, assaulted, raped, abused and finally carried her away to an unknown destination and dumped her at a refuse heap that had witnessed a series of mixed dirt for a decade” (135). fortunately, respite comes from two fulani samaritans, who miraculously rescue her to a hospital for rehabilitation. through rosaline, a devout christian and friend, she discovers god and repents, becoming a christian convert, preaching the gospel to all in the young shall grow transport company. a collective struggle underpins marxist works and has the solidarity of society to bring about meaningful change. africa imbibes this trait and inspires this symbolic quest. from a symbolic and critical viewpoint, africa seems a microcosmic representation of the continent. although he assumes the role of a radical character and leader, his actions and motives towards revolution seems a direct appeal to africans. again, his characteristic disposition towards heroic potentials is a pungent revolt against social inequality between the superstructure and the base. this gesture is attested to by him and informs of the seeming but the underlying principle of marxism as it relates to radicalism. thus, his angling with the downtrodden in the society reveals his accentuated and collective advocacy. in heroes, there is a projection of collective struggle. such struggles are consequent upon a stratified society along the lines of materialism. such struggle culminates in a classless society. the implication is that the peasants of the world would unite in a bid to exterminate the forces of social inequality, exploitation and oppression, to ensure that justice, fairness and better living conditions in society are met. this call for transformation begins to elicit strong revolutionary responses from the majority in both wazobia and umuowa, against the minority. thus, of the many concerns in marxist theory, one of them is a revolution. this is identified in the poetic revolutionary song/lines initiated by the blind and the cripple, who was billed for the bring-back-our-girls mission but sustained fatal injuries on their bodies, culminating in their physical deformity without compensation. they hold that they “have been hearing the piteous lamentations of people in the country begging government cap-in-hand to be paid unheeded… all the promises to pay our severance allowance have become illusory” (131). thus in protest the masses all react: “we ask for change/that no one can stop./ we ask for no favour/ other than a change./we need cohesive force/ and … volunteers/who are indivisible/with collective ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 140 ogene & onyejizu resolve/we foster the change/we condemn corruption/we condemn injustice/no kick backwards…/no kick sideways/we ask for change/that has a human face…/the change is a cloud /that will surely come” (130). this verse is humanist and revolutionary. the poetic rendition accentuates the mass’s consciousness. africa, as a peasant, who is affected by social inequality, does not hesitate to appeal to his likes – the blind and the cripple, the ex-servicemen, aringo, saturday, some angry women, traders, farmers, artisans, pensioners, children, all aggressively racing and wielding placards of war and greenish leaves to protest the indignities and injustice meted out against the poor and the entire population of wazobia and umuowa, by the capitalist exploiter brigadier banjo and his cohorts, who are created in the fictive mould of nigeria’s political leaders. conclusion the analysis of the prose fiction reveals that the african writer is a sensitive force in the sociopolitical attempts at transforming his society for a glorified future, as expected and celebrated, particularly as it affects the downtrodden class of the masses or the wretched of the earth, who appear to have engaged the creative endeavour of the two writers this scholarship sought to analyse. in waiting for an angel, habila captures the historic periods of militarization in nigeria and its haunting presence on the masses’ physical, social, economic and psychological well-being, while ikerionwu re-enacts in heroes of change the spillover of draconian leadership in a democratic dispensation where egalitarian expectations are merely a mirage. the point of convergence between the two texts lies in their representations of the pains, agonies, mass brutality, class conflicts, marginalization and oppression of the masses, whose audacity of hope for survival is convivially daring. works cited abram, m. h. a glossary of literary terms. new york: holt rinehart and winton, 1981. achebe, chinua. morning yet on creation day. london: heinemann, 1975. anthony, james. “trend and style in habila’s waiting for an angel.” international journal of language, lierature and gender studies. basir da, ethiopia. vol.1, no. 1 march, 2012. pp.169-176. arvon, harry. marxist aesthetics. london: cornel up, 1973. dobie, a. b. from theory to practice: an introduction. 3rd ed. boston: wadsworth, 2009. eagleton, terry. marxism and literary criticism. london: methuen and co. progress, 1976. habila, helon. waiting for an angel. lagos: cassava republic, 2003. ikerionwu, leonard. heroes of change. ibadan: joytal publishers, 2015. ken, smith. “what is marxism?” socialist party. may, 2003. 19-20. ngozi, chuma-udeh. “authoritarianism in nigerian literature: an analysis of helon habila’s waiting for an angel” ansu journal of language and literary studies. vol.1, no.2, 2017. nwahunanya, chinyere. literary criticism, critical theory and post colonial african literature. owerri: springfield, 2007. obi, n. m. “language: a tool for literature”. languages and linguistics in aba: national nigeria grand orbit communication. 2006. obiechina, emmanuel.. “the writer and his commitment in contemporary nigerian society”. okike: an african journal of new writing. no 27(28), march, 1988. pp. 1-9. okoli, m.a.e.. “literature and social change: the instance of french revolution”. african and world literature. 2003. pp. 71-79. onyejizu, raphael chukwuemeka. “contemporary issues of radical temper in ikerionwu’s heroes of change: a marxist study” journal of linguistics and literature. vol. 1, no. 1, 2017. pp 1-13. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 141 ogene & onyejizu osundare, niyi. the writer a righter. ibadan: hope publications ltd., 2007. ryan, micheal. “political criticism.” contemporary literary theory. (eds) atkins, douglas and laura marrow. new york: macmillan, 1959. shaw, harry. dictionary of literary terms. new york: graw-hill, 1972. the times supplement. blurb. waiting for an angel by helon habila. new york: penguin, 2003. trotsky, leon. literature and revolution. michigan, 1960. wa thiong’o, n. writers in politics. nairobi: heinemann, 1972. whipple, mary. “we are dying from a lack of hope” http://www.amazon.ca/waiting-angel novel-helon-habila/dp. http://www.amazon.ca/waiting-angel-%09novel-helon-habila/dp http://www.amazon.ca/waiting-angel-%09novel-helon-habila/dp ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 194 politeness in service encounters: a study of nigerian pidgin karoh ativie department of english and literary studies , delta state university, abraka, delta state. email: karohativie@yahoo.com abstract the study identifies and describes politeness strategies in nigerian pidgin service encounters. the study applies descriptive qualitative research. data was collected in warri, a cosmopolitan city in delta state, southern nigeria from six service encounter settings: restaurants, hair dressing saloons, fuel stations, boutiques, market stalls and supermarkets. it is in the form of recorded conversations between service providers and their customers. seventy service encounters were observed.the data was then transcribed and different realizations of politeness strategies were identified and described using penelope brown and stephen levinson’s model of politeness. the study shows that the most frequently used strategy is the positive politeness strategy of greeting while the least used are seeking agreement and promises. for negative politeness, deference strategies constitute the most used strategies while apologies are the least used. keywords: politeness, service encounters, nigerian pidgin, positive politeness, negative politeness introduction politeness is a culturally defined phenomenon which can be described as the application of good manners in social interaction. it involves taking account of the feelings of others mailto:karohativie@yahoo.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 195 and making them feel comfortable. kuang, lau and ang (2012) believe that politeness is a key element in service encounters particularly from service providers as they are the first line of people meeting prospective customers. politeness phenomena have become a fruitful field of linguistic research over the last three decades. studies have dealt with a broad range of issues such as the universality and culturally specific nature of linguistic politeness (kerbrat-orecchioni, 2006.), gendered politeness practices (brown, 1980; holmes, 1995; lakoff, 1975; mills, 2000, 2003 ) and the concept of face in the interaction of cultural, social and regional groups in a variety of contexts (bailey,1997; callahan, 2006; kidwel,2000 ).one area that has received little attention in the field of politeness is the examination of politeness strategies in nigerian pidgin service encounters. it is this gap in knowledge that this study intends to fill. although the data contains instances of impoliteness, this study focuses on politeness alone. theoretical framework the particular model to be adopted for this study is that proposed by brown and levinson (1987). their theory revolves around the following aspects: face, face work and acts that threaten face, sociological variables influencing face threat, and five general ways or super strategies of counterbalancing face threat with specific linguistic strategies. their notion of face consists of two opposing wants: (i) negative face, the want that one’s action be unimpeded by others, and (ii) positive face, the want that one’s wants be desirable to others. to them, the amount and kind of politeness that is required for a certain conversational activity is determined by the ‘weightiness’( the serious of the offence) that doing the act may cause. they suggest two main strategies –positive politeness strategies and negative politeness strategies-realizable in linguistic forms to ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 196 satisfy the two face needs. positive politeness strategies function to satisfy the positive face needs while negative politeness strategies satisfy negative face needs of conversational partners. brown and levinson argue that their concept of politeness is universal. (fig. 1: possible strategies of performing ftas (brown and levinson, 1987) methodology this study adopts a descriptive qualitative design. the data consist of a corpus of audio-recorded service encounters taken from a variety of interactional contexts. the service encounters last from 2-5 minutes and the data collection period is six months in total. during the data collection process, seventy service encounters are observed. the participants who were recorded for this study consist of adult nigerian pidgin speakers from different walks of life. data analysis and discussion the data was coded and classified according to the categories of positive and negative politeness by brown and levinson. for positive politeness, the data reveals twelve strategies for positive politeness and three strategies for negative politeness. this is seen in table 1 below. the frequency distribution of these strategies can also be found in the table. it shows that the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 197 greeting strategy is the most frequently (23 times: 32.86%) used, followed by give gifts to hearer/thanking (7times:10%). the data also shows that interlocutors also used in-group identity markers or language to enhance solidarity. this was used (20) twentytimes (28.57%). the least frequent positive politeness strategies used are agreement, assert knowledge of hearer’s wants and promise (2.86%, 4.29% and2.86% respectively). for negative politeness , only three negative politeness strategies are identified with the most frequent strategy being the use of deference strategies(56.60%) while the use of the apologize strategy constitutes the least(15.09%). positive politeness negative politeness strategy type number frequency/ percentage strategy type number frequency/ percentage greetings 23 32.86 deference/ honorifics 30 56.60 seeking agreement 2 2.86 minimizing the imposition 15 28.30 assert knowledge of hearer’s wants 3 4.29 apologize 8 15.09 give reasons 4 5.71 give gifts to hearer/ thanking 7 10.00 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 198 notice/ attend to h’s interest 4 5.71 promise 2 2.86 small talk 4 5.71 in-group identity markers. 20 28.57 joke 1 1.43 total 70 100.00 total 53 100.00 table 1 distribution of positive and negative politeness strategies positive politeness notice/attend to h’s interest this strategy suggests that speaker is to take notice of the addressee’s condition, physical changes or states as well as the physical items he/she has in his/her possession. this is seen in the conversation below: example 1(at a fuel station) sp: mama. you no drive? na keke you enter? you don tire to drive? cus: yes o. driving tire me. promise brown and levinson(1987,p.125) state that promises “claim that whatever h wants, s wants for him and will help him to obtain it,” so as to “illustrate s’s good intentions in satisfying ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 199 h’s positive-face wants” . an example is seen in example (2) where the hair dresser promises to improve the quality of her customer’s hair. example 2(at the hair dressing saloon) sp: after this one, she go braid hair. i go stretch am. she no go retouch the hair. some time, even you go surprise when you see the hair. you sef go regret wetin make you retouch your hair. the statement above shows that the speaker (i.e. the hair stylist) has acknowledged that a particular customer wants to improve her hair quality and promises that the treatment she recommends will satisfy this want. greetings in the nigerian society, greeting exchanges are mostly initiated by the younger people to older ones or by lower status people to higher status ones. in a context involving equals, either party could greet first. the opening sequences of most interactions in the data are characterized by greetings as seen below: example 3 (at a supermarket) sp: welcome ma .wetin you want? cus: give me lady soap in this example, the service provider initiates the greeting by welcoming the customer to her shop. this is common in service encounter settings and each instance of the greeting gives face support to both parties. besides acknowledging the presence of other people, greetings can also be used to establish rapport before moving to on discuss major issues. other greeting terms ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 200 found in the data are the use of “how now? “how far?” “welcome” and ‘welldone” by interlocutors. seek agreement this is done by choosing a safe topic or by finding aspects of a topic that can be agreed upon. for instance, if the speaker does not agree or approve of some aspect of an action, or the action as a whole, he/she finds something in it to agree upon. example 4(in a salon) sp: i wan make your natural hair come out. after all, you dey use weave on cover am. shey you hear? in the utterance above, the positive face redress manifests itself in the structure of the utterance. first the problematic hair issue is introduced. the utterance ‘after all, you dey use weave on cover am’ is face threatening since it may cause the customer some inconvenience .however, the threat is mitigated by the following expression ‘shey you hear?’ to further persuade the customer . give gifts to hearer discourse participants appreciate one another and show gratitude for something done. the commonest form of appreciation is “thank you’ as seen in the example below: example 5(in a boutique) cus: how much for dis shirt? sp: one thousand eight hundred naira. cus: no o. sp: how much you get? ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 201 cus: plus dat jeans give me two thousand, five hundred naira. sp: ha, you wan drive me from market. cus: give me one thousand, five hundred for the shirt, the jeans, two thousand. sp: bros na two thousand, eight hundred i get last. sp: oya give me three thousand because i know you. cus: ok, thank you bros. assert knowledge of hearer’s wants example 6(in a market stall) sp: mummy, see this one. na this type all the students wey wan do practical dey buy cus: the shine shine for the material too much. e go dey gum person bodi. sp: no, dis na the original. e no dey fall comot o. na as e be e go be. cus: as e be so na how much? sp: seven fifty ma. sympathy this is subsumed under brown and levinson’s strategy 15 ‘give gifts to h’. according to them ‘a speaker may satisfy h’s positive face wants to be liked, admired, cared about and listened to’(129) . this is illustrated in the following conversation: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 202 example 7(in a restaurant) cus: salt too plenti for the egusi soup. na manage i manage take eat am. sp: eh sorry o.mesef i no dey add plenty salt for my soup apart from when i steam de meat. e be like sey na my children add over salt for de meat’ give reasons by adopting this strategy, the speaker lets the hearer know why he/she wants what he/she wants, so that the hearer can see that the potentially face-threatening act is actually reasonable. accordingly, the speaker assumes that the hearer has no good reason not to cooperate. example 8(in a hair dressing saloon) sp: i like dat one pass cus: e dey different. make i see am sp: i like dis one pass. na im plenty pass. cus:e no mean anything for woman head. sp: e mean o. as woman, you must buy the weave-on weydey in vogue cus: i beg sell for me. i no wan de one wey dey in vogue and the wan wey de on board. sp: abeg go jo. wetin you know. buy wetin i show you. in the example above, the reasons in the data are oriented toward the positive face of the addressee by presupposing his/her wants ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 203 and needs. in the dialogue, we can clearly appreciate the persuasive function of language as the speaker tries to win her customer over. small talk another strategy of positive politeness referred to by brown and levinson as ‘making small talk’ is attested to in the data. the main function of making small talk before actually saying what one wants to say is to ‘avoid intruding on the hearer, for to intrude on the hearer would be to violate one of the implicit contractual terms of conversation’(adegbija, 1989,p.3). such small talk functions as a mediator between the speaker and his /her actual message and the hearer; it purposefully fills the gap, thereby reducing the abruptness proceeding directly to one’s message. this is seen in the conversation below: example 9(in a medicine store) sp: madam, good evening. you wan buy sometin? cus: ehh. good evening. sp: long time i neva see you. where you dey now? cus: i travel before. sp: welcome. how dat side? cus: fine. you get antibiotics in this example and similar ones in the data, the use of small talk functions to reduce the abruptness of the interaction. in-group identity markers. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 204 by using in-group membership markers, the speaker stresses his or her common ground with the hearer . example 10(in a boutique) cus:bros, welldone! i dey hail o bros. sp: eh my oga, welcome. wetin dey happen na? jokes as jokes are generally based on shared background knowledge and values, they are a positive politeness strategy aimed at putting the hearer at ease or to soften the face threatening act. example 11 (in a hair dressing saloon) cus: i no go take dis money o. sp: wetin do am? cus: e tear. give me another one. sp: na god money. for offering. cus: abeg give me. if you wan give god money, go heaven in this exchange, the customer refuses to collect the torn naira note given to her as change by the hair dresser. instead she demands for the newer notes in the hair dresser’s possession. the hair dresser refuses, saying that she is reserving the new notes to be used as offering in church on sunday(god money).the customer , bent on collecting the new naira notes from her replies: if you wan give god money , go heaven’ and collects the money from her. negative politeness ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 205 deference deference is a double sided phenomenon which finds manifestation either in the lowering of the self or the raising of the other or both at a time. yule (1985:60) calls it ‘formal politeness’ in which compliments, greetings and modes of address or honorifics are included. ofori (2016:31) observes that “the use of deferential honorific terms of address forms is one of the techniques used as persuasive strategies especially in bargaining talk exchanges”. the most common honorifics in the data are mummy, madam, oga, aunty, ma, and sir. these terms have become verbal manifestations of politeness in service encounters discourse as reflected in the example below: example 12 (in a hair dressing saloon) cus: how now? sp: mummy, good afternoon. cus: na only you dey here? sp: na only me dey o. you wan do your hair? cus: yes sp: (to attendant) help mummy loose her hair. brown and levinson (1987) also note that address forms are used to convey in group membership. the most common forms used by the service providers in the data are ‘customer’, ‘bros’ and ‘chairman’. apologize by apologizing, the speaker indicates his/her reluctance to commit the face-threatening act while actually committing it; ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 206 this to some extent redresses the imposition. this can be done by admitting frankly what kind of impingement is expected, by indicating reluctance, by asking for forgiveness, or by giving an overwhelming reason for why the hearer has to commit the facethreatening act. example 13 (in a restaurant) cus: madam, salt too plenti for the egusi soup. na manage i manage take eat am. sp: eh sorry o. me sef i no dey add plenty salt for my soup apart from when i steam de meat. e be like sey na my children add over salt for de meat. abeg no vex. cus: no wahala. just take note in case of next time minimizing the imposition in this case, the speaker implies that the imposition is not great by using a culturally acceptable word or expression to do so. in nigerian pidgin, this can often be seen in the use of ‘abeg or helep me(help me)’to minimize the imposition of the request as in 17 : example14 (in a drugstore) cus: auntie, abeg check this paper for me. wetin be this one. 100 mg? sp: all of them na 100mg. the foregoing shows that politeness is about being tactful and considerate for the plight of others in any social interaction. this affirms that everybody has a ‘face’ to protect in every social interaction. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 207 conclusion this study was concerned with politeness in nigerian pidgin service encounters. it has shown that every language use is a reflection of the norms of the socio-cultural environment in which it functions. it has shown that social factors like solidarity, social status, age, power, distance affect politeness strategies in nigerian pidgin. it has also shown that there are socio-cultural manifestations of politeness in nigerian pidgin and illustrated how politeness is expressed in greetings, thanks, apologies and deference . works cited adegbija, e.e “a comparative study of politeness phenomena in nigerian english, yoruba and ogori”. multilingua journal of cross-cultural and inter language communication. 1989. 57-80. brown , p and levinson, s. politeness: some universals in language usage. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1989. kuang, c.h., david, m.k., lau, s,k and ang, p.s. “polite or impolite ? an analysis of openings and closings used by front counter staff of private hospitals” international proceedings of economics development and research, 34:167-171. (2012). ofori ,e. a. “a sociolinguistic analysis of expressions of politeness in spoken akan discourse: a case of bargaining in akan market setting”. international journal of language learning and applied linguistics, volume 12 (1): 24-36. (2016) yule, g. the study of language. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1985. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 22 anuforo & okoye monodrama and the narratology of oral african culture: a study of mbajiorgu and binebai laserian onyeka anuforo department of english language and literature, alvan ikoku federal collage of education, owerri lascrian75@gmail.com & professor chike okoye department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka cb.okoye@unizik.edu.ng abstract the word drama and most importantly its sub-genre called solo drama seem to be dominated by written text only. but the more solo drama in africa showcases itself in the forms of written text, the more the oral narratology of african culture reveals itself in solo drama. the solo drama we mean here is not stand-up comedy, performance poetry and monologue in poetry which many people think are the same as solo drama. this research made attempt to study solo drama especially its language that serves as the distinguishing feature in form of narration that is heavily influenced by the oral tales of african culture that “oscillates between poetry and prose” as evident in mbajiorgu and binebai. this one-man theatre or solo drama orientation of only one person performing all the roles in the play and still achieves believability in the minds of the audience, promotes mobility of art and also reveals human conditions. yet, monodrama relies much on language that operates in-between “poetry and prose” to achieve its aims as against the usual multiple characters playing specific role which tends to encourage waste of resources and its language of terseness which the usual drama is known for. introduction monodrama is said to be a fictional story about life told on stage by only one person who embodies all other characters before an audience. the above made scholars like patris parvis in his dictionary of theatre: terms, concepts and analysis to argue that solo drama is a “play with single character or at least a single actor who may take on several roles. and that such plays focus on one individual and explore his innermost motivations, subjectivity and lyricism…” the above statement by parvis is as against the multiple characters tradition where group characters play different roles. it should be recalled that the origin of drama dates back in greece during the thanks-giving ceremony of the greek god, dionysius around 6th century b.c. emeka nwabueze tells us that, the genesis of dramatic art took place one day in the sixth century b.c. the major activity of the vintage season was to assemble to give thanks to the god, dionysus… in the middle of this presentation of activity one of the chorus members mounted the altar stone assumed the role of the god about whose activities the chorus had assembled to recount. stepping out of himself and assuming a character… this sole actor impersonated and imitated the hero instead of singing about him… the man who performed this historic act was thespis, the greek artist credited with the discovery of drama… the first actor… the first writer of tragedy. (11-12) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 23 anuforo & okoye it is amazing how drama with its documented origin in solo dramatic art has been neglected and overtaken by multi –cast tradition as if solo theatre or performance never existed before. therefore, this work studies monodrama and the tale -telling of african oral culture in mbajiorgu and binebai. that is to account for the existence of the peculiar language of solo drama that “oscillates between prose and poetry” that is heavily conditioned by the narratology of african /nigerian oral tradition. going by the western concept of drama, as has been said elsewhere, it means that whatever forms the dithyramb must have taken before the thespian imitation and impersonation remained non-drama, at the most, mere ritual. greg mbajiorgu argues on the origin of monodrama and then corroborates that, as far as documented and published history is concerned, the origin of improvisatory solo is traceable to thespis. that is the fact before us. there may have been pre-historic fore-runners but there is little or no evidence to substantiate such claims like that of thespis of ancient greece, documented in aristotle’s the poetics.(325) in backing the argument above, nwabueze further adds that, soon after this marvelous and innovative performance, other greek artists began to imitate the performance aesthetics of this extraordinary artist (thespis)… since then, this art has grown considerably, acquired different forms and has come to mean different things to different people .(12) the researcher has maintained elsewhere too, that drama, having grown and acquired different forms including additional characters known today as multiple-character convention, has maintained strong holds in the world of drama and theatre for centuries. nwabueze adds that it was not until 18th century that, the earliest example of monodrama was created … and it is entitled pygmalion by a playwright named jean-jacques rousseau. but we must note that it was at the beginning of the 20th century that great actors reduced multi-cast plays to the vision of one character … (325) in analyzing such statement, one notices that the above great actors’ act of reducing multi-cast plays to the vision of one character playing all the roles is nothing but a rediscovery of solo theatre that took place during the 20th century. the above, no doubts is in line with modernist philosophy/ avant-garde / theatre of revolt which is an attempt to reclaim, assert and to overtake even the multi-cast tradition and then serve as a better drama alternative. the 20th century artist is said to have set out to collapse the prison wall imposed on arts by the old art tradition in order to be free to experiment and arrive at new order and make progress since life abhors stagnation. in the opinion stated above, it then means that it is the modernist thinking that brought about writers, artists and their art like karl marx, friedrich nietzsche, samuel beckett, jerzy grotowsky, bertolt brecht, funsho alabi, wole soyinka, esiaba irobi, greg mbajiorgu, benedict binebai and so many others. no doubts, minimalism and “poor theatre practice” are conditioned by avant – garde thinking. minimalism and the concept of “poor theatre” practice by jerzy grotowsky point towards same direction in drama and theatre. grotowsky rejects the toga of “rich theatre” and opts for the cutting down “all non essential scenery, costumes, and props to create the so-called poor theatre where the only focus was the unadorned actor”. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 24 anuforo & okoye solo drama which is dependent on the concept of minimalism is indeed drama/ theatre of revoltwith the “forbidden styles and subject matters” like the oneman actor vision, including feminism that was never given attention until the modernist era. robert brustein in his modernist thinking reveals that, messianic revolt is the initial stage of the modern drama… it can be found in ibsen, strindberg, shaw, and o’ neill… messianic drama is a medium of absolute liberation, unrestrained by dramatic rules or human limitations, through which the rebel dramatist indulges his insatiable appetite for the infinite. (16-17) it is in the spirit of theatre revolt that the concept of minimalism manipulates the theatrical props thereby trying to overtake multiple characters tradition in order to maintain its place as better-alternative in the world of dramatic art. furthermore, solo drama encourages the creative power of the individual’s survival in the economic mess like ours and then stands as a handy/mobile means of campaign against injustice, impunity, corruption, squandering of public funds, child abuse, human trafficking and all forms of social vices. the nigerian artists like mbajiorgu and binebai despite their long training in the western technicalities of drama/theatre are still heavily influenced by their african oral/solo performance heritage .in all humanity, it is said that man spoke before he wrote. the above argument shows that whatever metamorphoses we find in the form of written solo drama of mbajiorgu and binebai has its roots in the african / nigerian oral tradition like the ozidi saga in ijaw kingdom and others with its peculiar tale -telling language structure instead of mere dialogue and terseness which drama is known for. indeed, the said roots can be traced to the peculiar language of the oral narratives in traditional african setting like the folk tales, etc. binebai tells us that, “i read some of j.p clark’s plays like ozidi…” (390) he further adds thus, i tried to establish a pattern of solo drama tradition that has its roots in the ijaw cultural background and other ethnic groups in the nigerdelta. this tradition is drawn from the story telling tradition of the ijaw people. stories are told in ijaw land to dance, music and mime yet the story teller does not enter into dialogue with those who sing and dance… (393) greg mbajiorgu in an interview too granted to austine amanze akpuda reveals that, … i listened to fork tales told by my mother… my elder sister thrilled me with moonlight tales. …i grew to love folk tales… all these experiences have no doubt contributed to my development as a solo performer… i came from ihiaha in ihiala local government area of anambra state. in that part of igbo land, we have notable minstrels like seven (7-7) promoter, and several others. (338). it is this unique language that this research sets to showcase for better understanding the minimalist artwork like monodrama that is highly mobile in nature suggests that drama or its presentation can actually take place anywhere whether in the theatre or not. grotowski attempts to answer the question; what is theatre which his answer falls in line with minimalist tradition thus, can the theatre exist without costumes and sets? yes, it can. can it exist without music to accompany the plot? yes, it can. can it exist without lighting effects? of course. and without a text? yes; the history of the theatre confirms this. in the evolution of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 25 anuforo & okoye the theatrical art, the text was one of the last elements to be added. (983) however, grotowski goes further to interrogate the definition of theatre when he asks, “but can the theatre exist without actors? i know of no example of this”. again, he asks, can the theatre exist without an audience? at least one spectator is needed to make it a performance. all the other things are supplementary – perhaps necessary, but nevertheless, supplementary. (982) in this reductionist approach where theatrical elements are minimized to the barest optimal where the actor and the audience are the most essential, then the whole task falls on the body of the actor to achieve a total theatre effects on the audience. the prime minister’s son, my life in the burning creeks and the narratology of oral african setting (a cemetery beside a local church. on stage is prime minister's son in a completely tattered outfit dirging as he advanced towards his mother's tombstone.) prime minister's son: (dirging.) keduz' ife m g' erne? uw'agwu go m' ike keduz' ife m g' erne? uw'agwu go m' ike abum onye na-enwero onye ona-echekuwbe keduz' ife m g' erne? uw' agwu go m' ike keduz' ife m g' eme? uw' agwu go m' ike keduz' ife m g' eme? uw' agwu go m' ike what shall i do? i am tired of life what shall i do?' i am tired of life i am one who has no one to turn to what shall i do?(1-3) prime minister's son cries passionately as he stoops beside his mother's tombstone.} as we are, so she was. as she is, so shall we be. (sits beside the tombstone) but why, mother? why? why did you leave me this way? now that you are gone, what is the essence of my life? come and take me along with you. mama, please come… (11-12) in similar vein as a monodrama, we notice a drama presentation in the tradition of monopolylogue where only one character enjoys the patent rights of words in a flow of interaction with himself and where monologue, dialogue, drama and monodrama converge and then exhibit peculiarity thus, (dirging in tears as he turns, facing the audience.) keduz' ife m g' eme? uw' agwu go m' ike keduz' ife m g' eme? uw' agwu go m' ike … my friends, and countrymen, my sorrowful and melancholic tale goes beyond my tears of misery. for more than sixteen years, ezinma, emenike and i lived peacefully, a happy family, until last year… (5-8) prime minister's son as ezinma: sir, thank you very much. prime minister's son as prime minister: you're welcome. what's your name? ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 26 anuforo & okoye prime minister's son as ezinma; ezinma! prime minister's son as prime minister: ezinma, you're very beautiful. prime minister's son as blind woman: thank you my son. may your days be long! (12-14) here, we notice the language that is almost the same with the oral tales of african tradition like the prose narratives which jasper onuekwusi in fundamentals of african oral literature tells us, “…are fairly long and are prosaic”(50). that is against the tenets of dialogue which drama is known for. for dialogue in drama or dramatic dialogue, nwabueze maintains that, the word dialogue derives from the greek word “to converse” this means that there ought to be at least two speakers for dramatic dialogue to thrive. dramatic dialogue involves the exchange of speech between two characters, the thoughts of a single character; and conversation between several characters in a play (104) the above is in contradiction with ventriloquism type of language which makes possible every monodrama and then points back to the narratology in oral tales in african milieu. mbajiorgu opines that, language in monodrama “oscillates between prose and poetry”. and that such language is based purely on what is regarded as ventriloquism which enables the solo actor to achieve verisimilitude of those other characters which the lone actor embodies. in the background of the prime minister’s son, mbajiorgu argues that, ventriloquism is a well known mimetic technique that was used by the ancient greek soloists for interpreting multiple roles. this vocal characterization technique required by the single actor who is interpreting multiple roles can only be appreciated in a performance and not in a text. (67) in supporting the adequacy of this language form in monodrama, c.b davis submits that, masked actors, puppeteers, storytellers, monolinquists and other performers who signify multiple identities with the voice usually rely on systems of difference that reveal cultural codes for class, ethnicity, gender and socially typed personality of the speaker… (qtd in mbajiorju, 67-68) davis is said to have identified two types of vocal modulation that are associated with ventriloquism which are vocal transformation and acoustic perspective thus, vocal transformation designates a change of voice that is in contrast either to the speaker’s normal voice or other assumed or imitated voices, while acoustic perspective is the principle behind not only the voice-illusion or the distance ventriloquism but also the auditory signification of space and movement in a sign system (qtd in “background”, 67-68). it is believed that we can only appreciate the connection between voice and identity only in the circumstance of stage performance where the lone actor appropriates his voice and body in a bare space (mbajiorju, 68). in the same vein, it is argued that the solo actor embodies the other characters on stage realistically by the use of what charles mathew calls monopolylogue which he sees as, “one man having the monopoly of words in a series of dialogue with himself”. (qtd in “background”, 67) the ventriloquism and monopolylogue in ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 27 anuforo & okoye monodrama that are “fairly long and prosaic” just like we have in oral tales in african culture are what we encounter when the prime minister's son speaks as emenike thus, prime minister’s son as emenike: ozoemena was my best friend in the orphanage. throughout that week, this man,whom we called master,treated us like princes. one saturday morning, some strange faces visited our new home. later that same day, master went out with ozoemene and that was the last time i set my eyes on ozoemene. all my efforts to enquire about ozoemena’s whereabouts from master were dismissed with a wave of the hand. out of curiosity, i asked people in the neighborhood whether they knew where ozoemena could be, but each person i asked treated me like a dynamo. i sensed something fishy was happening in my new home. it wasn’t until i had a misunderstanding with one of the street boys that he, in a bid to spite me, told me that my occultist and cabalistic master would soon use me for sacrifice. the boy also wished i would rot in the shrine, but then, he had unwittingly unraveled the puzzle of ozoemena’s disappearance. in my room that night, i kept eating kola nuts to keep awake. by the dead hour of the night, when spirits are known to roam the surface of the earth, i stole out into the harsh harmattan air and wandered off with nothing but the dirty clothes on my body. i walked for two nights non-stop to another part of the town where i was sure the long hands of my master could not get me.(36-37) like the prime minister’s son above, my life in the burning creeks that is for our analysis was written by binebai. benedict ebimotimi binebai writes thus, (at the public square in gbaramatu in one of the creeks of the niger delta, a dirge ... a fairly tall black skinned youth of about thirty years comes out to the deserted public square. he is wearing a blue jean trousers and a faded t-shirt): pereware: what does life mean to you (pointing to someone in the audience) enjoyment? does it mean the same thing to me? the endowment of life is partial. some people are born with silver spoon some have silver spoon entrusted unto them. and there are others born with silver spoon. but the gods deny them the right and privilege to feed with the silver spoon. if life is not partial, why is it fair to some people and foul to some others? yes!... (physical effects of fire flames) for many years my people stood against subjugation. one day, three low flying helicopters came to my land and we all gave a wave of welcome as our kingdom was in a festive mood…(5658) (faint sound of helicopters as pereware waves briefly and stops short…) oh! my god.what has come over me? i have started this story wrongly. please bear with me. let me start from where the creator of my story started it. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 28 anuforo & okoye (a brief song to usher in the narration. the song continues in the background, fading progressively as pereware speaks) i graduated from one of nigeria’sprestigious universities and was posted to kano for national youth service. my friend, abubakar, from sokoto state who read islamic and arabic studies was posted to delta, my own state, and was further posted to chevron at escravos where he served and was retained there at the public and corporate affairs unit. i returned from northern nigeria after service without a job offer…(7) pereware: but abubakar, how do i make it when i don’t have a godfather? i need the job, would you take me to a godfather who can offer me the job? pereware as abubakar: the bitter truth is that you need to become a muslim and truly bear a muslim name before the assistance can come we experience the show of a blown ventriloquism and monopolylogue in monodrama that is conditioned by the fairly long and free flowing pattern in oral tales of african setting. the above is what we see when pereware speaks as wenetua reeling out the frustration of average nigerian/niger-deltan thus, pereware as wenetua: every choice you make in the burning creeks points to futility and cruelty and sometimes self destruction becoming a fisherman is futile because oil has polluted the waters; what about the flora and fauna that have been deprived of their fertility? your dream of having a job is killed by the monster of discrimination and oppression and to be in politics means fighting a war of violence against your will. youths of the aquatic region take to diving dangerously into the depth of the river to collect water snails to eke a living even the choice of going into local crude oil refining is another suicidal venture. the effect of this local refinery can be devastating as its health implications hold no good future for our people. the quality of our unborn children in this burning and oil refining creeks will fail our future generation. in this burning creek, the traditional life support system has been destroyed by oil exploration. people now embrace all types of available economic means to keep the family going. these militants see the oppressors as people who want them to be quiet even in the face of economic and social injustice, resource theft, environmental degradation, and political exclusion. but while they have been using our oil to drive their cars, fuel their airplanes, and keep the wonderful wheels of our wealth whirling. those of us in the burning creeks have had our land, lives, and dreams destroyed. …so, what are you doing with that rope? you want to die because you have no job yet? you are a coward! you have a sick mother who has spent all her savings and used up her sweat to make you a man. and a university graduate. and you think because life has not ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 29 anuforo & okoye been fair to you, the best thing to do is to die to allow your mother wallow and die in sorrow and pains? (29-30) in the above language structure, we notice a peculiar type where “fairly long and prosaic” language form just like the fairly long and free flowing pattern in oral tales in african culture is imposed on the monodrama especially that written by africans like mbajiorgu and binebai which they consciously set out to achieve. conclusion so far, one notices that despite being trained in the western technicalities in drama and consequently its sub-genre called monodrama, greg mbajiorju and benedict binebai create the first monodrama in nigeria that appropriate the igbo and ijaw oral language form/ tales -telling heritage respectively. as one –man theatre, its root points back to the one-man oral performance in most human societies especially in africa and her oral language pattern which now graduates into what is regarded as the pioneer monodrama and its peculiar language form in nigeria today. works cited aristotle. “the poetics”. criticism: the major statements 5th edition. new york: st. martins’ press, 1986. 21-53. print. binebai, benedict. my life in the burning creeks. ibadan: temple publications, 2014. print. …”interview with benedict binebai by paul izoigwe”. 50 years of solo performing art in nigeri 1966-2016. eds. greg. mbajiorgu, amanze akpuda. ibadan: kraft books limited, 2018. 387-399. print. …”my monodrama: the vision and philosophy” 50 years of solo performing art in nigeri 1966-2016. eds. greg. mbajiorgu, amanze akpuda. ibadan: kraft books limited, 2018. 376-386.. print. brecht, bertolt. “the modern theatre is the epic theatre”. dramatic theory and criticism greeks to grotowski: new york: library of congress publication, 1974. 978-996. print. …”theatre for pleasure or theatre for instruction” dramatic theory and criticism greeks to grotowski: new york: library of congress publication, 1974, 849-854. print. brustein, robert. the theatre of revolt: an approach to the modern drama. boston: an atlamtic monthly press book, 1962. print. grotowski, jerzy. “the theatre’s new testament”. dramatic theory and criticism greeks to grotowski: new york: library of congress publication, 1974. 978-996. print. mbajiorgu, greg.. the prime minister’s son. ibadan: kraft book limited. 2011. print. mbajiorgu, greg. improvisation as a strategy for creating dynamic solo play: a study of tunji sotimirin’s molue 50 years of solo performing art in nigeria 1966-2016. eds. greg. mbajiorgu, amanze akpuda. ibadan: kraft books limited, 2018. 179-195.. nwabueze, emeka. studies in dramatic literature. enugu; abic book 2011. print. onuekwusi, jasper. fundamentals of african oral literature. owerri: alphabet publishers, 2001. print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ifeanyi 38 the pidgin-language experiment in modern nigerian poetry: a study of ezenwa-ohaeto’s i wan bi president edwin o. ifeanyi department of english language & literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: eddyifeanyi@gmail.com abstract this essay examines the resourcefulness of the nigerian pidgin (np) as a communication vehicle in poetry, a domain hitherto dominated by standard english. the study is motivated by the increasing use of the language in poetic expression in nigeria, and the discovery that people who ordinarily were averse to poetry find interest in it when presented in nigerian pidgin. unlike earlier studies in np poetry this study adopts the linguistic-stylistic approach in analyzing ezenwa-ohaeto’s “i wan bi president,” the longest poem in his experimental collection by that title. the study revealed that all stylistic dimensions possible with poetry in standard english are equally possible with poetry in np. it also revealed that np is more accessible as language of poetic expression given its relatively more simplified grammatical structures. in addition the graphic, descriptive and comic facilities of the np enable poets to elaborate serious themes in an equally entertaining style. the study observed that despite the lack of standard orthography, nigerian pidgin has continued to grow in use and acceptance. it thus projected that the trend would continue, and that through borrowing from and exploitation of the linguistic potentials of its donor languages, the vocabulary of np would be expanded and its writing system may ultimately acquire a stable tradition. keywords: nigerian pidgin, poetic expression, linguistic-stylistics introduction modern nigerian poetry has produced a good number of published poems in the nigerian pidgin (np). some of the writers have turned out full-length poetry volumes in the language, and the number continues to grow as more poets become aware of the resourcefulness of the language and its creative potentiality. this increasing interest of creative writers in the use of nigerian pidgin as communication vehicle in poetry, a domain hitherto dominated by formal or standard english is one of the motivations for this investigation. in addition, it has been observed that readers or audience who ordinarily were averse to poetry find interest in it when presented in np. ezenwa-ohaeto himself in an introductory comment to his poetry collection i wan bi president (poems in formal and pidgin english) from which the poem of study is taken, noted as follows: “…i have been reading my poems written in ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ifeanyi 39 both formal and pidgin english to various audiences in nigeria. but after each reading of the pidgin poems, i have come away with a sense of satisfaction that the poems touched some inner chords and also a sense of overwhelming acceptance of pidgin poetry” (viii). this observation constitutes additional motivation for this study. thus this essay examines the resourcefulness of the nigerian pidgin (np) as a communication vehicle in poetry. unlike earlier studies in np poetry this study adopts the linguistic-stylistic approach. the title poem of ezenwaohaeto’s experimental collection i wan bi president is used as source of data for the study. the choice of this poem is informed by the prominence given to it by the poet: using it as the title of the entire collection, which presupposes that it embodies the central theme of the work. in addition, it is the longest poem in the volume, and the last poem of the section three entitled “cyclones”, which also makes it the climax of the collection. the study leans on the constuctionist theory, which accounts for all of our knowledge of language as patterns of form and function. according to goldberg, who developed the theory, it is “a new theoretical approach that allows linguistic observations about form-meaning pairing, known as ‘constructions,’ to be stated directly” (219). he adds that constructionist approaches aim to account for the full range of facts about language, without assuming that a particular subset of data is part of a privileged ‘core’. kris romanda (61) explains that goldberg’s argument was that sentence meaning was determined not only by the verb and its arguments, but also by the construction in which these occur. in other words, in construction-based grammar, it is understood that words alone cannot account for the wide range of semantic meaning conveyed in a language. syntactic organization can encode semantic information as well, in that the way words are arranged can impact the meaning of a phrase, independent of the individual words themselves. in fact, as a general principle, any change in syntactic form will entail, to a greater or lesser degree, a difference in meaning. that is the principle of no synonymy of grammatical forms. this lies behind the development of construction grammar. by the end of this study the following research questions would have been answered: 1. how viable is nigerian pidgin as language of poetic expression? 2. to what extent does poetry in np lend itself to a linguistic-stylistic analysis? 3. to what degree has ezenwa-ohaeto been able to express his message in “i wan bi president” using nigerian pidgin? ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ifeanyi 40 the emergence of nigerian pidgin the definition, origins and development of nigeria pidgin (np) have been elaborately discussed in pioneering studies such as mafeni (1971), todd (1984), elugbe and omamor (1991) and faraclas (1996) to mention a few. nonetheless, it is pertinent to note that pidgin generally is regarded as a marginal or makeshift kind of language which emanates from a contact situation between people(s) with different l1. zabus thinks such a language “can arise in a matter of hours whenever people speaking mutually unintelligible languages need to communicate (117). nigerian pidgin is therefore a pidgin that arose from such contact and need between multilingual coastal communities of nigeria and the european visitors made up of the portuguese, the dutch, and finally the english. the np was thus originally developed as a simplified means of communication between nigerians and the europeans, especially the english, for the specific purposes of trade and exploration. elugbe explains that by nigerian pidgin, “we specifically mean nigerian pidgin english…” but “since it is the only pidgin which has a geographic base which is national… it is simply called nigerian pidgin” (286). np is english-based, having english as its main lexifier. since it has nigerian languages as its substrate or underlying influence, the vocabulary of np is said to be english while its grammar is nigerian. the stabilization of the contact between the visiting europeans, especially the english, and their nigerian hosts led to the expansion of np. but the later emergence of a standard variety of english and the establishment of schools where this was taught, making it the language of trade and industry, mission work and government in nigeria posed some challenge to np since this variety became so important that its mastery was a passport to a good position in the society with its social and material benefits (elugbe and omamor 21). nevertheless, np remained useful since not everyone had access to school and the process of acquiring the standard variety was decidedly longer and more tedious than that of acquiring np. the language has therefore “…survived and flourished by generally being readily useful and handy, thus filling a veritable communication vacuum in nigeria” (elugbe 288). today, the np “has developed from being a limited language of trade and business along the coastal regions of nigeria to a full-fledged language in its own rights as a result of acquisition of new vocabulary items to meet the expanded communication challenges of its speakers” (mensar 210). indeed, the functions of np have become so extensive that it is now used in all genres of literature, especially poetry, in nigeria. ezenwa-ohaeto corroborates this assertion by observing that “it is in poetry that this language (np) has been most effectively employed to create a bridge of orality, especially in the attempt to demonstrate, develop and exploit its artistic resources…” (70). some of the nigerian authors who have experimented with np in their poetry ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ifeanyi 41 works include frank aig-imoukhuede, mamman vasta, ken saro-wiwa, tunde fatunde, ezenwa-ohaeto, bassey ekpenyong, tanure ojaide, segun oyekunle, and recently eriata oribhabor, etc. for a successful and comprehensive stylistic study of ezenwa-ohaeto’s pidgin poem “i wan bi president”, the following procedure of analysis is adopted: the graphological patterns, syntactic mode, sound devices, and lexico-semantic choices. the graphological patterns graphology is “the analogous study of a language’s writing system, or orthography, as seen in various kinds of handwriting and typography… distinctive uses of punctuation, capitalization, spacing and so on” (crystal and davy, 18). it deals primarily with the printed matter of a text and its arrangement. creative writers, especially poets, often deploy the graphology of their works for stylistic effect. our text of study shows evidence of this deployment in its structural pattern, spacing, use of capitalization, word character or typeface and punctuation. structurally, the text which is written in free verse is patterned into twenty (20) unequal stanzas of three (3) to fifteen (15) lines each, with equal spacing between the stanzas. this feature which allows for division of poetic thoughts for piecemeal assimilation is also a common feature of poetry in standard english. however, some kind of indentation is employed in stanza seventeen (17) to draw the reader’s attention to exclamatory questions as follows: i wan bi president make my people enjoy too wetin bi federal character every industry go dey there wetin bi disadvantaged area every appointment go go there wetin bi geographical spread every promotion go bi for them federal character na for person wey no get broder, by stylistically using initial spacing for the questions the poet chose to dispense with the conventional question or exclamation mark. capitalization is another graphological feature which is employed for stylistic effect in the poem. the word ‘president’ which ordinarily is a common noun has been used with initial capital all through the text. this immediately suggests the centrality of the word to the message of the poet, hence his decision to give it prominence and emphasis by way of initial capitalization. it also presupposes that the poet has used the word as a proper noun with a particular powerful individual-referent in mind, whose name the poet could not just mention without consequences. of course the poem was written ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ifeanyi 42 during the military era of general ibrahim babangida. besides this other uses of capitalization in the text are generally conventional. for word character and print typeface, we notice the use of large characters and bold type face for the words of the title to distinguish it from the body of the poem. this is conventional. but the title of the poem does not begin a fresh page as is usually the convention; rather it begins immediately after the last stanza of a preceding one. this feature graphically indicates that the poems in each section of the collection form one fluid-whole united by a common theme. and in this regard ‘cyclone’ (violent rotating windstorm) is used as metaphor for the biting socio-political theme binding our section of interest. the same idea of fluidity and unity runs through the entire fifty (50) lines and twenty (20) stanzas of the poem. thus, the use of punctuation marks is sparse. every stanza flows into another like cyclone, separated by a comma, until the last line of the final stanza when a full stop is inserted to indicate an end. the syntactic mode syntax has to do with the structure of the sentence, and the set of rules, principles and processes governing this in a given language. potter observes that “syntax is the basis of sentence patterns,” referring to these patterns as “ordering together, systematic arrangement” (104). syntactic mode therefore encompasses the choice of sentence and clause types, and their constituent grammatical elements. in the text of study there is structurally, a predominance of short simple and complex sentences, one compound and no compound-complex sentences. this preference for short and simple sentences is not unusual with poetry, even in standard english, which deals with brevity and terseness of expressions. it also helps to enhance the simplicity of the np poetry, and in turn guarantees quick and easy assimilation. nevertheless, there is ample evidence of the use of code-switched and code-mixed structures, structures that are partly np and partly se. some examples and their pure np equivalents include: 1. every car go run comot for road too (stanza 6: line 6) all motto go follow run comot for road 2. some presidents dem dey (11: 8 and 13) president dem dey 3. if you see president him children (9: 5) if you see president im pikin dem 4. na special treatment dem go get (9:7) na better service dem go get 5. if dem publish newspaper or magazine (18:6) if dem write paper 6. dem go address me as snake wey get forest (19:8) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ifeanyi 43 dem go dey kol me snake wey get bush munzali jibril has attempted to account for the above feature in np by observing that “as a consequence of the use of np in domain hitherto restricted to (standard) english, np now trespasses freely into (standard) english syntax to borrow structures which are clearly non-np” (237). however, such borrowing should be expected where np lacks an equivalent. the examples above show that the standard english structures used in the text have an equivalent in np, so their choice could hardly be for structural or vocabulary inadequacy of the np. we may therefore choose from two possible reasons: either that the standard english structures are employed deliberately and stylistically by the poet to ridicule the president persona’s unrestrained freedom to do as he pleased, or they are sheer cases of standard english interference. functionally, the sentences in the text are all declarative, except in stanza seventeen (17) as earlier quoted, lines three (3), five (5) and seven (7), where the poet uses exclamatory questions to highlight the ease with which the ‘president’ gets whatever he wants without regard for due process. this predominance of declarative sentences is an indication that the poet is very much informed about his subject matter. in this case, he wishes to be ‘president’ and he knows exactly the privileges and immunities enjoyed by the occupant of the office. he thus goes on to inform his audience about these facts and his predicament as a result of his inordinate ambition. the clause structure of the text indicates a variety of choices. a clause is simply a grammatical unit that operates at a level lower than the sentence but higher than the phrase in the grammatical rank scale. it has its own subject and predicate and is part of a (larger) sentence. the combination of the main and subordinate clauses enables a writer to communicate effectively. it is evident in the text that the poet utilized the use of subordination to achieve suspense and thus retain the interest of his readers. using the systemic linguistic model, which gives the sequence of clause structure as s-p-c-a, where s is subject, p is predicator, c is complement and a is adverbial, we shall examine some instances of clause structure in the np text. 1. egetone dream/ weydey worryme (1:1 & 2) a p c s p c 2. ifisleepsmall/ nahimde dreamgo come (2: 1 &2) a s p a s/p a s p 3. wheninever seewaterdrink/ nahimde dreamgo come (3: 4 & 5) a s p c a s/p a s p ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ifeanyi 44 the mobility of the a element in np just like in standard english (se) is evident in the above examples. beyond that we also observe a peculiar feature in np which does not obtain in se: two elements are jointly realized by one item. for example, the np word ‘na’ which means ‘it is’ or ‘that is’ in se realizes the s and p elements in an np clause. this is part of the simplified nature of the np’s grammatical structure. sound devices sound or phonological devices are generally employed in poetry to enhance it entertaining quality as well as to reinforce or emphasize the message of the poet. np poetry is not excluded from this feature. however, the use of such devices in african poetry is usually scanty and inconsistent, the reason being that african poets, unlike their western counterparts, are more concerned about the prevalent socio-political problems of their societies which have to reflect in the tone and structure of their works than with mere musical entertainment. nevertheless, our text reveals a conscious attempt by ezenwaohaeto to imbue his poetry with musical features and entertaining qualities, even as he explores the serious theme of military misrule in his country. this perhaps is part of the reasons why nwachukwu-agbada describes him as ‘ezenwa-ohaeto: poet of the njakiri genre’ (153). some of the sound elements observed in the text, which we shall examine, include: repetition, anaphora and epiphora, rhyme, alliteration, assonance and onomatopoeia. indeed, it is the device of repetition that the poet exploits to the fullest in his attempt to entertain his reader-audience, reinforce his theme and project his subject matter. thus, the word president features at least once in almost all the stanzas, while the clause ‘i wan bi president’ is repeated as stanza introduction from stanza thirteen (13) to the very last stanza twenty (20). stanzas two (2) and sixteen (16) below are not only stylistically appealing, but also notable for their musical effect: 1. if i sleep small 2. na him de dream go come 3. if i close eye small 4. na him de dream go come 5. if i siddon for chair 6. say make i rest small 7. na him de dream go come 8. i think say na malaria dey come (2) 1. i wan bi president 2. if food no dey market i no worry 3. if dem say price don rise i no go worry 4. if salary no come on time i no go worry 5. if petrol dey cost too much i no go worry ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ifeanyi 45 6. if sanitation exercise dey i no go worry 7. if na religion trouble dey i no go worry (16) almost all the identified sound devices feature in stanza (2) above. the sound /s/ is alliterated in ‘sleep small’ (line 1). also, /d/ is alliterated in ‘de dream’ (lines 2, 4 and 7). there is assonance of the sound /ai/ in ‘i’ and ‘eye’ (line 3), and /e/ in ‘say’ and ‘make’ (line 6) as well as in ‘say’, ‘malaria’ and ‘dey’ (line 8). then, there is end rhyme of alternate type ‘abab’ realized by the alternate use of ‘small’ and ‘come’ at line endings in stanza (2). similarly, the repeated use of the word ‘worry’ at line endings in stanza (6) produces a uniform rhyme. indeed, the clauses ‘na him de dream go come’ in stanza (2) and ‘i no go worry’ in stanza (16) have been deliberately used repeatedly by the poet to create a refrain or chorus so as to get his reader-audience fully involved in the poetic experience. notice that the clause repetition in stanza (16) is epiphoric. the text also utilizes interplay of anaphora and parallelism to enhance audience participation as is evident in stanza (7): dem go close de road dem go close even air too dem go take one car carry am dem go take another one dey follow all dem vehicle tyre dey new all dem vehicle engine dey new … onomatopoeia features in stanza (6) lines (4) and (5) thus: na siren dey clear road dey make param param piroo piroo on the overall, it is observed that all sound devices possible with poetry in standard english also feature effectively in this np poetry. lexico-semantic choices in this section interest is in how the choice of words and syntax of the sentence enhance the message and interpretation of the text. the section shall accommodate lexical, semantic and figurative features. lexically, the poet has carefully selected his words to suit his purpose; thus we find more of nouns, pronouns and adjectives in the text. also, we observe a predominance of concrete over abstract nouns, which is not surprising because the poet is dealing with observable excesses in his society. the first person singular pronoun ‘i’ dominates in the text, suggesting the direct involvement of the poet in the experience he shares. it also provides some kind of shield behind which the poet hides to freely unleash his satirical punches; after all it is himself that he talks to or about. most of the adjectives in the text illustrate comfort and enjoyment which according to the poet are attributes of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ifeanyi 46 ‘president’. examples, in context, include: vehicle tyre dey new (7:5), de seat go clean well well (7:7), body dey fat well well (9:2), special treatment (9:7), red carpet (12:2), best hotel (12:5), special woman (12:6), beautiful wife (14:2), plenty title (19:2), etc. however, there are instances of adjectives and verbs describing difficulty and suffering which the poet has used in contrast with the position of a ‘president’ such as: hungry (5:1), thirsty (5:2), worry (5:3), walk ten miles (8:1), push truck (8:5), cry (13:2), weep (13:4), etc. by this contrasting collocation, the poet is able to communicate the existence of two worlds in his society: one for the ‘president’ and his cohorts, the other for the masses where the poet belongs, hence his dream to be ‘president’. significantly, the text features numerous standard english words and spellings which betray the poet as a non-l1 user of np, as well as the fact that he is writing in np for the first time. some instances and their np equivalents include: ‘tire’ against ‘taya’ (stanza 1, line 3) ‘checking’ against ‘check’ (5:4) ‘prepare’ instead of ‘cook’ (5:6) ‘dry cleaner’ instead of ‘washman’ (5:7) ‘government’ for ‘goment’ (5:7) ‘sanitation exercise’ against ‘clean up’ (16:6) ‘special treatment’ instead of ‘beta service’ (9:7) etc. this feature has been viewed by some authors as a movement towards creolisation of the np. semantics deals with the relationship between linguistic forms and meaning in a natural language. often poets employ satire (attack on foolish behaviour by making fun of it), and irony (expression of meaning by saying the direct opposite of what is intended) in an attempt to convey meaning. such devices enable the poet to mildly make his/her point without necessarily hurting feelings. it is quite obvious in our text that the poet has utilized satire and irony to critize the excesses of the nigerian governments, especially the military government at the time of his writing. the following stanza (18) is quite satirical: i wan bi president wey dem go dey praise every street go carry my name i go rename all university for de country all de towns go carry my name if dem publish newspaper or magazine wey curse me even small na bomb i go take teach them lesson … ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ifeanyi 47 notice the allusion in the last line to the death of the nigerian journalist, dele giwa, who was killed by a mail bomb in his lagos home on october 19, 1986 for his indicting publication against the government. it was believed that the then military president masterminded his death. the poet has therefore condemned the action using satire. it is also ironical that the poet whose duty it is to guide and correct, should desire to be a bad president like the one described. other instances of the use of satire and irony run throughout the text. hyponymy, which is a semantic relationship between words referring to entities of the same class, also feature in the text. in hyponymy, the word with a most general meaning is called the superordinate term, while other terms with more specific meanings belonging to the class of the superordinate term are called hyponyms (udofot, 34). thus, in the text, stanza (19) features ‘plenty titles’ as the superordinate term under which the following hyponyms belong: ‘de excellency’, ‘commander-in-chief’, ‘field marshal and admiral’, ‘lion of de niger’, ‘grand commander of de nation’, ‘snake wey get forest’. the poet has employed hyponymy to highlight the so much importance which the ‘president’ attached to titles. some figurative elements that feature in the text include: simile, metaphor and hyperbole. simile describes indirect comparison between two things by the use of ‘like’ or ‘as’ as connector. examples: dey look like person wey no see food chop (11:4) wey dey kill person like dem bi flies (11:9), wey don fat like person wey dey fattening room (11:14), etc. metaphor compares two dissimilar things in a striking way without the use of connectors. instances in the text include: na bullet you go see chop one time (11:12) na bomb i go take teach dem lesson (18: 8) dem go address me as snake wey get forest (19:8). hyperbole means exaggerated statement made for special effect. instances in the text include: dem go close even air too (7:2) na president get country (7:8) if you cough every country go begin cry (13:2) if you cough every country go begin weep (13:4) all de towns go carry my name (18:5) etc. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ifeanyi 48 the above figures of speech present a mental picture to the reader thereby appealing to his/her imagination. the result is better participation. beyond that, the presence of the figurative devices in the text is a proof that np is adequately resourceful to operate in poetry like standard english. summary and conclusion the objective of this study has been to demonstrate the resourcefulness of nigerian pidgin to operate effectively in poetry in the context of an already establish medium (standard english). to this end linguistic stylistics was deployed in a detailed analysis of “i wan bi president,” a nigerian pidgin poem by the late ezenwa-ohaeto, in order to make explicit the linguisticcreative resources that lent np its viability in the novel domain. the study revealed that all stylistic dimensions: graphological, syntactic, phonological (or sound), and lexico-semantic resources, possible with poetry in standard english are equally possible with poetry in np. this seems to equate the two language varieties in their proficiency as communication vehicles in poetry. but the grammatical structures of np as the text revealed are relatively more simplified, making the language accessible to all categories of people; of course the availability of literary experience depends largely on the accessibility of the language of its creation, and this has more relevance to poetry which some people dismiss as inaccessible. moreover, writers (poets in particular), are generally more laizzer-faire and less pedantic in the use of np, which allows them full exploitation of the poetic license. this, added to the graphic, descriptive and comic facilities of the language, enables poets to elaborate serious themes in an equally entertaining style. there is no doubt therefore, that ezenwa-ohaeto has successfully exploited the resources of the np through the use of ‘folk poetics and a sensitive deployment of a range of rhetorical styles while synthesizing formal features of poetry and verbal resources to generate a new vigor in the nigerian poetic tradition’ (ezenwa-ohaeto, 77). two major points often held against np are: (1) its numerous varieties; (2) inconsistency in its writing system. however, the first point has been defeated by the revelation that all varieties of nigerian pidgin are mutually intelligible though with a little adjustment and that np is even (almost entirely) mutually intelligible with other west african pidgins (elugbe, 299). the second point is still a reality but a harmless one because despite its existence, there is no doubt that np has continued to grow in use, status and acceptance. this trend is evident in its function in nigerian poetry, and the language has proved viable in this novel creative domain. it is hoped that the trend will continue, and that through borrowing from both english and indigenous nigerian ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ifeanyi 49 languages, the vocabulary of nigerian pidgin would be expanded and its writing system may ultimately acquire a stable tradition. works cited crystal, d., and d. davy. investigating english style. london: longman, 1979. print. elugbe, ben. “nigerian pidgin: problems and prospects.” new englishes: a west african perspective. ed. ayo bamgbose, ayo banjo, and andrew thomas. ibadan: mosuro, 1995. 284-99. print. ezenwa-ohaeto. i wan bi president (poems in formal and pidgin english). enugu: delta, 1988. print. ---. “bridges of orality: nigerian pidgin poetry.” world literature today. 69.1(1995). print. goldberg, adele. “constructions: a new theoretical approach to language.” trends in cognitive sciences 7.5 (2003): 219-24. print. jibril munzali.“theelaboration of the functions of nigerian pidgin.” new englishes: a west african perspective. ed. ayo bamgbose, ayo banjo, and andrew thomas. ibadan: mosuro, 1995. 232-47. print. mensah, e.o. “lexicalization in nigerian pidgin.” concentric: studies in linguistics 37.2 (july 2011): 209-40. print. nwachukwu-agbada, j.o.j. “ezenwa-ohaeto: poet of the njakiri genre.” of minstrelsy and masks: the legacy of ezenwa-ohaeto in nigerian writing. ed. c. matzke, a. raji-oyelade, and g. v. davis. ny: rodopi, 2006. 153-77. print. potter, s. modern linguistics. london: andre deutsch, 1957. print. romanda, kris. “goldberg’s construction grammar.” the bloomsbury companion to cognitive linguistics. eds. jeannette littlemore and john r. taylor. january, 2019. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/320856777. web. 18 sept. 2019. udofot, i. english semantics. uyo: scholars presss, 1998. print. zabus, chantal. “informed consent: ezenwa-ohaeto between past and future uses of pidgin.” of minstrelsy and masks: the legacy of ezenwa ohaeto in nigerian writing. ed. c.matzke, a. raji-oyelade, and g. v. davis. ny: rodopi, 2006. 115-34. print. https://www.researchgate.net/%20publication/320856777 https://www.researchgate.net/%20publication/320856777 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ngige 80 nigerian pidgin use and strategies employed by stand-up comedians to achieve interaction in comedy nneoma chiebuka ngige department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state email: nneomangige2@gmail.com abstract this study is aimed at looking at the use of nigerian pidgin and strategies employed by stand-up comedians to achieve interaction in comedy. stand-up comedy, an oral dramatic performance commonly enacted by a soloperformance before a live audience, are known to use nigerian pidgin creatively to create comedy and entertain their audience. their patterns and choices of language can sometimes have hidden meanings that show nigerian ways of life and their tone of utterance can sometimes be inappropriate. this study therefore examines the strategies deployed by stand-up comedians with the view to determining the role of nigerian pidgin as a veritable source in comedy production and consumption. hence, the purpose of this study is to analyze the strategies employed by nigerian stand-up comedians to achieve interaction in comedy, their patterns and choices of language as they are used to create comedy to entertain their audience.qualitative research method of analysis was used in analyzing the data collected. to achieve this, the researcher studied two selected comedians – i go dye and ali baba, downloaded from youtube, videos and the internet. this work reveals how the nigerian pidgin reflects social relationship between the comedian and his audience. it also reveals that pidgin is an informal language, and so its informality creates an equal social relationship in an informal setting which aids laughter. keywords: nigerian pidgin, stand-up comedies, solo-performer introduction language can be described as a dynamic, social and interactive phenomenon whether between the speaker and the listener, or writer and the reader (crystal 19). ayoola opine that the “creative nature of language lies in its ability to be used to exaggerate, to create imaginary stories, to tell a lie, to hypothesize and to express the imagination of their heart” (15). thus, language serves different functions. language is used with an intention. it could be to inform, to request information or an action, and to command. however, the goal of language use in every situation is not just to communicate but also to make a significant impression on the listener or reader. the linguistic situation in nigeria is ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ngige 81 locally plural but globally dual. by this, it is meant that there are hundreds of nigerian languages acquired unconsciously and spoken as first language (l1) in different geographical boundaries, while only two languages – the english language and nigerian pidgin (hence forth np) are widely spoken, across all boundaries in nigeria. similarly, dan sperber claims that the english language and np share a co-existence in nigeria: “english constitutes the h variety, as it is the language of most public/formal communication, while np is the l variety, being associated primarily with private/informal domains of language use’ (24). however, while english has to be acquired consciously, essentially in the classroom, np can be acquired either unconsciously especially in south-eastern nigeria or consciously, though informally on the streets, through interactions with the speakers. although np is usually considered an english-derived contact language, its identity could be traced to nigerian languages spoken along the coast before the coming of european traders (in the fifteenth century): linguistic contacts between nigerians and european traders; european incursion into nigeria via missionary work (fara das nicolas 9). without doubt, np is derived from many european languages, (especially english, portuguese, and dutch) and various nigeria languages. because nigeria was eventually colonized by the british, the english language became np’s main lexifier, prompting the alternative nomenclature, nigerian pidgin english (npe). stand-up comedy is a comic style in which a comedian performs in front of a live audience, usually speaking directly to them. the performer is commonly known as a comic, stand-up comedy or simply a stand-up. the comedians recite a grouping of humorous stories, jokes and one-liners typically called a monologue. some stand-up comedians use props, music or magic tricks to enhance their acts. stand-up comedy is often performed in corporate events, comedy clubs, bars and pubs, night clubs and theatres. outside live performance, stand-up comedies are often distributed commercially via television, dvd, cd, youtube and the internet. strategies employed by stand-up comedians to achieve interaction in comedy there are three major strategies comedians appropriated in comedy production linguistic coding/pausing, stereotyping, call-and-response. linguistic coding/pausing comedians have been discovered to use code-switching, essentially to relate to their audiences (furukawa 28). in the nigerian stand-up comedy context, four broad languages are spoken: standard english, nigerian english, nigerian pidgin, and local languages (l1s). while local languages are minimally used considering the multilingual nature of both comedians and audience, english and nigerian pidgin are preponderantly deployed. also, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ngige 82 timing is tactically used by comedians to activate their audiences’ responses. the reason for this linguistic choice lies in part with the lack of a lingua franca in a multilingual country, and also in part with the low level of formal education of the citizens. realizing then that performing in english (standard british english) would reduce the size of their audience and constrain the comprehension of their messages, nigerian comedians mostly perform in nigerian pidgin. and since most of the comedians are university-degree holders, their choice of nigerian pidgin would be (seen additionally as) an index of a desire to speak with, rather than to, their audiences. sometimes though, np is switched or mixed with sbe. in the following short scripts from ali baba’s introductory statements, in one of his performances, the comedian uses np, first independently, and then as code-alternated (code-switched and code-mixed) with standard british english. i bought one drum like that and hung it in my living room. one day like dat wey meat no dey to cook for the dogs, i look the pomo ... look am, look am, look am ... well, dey enjoyed it sha. one day like that, when there was no meat ... i took a good look at the hide ... looked at it, looked at it, looked at it ... well, they enjoyed it anyway. pausing is also significantly linguistically coded in nigerian stand-up comedy. pausing, an aspect of “timing” a complex of “a composite built up of hesitations, false starts, repetitions and formulaicity in the build-up along with a more rapid, fluid delivery of the punch-line ...” (norrick, 260-261) has been found useful in comedy performance, to signal the punch line significantly (david 48, norrick 201) and insignificantly (attardo and pickering 194). research has also shown that timing (especially pausing) is an essential part of the comedian-audience relationship in stand-up comedy. stereotyping a stereotype is defined as “a typical feature of a kind”, which may be true or false, but which individuals need to get on with the world (reyes, 181). from the social sciences to linguistics, stereotypes are considered pragmatic phenomena which are employed to position the self and the other in socially meaningful manners. reyes identifies “typification” and “typicality” as essential to any discussion of stereotypes; the former, attributed to “means relating some aspect of behaviour (predication) to a particular social category of persons (reference)” while the latter, paraphrases particular linguistic or discursive elements (reyes, 181). stereotyping is crucially employed in the nigerian comedic space, to categorize all sorts of people, institutions, and ethnic groups. the comedians, in the main, make use of the stereotypes to identify a shared background with their audiences and to indicate that they (comedian plus audience) have common perspectives of the world. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ngige 83 any warri guy dey here?area (audience: “eh”)i dey wan beg people make dem hold dia fone o.na so dem tief one guy fone after two weeks as di guy dey pass for di area, na im dem call di guy “oga, come here ... your fone no los?” “yeah, they stole my phone here two weeks ago.”e say wait ... di guy enter, carry one ghana fone na im full inside traveling bag..na im dem bring one sony erikson ...“na you get dis fone?” “yeah, this is my fone” ...na im di warri boy say, “ehehn... so na you lock “eh ehn ...dis fone wey we no fit sell am open di fone now make you dey run. (i go dye) i go dye make fun at his people, by inferring that they are not just thieves but daring ones at that. as an ethnic insider, he finds it wholesome to “play the audience” (double, 107) by appropriating a negative stereotype as a celebratory resource, by cleverly starting with the celebratory chant before moving to the negativity. in the introductory part, the comedian begins by assigning the reference “warri indigene” with the positively affiliative predication “to be respected” before switching to the negative (implied) predication “steals” (since people should secure their phones from “any warri indigene”). and the same reference, contextually indexed by both “they” and “he”, has a back grounded predication, “don’t care to be identified as thieves.” in the nigerian context, the comedian, in this act, is believed to be identifying with his people, and interacting with the audience. formulaic expressions nigerian comedians also use formulaic expressions as pragmatic strategies to contextualize their performances. when they do, such verbalizations serve either as signature tunes (expressions which identify the opening or closure of a comedian’s performance) or boundary markers (expressions which signal the beginning or end of a joke). for example, i go dye is identified by many formulas, including the (christian) religious utterance, “alle-lu-ya” (as pronounced),“hello (“are you still there”), and “abi i lie” (“am i lying?”) so much so that the audience anticipates any of these utterances and replies with whichever one he chooses, when he gets to the end of a joke. it must be noted, however, first, that he sticks to one formula in a given performance, and second that he chooses sometimes to use the formula as in-joke discourse filler. another form of formulaic utterance, “area”, is used to precede the telling of a joke that has the warri indigene as its butt. as such almost all nigerian comedians chant, “area” to preface an ethnic joke directed at the people of warri, regardless of the joke’s face value (i.e. whether the joke promotes a positive or negative face) because the warri people can handle of many jokes. this formula serves both to activate the mutual entertainment background of nigerian and to bond comedian and audience emotionally. in the following excerpt, i go dye seems to merely identify the warri members ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ngige 84 of his audience, but really orients towards this (his) ethnic group, and the audience, as a whole. call-and-response related to formulas are exchanges between comedian and audience, much in the spirit of the call-and-response type of african oral tradition (okpewho, 122), with the former initiating the call and the latter obliging the response. these come in the forms of question/answer, puzzle/resolution, and elliptical statements (whose completive components are sought from the audience). in each of the following samples, we find combinations of some of these dialogic verbalizations. i go dye make fun at the predisposition of nigerian women to make-up and artificiality, predicating his argument on a hypothesis, for which he seeks the audience’s approval: nigerian women are greater liars than nigerian men. a lot of guys lie, same thing with girls... but na girls lie pass ...girls and guys who lie pass make i break am down for you…guys own na word of mouth ... na im…girls own, everything for una body na liea lie…hair (audience: “lie”)..finger nail (audience: “lie”) eye lash (audience: “lie”)… eye brow (audience: “lie”)... lips (audience: “lie”)... height (audience: “lie”)… (touches both parts of his chest)(audience: “lie”) here, the comedian starts with a general statement in line(1) and moves on to make a controversial conclusion in line (2), obviously depending on the audience’s reaction (indicated by the significant pause) before introducing the comedy. line (3) is an alternative question whose answer (whichever way it goes) is supposed to introduce the comedy. the comedian assumes the position of authority in line 4, and to some extent, line (4) and (5). but from line (7) till the end of the excerpt, he transfers part of the responsibility of solving the puzzle and answering the lingering question—who lies more between men and women?—to members of the audience, by gesturing to them with the microphone, to fill in the elliptical information. and in line (13), he para-linguistically invokes call-and-response via gesturing. using clark’s (101) terminologies, “communal common ground” to homogenize his audience as a “cultural community” within which he belongs. he thus constructs a script based on a set of “inside information”, “particular information that members of the community mutually assume is possessed by members of the community” (clark, 101) —that they know about (nelson) mandela and his prison-to-presidency saga; that they know the unmentioned nigerian “somebody” whose story is similar to mandela’s; that they know why it might be inappropriate or politically incorrect (even in the discursively free context of comedy) to specify the “somebody”. i go dye thus made use of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ngige 85 the pause, audience laughter, and question-answer to invite the audience to a joint action of comedy construction. conclusion this work justifies hownigerian pidgin is used to create laughter in stand-up comedies. certain linguistic strategies such as linguistic coding/pausing, stereotyping, call-and-response have been examined and discussed in relation to how they are used to create laughter. in terms of linguistic coding, it reveals a preponderant use of np (either as an independent code or as alternated with sbe) and the deployment of significant and emphatic pauses. the call-andresponse patterns, the comedian’s use of the microphone, to forge with the audience share rhetorical authority. nigerian stand-up comedians have been able to achieved uniquely success with the use of np. even though it would be assumed that most of (if not all) the members of the audiences are literate and so should understand english, the comedians have felt it necessary to perform in np since this informal language is the most widely used and understood variety in nigeria’s multilingual society. yet, the pre-eminence of np clearly excludes members of the audience who are not very versatile in this language (especially non-nigerians) from independently processing the meanings intended by the performances. works cited ali baba comedies – night of the thousand laughs, 2000. agheyisi, r. “on the problem of time and tense in nigeria pidgin”. vol. 26. 1984. akmajian, a. et al. linguistics: an introduction to language and communication. new delhi: prentice-hall of india. private limited. 2008. print. american journal of linguistics 2(2): 17-27. 2013. ashcroft, bill etal. post-colonial studies: the key concepts. routledge publication, 1989. attardo, salvatore and lucy pickering, timing in the performance of jokes. humor: international journal of humor research 24.2: 233-250, 2011 ayoola, k.a. university english for all students. lagos, olivetree, 2007 bovi comedies – bovi comedy on sun awards 2017 baskemouth uncensored iv remedy for cheating – lord of the rib’s basketmouth tv special part 2, 2018. clark, herbert. h. areas of language. chicago: university of chicago press, 1992. ….using language. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press, 1996. crystal, d. the cambridge encyclopediaof language. uk: cambridge university press, 1987 dan, sperber and david, wilson. relevance. cambridge: harvard university. press. 1986. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ngige 86 de camp, d. ‘the study of pidgin and creole languages.’ in piginization and creolization of languages. ed. hymes 13-39. cambridge: cup, 1971. double, oliver. getting the jokes: the inner working of stand-up comedy. london: methuen, 2005 fish, max h. peirce, semeiotic, and pragmatisms. eds kenneth lairie ketrier and christian j.w kloesel. blooming ind: university of indiana press, 1986. furukawa, toshiaki. ‘no flips in the pool’. discursive practice in hawai ‘i creole pragmatics 17,3: 371-385. 2007 goffman, e. interaction ritual. new york: doubleday. print. 1991. …interaction ritual: essays on face-to face behavior. ed, garden city, ny: anchor books, 1967. hymes, dell. language in culture and society: a reader in linguistics and anthology. new york: harper and row, 1964. i go dye – comedy in essence inoue, kyoko c. “an analysis of the english present perfect”. linguistic 18: 561-589, 1979. jegede, o. o. (2015a). process types in selected nigerian newspaper editorials. papers in english and linguistics (pel), 16, 99-119. jegede, o. o. (2015b). language and ideology in the media: a study of nigerian newspaper editorials. international journal of english literature and culture, 3(3), 76-84. le-page, r. b. (1977). processes of pidginization and creolization.pidgin and creole linguistics. bloomington; university of indiana press jowith, d. nigerian english usage: an introduction. nigeria: longman, 1991. longo, m. humour use and knowledge making at the margins: serious lessons for socialwork practice. canadian social work review / revue canadienne de service social, 27(1), 113-126, 2010. norrick, neal. on the conversational performance of narrative jokes: toward an account of timing. humor: international journal of humor research. 14.3: 255–274. 2001. obilade, tony. the stylistic function of pidgin english in african literature: achebe and soyinka. in research on wole soyinka. james gibbs and bernth lindfors (eds.), trenton, nj. african world press, inc.pp. 13– 23. 1993. okpewho, isidore: african oral literature: backgrounds, character, and continuity bloomington: indiana university press, 1992. onuigbo, s. and joy e. english language in nigeria: issues and development. calabar: pacleen pubishers, 2009. opa, williams. night of a thousand laughs. obaino music, vol.13 vcd reyes, angela. asian american sterotypes as circulating resources pragmatics 14, 2/3: 173-192. 2004. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ngige 87 russell, danielle: self – deprecatory humour and the female comic: self deprecatory or comedic construction? retrived august 1, 2012 from http://www.thirdspacecaljournal/article/viewarticle/d_russell/66 2006 taylor, d. ‘new languages for old’. in readings in sociology of language. ed.j. fishmam, 19-607. the hague: mouton. 1968. trypanis, c.a. greek poetry from homer to sefgferis. university of chicago press. 1981 wardhaugh, r. an introduction to sociolinguistics. oxford: blackwell, 2006. wilkinson, j. nigerian pidgin and comedy. africa: rivistatrimestrale di studi e documentazionedell’istitutoitaliano per l’africa e l’ oriente, 41(4), 616–626. 1986 http://www.thirdspacecaljournal/article/viewarticle/d_russell/66 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 123 ifechelobi & onuoha the english holy bible: language and multiplicity prof. jane nkechi ifechelobi english, department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka jn.ifechelobi@unizik.edu.ng & kelechi ihendu onuoha department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka abstract the english bible has been known to have different versions, but before the first version was published, it existed in other languages. . it is not an overstatement that there is no other text that has enjoyed the number of translations as the bible. these translations originate as a result of the fact that the translators had various perspectives to translations. there are, however, various processes it had passed through in order to be translated into english and other languages.in other words, it is these various forms of translations that culminated into what is now referred to as the versions of the english bible. these versions are broadly classified according to the approaches of the translationsformal correspondence, functional evidence and paraphrase. each of the approaches has specific characteristics that distinguish it from the other. basically, the translations have led to the use of different words for the same message or content. this is plausible since some versions translate word-for-word, others translate meaning-for-meaning while some others paraphrase the whole text.therefore, as a result of the existing varieties of the english language, approaches to translation and the intent of the translators, there has been a multiplicity of the different versions of the english bible. surprisingly also, the versions that share the same approach to translations still have various forms of discrepancies in both syntax and meanings. in other words, no two versions are exactly the same, the approach to the translation notwithstanding. keywords: translations, text-type, formal approach, functional evidence, paraphrase introduction communication is the most relevant objective of language. succinctly put, language is the principal means of communication among human beings. it is an invaluable possession that makes us human. without language, it will be practically impossible for human beings to understand one another, live in harmony and make remarkable progress.language performs different functions depending on the situations or discourse. in certain contexts, language is used to bridge the gap among different speech communities. over 2000 years ago, the english language and some other languages that can be referred to as world languages today, were either not in existence or not as popular as they are today. the emergence of such languages could be attributed to a lot of factors which include conquests and advancements in technology. with the advent of the english language, many texts that were not originally written in the english language were translated and notable among them is the bible. the emergence of the english bible the english language has a remarkable history. algeo (49) has summarized the history of the english language in the following words: “english, as we know it, developed in britain and more recently in america and elsewhere around the world. it did not begin in britain but was an immigrant language, coming there with the invading anglo-saxons in the fifth century”. algeo (13), however, states that the ultimate origin of language is “a matter of speculation since ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 124 ifechelobi & onuoha we have no real information about it. the earliest languages for which we have records are already in a high stage of development.” today, the english language exists in so many countries, though with different varieties of the language being spoken and written. these varieties are as a result of geographical locations. therefore, the language is far from being homogeneous. with the establishment of colonies, the english language has spread to almost every part of the globe and a lot of characteristics herald the emergence of the varieties.in his publication on ‘writing the history of the english bible: a review of recent scholarship’, bagley in 2011 has confirmed that the king james bible (kjb) is the first bible to be translated into english. the number of translations of the bible suggests that it seems to be the most translated text in the world. there is obviously no text that has enjoyed the number of translations more than the bible. in the words of wendland and noss (2), “the bible is the most translated book in the world.” the stories that border on the development of the english bible are from different perspectives. this is a clear indication that the interests of the biblical scholars and historical theologians and linguists have increased tremendously in a bid to take the theological content of translation quite seriously. the struggle for translation from the original language(s) of the bible (hebrew, greek and aramaic languages) to other languages has become quite inundating in recent times. the primary objective of translation is also to communicate. in the words of scorgie, strauss and voth (122), “translation is all about communication, and communication is by its very nature dialogical. it cares about its source and it cares about its audience.” this implies that translators take cognizance of the fact that in translating a text, it is important to consider essence, origin and the audience. so, the translators of the english bible are expected to focus on the original language(s) of the bible. approaches to (bible) translation metzger (35) has stated that “it is common knowledge that the bible has been translated into more languages than any other piece of literature.” some of the commonest versions of the english bible include the revised standard version, the authorized king james version, the american standard version, the english standard version, the new king james version, the new international version, the living bible. the bible continues to be translated into new languages, largely by christian organizations such as the famous bible society. according to metzger (35), “by the opening of the year 2000, the entire bible has been available in 371 languages and dialects and portions of the bible in 1,862 other languages and dialects”. since most christians do not understand the original language(s) of the bible, and can’t access the original text(s), translators serve as intermediaries. there are, however, different forms of translations which translators choose from. the traditional approach to translation is the formal correspondence. this is the more literal word-for-word approach to translation. as wonderly (19) succinctly puts it,“a translation that emphasizes formal correspondence is one that is oriented primarily toward the source message or the message in its original form.” this implies that there is little room for subjectivity with formal evidence and this translation process is the simplest form. however, the challenge with the formal evidence is that no two languages are exactly the same. in the words of nida and taber (1969), “each language is different from all other languages in the ways in which the sets of verbal symbols classify the various elements of experience.” this suggests that a literal word-for-word translation would be practically complex. owing to the shortcomings of the formal correspondence, functional equivalence was introduced. the aim of functional evidence therefore, is not to reproduce the form of the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 125 ifechelobi & onuoha original language, using the vocabulary of the receptor language. instead, the aim is to communicate the meaning as clearly as possible using forms that are native to the receptor language. hughes (190) vividly captures this as follows: functional evidence is perhaps better known as “dynamic equivalence”, a term apparently coined by eugene nida, who wanted to emphasize how a translation should produce the same psychological effect upon the modern reader as it was intended to have upon the original reader. since 1986, however, the term “dynamic equivalence” has been replaced by “functional equivalence”. there is a clear discrepancy between formal evidence and functional equivalence. while the formal evidence can be referred to as a direct transfer, the functional equivalence is simply an idiomatic translation. hughes has also recognized the existence of another translation correspondence which he describes as paraphrased correspondence. he further identifies the living bible as a typical example of a paraphrased text. according to him, “the living bible paraphrased was the work one man, kenneth taylor, who took the american standard version and rephrased it in his own words (1999)”. there are various reasons why translations remain a challenge. while manuscript resources continue to improve, the english language continues to change. in the words of scorgie, et al (177-180): translations of the hebrew scriptures became necessary by the third century b.c…. translation of both ot and nt into latin began very early in the christian era…. the first extant independent old english version of the gospels, known as the wessex gospels, comes from the tenth century…. but it was john wycliffe 9c. 1330-1384) and his associates who first attempted to put an english bible into the hands of laypeople. the advent of the english bible has led to the influx of variegated versions. each of these versions is written according to the translators’ competence and era. daniell (xiii), specifically states that “there are over 350 published complete english bible versions, most of which have appeared in the 20th century, while part translations of the bible (mostly individual books have reached over twelve hundred since 1945 alone”. the implication of the statistics given by daniel is that by the 21st century, the number must have become quite enormous since literacy and interests in linguistics and theology have maintained an upward trend. translational issues and discrepancies translations vary for multiple reasons. some of the reasons, in the exact words of spackman (55) are “…different underlying texts and influence of the versions, different understandings of the text on the grammatical and syntactic level, as well as on the semantic or word level, and differing philosophies of how best to express one’s understanding of these differences in the target language.” therefore, every translation can be viewed as an interpretation. in the course of interpreting, the translators may understand the source language but since languages differ at all linguistic levels, they must devise means of conveying the message and in doing so, a lot of meanings and registers get thwarted. additionally, the different approaches play a major role in the course of the translations. the three approaches, previously discussed, have peculiar features and a translator’s work tends to focus on the features of the approach which he intends to apply. each version has its distinct diction which may create different meanings. other versions definitely have variegated syntactic and semantic features. some have been designed for easy ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 126 ifechelobi & onuoha reading in modern english, others strive to stick very closely to the original text but are more difficult to understand; some have more study helps available and so on. also, some versions are produced by particular denominations. these tend to highlight certain doctrines that are held by such denominations, often at the expense of accuracy. one major reason why there are changes in the english used in these versions is the background of the translators. another reason is the rationale behind the translations i.e. their essence. it is a widespread belief that one of the major reasons why there are discrepancies in the syntax and semantics of the expressions used in the versions of the english holy bible points to the changes that occur in the english language and the fact that each of the versions emanates at one point or the other in the historicity of the english language. since one of the significant features of any language is dynamism, the english language, being one of the ‘world’ languages, changes (rapidly) over time. this explains why the first edition of the king james version, which was translated from the original hebrew and greek in 1611 a.d., has a lot of ‘very old english structures’ that can be today referred to as having syntactic and semantic errors. theoretical framework the theory on which this research work is based is the text-type theory. it is built on the idea of equivalence and the emphasis is that the text, rather than word or sentence is deemed the appropriate level at which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought. reiss (1977:108-109) summarizes the functional characteristics of text types to translation as follows: informative: it is concerned with ‘plain communication of facts’: information, knowledge, opinions, etc. the language dimension used to transmit the information is logical or referential; the content or ‘topic’ is the main focus of the communication. expressive: it denotes the ‘creative composition’ wherein the author uses the aesthetic dimension of the language. operative: the purpose is to induce behavioural responses, i.e., to appeal to or persuade the reader or ‘receiver’ of the text to act in a certain way. audiomedial: it refers to films and visual or spoken advertisements which supplement the other three functions with visual images, music, etc. reiss also proposes ‘specific translation methods according to text type’. these methods according to munday (2001:76) are as follows: 1. the tt of an informative text should transmit the full referential or conceptual content of the st. the translation should be ‘plain prose’ without redundancy, but with the use of explication when required. 2. the tt of an expressive text should transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the st. the translation should use the ‘identifying’ method, with the translator adopting the stand point of st author. 3. the tt of an operative text should produce the desired response in the tt receiver. the translation should create an equivalent effect among tt readers. 4. audiomedial texts require the ‘supplementary’ method, written words with visual images and music. the text type approach moves translation theory beyond a consideration of lower linguistic levels, the mere words beyond even the effect they create, towards a consideration of the communicative purpose of translation. in summary, the text-type functional theory concerns itself with the systematic process of translation which reveals the importance of functions of language in translation. it can therefore ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 127 ifechelobi & onuoha suffice to opine that text linguistics or the text-type theory deals with texts as communication systems. a text can perform the communicative function if the content is the main focus. in other words, the main intent of the text could be to communicate facts, information or knowledge. also, the motive could be to focus on creative composition or aesthetics. then, the text could intend to appeal to the readers in order to persuade, dissuade, request or cajole them. methodology the data used to identify the diction, features of equivalence and functions of the versions of the english were derived from randomly selected verses of the synoptic gospels. textual analysis was used vis-à-vis the tenets of the theoretical framework to analyze the selected clauses from each of the verses. data presentation and analysis analysis of selected verses in the books of psalms and the synoptic gospels for specific functions (from the king james versionformal evidence, good news biblefunctional evidence and the living bible (paraphrase) s/n function of the text-type examples approach to translation/ equivalence 1. (matthew 13:1-3) informative expressive operative kjv: the same day went jesus out of the house, and sat by the seaside. 2. and great multitudes were gathered together unto him, so that he went into a ship, and sat; and the whole multitude stood on the shore. 3. and he spake many things unto them in parables, saying, ‘behold a sower went forth to sow; gnb: that same day jesus left the house and went to the lakeside, where he sat down to teach. 2. the crowd that gathered round him was so large that he got into a boat and sat in it while the crowd stood on the shore.3. he used parables to tell them many things lb: later that same day jesus left the house and went down to the shore, where an immense crowd soon gathered. he got into a boat and taught from it while the people listened on the beach. he used many illustrations such as this one in his sermon formal functional paraphrase (mark 12: 1011) informative expressive operative kjv: and have ye not read this scripture; the stone which the builders rejected is become the head of the corner. 11. this was the lord’s doing, and it is marvelous in our eyes? gnb: the stone which the builders rejected as worthless turned out to be the most important of all. 11. this was done by the lord; what a wonderful sight it is! lb: don’t you remember reading this verse in the scriptures? “the rock the builders formal functional paraphrase ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 128 ifechelobi & onuoha threw away became the cornerstone, the most honoured stone in the building. 11. this is the lord’s doing and it is an amazing thing to see. (luke 21: 3233) informative expressive operative kjv: verily i say unto you, this generation shall not pass away, till all will be fulfilled. 33. heaven and earth shall pass away: but my words shall not pass away. gnb: remember that all these things will take place before the people now living have all died. 33. heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away. lb: i solemnly declare to you that when these things happen, the end of this age has come. and though all heaven and earth shall pass away , yet my words remain forever true formal functional paraphrase discussion of findings since it is obvious that the formal correspondence in all the verses used makes use of the informative feature as propounded by the text-type theory, it can therefore be concluded that the reason for this is that the king james version of the english bible intends to translate the exact words of the original versions of the bible, whose intent was to inform the readers. additionally, subsequent versions that intended to avoid the word-for-word translations ended up with stylistic and more didactic features which resulted from the sentence-for-sentence translations and paraphrase. thus, the expressive features and operative features of the functional and paraphrase correspondence or evidence became obvious. also, a closer look at the good news version, which is also in the same category with the niv (as functional correspondences) indicates that, although they have a lot of similarities, there are still evidence of subtle disparities in both word arrangements and meanings of the excepts from the two versions. niv (psalm 23: 2-3) reads: “he makes me lie down in green pastures, he leads me besides quiet waters, he restores my soul. he guides me in paths of righteousness for his name’s sake.” the same excerpt in good news bible reads:“he lets me rest in fields of green grass and leads me to quiet pools of fresh water. he gives me new strength. he guides me in the right paths, as he has promised.” conclusion in a bid to translate the bible into english, various translations which are today known as versions have emerged in their numbers.the aim of a translation is usually to create a text in another language that is basically the same style as the original one. however, the different structures of languages make this a herculean task and almost impossible to produce the exact translations. this is evident in the discrepancies in the diction and features of the different versions of the english bible. works cited algeo, j. the origins and development of the english language. boston: wadsworth cengage learning, 2010. baclay, n.m. the old way and the new way. bible translation. retrieved from doi.org/10.1177/026009437702800201, 1977. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 129 ifechelobi & onuoha daniell. d. the bible in english: its history and influence. new haven: yale university press, 2003 hughes, b. translation philosophies: how to express god’s word in today’s language. notes on translation. 8:2, 19-29., 1999 metzger, b. m. the bible in translation. michigan: baker academic, 2001 munday, j. introducing translational studies: theories and applications. london: routledge, 2001. new international version. zondervan publishing house, 1985 reiss, k. text-types, translation types and translation assessment. in chesterman, andrew. (ed). readings in translation theory. finland: finn lectura. ab., 1977 scorgie, g. g., strauss, m. l. and voth, s. m. the challenge of bible translation. michigan: zondervan publishers, 2003 spackman, b. why bible translations differ: a guide for the perplexed. in religious educator: perspectives on the restored gospel. volume 15 number 1, article 5, 3065.https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/re/vol 15, 2014 the holy bible: king james version. zondervan publishing house, 1769 the living bible. tyndale house publishers, inc. illinois, 1976 the united bible societies. good news bible. american bible societies. 1994. wendland, e.r. and noss, p. bible translation. oxford: blackwell publishing ltd, 2012. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 48 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu language learning theories: behaviourism, mentalism and affectivism professor ngozi ezenwa-ohaeto department of english language & literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email:info@ezenwaoheto.org & eucharia nkechinyere ugochukwu school of general studies federal polytechnic nekede, owerri email: euchay74@gmail.com abstract this work focuses on the pedagogical implications of language learning theories, namely behaviourism, mentalism, and affectisim, and their applications in the learning of english as a second language. the behaviourist emphasized on observable traits in learning language through imitation, repetition and memorization. the mentalist is of the view that language learning is a mental concept that involves an innate processing machine in an individual that enables one to learn a second language known as language acquisition device (lad). from affectivist’s point of view, the emotional needs, motives and attitudinal disposition of the learner are the primary factors in language learning. exposure to this work will enable both learners and teachers of language to differentiate learning theories and adopt the most suitable ones into teaching and learning. keywords: behaviourism, mentalism and affectivism introduction the learning theory of language acquisition suggest that children learn a language much like they learn to tie their shoes or how to count; through repetition and reinforcements. according to this theory, children learn language out of a desire to communicate with the world around them. the process of speech and language development in children is complex and interrelated. for normal communication to develop, there must be an integration of anatomy and physiology of the speech systems, neurological development, and interactions that encourage them. language development includes both receptive and expressive language (yule, 1996). language is specie-specific. that is, only human beings possess the capacity to use language. the genetic make-up of human beings makes language acquisition, and comprehension is unique to man. pinker (1975), asserts that the shape of human vocal tract seems to have been modified in evolution for the demands of speech. also, (encyclopaedia britannica, 2010), says that young children have certain characteristics that predispose them to learn language. these characteristics include the structure of the vocal tract which enables children to make the sound used in language and the ability to understand general grammatical principles, such as the hierarchical nature of syntax. moreover, a look at animal communication reveals a rigid pattern of signs. chimpanzees used in language learning experience are taught in a contrived way by humans to acquire rudimentary abilities to request for food and to tickle. this contrasts sharply with the natural ability of children to acquire language in a seamless unencumbered manner. no animal has been trained to learn human language. animal vocalism remains fixed as it was ages before history. human beings usually learn or gain knowledge either in a conscious or sub-conscious way. learn is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is a result of reinforced tendency. there are actually few theories that has been used to describe the language that is acquired or learned. this work will dwell on behaviorism, mentalisim, and affectivism as learning theories and their pedagogical implication to language learning. concept of learning according to alhassan (1985: 17), learning is the totality of the acquisition of factual information, the mastering of skills and means to aid further study (understanding); the entire socialization process, the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 49 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu acquisition of behaviour patterns, the styles of tackling problems of everyday life and more. learning is a dynamic process whereby, through interactive experience, insights or cognitive structures of life spaces are changed and so becomes more useful for future guidance. gagne (1970:3) attempts a definition which seems to have a wide appeal when he writes that learning even takes place when the situation affects the learner in such a way that his/her performance changes from a time before being in that situation to a time after being in it. the change in performance is what leads to the conclusion that learning has occurred. thus, learning is a change in human disposition of capability which can be retained, and which is not ascribable to the process of growth. it is important for you to note that all changes in performance that brought about by the environment may properly be referred to as learning. this view of learning is identical to the definition that says that learning is a modification in behaviour due to experience. when you look at the stages of a child’s development, you can see that he first knows how to eat, then sit, to crawl about, to be able to stand, to walk, to run about, and to speak. the child is now capable of doing some things which he could not do earlier in his life. it may be said that in these respects, the child has learned because ‘observed changes in behaviour are evident of learning’ (balogun, 2001:43). many psychologists agree that learning is a general term for relatively lasting or permanent changes in performance or behaviour caused or produced directly by experience. o’connor (1993) submits that a study of learning is part of the larger study of psychology, which may be defined as the scientific study of human experience and human and animal behaviour. olaitan (1992) defines learning as a collection of experiences which a person progressively acquires to be regarded as educated in his/her society. behaviour theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour based on environmental conditions. according to behaviorist thinking it wasn’t really necessary for learners to internalize rules; instead they learn the right patterns of linguistic behaviour, and acquire the correct habits. language is considered to be determined not by experimentation or self discovery, but by selective reinforcements from speech and language models, usually parents or other family members. this means that there are external forces that shapes a child’s language acquisition and learning, which sees the child as a reactor of these forces (cohen et al, 1996). concept of language learning theories cohen et al (1996), posits that learning theories differ in method and conclusion because the theories focused attention on certain aspects of the total learning processes. difference in the results are uninspiring if it is remembered that psychologist have used animals of nearly every species, are generated no less than six theories of learning. in addition, theoretical approaches to the study of behaviour are bye-product of such experiments. the engineer has theories of light, electricity, and matter, the medical doctor has theories of genetics, just as the teacher/ educator is in command of learning theories. particular attention will be paid to behaviourism, mentalism and affectivism as language learning theories in this section. hutchison and waters (1987) speak about “learning theories’ which provide the theoretical basis for the methodology, by helping us to understand how people learn’’ (hutchison & water, 1987, p.23). it is the psychological processes involved in language use and language learning. it is natural that learning strategies vary and corresponds with learners’ their age, level or for what reason they study english. the ways adults acquire language differ from the way children do. advanced group expects different attitudes from beginners, and teachers determine which aspects of esp learning will be focused on to meet learners’ needs and expectations successfully. some of these theories are: (a) behaviourism (b) mentalism (c) affective/humanistic theory. behaviorism behaviorism focuses on observable behaviours which are changed as the symptoms of learning. according to brown (1987:17), the behaviouristic approach focuses on the immediately perceptible aspects of linguistic behaviourthe publicly observable responses. learning only occurs when there are changes in behaviour and observable as an evidence of changing. feeling and mental processes are not acceptable in skinner’s human behavior’s theory. however, he still accepted the existence of mind. behaviorists consider learning a language as a set of mechanical habits which are formed ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 50 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu through a process of imitation and repetition. humans learn a language through repeating the same form and text until it becomes a habit. children imitate the sounds and patterns which they hear around (lightbown & spada, 1999). so, it was proposed that learners would repeat words they heard and tried to use it in their conversation until it becomes regular basis of life. behaviorists therefore think learning a language especially second language (l2) should be learnt through extensive drill and practice. besides that, behaviorists also justified that learning a new language is learning a new set of habit. according to ellis (1999), learning could be a manipulation of the environment to provide the required experience. this theory formation of habit is related to the environment where learning is recognized as stimulus-response (s-r) by pavlov and skinner. in 1950s, schools of psychology successfully prevailed s-r in the form of behaviorism to ensure the connection between both elements. behaviorists might consider effective language behaviour to be the production of correct responses to stimuli (brown 1987). according to the theory, behavior happens in casual, associative chains; all learning is thus characterized as associative learning, or habit formation, brought about by the repeated association of a stimulus with a response hadley (1988 cited in rubeling 1993, p.45). so, its best known proponent, b.f. skinner used rats to conclude that conditioning has a 3-state procedure: stimulus, response and reinforcement. from here, skinner presumed that human learning and animal learning are parallel; thus, l2 learning is also similar as well as other kinds of learning can be explained by the same laws and principles. every process of learning has to be followed by reinforcement. every learning is the establishment of habits and the result of reinforcement and reward (demirezen: 1988). in behaviorism, there are two different types of reinforcement, where the response or behavior is strengthened and positively augmented by praise or reward. for instance, when a student answers a question correct, and the teacher awards him/her a star, then the student will try to answer another question because he/she is more confident and motivated. in contrast, the second reinforcement will be negative reinforcement if a student is been scolded by his/her teacher after getting an answer wrong, he/she would tend not to give an answer by the next question and answer session because it would make him/her feel embarrassed. in short, positive reinforcement helps learners develop correct habits. furthermore, behaviorist learning theory also claimed that old habits interfere with the acquisition of new ones. learning of the l2 would be facilitated since all the learners had to do was to transfer l1 habits (ellis: 1990). that means errors in first language learning (l1) are the results of interference in l2. it has to be avoided and prevented. l1 interference should be avoided as well as corrected on the spot if they do occur. one of the examples of extensively drilling in learning is audio-lingual method, which is an american method. audio lingual method focuses on accuracy (pronunciation and intonation). ellis (1990: 23), asserts that “for learning to be effective, habits have to become automatic.” in short, language learning pattern has to be “overlearnt” and the contents based on common day’s dialogues as well as expression, followed by the positive reinforcement which will help students to develop correct habits. learning the structures of language is more emphasized if compare to the vocabulary. hutchinson and waters (1987) speak about “learning theories’ which provide the theoretical basis for the methodology, by helping us to understand how people learn” (hutchison & waters, 1987, p. 23). it is the psychological processes involved in language use and language learning. it is natural that learning strategies vary and corresponds with learners’ groups, their age level, or for what reason they study english. the ways adults acquire language differ from the way children do. advanced group expects different attitudes from beginners, and teachers determine which aspects of esp learning will be focused on to meet learners’ needs and expectations successfully. behaviorism is a learning theory that focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts any independent activities of the mind, such as classic conditioning and behavioural operant conditioning. 1. classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. we are biologically “wired” so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. one of the more common examples of classical conditioning is the educational environment is in situations where students exhibit irrational fears and anxieties like fear of failure, fear of public speaking and general school phobia. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 51 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu 2. behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to stimulus is reinforced. basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: if a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in future. for example, leading behaviorist b.f. skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley. this is like reinforcing a child each time he does something right. behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it disregards the activities of the mind. behaviorism does not explain some learning-such as the recognition of new language patterns by young children-for which there is no reinforcement mechanism. research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new information. for instance, a rat can shift its behaviour to respond to changes in the layout of a maze it has previously mastered through reinforcements. behaviorism can also be thought of as a form of classroom management. behaviorists believe that if teachers should provide positive reinforcement or rewards whenever students perform a desired behaviour, they will learn to perform the behaviour on their own. the same concept applies to punishments. mentalisim the leading proponent of this theory is noam chomsky, who criticized the behaviorist theory of language learning. he contradicted that “if all language is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce a sentence that has never been said by others before?” according to chomsky, language is not a form of behaviour, rather it is an intricate rule based system and a large part of language acquisition in the learning of this system. he argues that thinking is rule-governed. it is a finite, and fairly small sets of rules that enable the mind to deal with the potentially infinite range of experience it may encounter. he insisted that learning consists not of forming habits but of acquiring rules, a process in which individuals experiences are tested and modified by subsequent experience (chomsky, 1965). the hypothesis that language acquisition and learning is not random but systematic is evidenced on the fact that all normal children are endowed with similar brains and mental capacities that direct the way and order language is used irrespective of the variations in the sample they are exposed to. furthermore, the mentalists call attention to the fact that no adult has to teach a child that language is organized according to general principles or rules. this is apparent when a child makes “mistakes” on the generalization of a given concept like the word “brought”. the child says “bringed” instead of “brought”, having no knowledge of an exception to the rules he has learnt. this generalization occurs in the learning of syntax and semantics. the view that every child is born with innate characteristics or a disposition to acquire the language of his immediate environment, is in the assertion that within every human person, there is an innate processing machine which is concerned with linguistic information. this processing machine or device is known as language acquisition device (lad). this lad is known currently as universal grammar (ug). ug is located in human mind or brain. one important fact about ug is that it is exclusive to humans alone and it is capable of giving every human being the grammar of his language. the device also explains why children master their language/s at a fairly good speed, being able to handle new linguistic situations that arise (otagburuagu and anyanwu, 2003). another credit to the mentalist theory is the view that the human child is creative and is capable of churning out new expressions which the adult had not given the child to imitate. this disputes the behaviorist theory that human being is a tabula rasa, a blank and recipient entity that depends entirely on the adult input. the human being is seen as a dynamic and creative participant in both word processing and structural ordering (lyons, 1981). this theory is of the opinion that thinking is rule governed. chomsky sees learners are thinking beings who are capable of coping with infinite range of possible situations from a finite range of experience. the mentalist acknowledges that the mind use individual experiences to formulate hypothesis. for example, knowing that words which ends in ‘-y’ take ‘-ies’ to form their plural, while those that ends in ‘-f ’ will change to ‘–ives’, the learner given these rules can form a lot of plurals for words they have not seen before. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 52 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu affectivism this school of thought sees learning, particularly the learning of a language as an emotional experience. they believe the feelings that the learning process evokes will have a crucial bearing on the success or failure of such learning. the emotional reaction to the learning experience is the essential foundation for the initiation of the cognitive process. according to cognitive theory that has an affinity with affectivism, learning is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of data. this theory treats learners as thinking beings and puts them firmly at the center of the learning process, by stressing that learning will only take place when the matter to be learnt is meaningful to the learners. hence, it is the emotional feelings of the learner towards what is being learnt that will enhance his thoughts about the learning processes (corder, 1973). the affective hypothesis stipulates that anxiety, worry, distress and so on will hinder the improvement of language learning. (bialystok, 1990). pedagogical implications behaviorism relies only on observable behaviour and describes several universal laws of behaviour. its positive and negative reinforcement technique can be very effective-such as in treatment for human disorders including autism, anxiety disorders, and antisocial behaviour. behaviorism is often used by teachers who reward or punish student behaviours. behaviorism is often seen in contrast to constructivism. constructivists are more likely to allow for experimentation and exploration in the classroom and place a greater emphasis on the experience of the learner in contrast to behaviorist. the behaviorist postulates that language behaviours are learned by children through imitation, reinforcement and copying adult language behaviours. other important concepts of behavioural theory are imitation, rewards and practice. this implies that a young child will try to imitate sounds and words it hears from its parents the best it can. when a child attempts oral language or imitates the sounds or speech patterns, they are usually praised or given affection. behavioural theory is adapted to study children’s language by observing, describing and counting specific language behaviours. this basic stimulus-response model acquits a child to imitate sound and reinforces the sound production with verbal praise by the teacher or parents. the children’s sounds are shaped into increasingly closer approximations of the target sounds, and when they are able to produce the target sound correctly, the sounds are practiced in a variety of words and sound combinations. when children do not use certain language structures that are appropriate for their age they most likely have not acquired them naturally and would need to improve in therapy. helping children learn how to combine words, phrases and sentences, make them convey massages to others. also instructing about how to use language appropriately in different social contexts and environment, allows them to use appropriate pragmatics when communicating. affective factors are emotional factors which influence learning. they can have a negative or positive effect. negative affective factors are called affective filters and are an important idea in theories about second language acquisition. for instance, a learner’s attitude to english, to the teacher, to other learners in the group and to yourself as a learner are all affective factors that have impact on how well we learn. affective factors may be as important for successful language learning, if not more so, than ability to learn. teacher can reduce negative factors and develop positive ones by doing activities aspects of the course and choosing activities that are motivating for the age and interests of the learners. the cognitive theory tells us that learners will learn when they actively think about what they are learning. this pre-supposes the affective factor of motivation. motivation is important in the development of esp. gardner and lambert (cited in hutchison & waters, 1987) identified two forms of motivation: instrumental and integrative motivation. instrumental motivation is the reflection of the external needs of the learners. the learners learn a language not because they want but because they need the language for something such as for study or work purposes, to transact business with the owners of the language, and learning a language for exam purpose and not for leisure, etc. integrative motivation, on the other hand, derives from the desire on the part of the learners to be members of the speech community that uses a particular language. integrative motivation, according to hutchinson and waters (1987) “is an internally generated want rather than an externally imposed need” (p.48). example could be new trend of many parents speaking english to their children at home ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 53 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu in order to hasten their children’s integration into english dominated prestigious social class in the society. this implies that the value of learning is determined primarily by the society. people learn what the social learning environment permits them to learn by way of subjects offered, quality of teachers/ instruction facilitators, quality of the curriculum, quality of the learning environment, and so on. it is important to note that what the learning society is capable of offering dose not suit its definition of an educated man, a vacuum is created which has to be bridged by making learning more meaningful and relevant to the societal perception of an educated man. dinkmeyer (1985) defines learning as a change in behaviour resulting from the interaction of the organism with its environment. learning is dependent upon activity or special training and in this sense, differs from behavioural change which is as a result of experience. human beings learn. this statement looks and sounds simple, yet it has generated as much controversy as any statement could in the behavioural, natural, or physical science. travers (1996) points that man is a philosopher before he is a psychologist or an educator, and as he sees human nature, so he sees the nature of learning. consequently, learning is viewed as a cognitive, problemsolving process whereby man actively seeks and uses environmental clues that enable him to form concepts, solve problems, and think creatively. travers opines that human learning depends upon three pre-conditions namely: a functioning biological organism; an on-going social/cultural/religious/political/economic environment, and an opportunity for a biological being to interact with any form or forms of the environment in two and thereby learn from it. human learning is the ultimate goal of our educational systems. man turns to several disciplines to discover what aids or hinders learning, and to grope towards a more adequate knowledge of the process itself. from biology, the student of learning takes information about growth and development, he utilizes facts about man’s activities in groups and what impact environmental forces have on learning. from anthropology, he derives insights into the meaning of cultural difference. what the specific cultural value its learning, and how the individual, reflecting his culture, has learned to learn. cultural is the total way of life of a people. it includes everything from how people welcome a newborn baby to how the dead are buried. all disciplines can contribute to our knowledge about learning. learning may involve many variables. cohen (1998) similarly states that learning may be grouped into no less than five categories: a. the characteristics of the learner, such as developmental aspects; b. characteristics of the teacher/instructional facilitator; c. classroom/study center interaction; d. characteristics of the learners group, and e. the physical setting. this tends to indicate that the nature of learning may not be all that easy to comprehend. cohen again attests to this when he writes that we do not as yet have any universally accepted description of the learning process application to all kinds of learning, in all human beings, at all age levels, and in all situations. it is important to note that the development of learning and intelligence and their great educability are what distinguish humans from all other living creatures. an important distinction between learning in lower animal and learning in humans is that even when simple association learning is involved, one rarely sees the building up of isolated connections between singles sets of stimuli and responses. such connections occur, but in human learning we tend to notice their appearances only as they form chains of associations. the type of association learning common to humans, and the relative rapidity of the learning process, tends to obscure the observation of the learning of the links themselves. in human learning, two particular abilities seem representative: the first of these is a consequence of a highly developed sensory ability and manual which enables us to learn the use of tools. this is variously referred to as sensor motor learning, motor learning or skill learning. it includes all related abilities from manipulating a pencil, learning to operate a complex machine, to playing a musical instrument with perhaps virtuoso ability. a second class of human learning results from an equally coincidence of physical and mental endowment, the ability to learn to use verbal materials. as learning theory developed in the united states of america through the efforts of thorndike, hull and others, so also developed was the view that learning, human and animal ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 54 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu learning, maze learning and language learning, could potentially be understood merely by the principles embodied in classical conditioning. this is one of the theories of learning discussed in several study units of the course material. for all such theories, psychologist carried out experiments mainly with the use of lower organisms such as rats, pigeons, chimpanzees, dogs, and such similar creatures. conclusion there are misconceptions as to what learning is. learning is part of almost every aspect of psychology. in addition, the concept of learning was examined. you have also learnt some definitions of learning. learning is the totality of the acquisition of factual information, the mastering of skills to aid further study, the acquisition of behaviour patterns and styles of tackling problems of everyday life. observed changes in behaviour are evidence of learning. speech involves the mental and physical behaviour expressed by human being in his communication with his environment. the learner has to articulate his physical and mental prowess in his bid to learn a second language. in schools, teachers try to develop the motor and mental skills of learners and guide them for better performance. for effective language learning to take place, all the language learning theories behaviourism, mentalism and affectivism have to be put together or combined. the learner’s emotion, physical and mental dispositions are accounted for in learning of a second language. with the national language policy that enjoins the learning of another nigerian language apart from one’s mother tongue; the globalization and increasing multilingual needs of the world, it is beneficial to learn as many languages as possible. children acquire language because they are biologically predisposed towards acquiring language of the immediate environment where they readily interact with people around them. works cited alhassan, a.b. (2000). understanding educational psychology.zaria,nigeria:tamaza publishing company. anyanwu, p. & otagburuagu ,e. (2002).concepts & issues in language studies: owerri, nigeria: cel-bez and co. publishers. balogun, r.t. (2001). a systems approach to education in nigeria. in: west african journal of education, xil,2. bialystok,e. (1990). communication strategy: a psychological analysis of second language use oxford, uk: blackwell publishers. brown j.d. (1995). the elements of language curriculum: a systemic approach to program development. boston, massachusetts: heinle & heinle publishers. chomsky, n. (1965). aspects of the theory of syntax. cambridge: mit press. cohen, a.d. (1998). strategies in learning and using a second language.essex, uk: longman publishers. cohen, a.d. & scott, k.a.(1996). synthesis of approaches to assessing language strategies. in r. oxford (ed.) language learning strategies around the world: cross cultural perspectives. manoa: university of harvaii press. corder, s.p. (1973). introducing applied linguistics. england: pengium group limited. dimrezen, m. (1998). behaviourist theory and language learning. hace hepe universitesi egltim faktltesi dergisi, sayi 3. dinkmeyer, d. (1985). child development: the emerging self. englewood cliffs, new jersey: prentice-hall. encylopedia britaninica, 2010. ellis, s. (2002). an esp programe for international medical graduates in residency, in orr (ed), english for specific purposes. alexandria, virginia: teachers of english to speak of other languages. gagne, r. (1970). the conditions of learning. new york: holt, rinehart & winston. hutchinson, t. & waters, a. (1987). english for specific purposes: a learning centred approach. cambridge: cambridge university press. long, m. h. (1981). questions in foreigner talk discourse. language learning 31,1, 135-157. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 55 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu lightbrown ,p., nicholas, h. & spada, n.(1999). recast as feedback to language learning. language learning 51,719-785. lyons, j. (1981). language and linguistics: an introduction. uk: cambridge university press. olaitan, s.o. (1992). learning about learning. a builder’s bridge between learning, people and society. in: b.ipaye (ed) education in nigeria: past, present and future. 1367-72 macmillan nigeria. o’connor, k.(1993). learning: an introduction. london: scott, foreman and company. pinker, a. (1975). language acquisition. in cleitman, i.r & liberman, m (ed): an invitation to cognitive science: language, 135-182 cambridge: mit press. rubeling, h.(1993). pavlovian conditioning in human skilled motor behaviour. intigrational physiological behavioral science. 28 (1), 29-45. travers, j. (1986). fundamentals of educational psychology. scranton, pennyslyvania: international textbook company. yule, g. (1996). the study of language, cambridge press. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 106 nwagbara the disreputable fate of the heroine in the nigerian fiction: the perspectives of akachi adimoraezeigbo in trafficked and buchi emecheta in the joys of motherhood andrew ibeawuchi nwagbara department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university awka, nigeria ai.nwagbara@unizik.edu.ng abstract of concern is the manner in which many writers of fiction in nigeria have found it attractive subjecting the female protagonists to untold psychological and emotional tortures in their various creative narratives while it’s true that the pervading mood in nigeria has been that of crass poverty and hopelessness which cut across genders, the woman or girl-child has been singled out for special attention. this intellectual exercise looks at the traumatic experiences of female protagonists in akachi adimoraezeigbo’s trafficked and buchi emecheta’s the joys of motherhood. the choice of these two female writers is deliberate. the two writers represent two different generations of nigerian female writers. while emecheta discusses the plight of the female folks during the colonial era in nigeria, adimora-ezeigbo focuses attention on female trafficking which is a current issue in the public domain. in the consideration of the effective application of the trauma theory, emecheta has been exemplary in subjecting the female protagonist of her novel to series of agonizing tortures that culminate in her death. adimora-ezeigbo has however been benevolent; the central character of her creative work has several moments to celebrate and in the end her story ends on a good page. keywords: fate, heroine, feminism, female protagonist introduction it is of note that the female writers of fiction in nigeria have contributed positively towards the growth of the genre. these writers using various themes have helped expand the frontiers of discuss in the genre. from gender related issues to deep rooted socio-political agenda, these feminine writers have narrowed the gap that hitherto existed between them and their male counterparts in literary outputs. despite the diverse concerns that the female novelists have shown on different issues of interest to nigerian literate audience, it is however of note that they have focused more attention on matters of interest to the plight of the nigerian woman or girl child. they have subsumed the feminine theme in their treatments of broad topics like the civil war in nigeria, corruption that pervades the nigerian landscape or even the class struggles that exist in some nigerian societies. female fiction writers like: akachi adimora-ezeigbo, chimamanda ngozi adichie, flora nwapa and buchi emecheta for instance, have discussed the different shades of psychological assaults that the female protagonists have endured in different nigerian societies. perhaps, it is true that the female central character in nigerian fiction is prone to tragic ends. afam ezeaku while quoting alkali confirm that “tradition africa was not a haven for african woman….she had and still has her life spiked with harmful traditional and social practices strong enough to denigrate sexual exploitation, arranged marriages, seclusion, infanticide, female circumcision and starvation” (18). in the ancient time, women were cast in the shape of evil. charles korie’s opinion lends credence to this when he observes that “from greek mythology, the odds are against women” (72). he further observes that the images of women in these mythologies are cast in “low, inferior, wicked and demonic posture” (72). to nawal el-saadawi the female character in the view of the arabs is “a capricious vamp, a playful and beautiful slave, a she-devil imbued with a cunning and capable of a thousand artifices, an ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 107 nwagbara explosive danger versed in all the arts of deceit and conspiracy.” (521). these views seem to have shaped the psyche of some nigerian writers who have clothed the female characters in tragic garbs. akachi adimora-ezeigbo and buchi emecheta have found this portrait attractive in trafficked and the joys of motherhood respectively. the central characters in these novels are archetypes of the doomed fate of the female characters in nigerian fiction. they are however courageous, determined and resolute to turn their adversaries into triumphs. these are some of the qualities of heroines. a heroine in medieval history is the “legendary woman having the qualities of a hero” (wikipedia.com). similarly, the doris lechner sees the heroine as a woman of distinguished courage or ability, admired for her brave deeds and noble qualities”. nnu ego and nneoma in the joys of motherhood and trafficked respectively remain amazons who display exceptional courage even in the midst of extremely difficult situations to record worthy achievements. despite their noble intentions and rugged determinations to succeed, they are like beings acting scripts written for them by unforeseen forces. this in common par lace is referred to as fate. fate is “a power that supposedly predetermines events” according to doris lechner. if this assertion is considered sacrosanct, the female protagonists in these novels have their choices made for them by forces beyond their controls. in the treatment of the female protagonist’s experiences by most nigerian writers, the female central character has suffered tremendous bruises in physical and more importantly psychic dynamic. it is this trauma of the female central character that will be the focus of this research paper. even though it is not extremely necessary to anchor every literary criticism on a literary theory, this literary discuss will draw huge inference from the trauma literary theory as published by cathy caruth in unclaimed experience, trauma, narrative and history. caruth while doing a critique of sigmund feud’s beyond the pleasure principle cites feud who paints a picture of human suffering as being ‘inexplicably persistent in the lives of certain individuals”(caruth, 14). feud finds it difficult to comprehend the reason that catastrophic events keep repeating themselves in the lives of individuals who have experienced them before. difficult to understand is that these tragic experiences are not initiated by the individuals own acts but are “a serious of painful events to which they are subjected and which seem to be entirely outside their wishes or control” (15). therefore, the lives of the female central characters in trafficked and the joys of motherhood are examined in the light of the above postulations of caruth’s as encapsulated in the classical text unclaimed experience, trauma, narrative and history. this research discusses the various traumatic narratives, the central characters have been subjected by the two female novelists and the manners they are able to navigate through these various tragic upheavals. dalley in the use of this trauma theory has done a critique of a nigerian war friction song for night by chris abani where he “evaluates the use of trauma as a paradigm for interpreting nigeria civil war literature”. he draws the conclusion that in this child-soldier narrative abani explores the novel’s “formal qualities, temporal disjunction, repetition and communicative ambivalence” a comparative inquest into the disreputable fate of the heroine in trafficked and the joys of motherhood buchi emecheta in the joys of motherhood in a free flowing narrative describes the experiences of a female protagonist whose life oscillates from one tragic moment to another. nnu ego the female tragic protagonist from the beginning is captured as a character who finds herself in a state of helplessness, confused and frustrated. with the effective use of flash back, emecheta without any pretense, puts the reader in an eager mood to know how the tragedy of her life will unfold. amazingly, the mood of anxiety created at this point by the writer is ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 108 nwagbara sustained till the end of the story. the reader is eager to know the next tragic encounter the central character will be involved in. the novel trafficked by akachi adimora – ezeigbo has engaged the attention of various shades of intellectuals since it was published in 2008. this is essentially due to the fact that the issue of female trafficking has remained topical in nigeria and africa. the problems associated with illegal migration from africa to europe have been discussed at various global assemblies. the politics of illegal migration is not the interest of this academic endeavour, but the traumatized experiences of the central character in this fiction and matters arising from them. mathias nder, in his discussion of trafficked, looks at the experiences of the nigerian ladies who are involved in international trafficking and prostitution. through the use of characterization, he identifies two major character classifications in the novel. these are the oppressed and the exploiters. to him, the oppressed represent the “exploited and victims of sex trade”. the exploiters and oppressors on the other hand are the “collaborators and perpetrators of the international sex trafficking and prostitution.” nder in his research also considers adimoraezeigbo use of the various settings like: london, italy and lagos to expose the “dastardly nature of the trade.” for him, this migration pattern has devastating effects on the trafficked girls. the tilt of this research is in examining the reason for women oppression and discrimination in our society and (how) this encourages the liberation of all women. emecheta in situating her novel during the colonial period informs the reading audience that the travails of the female folk did not start recently. the protagonist is made to inherit a female ‘chi’, a reincarnated slave girl who inflicts tremendous punishment on nnu ego in this fictional narrative. the story of this slave girl is a recast of one of the most primitive cultures of the africans where an innocent girl must be buried alive with her dead mistress. this culture of savage impunity is present in this novel with the central character being the beneficiary of a hideous crime committed by her forbearers with a fate of prolonged psychological agony and physical torture in the entire novel. from conception, nnu ego’s story is shrouded in mystery. as a product of a illicit love affair between her mother ona and agbadi nwokocha, her fate is tainted from birth. her mother is expected to give birth to a boy who will take charge of the homestead of his maternal grandfather, obi umunna this woman who is fortunate to have a male child. rather than give birth to a male child. “this child is the slave woman. who died with (the) senior wife (of) agunwa” (emecheta, 25). on a gives birth to nnu ego who inherits the ‘chi’ of a slave woman. this woman out of spite and anger had promised agbadi that she would come back to his household, but as a daughter. the anger stems from the fact that she is buried alive with her late mistress so as to continue being her slave in the grave. the slave woman in the african cosmic realization reincarnates as nnu ego with all the anger and bitterness inflicted on her by the culture of the native ibuza community. the link that exists between the living and the dead becomes manifest from the beginning of the prose fiction. in the cause of the novel, the writer constantly draws a parallel between nnu ego and the slave woman. at every critical moment in her life, the spirit of the slave woman decides the scope of her suffering. the spiritual relevance of the dibia cannot be divorced from the cosmology of the natives in this fictional story. it is the dibia who at the birth of nnu ego spiritually diagnoses the need to appease the spirit of the slave woman to help mitigate the sufferings of the central character. “the slave woman was properly buried in a separate grave, and an image of her was made for nnu ego to carry with her” (26). without this spiritual atonement, the spirit of the dead slave woman would have fomented nnu ego ad infinitum. this spiritual atonement and other sacrifices therein, help soften the revenge mission of the dead salve woman. subsequently, the protagonist ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 109 nwagbara benefits from these sacrificial interventions and records some flashes of good fortunes in the novel. she gives birth to several children after the fatality of her first marriage. also, despite a prolonged suffering session, her sons excel in academics and become pathfinders in ibuza town. adimora –ezeigbo in her novel begins with a profound prologue that lays an enduring foundation for the narrative: “chronic poverty, violence against women and girls, lack of decent work opportunities, coupled with restrictive migration and immigration policy have all played their roles in creating multinational trafficking industries – louisa waugh.” (adimora –ezeigbo,iv). in the above quotation, louisa waugh holds an opinion that shares the same sentiments that have sustained the multinational female trafficking industry that include: chronic poverty, violence against women and girls, lack of decent work opportunities and obnoxious immigration policies. also, the novelist in lifting a passage from the holy bible lays a moral and ecclesiastic framework that makes covetousness a prima facie crime which leads to greed. the holy bible says “take heed, and beware of covetousness, for a man’s life consisted not in the abundance of the things which he possesseth” with this and the earlier quotation, adimora – ezeigbo sets the narrative on a free flow somersault of intrigues and emotional torture of the female protagonist, nneoma. she subsequently skillfully lays bare the horrendous and laborious life the central character’s family goes through in the theatre of financial poverty. as a little girl in ihitte-agu, she knows the colour of poverty “on the highway of life “(7). this experience this makes her journey in search of greener pasture abroad very necessary. the question the reading audience will ask is, why must she be the child to take up the fight to pull the family out of economic morass? she is not a man. but, mother nature has assigned a special role to her from birth. in the african cosmology, she is the reincarnated mother of her father ogukwe eke. she shares a similarity with nnu ego in the joys of motherhood as a product of a reincarnation process. in the case of nneoma, in tandem with the african culture, no mother allows her children suffer from deprivation. therefore, it is not out of place that she carries the burden of ensuring that her family comes out of crass poverty. her marriage to ofomata is her first attempt at finding a solution to one of the major problems bedeviling her family; that of a piece of land to build a house. for nnu ego also, her good fortune begins with her marriage to nnaife, a man of poor physical appearance who works with a colonial officer as a domestic servant in lagos. her first marriage to amatokun earlier was childless. ngozi her first son to nnaife dies not long after conception. devastated though, she however remains undaunted. her sadness does not endure for long before she gives birth to oshia. in all, she gives birth to nine children with seven surviving. of these, she has three sons; oshia, adim and nnamdio. these male children represent her world because in the traditional nigerian society, the woman who has no sons is deemed to have no children. worse still “a woman without a child for her husband was a failed woman”(65). as typical of the nigerian woman, nnu ego dreams of her sons being more successful than their father. as expected of a good wife, she supports her husband in the upbringing of the sons believing that the daughters need little education because they are bound to end up in the kitchen. in her quest to offer her sons the best that her family’s limited resources can offer, this indomitable amazon never ascribes “profundity to the ordinary” (137). despite the discomfort of sharing her husband with another woman in a polygamous environment, this home grown daughter of ibuza is satisfied occupying the enviable position of a senior wife and the mother of her husband’s first son. she believes that “a happy senior wife makes a happy home”(138). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 110 nwagbara this role has its burden because she is a prisoner “imprisoned by her love for her children, imprisoned in her role as the senior wife “(153). society however expects her as the mother of three sons “to be happy in her poverty, in her nailbiting agony, in her churning stomach, in her rags.” (187). as an individual who has foresight, the education of her sons is a worthy investment because in the future “only pen and not mouth could really talk” (201). on the other hand, nneoma’s travails in trafficked stem from poverty and cultural inhibitions. she and ofomata are childhood lovers whose marriage is stage managed between mazi ogukwe eke and his friend, mbonu ezenwa, fathers of the duo. this marriage apart from permanently cementing the bond of friendship between the two men, will help ogukwe solve a pressing need, that of securing a piece of land to build a house. for a piece of land from his prospective in-law is part of the marriage rites. but this union between the two lovers experiences a hiccup from inception. it is the cultural title of ‘ozo-nkwu’ that becomes a hindrance. quintessential ezeigbo introduces this to exacerbate the conflict in the novel and make the heroine nneoma walk a tight rope of financial emancipation ofomata is to inherit the mystical title of ‘ozo-nkwu’ from his father at his demise. nneoma does not want to be the wife of a man of such appellation. the inability of the love birds to resolve this conflict leads nneoma in making the choice to seek for greener pasture abroad. in search of a new lease of life, she desires for a teaching employment overseas. as a trained teacher desirous of a honest employment in europe, she falls prey to a syndicate who offers her a fake teaching employment. to make her and her co-travellers believe the offers are real, the traffickers “show us pictures of the schools where we’ll be teaching and give us appointment letters signed by people with english names.”(127). the triumphant catastrophic experience of a heroine largely depends on the influence of the men she associates with. adimora-ezeigbo does not fail to highlight the point that the achievements of nnu ego cannot be divorced from the positive relationships she enjoys with some men in her life. her late father, agbadi, nwokocha remains a pillar of support in the early gloomy period of her traumatic life. after her failed marriage to amatokwu, it’s her father nwokocha agbadi who helps restore her emotionally stable. to appease her supposedly tormenting ‘chi’, “he told her through the rising smoke of the slaughtered animals that he had stopped dealing in slaves and had offered freedom to the ones in his household” (34). for those slaves who have refused to go back to their villages are adopted as his children. all these concessions are made “for nnu ego” (35). her second husband nnaife owulum helps her restore her motherhood after her first disastrous marriage. even with nnaife, misfortune continues to trail her. her first son ngozi dies mysteriously. in her quest to commit suicide over this calamity, the society agrees “that a woman without a child for her husband was a failed woman” (65). the subsequent son she bears for nnaife helps her establish a permanent foothold in the owulum family and also become the icing on the married cake. for “her love and duty to these sons were like her chains of slavery” (209). even in her death, she gives them her soul because” they will worship my dead spirit to provide for them” (210). the culmination of her agony is expressed in her copious lamentation that: i am a prisoner of my own flesh and blood. is it such an enviable position? the men make it look as if we must aspire for children or die. that’s why when i lost my first son i wanted to die because i failed to live up to the standard expected of me by the males in my life, my father and my husband – and now i have to include my sons. but who made the law that we should not hope in our daughters? we women subscribe to that law more than anyone. until we charge all this, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 111 nwagbara it is still a man’s world, which women will always help to build. (210). nneoma the heroine’s encounter with the men slightly differs from that of nnu ego. the similarity between the duo is the unalloyed love they enjoy from their fathers. their subsequent heinous encounters with the male characters though similar in varying degrees, differ in traumatic contents. despite being the mother of three brilliant sons and many daughters, naife abandons nnu ego to marry a second wife. nneoma’s experiences in her various encounters with the male protagonists while abroad, highlight the unending injustices and exploitations that the female folks go through in the hands of men in the larger nigerian society. in italy, nneoma realizes that she has been caught in the web of female traffickers. here she becomes the ‘property’ of a vicious woman called madam dollar who engages her in prostitution to enable her pay the debt of bringing her to italy. after three years of hellish living, she is sold to another kingpin of the cartel called baron living in london who keeps her in a flat where “she (is) a sex object for every male” (59). out of sheer luck and ingenuity, she escapes. while weeping outside the russell square rail station, dr. chido okehi, a nigerian scholar on leave of absence in london helps her into another phase of her metamorphosis of sexual trauma. while taking temporary shelter in the home of fellow nigerians preparatory to her coming back to nigeria, she continues to be sexually assaulted by dimgba and dotun her benefactor. these heroic female protagonists however have not allowed their tortuous experiences dample their desires to excel. nnu ego throws every strength of her being in the upbringing of her sons who become shining examples in the ibuza community. nneoma’s desire to acquire a tertiary education is not dampened by her odious experiences as a trafficked girl. despite all odds, she gains and admission to study for a degree in a university in lagos. it is very paramount to note that the two female novelists slightly vary with their pillages of painful activities of the two tragic heroines. nnu ego maintains a stoic personality in the joys of motherhood because she remains consistently courageous and optimism even in the face of obvious psychological torture in the hands of the society and her husband, nnaife. throughout the entire gamut of the narrative, her sufferings remain unabated even when naturally she should be celebrated for her achievements that include her tenacity of purpose. emecheta in her fulfillment of the tenets of the trauma theory keeps pilling up all manners of torture on the protagonist which culminate in her death by the road side. “she died quietly … with no child to hold her hand and no friend to talk to her” (253). to make a mockery of her agonies; emecheta titles the novel the joys of motherhood. adimora – ezeigbo however differ from emecheta’s treatment of the female protagonist in her novel. adimora – ezeigbo in trafficked offers nneoma the opportunity of rehabilitation and reintegration into the society at oasis youth centre, lagos. she rather than overload nneoma with a baggage of tragedies, expands “the threshold of (her) fulfillment” (235) by making her triumph at the matriculation examination to study business education at lagos university of science and technology. in the midst of this achievement however, her ugly past as a trafficked girl resurfaces in her encounter with chief amadi. to him, a trafficked girl is not deserving of the friendship of his son kelvin. despite this emotional setback, she looks forward to realizing the dream of every traditional nigerian woman; the dream of having a loving husband and a pleasurable family life. she however doubts the possibility of finding a man who would marry her with her filthy past. in her introspection, she wonders if she can find “a man she could love again – and one that would accept her as she was” (2006). however, the writer provides her a soft landing pad. through dr. chido okehi, she reconnects with her childhood heartthrob, ofomata. the novelist admirably fails to bring the fictional narrative to an end with the female protagonist’s entire life cycle being full of sad tales. nneoma in the end ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 112 nwagbara is rewarded with a university education and the prospect of marrying a childhood lover, ofomata. conclusion in conclusion, the novelists have done well in their narratives while applying the tenets of the trauma theory. emecheta in her exercise excels better than adimora-ezeigbo. nnu ego in emecheta’s story is physically and emotionally traumatized from the beginning to the end. she in line with the freudian concept of persistent traumatization of certain individuals’ subjects the protagonist of the joys of motherhood to an overwhelming psychological torture. the reader at a point feels that the load of grief is too heavy for one individual to bear. having two brilliant sons living abroad is enough to make her live a life of happiness in her old age. it is ironic that a woman who should be celebrated in the entire ibuza community becomes an individual of ridicule. emecheta in this novel leaves an evergreen tragic impression on the psyche of the reading audience. adimora-ezeigbo’s attempt differs slightly. nneoma receives doses of good fortunes in the midst of her sad tale. while emecheta’s narrative leaves a prolonged agonized impression on the psyche of the reading audience, adimora –ezeigbo’s novel continually reminds the reader the pitiable sojourn the youths of nigeria nay africa go through in search of greener pastures across the mediterranean sea. today, many youths and parents have failed to learn lessons from tales similar to that of nneoma that are captured in works of fiction, television movies and real life narrations of victims. adimora -ezeigbo in this story discusses an issue that has brought pain and agony in many families in nigeria. the loss of lives at sea and the dehumanizing slave experiences these individuals like nneoma go through in europe are worse than slave trade of centuries ago. good governance at all levels in nigeria will create employments for the youths who will not see perilous journeys abroad as necessities. these two female writers have handled the dilemma of their two female protagonists based on the cultural background they grew up in. the era they lived in has also affected their treatments of the common theme of female emasculation in the society. while adimora-ezeigbo has addressed a contemporary issue in the african continent, emecheta’s concern has been the plight of the female gender during the colonial period. therefore, it follows that the agony of the woman or girl-child has persisted for ages. works cited adimora-ezeigbo, akachi.trafficked. lagos: literamed publication (nig) ltd, 2018 caruth, cathy. unclaimed experience, trauma, narrative and history.john hopkins university press, baltimore maryland: 1996. dalley, hamish. “trauma theory and nigeria civil war literature: speaking something that was never in words in chris abani’ssongs for night”.journal of postcolonial writing.vol 49, issue 4, 2013. el-saadawi, nawal. “the heroine in arab literature”, in african literature, an anthology of criticism and theory, -tejumolaolaniyan and atoquanyson(ed).cornwal, blackwell publishing ltd, 2007. emecheta, buchi. the joys of motherhood.london: pearson education ltd, 2008 ezeaku, afamefuna. “feminist positionality: an overview of nigeria literary scene”, in awka journal of english language and literary studies, no 1, vol 5, 2014. lechner, doris (ed). the new webster’s dictionary of the english language. new york: lexicon publication inc, 2004. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 113 nwagbara lloyd, david. “colonial trauma / postcolonial recovery” in international journal of postcolonial studies. vol 2, issue 2, 2000. korie, charles.c. “the fate of a woman in african fiction: a mythical interpretation of ezeigbo’s trilogy” in journal of english language studies in africa, no 2, voli, 2012. nder, mathias. “the experience of nigeria ladies in the international sex trafficking and prostitution: a reading ofakachiadimora-ezeigbo’strafficked” in journal of humanities and social science (10sr-jhss) vol 13, issue 5 (july-august 2013). www. wikipedia. http://www.wikapedia/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 96 ecoliterature and leadership discourse in nigeria: a study of tanure ojaide’s the activist and helon habila’s oil on water abigail onowosemenmen oaikhena department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: abaigailabby1@gmail.com dr. mbanefo s. ogene department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka abstract in nigeria the effects of the destruction of the natural environment, resulting from the destructive extraction of resources have been seriously felt. this reality has been worsened by the compradoria stance of the national leadership class. the poor leadership of the country has influenced every strata of the society, particularly literary creativity. adopting this reflectionist paradigm, this study examines the role of (mis)leadership in nigeria, which has culminated in the seemingly intractable niger delta question in the creative works of select nigerian authors. the paper argues that the leadership failures of the nigerian state has not only been given attention, especially with regards to the niger delta question by ecoliterary writers but also, have proffered some (neglected) suggestions on how these challenges could be resolved. this study examines the literary texts of helon habila's oil on water and tanure ojaide’s the activist as exemplars of ecoliterary creativities that speak to our understanding of both the niger delta discourse as well as the leadership lacuna which ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 97 often, at the behest of multinational oil corporations work against the collective aspiration of the people. these writers, in their texts, uncover the socioeconomic relations, leadership failure and degraded environment/ecology that endangered the lives of the people in niger delta refereed through (global) capitalism. keywords: militancy, leadership, environment, capitalism and neglect introduction the interplay of literature and the environment became a new area of interest and an intellectual linking bridge that centers principally on the relationship between literature and the environment. it addresses and foregrounds ecocritical issues as they unfold from the general abuse of the natural environment captured by literary writers who are mindful of and passionate about a hazard-free ecosystem. the symbiotic relationship that exists between literature and the environment has long been established and well articulated even before the formal inauguration of a critical approach to study the environmental side of literature-ecocriticism. jelica tosic establishes the interconnectedness of literature and the environment, in her statement that ecocriticism is an interdisciplinary study of literature and environment. she asserts that, the word ecocriticism is a semineologism. eco is short of ecology, which is concerned with the relationships between living organisms in their natural environment as well as their relationships with that environment. by analogy, ecocriticism ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 98 is concerned with the relationships between literature and environment or how man’s relationships with his physical environment are reflected in literature. these are obviously interdisciplinary studies, unusual as a combination of a natural science and a humanistic discipline. that unusual (interdisciplinary) combination of the physical and the spiritual can be seen in some of the terms used in ecology and ecocriticism, which both have the same aim: to contribute to the preservation and survival of man (43). eco literature explores the plunder of the natural environment; this manifests in various ways through the interaction of man with the environment. from rachel carlson’s silent spring to don delillo’s white noise, and from lawrence buell’s writing for an endangered world to the end of nature by bill mckibben, the debate has been on the consequences of the interface between nature and people’s activities on the planet. nature in this respect is a victim of the human cultural agent. the cultural agent referred to here is global capitalism. the shift from the preservation of nature to capitalism in the wake of frontier global capitalism is fundamentally ensconced in the different modes of humanity’s relation to the earth. in africa, the effects of the savage rape of the environment have been seriously felt resulting from the destructive extraction of resources. nigerian writers particularly have used literature to interrogate the goings-on in the nigerian environment that poses a threat to the environment, nature and society at large. an essential facet of this interrogation is eco-literary writings. tanure ojaide notes that what informed eco-writings in nigeria ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 99 is what he describes as ‘‘senseless destruction of our original neighbours, the trees and animals’’ (poetic imagination in black africa. 16). also niyi osundare’s crying revelation in the preface to the eye of the earth strengthens his desire for biotic wholesomeness as well as socio-economic wellbeing of the masses.according to him, waters are dying, forests are falling. a desert epidemic stalks a world where the rich and ruthless squander earth’s wealth on the invention of increasingly accomplished weapons of death, while millions of people perish daily from avoidable hunger. ( xvi) however, these nigerian environmental writers who include tanure ojaide, helon habila, ken saro-wiwa, odia ofeimun, niyi osundare and kaine agary among others have articulated a way of re-imagining the (nigerian) environment that melds socio–economic existence with environmentalism. according to emmanuel nwagbara, “they have called for a prioritisation of green discourse for better leadership and socio-economic relations, as well as environmental sustainability” (qtd in african study monographs,17). in order to give face to the invisible but palpable presence of capitalism on the nigerian environment, these writers have turned to eco –literary writing. they have declared themselves chroniclers of the changing environmental times, an artistic engagement to save the environment from the shackles of global capitalism. ernst fisher highlights the malignant nature of capitalism, thus; capitalism turned everything into a commodity. with a hitherto unimaginable increase in production and productivity, extending the new ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 100 order dynamically to all parts of the globe and all areas of human existence, capitalism dissolved the old world into a cloud of whirling molecules, destroyed all direct relationships between producer and consumer and flung all products onto an anonymous market to be bought or sold. (50) the reality of this practice finds resonance in an ever more globalised state of oppression and dominance which is characterised by the movement of resources from the periphery to the centre, as well as the destruction of the natural world of the periphery nations. victor ojarokotu asserts that, this is the case in nigeria, particularly the niger delta, where the multinationals in cahoots with the political class have wreaked havoc on the ecology, biodiversity, hydrocarbons, marine life and environment of the people all in the name of international business, oil exploration and global capitalism. (99) the effect of global capitalism which is seen as oil politics, perpetuated by the multinational corporations in partnership with corrupt leadership system in nigeria have greatly affected the people and the society negatively as they are constantly faced with poverty and hunger. however, this study is predicated on a binary concept: marxism and ecocriticism. they both work hand in hand in the study of eco literature in nigeria. in separating them one may run the risk of mangling the dynamics of this study, or losing its import. this is why this discourse is forged in this fashion – to bring to the fore the essentials of concerned writers. this concept is the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 101 ideological and socio-economic education or engagement needed to sensitize as well as galvanise the masses and readers about the nature and the effect of capitalism and bad leadership in their environment. ann dobie asserts that: the good marxist critic is careful to avoid the kind of approach that concerns itself with form and craft at the expense of examining social realities. instead, the marxist critic will search out the depiction of inequities in social classes, an imbalance of goods and power among people, or manipulation of the worker by the bourgeoisie and will then point out the injustice of that society (93). the thrust of marxism in eco literature is to challenge the continuing imperialist modes of socio-economic and environmental dominance disguised in the name of development. in other words, the theory sets out to dispute as well as reject the do-gooder mentality of the west by discrediting the kind of development brought up in the name of modernization. as argued by graham huggan and helen tiffin, ecocriticism sets out to debunk the western ideologies of development and redirect the focus of development away from the self-serving interest of the west. they claim that, one of the central tasks of ecocriticism as an emergent field has been to contest – also to provide viable alternatives to – western ideologies of development. these contestations have mostly been in alignment with radical third-world critiques that tend to see ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 102 development as little more than a disguised form of neocolonialism, a vast technocratic apparatus designed primarily to serve the economic and political interests of the west (27) development, in this regard, can be viewed as a destructive weapon used by the elitist first world countries to continue to re-establish and expand the rift between them and the third world countries (especially africa), so that the former can continue to maintain its political power and economic hegemony over the latter. in this connection, oswaldo de rivero believes that “development in western ideology is a means of relegating the third-world countries to the perpetual state of social, political and economic standstill under the guise of assisted modernization” (the myth of development, 110). huggan and tiffin, state that sustainable development is practically designed by the west as a regulating mechanism used to determine people’s everyday lives. they further assert that “the term ‘environment’ itself implies the marketability of nature providing an implicit rationalization for the control and management of natural resources by the global urban-industrial system and its primary political ally, the nation-state” (32) from this, it is obvious that marxism and ecocriticism have joined forces to collectively challenge human inequalities and environmental abuses. by the common grounds that marxism and ecocriticism share in terms of advocacy for social-equality and environmental justice (however, undoubtedly polemical to a certain extent), most literary works that form the body of the niger delta literature have profoundly re-established and reinforced the ‘mutuality’ between marxism and ecocriticism. by this, one would say, marxist ecocriticism has become more ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 103 sophisticated in terms of drawing attention to the socio-political usefulness of literary texts without losing its aesthetic values. addressing the niger delta problem as a case of exploitation disguised in the name of development by leaders, some works testify to it as a colonial genesis that eventually graduates into continuing human inequality and environmental abuses. of course, one has to admit that development as harmful as it is in itself, is not what marxist ecocriticism is contending with, but the contention over the blatant social and environmental abuses perpetrated in its name. and this same development is a camouflage under which the europe hides to sustain its political power and economic hegemony over the developing countries. in practical terms, what europe claims to sustain, is not development at all but market domination. after all, gaining economic power is synonymous with gaining absolute political power. in the same vein, as already argued in this study, the first world countries which the oil companies stand for can divert the attention of the developing countries from making judicious use of the wealth that lies within their environment by controlling the leaders. these two bodies then work together for their own selfish aims at the detriment of the poor masses. this inhuman attitude of these two allies is what most writers of niger delta literature in connection with marxism stand against. leadership negligence in helon habila’s oil on water. this novel was evidently written in the aftermath of the november 1995 execution of ken saro-wiwa (the ogoniland activist) by the nigerian dictator, sani abacha, its implicit political accusations implicate not only the obvious targets ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 104 (international oil companies’ neo-colonial predation; nigerian leaders and businessmen who allow this by accepting the spoils of bribery; the lawless gun-toting warlords and their henchmen on all sides, whether army or police, or the militants with whom they play their nasty, bloody war games in the waters and on the islands of the niger delta), but also the local and international media who provide the stages on which the antagonists strut and rant. the novel tells the story of a daring adventure of two journalists, zaq and rufus, commissioned by mr. james floode to go in search of his wife, mrs. isabel floode was kidnapped by a group of niger delta militants on irikefe island. in the course of the journey, the journalists become crestfallen to experience, firsthand, the depth of environmental degradation and its lingering effects on the people. they see “the polluted waters, the forsaken villages, the gas flares, the stumps of pipes from exhausted wells with their heads capped and left jutting out of the oil-scorched earth, and the ever-present pipelines crisscrossing the landscape, sometimes like tree roots surfacing far away from the parent tree…”(oil on water, 182). though the experiences described tend to be bleak, with the atmosphere that is evoked of a predominantly brooding, menacing, frightening kind, rufus’s mostly matter-of-fact recording of his impressions and memories does at times allow a poetic lyricism. an alleviating tenderness to creep into his voice – like the occasional shafts of sunlight piercing the swirling mists over the delta waters or the patches of clear water in between the murky, ill-smelling channels or shores full of oilcovered garbage or rotting creatures and remnants. here is one example of the niger delta river scape and its shores as recounted by rufus: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 105 the next village was almost a replica of the last: the same empty squat dwellings, the same ripe and flagrant stench, the barrenness, the oil slick, and the same indefinable sadness in the air, as if a community of ghosts were suspended above the punctured zinc roofs, unwilling to depart, yet powerless to return. in the village centre we found the communal well. eager for a drink, i bent under the wet, mossy pivotal beam and peered into the well’s blackness, but a rank smell wafted from its hot depths and slapped my face; i reeled away, my head aching from the encounter. something organic, perhaps human, lay dead and decomposing down there, its stench mixed with that unmistakable smell of oil. at the other end of the village a little river trickled towards the big river where we had left our boat. the patch of grass growing by the water was suffocated by a film of oil, each blade covered with blotches like the liver spots on a smoker’s hands. (9) the neglect of the region by the government has led to environmental degradation, pollution, loss of traditional occupations, rise in social vices like gun-running, kidnapping, militancy, oil theft as well as health hazards, to mention a few. oil on water explores the issue of poverty, lack of social amenities as well as insensitivity of the federal government and multinationals in the niger delta region these are the major causes of youth restiveness in nigeria. militancy is indeed not new in the region. it started in isaac boro, who out of “fear that the ijaw would not have a fair deal in the military dispensation ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 106 declared the niger delta republic in 1966” (darah, 10). the militant in the region are seen as defenders of the system. the youth have turned militants because they want to draw attention to their bastardised environment. this militancy can be likened to guerilla fighters. in oil on water, the narrator, rufus, recalls a certain island they encountered with some reporters from lagos as they search for the militant group that abducts isabel floode to interview them and also to confirm if she is still alive in oil on water, a lot of concerned members of the communities have at one time or the other called the attention of their leaders (the government) and the oil companies to the deteriorating situation in the region, but nothing reasonable has been done. instead, they feign deaf and dumb to the people’s excruciating experience and their continuous ululations. the extent of the injustice and insensitivity is incredible and alarming. one wonders if the leaders were hired from other countries, say, sudan or iraq, because they do not feel the pains of the people. they treat them as refugees or illegal immigrants. they trade their land for oil, degrade their environment and displace the people, cutting them off from their natural home and only means of sustenance. yet there are no human feelings, no compassion whatsoever to lessen their burdens, allay their fears and douse their tensions. their situation just keeps on degenerating. leadership and revolutionary discourse in tanure ojaide’s the activist. tanure ojaide’s the activist is seen by many scholars as a work in which the author did not employ his radical voice against oppression. although the text could not be discussed from the angle of ecocritism but in it ojaide reveals the goal of marxism. revolutionary aesthetics which serves as a corrective measures against bad leadership in the novel, is seen from the fall of the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 107 bourgeoisie and rise of the proletariats which marx considered as the perfect state of a nation’s economic system, writers, especially the african writers, have written on the ills and vices in their different distinctive societies as a result of oppression and at the same time provide some steps needed for possible solutions. ojaide explores the economic and socio-political problems caused by oil in the niger delta in his novel, the activist. some of these problems are exploitation and the hijacking of people’s natural resources to the detriment of the original owners, the cause of militancy and prostitution. the exploiters’ actions generate a lot of protests both nationally and internationally as portrayed by ojaide. the main character in the novel, the activist “had flown to europe several times on chartered flights to carry placards against bell oil international and group of seven over debt relief for third world countries. he saw world bank and the international monetary fund as exploiters of developing countries.” (the activist, 16) all ojaide’s major characters in the novel are essentially revolutionary characters. they include: the activist, pere, chief ishaka, ebi and omagbemi. they are all crafted to give credence to ojaide’s artistic vision, which culminates in populist governance. by doing this, the readers could gain palpable insights into how intellectualised activism could radicalise people’s thoughts and ideals and thereby affect societal development. in the novel, the activist, ojaide clearly depicts the goal of every marxist struggle which is victory of the proletariats over the bourgeoisie in order to have a balanced economic system in the society. through this he shows that the substructure can help ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 108 in overthrowing the base. a situation whereby with the aid of literature, the economic power of production will be in the hands of the lower class. conclusion from the analysis of the novels selected for this study, it is discovered that the socio-economic marginalization and environmental damage have a multiplier effect on the environment and the society: displacement, moral bankruptcy, violence, killing and kidnapping, proliferation of deadly weapons, debauchery and overall disruption of the social and ecological system. therefore, a mutual relationship and benefit exist between marxist discourse and environmental discourse and this helps to depict the role of our leaders in nigeria with regards to literatures about the niger delta.. these writers have written accomplished novels that transcend their authorial thematic preoccupation and literary values, speaking to all mankind with such great practical belief and universal coverage that they are capable of making an irrepressible impact on society regardless of time and place. indeed, they perfectly justify the assertion that an author is a product of experience and reality and literature can also change the system of things in a society for the better. works cited dobie, ann. theory into practice: an introduction to literary criticism. wadsworth: centage learning. third edition. 2012. print. de rivero, oswaldo. the myth of development. zed books, london: 2001 fischer, ernst. the necessity of art: a marxist approach. northampton: peregrine books. 1984. print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 109 habila, helon. oil on water. london: harrishhamilton , 2010. print huggan, graham and tiffin, helen. postcolonial ecocriticism: literature, animals, environment. new york: routledge. 2010. print. nwagbara, uzoechi. ‘‘poetics of resistance: ecocritical reading of tanure ojaide’s delta blues & home songs and daydream of ants and other poems ’’. african study monographs, 31.1(2010):17-30 ojaide, tanure. the activist. lagos: farafina. 2006. print. ojaide, tanure. poetic imagination in black africa: essays in african poetry. north carolina: carolina academic press, 1996. print. ojakorotu, victor. 2008. ‘‘the internationalisation of oil violence in the niger delta of nigeria’’. alternatives: turkish journal of int’l relations. benin city: ethiope publishing corporation.2008. print. osundare, niyi. style and literary communication in african prose fiction in english. ibadan: hope publication ltd. 2008. print. tosic, jelica. “ecocriticism – interdisciplinary study of literature and environment.”walking and living environmental protection. london: oxford university press. 2006. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 114 nnyagu & adunchezor the satiric chants of atumma as a veritable means of societal reformation dr. uche nnyagu department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka eu.nnyagu.unizik.edu.ng & dr. ngozi g. adunchezor department of english nwafor orizu college of education, nsugbe abstract almost all the towns in njikoka have atumma masquerades. njikoka is a local government area in anambra state, south central nigeria. the towns that make up the local government area include abagana, enugwu-agidi, nawfia, nimo, and abba with the headquarters at abagana. in dunufokia, a neighbouring local government area, there is atumma ogufoluchi of ukpo. atumma ugonabo of abagana, atumma ogufoluchi of ukpo and atumma ugonano from abba are the most popular groups in the area. the three towns with ukpo from different local government areas, are very close to each other. as sister towns, they share similar traditions hence they have similar masquerades. atumma masquerades, when they perform, men, women and children gather to be entertained. they are known not just for their wonderful performances but for their melodious chants. some of their chants are in form of panegyrics, elegy or satire. they perform both in the daytime and at night and they draw their inspiration mostly from what happens around the society. in their chants, they attack the ills of individuals with the view of correcting impression. in some other cases, they ridicule. in this paper, one satiric chant from each of the masquerades is analyze dusing the sociological approach with the aim to x-ray the affinity of the chants with literary satires. keywords: atumma, chants, satire, performance, society introduction the term poetry, according to baldick in oxford concise dictionary of literary terms, is language sung, chanted, spoken, or written. this entails that poetry must not only be written, it can be rendered orally. to agnes stein in her the uses of poetry, it is the incantations of magic, the chants of ritual, the exhortations to steadfastness and bravery. she is of the opinion that poetry is not esoteric to the illiterates; it is for both the literate and the illiterates alike. before the advent of printing, poetry has been. this is why stein writes that poetry is used communally by primitive man for survival (6). in africa, poetry is indispensable for in virtually every social and traditional occasions, poetry is performed. poetry is one of the major genres of literature believed to be as old as man. among the three genres of literature, poetry is one of the earliest. as william flint thrall and addison hibbard put it in their a handbook to literature, the origin of poetic expression is concealed in the dim past of man. they have made it vivid that no literary historian will presume to point out the earliest beginnings of poetry. according to uche nnyagu in literature and literate, no literary historian has been able to point out the age of poetry and among all the scholars who attempted the definition of poetry, each has a different view about it. nnyagu goes further to state that etymologically, poetry came into existence when a tribe or a people experienced some perilous moments and they chronicled their experiences, preserved them in dance and sing (74). in africa, the etymology of poetry is unknown. critics have said a lot about african poetry, but ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 115 nnyagu & adunchezor none has been able to say authoritatively, the origin of african poetry. according to joseph a. ushie of the university of uyo, english department, “modern written african poetry has a double heritage – pre-colonial and western. as in most post-colonial situations, the tilt of our writing should be more towards the pre-colonial african literary heritage as manifested in the song, dirge, folktale, elegy, panegyric or riddle (2). in his own contribution, akporobaro in introduction to african oral literature, affirms that oral poetry has no known origin in all societies of the world. he maintains that research into the oral tradition of various societies does show that this particular poetic form is not only a genre of the poetic tradition of early greece or europeans; it is also a very dominant form of poetry in nearly all traditional societies. he clearly puts it in his own words that, “in particular, it features most prominently in the oral literatures of all african rural societies in which song and poetry mingle in a creative alliance” (227). in consolidation, www.wikipedia discloses that african poetry has no known origin other than that it encompasses the wide variety of traditions arising from africa’s 55 countries and from evolving trends within different literary genres. the african had different types of poetry used in various occasions in the pre-colonial era. the poems were collectively composed and performed in particular occasions; in childbirth, particular songs are composed and rendered and at funeral, songs apt for the occasion are communally composed and performed. masquerading is part of the tradition of the igbo. g. t. basden in his among the ibos of nigeria, confirms this when he says that “the ceremony of making “maw” (juju) prevails throughout the ibo country (116b). according to him, men dress themselves in wield costumes covering every part of their body and disguise their voices by means of a small instrument in their mouth. he discloses that the masked men represent spirits. these spirits are accorded some respect as they are believed to have come as visitors from the world beyond to perform certain tasks. during funerals, masquerades perform to entertain the audience. the members of the audience watch and listen to the chants of the atumma masquerades which are usually hilarious and as the audience watch and listen to them, the mourners tend to forget the perils associated with the loss of their beloved relations. as the masquerades perform on stage, they speak against social ills without fear. what ordinarily, human beings would dread to say for fear of incarceration, would be said by the masquerades and people would laugh and the concerned would tend to take corrections. this is one major feature of satire seen in the chants. theoretical framework sociological approach is believed to be the most appropriate literary theory for the paper. sociological criticism is defined as criticism that focuses on the social context that the literature is created in; it analyzes social issues and uses the literature as social commentary. ann b. dobie, in theory into practice: an introduction to literary criticism, disclosed that the french critic, hippolyte taine was one of the earliest sociological theorists and that he listed three major factors he believed to determine a work of art to include: race, milleu and moment. by race, taine refereed to national characteristics typically found in works of art produced by the creative artists of a given country. race, taine believed to mean culture and by milleu, he meant environment and by moment, he meant personal influence. sociological approach, therefore, prescribes that literature is an expression of society for it originates in society. this approach, while focusing on the relationship between literature and society, maintains that literature is a microcosm of the macrocosm. for this reason, the researchers believe that the approach is most appropriate theory for this paper. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 116 nnyagu & adunchezor diction and poetry poetry is not just chanted for the sake of it; it performs a +-lot of functions. in africa, poetry is chanted in different occasions for different reasons. during funerals, funeral songs are performed. in some other occasions, masquerades perform funeral poetry to entertain the audience as well as use their poems to console the mourners. during marriage rites, poems are performed, at childbirth, peculiar poems are performed and in some other traditional occasions like ofalla and title taking, particular poems are performed. in many occasions, the performers of the poems compose their poems based on what they witness at the moment. for whatever occasion, poetry uses words well chosen as an indispensable tool to pass information. poets use words of their poems to evoke a feeling in the audience. agnes stein, in her the uses of poetry, is of the view that the poet or painter evokes in his audience, a familiar feeling they know, a lost feeling they may recapture, or a strange feeling trying for recognition (3). it is imperative at this point, to state that william wordsworth, a romantic critic has earlier emphasized that poetry is all about feelings when he describes poetry as a spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings recollected in tranquility. good poetry uses emotive language and when it is rendered on stage, the emotion of the audience is purgated. according to stein, ‘man, responding to some emotional stimulus, whether of pain, fear, grief, or joy, was beginning to speak. later, these same vocal chords were to produce “song”– a wedding of words and music in a ritualized expression (6). poetry tells stories. according to agnes stein, one of the major functions of poetry is to tell a story (34). it is a fact well acknowledged that a poet or composer of any poem has information he or she aims to pass across using the poem. as the poem is performed, the story of the poem is told. stein makes it vivid that stories had always been so told or sung because the devices of meter and rhyme served as an aid to memory as well as quickly catching the ear of an audience. it is the function of poetry to entertain as well as instruct. this cannot be possible without emotive words. when a poem is rendered with the use of percussions, it is enjoyed by the audience. it therefore, becomes futile if after a poem is rendered, the message of the poem is eluded. perrine, laurence is aware of this when in his literature: structure, sound, and sense, he wonders why one would waste one’s time listening to poetry when all it can offer is only pleasure (3). he believes that any poem that offers to the audience pleasure without educating him or her is not worth taking one's time. good poem needs to tell stories through which life can be effected. atumma chants entertain as they educate the audience. atumma chants as poetry atumma chant is a variety of poetry known as lyric. lyric, according to baldick, is any fairy short poem expressing the personal mood, feeling, or meditation of a single speaker. he says that lyric can be accompanied with musical instruments such as as lyre and could be a choral lyre sung by a group. according to william flint thrall and hibbard, addison, it is a brief subjective poem strongly marked by imagination, melody, and emotion and creating a single, unified impression. this shows that lyric is the expression of the emotion of a singer accompanied by musical instruments as in the case of atumma chants. atumma sings his poems and members of his group who comprise young men beat the percussions as well as respond by singing the refrain where necessary. this is in line with thrall and addison's view that in lyric, when a single singer sings expressing his emotions, the refrains (choruses) are rendered by the group. in consolidation, akporobaro f. b. o. in his introduction to african oral literature, affirms that this form of poem is an example of lyric. he calls it poetic-song or a song-poem which he says is an expression of a personal mood or thoughts sung simply or to the accompaniment of musical instruments such as guitar, koras, drum, rattle, bottles or ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 117 nnyagu & adunchezor knocking of sticks. atumma chants are rhythmical, melodic, and evocative. these, akporobaro believes are features of the lyric poetry. almost all the atumma chants are performed with the members of the audience responding by singing of the chorus. "onye olu oyibo" by atumma ugonabo, "obi danda" by atumma ugonano and so many others are chanted with the accompaniment of the musical instruments like udu, ekwe, ogene, and drums. in very rare occasions, some are rendered as a solo where the masquerades perform the solo with no chorus from the group members. the chant "ife na eme n'uwa" by atumma ugonano, though very brief, is chanted with no refrains by the members however, not without the accompaniment of the traditional musical instruments. this entails that some of atumma chants, as lyric poems, can be rendered with or without chorus. in the words of akporobaro, "the song poem may be performed solo or by a group" (228). in terms of its importance, akporobaro has this to say, .... the song poem has a very wide range of manifestation and contexts. it features in all aspects of african life and is therefore known in terms of the social occasions they are associated with. these include work songs, war songs, rowing songs, drinking songs, rite of passage songs, circumcision songs, hunting songs, etc (228) atumma chants permeate all activities of life in igbo belief as according to akporobaro "poetry permeates all activities of life in the african world.” atumma chants as satire most of the chants of atumma ugonabo are satires criticizing the ills going on in the society. atumma ugonabo believes that unless a particular ill is unveiled, it would continue. that is why he has decided to incorporate satire in his chants. the term “satire” according to william flint thrall and addison hibbard, is a literary manner which blends a critical attitude with humor and wit to the end that human institutions may be improved. to abram, m. h., it is "the literary art of diminishing or derogating a subject by making it ridiculous and evoking toward it attitudes of amusement, contempt, scorn, or indignation" (284 285). the essence of satire is not just to ridicule; satire aims to correct impression using laughter as the weapon. thrall and hibbard made it vivid when they emphasize that the true satirist is conscious of the frailty of institutions of man's devising and attempts through laughter not so much to tear them down as to inspire a remodeling. they believe that true satire must use laughter as a weapon to correct impression. to them, satire should not just attack an individual without any positive aim of using the attack for corrective purpose. they emphasize that if the critic simply abuses, he is writing invective and if he is personal and splendid, he is writing sarcasm and when he is sad and morose over the state of society, he is writing irony or mere gloom. the chants of atumma evoke laughter from the audience who laugh the ills to scorn. satiric strictures in the chants of atumma ugonabo in his "onye olu oyibo," atumma ugonabo uses laughter to criticize a lot of abnormalities in the society. as satire, he never criticizes without proffering solutions. he ridicules the attitudes of some ladies who use their cunningness and avariciousness to milk men dry. atumma ugonabo sees such an act as bad and condemnable. he wonders why some women who know that they never loved a man would pretend to love him just to use cunningness to rub him of his riches. in his chants, he uses theresa, nwakaego and oby to represent all the women who live such lifestyle. theresa, he says, gives a young man the illusion that she loves him. being ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 118 nnyagu & adunchezor sceptical about the love, the young man asks her to be because he doesn't want heartbreak. theresa, bearing in mind to jilt him and leave him heartbroken, hides her real self; she gives him the impression that she loves him. she makes him to spend so profusely on her, buying for her all that she desires. atumma ugonabo uses satiric chants to present a true picture of most ladies in our contemporary society who are only after what they will gain from a man. he says in a humorous manner that the young man who actually, isn't a neophyte about the machinations of some young women in the society, grants theresa's request by buying for her the full chicken, sweet, chewing gum and many other things that she had requested. in order to make her happy, he helps her to cut the delicious roasted chicken into sizable chunks. she eats the chicken, drinks and takes the sweets and chewing gums with delight even though she knows she never loved him. when she has eaten everything, atumma ugonabo says she uses esoteric language to confuse her host as to leave him heartbroken. he makes it clear in the beginning that the young man had sensed her plan and so, he had warned her to go because he isn't very rich that he can easily forget whatever he would spend for her. in the same vein, nwakego and oby use the same tricks on their own respective men. in condemning this poor attitudes of some women, atumma ugonabo presents a vivid picture of how the avaricious young women are disappointed as they are forced into sex as a way of paying for what they had eaten. the chorus of the members of the group "yes, that which you did makes me glad" makes young women nursing the intention to cheat on men to take corrections. atumma ugonabo condemns laziness on the part of igbo men. igbo men are not lazy. this, achebe vivified in his novel, things fall apart. okonkwo is praised and honored for being hardworking. okonkwo is seen as a typical igbo man; in typical igbo society, a man is known not for his handsomeness but for his exploits. okonkwo commands respect among his people but unoka, his father is derided for his laziness. he is not seen as an example of the true igbo man hence he has no title. laziness is believed to lead to certain crimes for idle mind, they say, is the devil's workshop. atumma ugonabo says that nwafor nwaibeke becomes a thief as a result of his laziness. he ridicules nwafor nwaibeke who stands for the totality of other young igbo men who indulge in ill acts. he puts it humorously that anybody visited by nwafor nwaibeke should quickly ask him to leave because if he is allowed to stay, either a goat or a fowl would get lost. by this, ugonabo has said it all that thieves are avoided like pariah and so that young men should never dream of becoming one. in the same chants, atumma ugonabo condemns the attitudes some married women who disrespect their husbands. what usually causes problems in homes according to ugonabo, is the attitudes of some women who are too garrulous. women in traditional african society, are to be under their husbands, they are not to talk while their husbands are talking for such act aggravates men. a virtuous woman does not exchange words with her husband. atumma ugonabo laments this poor attitude when in his chants, he says that ekwulekwu umunwanyi akarigo m. this literally means that the garrulousness of women is becoming a problem. he makes it very clear that women who talk a lot scare their husbands away. in our society today, some men spend most of their time in the bar after their day work. most of the men are not in the bar because they have penchant for that but just to avoid their garrulous wives. as a way of ensuring that the ill seizes to continue, atumma ugonabo reminds women that they suffer more in the case of broken home. a woman who listens to the chants, needs no other advice from anyone to learn to tame her tongue. that is the advice of atumma ugonabo to women. satire in atumma ogufoluchi's "omelida" atumma ogufoluchi is that of ukpo. like the others, he has melodious voice. he looks very much like atumma ugonabo and atumma ugonano except for the absence of eagle feathers ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 119 nnyagu & adunchezor on his head. atumma ugonabo is so called because his forehead is adored with two eagle feathers. as his name implies, atumma ugonano has his forehead adored with four eagle feathers. atumma ogufoluchi prefers not to have any feathers on his own head. like his contemporaries, atumma ogufoluchi believes that satiric chant is a veritable tool for correcting impressions. he has, like the others, profusely ridiculed societal ills he witnessed in his society. he condemns in its entirety, the attitudes of some medicine men who are everywhere in the society and who specialize in abetting crimes in the society. these medicine men, he says, concoct bad charms which their diabolical clients use to cause mishaps in the society. he wonders why the medicine men should not concentrate in doing something good with their powers. as he puts it, such sardonic medicine men's preoccupation is producing charms that cause the yams and the cocoyams in the farmers' farms to die. he wonders what such diabolic medicine men benefit when they cause perils to fellow humans. as it is the duty of satire to proffer solutions, ogufoluchi quickly chronicles the dangers of such devilish charms to the masses including the medicine man himself and suggests for change of attitude when he advises medicine men to specialize in such medicines that would rather unite and herald progress. he ridicules nigerian police and army who he says are corrupt. their corruption endears them to shoot innocent people sporadically. according to him, "fa buru egbe, fa emebe ka o tego o bidoro sebe". ogufoluchi so aptly presents a true picture of what happens in the contemporary nigerian society where the army and police leave their civic responsibility which is to maintain law and order as well as to ensure adequate security and have decided to hunt the people they are meant to protect. ogufoluchi vividly presents the ugly activities of the security agents in such a way that even the unwary would understand and laugh the ills to scorn for correction to take place. he equally uses laughter as a weapon to condemn high rate of prostitution among women. as a satiric tool, ogufoluchi uses exaggeration in condemning this decadence. it is exaggeration toassert that all women are the same when it comes to prostitution as ogufoluchi alleges. albeit it is fallacious to assert that all women indulge in prostitution, the informed understands that it is only exaggeration that he has applied in line with uche ogbuagu's submission that when nine mad people are led by only one sane person, the viewers would not be wrong to say that ten mad men have walked past. the use of the exaggeration is basically for the audience to understand that the situation is getting out of hand for correction to be possible. he makes it vivid that the salacious women are aware that what they do is bad and that is why they go visiting their lovers only in the dead of the night. this is what ogufoluchi means when he says that" ndeeli a dago, nwanyi a baa n'obi". obi, in igbo, denotes the hut of a man. in traditional igbo society, a full fledged igbo man builds huts for his wife(ves) and then has his own hut or obi. it is at his obi that he welcomes his guests and he sleeps there too. this is the place that atumma ogufoluchi alleges that the lecherous igbo men take their lovers who visit them late at night. satire in atumma ugonano's "ife di egwu" atumma ugonano believes that he has been given license to speak his mind without fear of anything. according to him, “our people gave me the license to speak my mind.” he believes that as masquerade, the onus is on him to point at societal ills, condemn both the ills and the perpetrators for corrections to take place. in his chants, he believes that they are for entertainment and for criticism. as satire, atumma ugonano uses laughter as a weapon of criticism. almost all his chants are satiric. in his "atumma kwube," he emphasizes that he has the license to speak without fear. this belief endears him to criticize even the most powerful. in this chant, like atumma ugonabo, he condemns the attitudes of some women who cunningly try to siphon men of their wealth. ugonano laments that in our society today, a woman knows ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 120 nnyagu & adunchezor full well that she never loved a particular man but for greed, she pretends to love him because of whatever she will benefit from him. he uses amoge of ukpo to represent all women in that category. one thing peculiar with this atumma, as he has said, is that he nurses no fear in attacking whoever he wants to attack. the quest for knowledge about atumma took the researchers to the towns of the masquerades for interview. in ukpo, the researchers were told that amoge wasn’t a fictional character, she lived and in fact, was alive as of the time atumma sang about her. the villagers do not see anything wrong about atumma using his chants to deride. they believe that atumma is doing so good a job for them because a lot of people known for one ill or the other aspire to do good so that atumma would not criticize them in his chants. ukpo is a neighbouring town to abba. the decision of ugonabo to use identifiable location isn't an aberration. baldick describes the type of satire that uses this method as direct or formal satire. he says that this type of satire directly addresses the reader. charlatanism among medicine men is fiercely condemned in this chant. like ugonabo has said, these category of medicine men who are everywhere in the society, charge exorbitant prices. they use their sugar coated tongues to deceive their unwary prospective clients into paying the huge amounts for solution to one problem or the other. it is pathetic that after the clients have paid, the medicine men would be unable to proffer solution to the problems. ugonano alleges that why the medicines are impotent is because the medicine men have charged amount higher than the medicine. to him, unless medicine men go back to the status quo, collecting only a token to prepare medicine against any problem, they would continue to be disappointed as their antidotes would always remain impotent. he ridicules young married women who still keep boyfriends outside their marital homes. this act, atumma ugonano sees as a taboo and so, he fiercely condemns it. he calls the women who indulge in such ignominious act umu agbala sugar mummy, ndi o no na di acho di. atumma ugonano believes that such acts puts families in jeopardy and so, he believes that condemning the act in his chants would be useful in bringing the act to a halt. humorously, he says that the unfaithful wives deprive young spinsters the opportunity to get hooked because themen who would have proposed them would not because they enjoy cheap sex from the sugar mummies. atumma does not pat the lecherous men at the back. he sees them as partners in crime. such men, he presents them as never-do-wells in the society. likein the literary satire, atumma uses symbols as satiric tool. in his chants, he uses okoye nwejiofo to symbolize all lecherous men in the society. he is never subtle in his criticism as he obviously seems to believe that satire must be biting for the attacked needs to feel the pains for corrections to be taken. he says that okoye nwejiofo prefers to chase after women while his contemporaries are busy working to improve life. he puts it humorously that okoye nwejiofo would never be useful to himself because "ife di na ngada a na atoka ya. in igbo society, a man is expected to be hardworking because laziness is abhorrent in the society. this vivifies why in the traditional igbo society, able bodied men and women are not expected to be idle in the daytime; tales are not told in the daytime because at this hour, the young men and women should be in their various workplaces. okoye nwejiofo is therefore, used by atumma ugonano to show how best a young igbo man should not be. he directs his criticism to warring communities. he fails to understand why sister communities should fight when they should rather come together to fight for mutual development. atumma ugonano is of the view that any community devoid of peace remains static because development can only be possible when there is peaceful coexistence among people of the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 121 nnyagu & adunchezor community. he blames aguleri and umuleri for being in perpetual war. atumma ugonano believes that everything in the world is futile and so, he fails to understand why sane people would kill themselves over nothing. as a way of correcting impression, atumma ugonano advises the two sister communities to drop their arms and embrace peace which is the only best means of ensuring progress. atumma ugonano is aware of the fact that charlatanism is the order of the day in many churches in the society. church is now seen as a lucrative business and so many people self ordained themselves to get the docile members siphoned. wole soyinka witnessed this too and he criticizes fake prophets who are everywhere in the society perpetuating their ills. in different churches in the society, what the pastors preach these days is wealth and the church which is supposed to help in reforming the society rather contributes in its decay. atumma ugonano vividly x-rays this when he says that the church only recognizes the wealthy. he laments that the poor in the church are treated with contempt because their financial contributions in the church are meagre. it appalls him that the church which is supposed to help the poor among them rather exploits them. authoritatively, many pastors in the contemporary nigerian society own private jets bought with the tithes of the poor congregation. many of them own private primary schools, secondly schools and universities built with the contributions of the poor members of the congregation who cannot afford to send their children to the school because of the high tuition fees. atumma puts it humorously that what has scared him from the church is the manner riches are worshipped. he asks a pertinent question to consolidate his claims "unu afunugo ebe ogbenye na achi ndi uka?" which literally translates that the church in the society today, does not value people but wealth. atumma ugonano makes it very clear that church cannot help in any way in redeeming the society because church elders are selfish and greedy and they no longer preach sanity but wealth. atumma believes that what will help is, as he has left the church, others should do same and embrace our forsaken tradition. conclusion the researchers watched the masquerades perform on stage. the different atumma masquerades have recorded musical albums. the researchers in addition to watching the masquerades perform live, equally listened to the recorded chants of the masquerade. they have been able to analyze the chants of atumma ugonabo of abagana, atumma ugonano of abba and atumma ogufoluchi of ukpo and they have observed that the chants are mainly satire and they are indispensable for the reformation of the society. the chants use satiric techniques to correct impression. laughter is used by the masquerades as a tool rather than an end. it is observed that atumma draws his inspiration mainly from what happens around the society and their chants are better appreciated when they are watched on stage. when the masquerades render their chants, the members of the audience laugh at the foolishness of the society criticized by the masquerades. as atumma ugonano has pointed out that he has the license to speak his mind without fear, the researchers noticed that the masquerades freely, without fear, ridicule any erring personality, group or organization. the three masquerades understand that the society is degenerated and that it gets worse and worst as days progress because of excessive and insatiable yearnings for materialism among the people. in order to belong, many people in our society tend to do one ill or the other to become wealthy. atumma masquerades believe that the society cannot be redeemed if the people keep exhibiting the philistine attitudes. they have therefore, decided to use their chants to fiercely condemn the social vices with the belief that such would help in sanitizing the society. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 122 nnyagu & adunchezor works cited abrams, m. h. a glossary of literary terms. biston: thomson wadsworth, 2005. achebe, chinua. things fall apart. harlow: heinemann, 2008. akporobaro, f. b. o. introduction to african oral literature. ikeja: princeton, 2005. atumma ugonabo. "onye olu oyibo" in best of atumma volume 2. onitsha: onwuzuligbo, atumma ugonano. "ife di egwu" in best of atumma volume 2. onitsha: onwuzuligbo atumma ogufoluchi. "omelida" in best of atumma volume 2. onitsha: onwuzuligbo baldick, chris. oxford concise dictionary of literary terms. new york: oxford university press, 2004. basden, g. t. among the ibos of nigeria. onitsha: varsity, 1983. dobie, ann b. theory into practice: an introduction to literary criticism. boston: wadsworth, 2012 nnyagu, uche. literature and literate. obosi: pacific, 2018. nwahunanya, chinyere. literary criticism, critical theory and post colonial african literature. owerri: springfield, 2007. stein, agnes. the uses of poetry. new yor: holt, rinehart and winston, 1975. thrall, flint william and addison hibbard. a handbook to literature. new york: the odyssey, 1936. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 160 colonization and decolonization: a comparative study of chinua achebe’s arrow of godand ngugi wa thiong’o’s the river between harriet chinonso okwara department of english language & literature nnamdi azikiwe university awka. email: onyewuchim82@gmail.com abstract growth and diversity in cultures over the years have led to man’s quest in comparing himself with others culturally. in the academic field, since 19th century comparative literature developed to align with man’s quest to evaluate himself with others, but this time in the line of literature. the course, comparative literature outlines the principle and the modus operandi in evaluating texts across cultural boarders with the aim of assessing ourselves, contributing to or borrowing from the past. some decades ago, african countries underwent colonial rule under europe. their experiences, responses and agitations for freedom were in varied ways. this study explored the colonial and the decolonising imports of igbo (nigeria) and gikuyu (kenya) societies with chinua achebe’s arrow of god and ngugi wa thiong’o’s the river between and found out that the two societies witnessed oppressive colonial rule as such it becomes exigent to revert the situation and this necessitates the need for decolonisation. as observed in the texts, the two societies witnessed colonization in harsh manners but while decolonisation failed in arrowof god, it was a success in the river between. post colonial theory is concerned with scholarly responses and agitations against colonialism. it therefore becomes the most appropriate theory that guided this research. keywords: comparative, colonisation, decolonisation, arrow of god and the river between. mailto:onyewuchim82@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 161 introduction many countries of the world have at one time or the other undergone colonial rule that it becomes one of the parts of their historical peculiarities. as colonization lingers, it exerts its influence thereby forming an integral part of the countries that experience it. according to ogene et al: colonialism is the system of adopting a policy for acquiring full or sometimes partial control over a country or continent by another with the aim of ruling them and exploiting their human and natural resources. it uses various means like religious indoctrination, military might, social, political and economic conquest. force and coercion are mostly noted in this practice. (a comparative analysis of racial discrimination in claude mckay’s home to harlem and kaunda’s zambia shall be free, 344) in the words of asika, “colonisation is a process whereby sovereignty is established over a colony” (423). colonisation is a process whereby a superior country or power lays its dominance over a less powerful one. in the colonial setting the imperial powers take dominion over their colonies and control almost every aspect of their lives. between 1881 and 1914 and extending to the 1950s, the european colonists engaged in a scrambles for african continent. this was made possible by military invasion and quest for might. agricultural benefits and power control were some of the enticing baits that lured the europeans to africa. undoubtedly, colonialism sucks the colonialised and could tantamount to a parasitic and exploitive relationship. this is however one of the painful experiences in the history of every colonized country. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 162 as the colonized gets subdued and somewhat dehumanized over the years, they begin to see the need to regain back these lost ideals and values. their tendency and move to regain these values give birth to what can be referred to as decolonisation. decolonisation is the process of relinquishing a dominating power, resources and freedom back to states or nations that had been held as colonies. describing what one could perceive as decolonization in africa, ngugi posits: …but on the other, and pitted against it, are the ceaseless struggles of african people to liberate their economy, politics and culture from that euro-american based stranglehold to usher a new era of true communal self regulation and self determination. it is an ever continuing struggle to cease back their creative initiative in history through a real control of all the means of communal self definition in time and space. (4) decolonisation has become a necessary tool in the fight against colonization. as colonization sucks the colonized of their ideals, decolonization becomes a proactive reply to these evils and a means of getting back these ideals lost to the colonial engagement. background of african literature during the period of colonization, the african continent lost most of her ideals, resources and lands under the forceful hands of these predators. they were treated like slaves in their own land. the above situation gave rise to a reawakening and political zeal in some african elites like achebe, ngugi and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 163 nationalists like nnamdi azikiwe, harbert macauley and so many other african writers who were educated in western schools and colleges. these were obliged and through their works speak out against injustices inflicted on their own people. they saw the need, as achebe would say to ‘regain this dignity.’ such works like things fall apart, arrow of god and theriver between are novels that epitomize colonial and anti-colonial discourse. these elites and nationalists strived to instill in the people, a decolonizing tendency. the text which challenged achebe in his fight against colonialism is joyce cary’s mister johnson (1939). the novel has a nigerian setting and created in achebe “a most superficial picture of – not only of the country but even of the nigerian characters. i thought this was famous, then perhaps someone ought to look at it from the inside” (pieterse & duerden, 04). another was joseph conrad’s heart of darkness (1902) conrad creates a general picture of the western conception of the africans in his characters as half naked and crude savages. in response to this, achebe presents the characters of winterbottom, clark and others as multifaceted and complex in a complicated society. achebe’s guiding principle in the fight against colonial debased orientation of the africans is, that: african people did not hear of culture for the first time from the europeans; that their societies were not mindless but frequently had a philosophy of great depth and value and beauty that they had poetry and, above all, they had dignity that many african people all but lost in the colonial period, and it is this dignity they must ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 164 regain. (morning yet on creation day, 157) achebe’s arrow of god and ngugi’s the river between were set when the colonial missionaries had already gained their ground in the african soil. the two texts expose the igbo and gikuyu societies already entertaining the colonial rule. ngugi creates conflicting makuyu and kameno in gikuyu society imposed on it by a deep seated rivalry which existed even from the history of the tribe. even though these rivalries existed there were subdued. it was however given an emphatic tone with the advent of the missionary ideals. on the other hand “arrow of god becomes the central volume in a trilogy of novels in which achebe explores the colonial rule in one area of nigeria” (killam, 60). achebe bemoans the encroaching disharmony and disarray in arrow of god by the characters of ezeulu and nwaka. gikandi opines that “the conflicts in umuaro are not rivalry between two gods, ulu and idemili but actually a struggle between two conflicting ideological interests and authorities represented by nwaka and ezeulu” (153). this paves the way for the war in okperi and the gradual encroachment of the colonial rule in umuaro. the quest and obsession for power by these two key figures contribute to the establishment of colonial rule in umuaro. colonialism compared in arrow of god and the river between as a result the above unresolved issues in the two societies, colonialism seen as domination over another group therefore sees a fertile ground in these communities to thrive. the gikuyu society feels that the white missionaries are foolish and laughs at them. they allowed them to live side by side with them since they seem to disturb no one, consequently colonialism deadly, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 165 yet unavoidable, crawls into the heart and culture of the people. they were later to bear the brunt of this thoughtless decision. ngugi speaks through the character of waiyaki: there is something unexplainable in the coming of the white man. he had found no resistance in the hills. now he has penetrated into the heart of the country, spreading his influence. this influence could be destructive. muthoni had died on the high altar of this disruption …. (72) as the plot unfolds, ngugi explores the history of the gikuyu people. it was a land bequeathed to gikuyu and mumbi, the ancient parents of the gikuyu tribe. ngugi writes “and murungu had told them “this land i give to you, o man and woman. it is yours to rule and till, you and your posterity”. the land was fertile. it was the whole of gikuyu country … so the story ran in kameno, spiritual superiority and leadership had then been left there” (trb, 2). these lands were their ancestral inheritance and as such highly valued. there were also revered cultures like circumcision. ngugi reveals through waiyaki that it was “… the biggest of all rituals, circumcision. this would mark his initiation into manhood” (trb, 11). as a primitive society, they live a communal live which revolves around their daily existence. as a society which believes in magic, mugo wa kabiro, the ancient seer had warned them of an impending doom in the guise of the white men who would come and disrupt their daily existence and destroy them. he had prophesied that “there shall come a people like the butterflies. these were the white men” (20). they laughed at him and neither heeded to his descendant, chege. chege bemoans the nonchalance of the people in heeding to the warnings of mugo but however there was a remedy. there was another prophecy which is known to chege, who is from the line ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 166 of seers. chege confides in his son waiyaki thus “salvation shall come from the hills. from the blood that flows in me, i say from the same tree, a son shall rise. and his duty shall be to save his people” (20). unfortunately, kabonyi from makuyu ridge knows of this prophecy. his quest to outwit waiyaki and become the leader and saviour forms the underlining crisis in the novel. colonialism from its definition sucks the colonized of their cherished cultures, lands, resources and political freedom. the gikuyu tribe begins to feel more deeply the harsh and negative impacts of it from the death of muthoni, a christian and the daughter of joshua, the fanatical makuyu convert, who desires to be circumcised and dies out of it. the white man, livingstone and joshua perceive her death as a mark of the barbaric nature of the native customs. ngugi writes “livingstone perceives that circumcision was wholly evil. thenceforth nobody would ever be a member of christ’s church if he was so much as found connected in any way with circumcision rites” (59). “livingstone, the head of the mission, had always shown reluctance in penetrating the ridges. he had always liked the idea of training some boys who would go out and spread the good news.” (5). however with the death of muthoni, the white man gets really involved in the colonisation of the natives. firstly, all the natives who attend school in the siriana mission and still practice tribal customs like circumcision gets expelled from the school. land which is one of the cherished inheritances of the tribe especially those around the siriana mission are ceased. taxes were imposed on the people. the people regret their inattentiveness to chege’s words “…the white man should never have set foot in siriana” (58). the death of muthoni is the tragic force which creates an aching gap ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 167 between the missionaries and the tribe, each seeing the other as the architect of the problem. a hitherto ‘peaceful’ scenario exists between the tribe and the missionaries till the incident of the circumcision. perhaps gikuyu, the land of the ‘sleeping lions’ and the missionaries would have existed peacefully if muthoni did not die as a result of what the missionaries termed a ‘barbaric tradition’ of circumcision. the circumcision rite and the death of muthoni strike off the clash between makuyu “…home of the christians” and kameno “… home of all that was beautiful in the tribe” (54). the tribe therefore sees muthoni’s death as a punishment to joshua who had abandoned the custom and ways of the land to embrace the white man’s religion. like gikuyu, umuaro in arrow of god had to forcefully welcome the colonial presence having not been able to resolve a land issue between them and okperi. ogbuefi nwaka tactfully lures the people into war with okperi against ezeulu’s warning signs. captain winterbottom, the white missionary moves in to resolve the case. it is however made easier by the testimony of ezeulu. he rules in favour of okperi by breaking the guns of the warring parties which earns him the name “otiji egbe.” consequently, the missionaries establish their ruling powers in umuaro. having penetrated umuaro, the colonial masters establish their own judicial system, law courts, religion and a government which go against the established norms. the gradual colonial hold on umuaro lays the foundation for taboos such as wiping of ezeulu’s son, obika. ezeulu says “… but the white man would not whip a grown man who is also my son…” (88). there was also the imprisonment of the sacred python. achebe asserts that “an abomination has happened... the sacred python now raised ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 168 its head above the edge of the box and began to move in its dignified and unhurried way” (44-45). “the outrage which ezeulu’s son committed against the sacred python was a very serious matter; ezeulu was the first to admit it….” (59). the imprisonment of ezeulu, the priest of ulu, which made it impossible for the sacred yams to be eaten, forms another sacrilegious act. as these atrocities are committed, ezeulu is tensed, the society gets more confused and nwaka’s hatred for ezeulu heightens. it was the culmination of the enmity between ezeulu’s village umuachala and umunneora, the village of nwaka. everyone seeks for an opportunity to poison the other. like the situation in the river between, arrow of god witnesses the conflicting figures of nwaka and ezeulu. the leadership and superiority quest between these two parties is made more explicit by ezeulu’s part in the land case between umuaro and okperi. nwaka views ulu as a god made out of necessity and as such not fit to give ezeulu the kind of power he wields. favoured by eru, the god of wealth, nwaka hides under the protection of ezeidemili, his childhood friend and spits at ulu. ezeulu views the situation differently. like waiyaki, ezeulu believes in peace and unification. since the white man has come to stay, let peace exist between the two parties. as a custodian of the gods ezeulu tells umuaro that “… our fathers did not fight a war of blame” (18). this made it impossible for the two parties to resolve the land case between them and okperi and therefore paves the way for more disintegration in umuaro. contrastive analysis of arrow of god and the river between the igbo (nigeria) and the gikuyu (kenya) societies experienced colonialism but there were many ways the mode of operation and the colonizing strategies of the colonizers differ from the other. firstly, in the river between, the white ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 169 missionaries already exist in one part of the gikuyu land called makuyu. livingstone, the colonial master seemed distant and preferred not to interfere with the affairs of the tribes. he uses joshua, a makuyu convert, who represents all that the christian faith stands for in gikuyu tribe. unlike gikuyu, umuaro had not the colonial presence in their land. they only dragged them in by their inability to resolve the land case between them and okperi. as the war becomes fierce, captain winterbottom goes to umuaro to resolve the case and with him the colonial presence. unlike the methodology of livingstone in the river between, winterbottom administers his government directly. the wiping of obika is a clear case of the colonial direct punishment. the religious leader mr. goodcountry encourages oduche to kill the sacred python, while mr. goodcountry the church catechist utilizing ulu’s desertion by umuaro persuades the people to offer their sacrifices to the christian god, stating that their god ulu was a dead god. winterbottom opts for ezeulu as a warrant chief “the only man who says the truth” (107). this appointment and ezeulu’s refusal was later to lead ezeulu to imprisonment and more taboos. the second point of divergence exists in the colonial strategy in the two novels. it is worthy of note that in colonial environment a stronger force overshadows a weaker one. the colonised feels the weight more as their cherished ideals and customs are brought to disrepute by these imperial forces. in the river between, lands were confiscated by the missionaries. taxes were imposed. the spite on the revered culture of circumcision couldn’t be overlooked by the tribe. while in arrow of god, no land was ceased but sacred traditions were desecrated. even though livingstone in the river between ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 170 sees circumcision as barbaric, he makes no attempt to stop it. the least he did was to excommunicate those who wish to identify with the church and the tribal customs. a different scenario is witnessed in arrow of god. taboos were committed in the bid to force the natives to align with the colonial government. obika is wiped, the sacred python is desecrated, ezeulu is imprisoned and ulu is made to be spat upon. decolonization compared in arrow of god and the river between as these colonial tensions rage in these two societies, the rivalry between the characters of waiyaki and kabonyi in the river between and ezeulu and nwaka in arrow of god heighten. the people gradually come to a common agreement that evil had come to their societies as a result of the actions of the missionaries. ngugi writes that: in the past few years things were changing; the pattern of season was broken. it no longer rained regularly. the sun seemed to shine for months and the grass dried. and when it fell, the rain water carried away the soil, no longer carried the prayers of the people. perhaps it had to do with the blaspheming men of makuyu. (80) achebe bemoans this too in arrow of god. the natives in both societies begin to seek for more meaningful ways of reclaiming what has been deprived of them. firstly, when muthoni died as a result of the cut during circumcision, the christian faithful were convinced that circumcision which is central to the peoples’ culture is bad and barbaric. they expel all those who belong to the church and still practices circumcision. the tribe and all those who still practice ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 171 the custom of the land perceive muthoni’s death as a reprimand from the angry murungu, the peoples’ ancestor, to the christians. lands belonging to the natives were ceased by the missionaries especially those around the christian mission. these acts spark off strife in the natives and set the stage for decolonization. unlike the above scenario, even though ezeulu and the leaders of the villages know that there was need to fight the white man, they felt handicapped by ezeulu’s ‘cordial’ relationship with the white man. they rather see the punishment on ezeulu as merited. ezeulu, on the other hand is so distracted by nwaka’s hatred, the peoples’ disrespect for ulu and his revenge plans that he fails to see the need to form a uniting force to wage further omen by the colonialists. most importantly, umuaro is ruled by the fear of the white man. achebe reveals this in these words “the white man has a gun, a matchet, a bow and carries fire in his mouth. he does not fight with one weapon alone” (85). this is also evident in the violent treatment meted on the people by the police sent to arrest ezeulu, wiping of obika and so many other instances in the novel. laying credence to this, one of the characters, nweke ukpaka says “i know that many of us want to fight the white man. but only a foolish man can go after a leopard with his bare hands” (ag, 85). secondly, waiyaki, the teacher seemed to imbibe education as a strategy for the unification of the tribe. kabonyi forms the kiama. in arrow of god, ezeulu desires to have a peaceful society with the white man, since he has come to stay. let peace exist between the white man and the six villages. ulu worshippers should be allowed to worship and respect ulu, the white man and those from the villages who had decided to abandon the deity should also be allowed to do so. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 172 decolonial dissimilarity continues to emerge in the two novels. as the need to ward off the colonial presence becomes paramount in the minds of the people, there arises in them a need to form a formidable force in the fight against the colonial masters. in the river between, waiyaki, promises to save the people through acquiring education for the tribe. this was the wisdom of the white man which is needed to fight him back. kabonyi forms the kiama, a secret society with the sole intent of promoting the interest of the tribe and recovering the confiscated lands. even though kabonyi means well, the underlining motive is to remove waiyaki from the leadership struggle. even though kabonyi’s selfish interest creates disunity between him and waiyaki, the need to fight the white man, wipe him off the land and recover the lost land, becomes a uniting force to the people. ogbuefi nwaka and ezeulu’s rift begins to widen in arrow of god. as the need to fight the white man unifies the tribe in the river between, it creates disunity in arrow of god. ezeulu’s pride leads him to wanting to be an arrow in the hands of ulu. he wishes to punish the people for his imprisonment by not announcing the date for the new yam. the people however wish to have the festival, without which their yams will roast in the earth and heavy famine upon the land. mr. goodcountry, the christian catechist sees this disagreement as an avenue to get converts. he quickly convinces the people to sacrifice their yams to the christian god, creating division between some like ezeulu who continues to wait for ulu to punish the detractors and the others like nwaka who spits at ulu, projecting it as a dead god. another important decolonizing strategy was used by the characters of muthoni, waiyaki and nwambura in the river between. muthoni says “i want to be a woman… the christian god does not satisfy me… i want to be a woman made beautiful in the tribe” (44). “i want to be circumcised. father and mother ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 173 are circumcised….why are they stopping me?” (77). muthoni wants to remain a christian and as well as a woman made beautiful in the manner of the tribe with circumcision. waiyaki on the other hand attends the white man’s knowledge. he intends to unify the tribal customs with christian beliefs. ngugi says “joshua’s center was makuyu while kameno was seen as the centre of the tribe. the teacher came from there. waiyaki did not want to be identified with either side. he was now committed to reconciliation” (110). nyambura, muthoni’s sister and a daughter to joshua belongs to the christian faith in the tribe. she hadn’t the courage of her sister but when human emotions begins to well up in her, she begins to revolt against her father whom she had hitherto adored. she realizes that she can only attend human satisfaction and salvation by accepting waiyaki’s love. christian belief just like her sister did not satisfy her either. she craves for waiyaki’s love and against what her father and christian teaching uphold decides to follow waiyaki. muthoni, waiyaki and nyambura by these acts wish to unify christian faith and tribal customs. unfortunately, these forces are polar opposites. one must give way for the other to occupy. muthoni dies but she attends satisfaction for even in her dying bed she tells waiyaki “tell nyambura, i see jesus” (80). she realizes that she could only attend this perfect maturity by this unification. waiyaki earns rejection from the tribe who views his unification motive as betrayal. nyambura rebels against his father and christianity. she feels happy only at waiyaki’s side. even though these characters met tragic end in the type of unification and decolonisation they tried to initiate, one only notices that christian faith is incapable of satisfying an african soul. joshua whose soul depends on christian belief for satisfaction meets sorrows and destruction. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 174 in arrow of god such courage as that of muthoni and waiyaki is doused by the fierce colonial powers of winterbottom and mr. clark. greater colonial tension is experienced in arrow of god. intra village rivalry gives it an emphatic undertone and as such personal interest and motives rule out any attempt at unification. in the river between, the need to get back the lands becomes a strong force for unification but in arrow of god disunity is sown in the community by the colonial government, culminating in ezeulu wanting to be an arrow in the hand of ulu. conclusion at one time in history, african continent witnessed colonization. it however becomes a recurrent theme and a driving force in most african literatures. the colonial experiences and responses however are different in these cultures. different african writers have therefore used the medium of literature to highlight these in their works as we see in the river between and arrow of god.having compared the two texts it is necessary to state that there are strong cases of colonisation in the two texts studied. in the river between, the colonial presence becomes stronger and severe with the death of muthoni leading to the white man regarding circumcision as barbaric. there was imposition of taxes and confiscation of lands as well. in arrow of god, umuaro drags in the colonial presence. with the direct imposition of their government leading to taboos and desecration of authorities and god, the colonial masters set the stage for agitation and friction. in the two novels, the atmosphere is tense and charged depicting a colonial setting. while decolonization process heightens in the river between with the people devising many proactive ways of regaining the lost ideals, arrow of god witnesses a crippled decolonizing process because of the rivalry between ezeulu and umuaro instigated by ogbuefi nwaka. umuaro has her dislike for ezeulu ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 175 because of his association with the white man while ezeulu has his reservations for umuaro for not according ulu proper respect. ezeulu despises the missionaries for the taboos they have committed in the land. these actions need to be resolved for struggle against the colonial masters to be a reality. furthermore fear for white man’s attack and reprisal disarms the people. while decolonizing process records great success in the river between, it fails in arrow of god. works cited achebe, chinua. arrow of god. london: heinemann, 1964. .… morning yet on creation day. london: heinemann, 1981. asika, ikechukwu. literary appreciation (a practical demonstration). awka: scoa heritage nig. l t d, 2015. gikandi, simon. reading the african novel. london: james currey, 1969. killam, g, d. the novels of chinua achebe. london: heinemann, 1969. ogene, mbanefo et al. a comparative analyses of racial discrimination in claude mckay’s home to harlem and kenneth kaunda’s zambia must be free. rome: mediterranean journal of social science, 2017. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 176 pieterse, cosmos & duerden, dennis, eds. african writers talking: a collection of radio interviews. london: heinemann, 1972. wa thiong’o, ngugi. decolonising the mind: the politics of language in african literature. nairobi: heinemann, 1986. ….the river between. african writers series, london: heinemann educational books, 1965. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 1 ifechelobi & nwaenyi hellinger and bubmann’s patterns of sexism in the language of nollywood movies prof. jane n. ifechelobi department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka anambra state jn.ifechelobi@unizik.edu.ng & chinyelu nwaenyi department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka anambra state alwayzchinny@gmail.com abstract this study investigated sexist expressions in the language of nollywood characters with the objective of finding out the meaning of a sexist expression, forms of sexist expressions used by the characters, and how the language used in the movies discriminate against women. it adopted hellinger and bubmann’s (2001, 2003) patterns of sexism in human language by examining three patterns: referential gender, false gender, and social gender in the language of nollywood characters. this study used qualitative approach and the populations were the movies while the samples were the sexist expressions. the data were gathered from six nollywood movies between the year 2016 and 2020 (moth to a flame, mr perfect, dark heart, win a heart, tailor my heart and loving ellen) using observation and note-taking techniques. the results revealed that these patterns are common in nollywood movies and are mostly used by the males. the findings also demonstrated the extent to which this language can discriminate against women. keywords: sexist expressions, nollywood, sexism, gender, language introduction language is about communication. it does not just reflect the nature of society, but also serves as a primary means of constructing and maintaining that society. since language is linked with the social attitudes of human beings and is also affected by their social views and values, people’s socio-cultural behaviours, attitudes and thoughts are reflected in their use of language. it is one of the most powerful means through which sexism and gender discrimination are perpetrated and reproduced. historically, our society is man-oriented and man-centered. therefore, sexism is generally conceived as anything that conveys that one sex is superior to the other. according to ruether (165), sexism is “gender privilege of males over females”. thus, exposure to and active use of sexist language may influence women’s attitudes about themselves, women in general, and the perceived difference between women’s and men’s status in society. sexist language, according to atkinson (75) is a “wide range of verbal practices, including not only how women are labeled and referred to, but also how language strategies in mixed sex interaction may serve to silence or depreciate women as interactants”. its use therefore appears to be a reflection of attitudes that indeed serve to keep the subordinate group (women in particular) ‘in their place’. although it is said to be decreasing, sexist language is still widely used in the media especially movies. nollywood is a term used to describe the entire nigerian film industry. through its visual stories, it conveys great images of the nigerian society and africa as a whole. although it cannot be compared to hollywood and bollywood, it is africa’s most prevalent movie activity. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 2 ifechelobi & nwaenyi the depiction of women through the roles assigned to them and the language-use in nollywood movies still have elements of discrimination in them. there have been issues of concern over the sexist expressions in nollywood movies. this study explores sexist expressions in six nollywood movies since the behaviours and opinions seen in movies can reflect the way our society works. the purpose is to identify and analyze sexist expressions as used by the characters in the movies. statement of the problem representation of women in every field of life has always been a point of interest for researchers. the language used in movies depicts women as negative, passive, dependent, and subordinate to men. this is to say that there is hardly any movie in nigeria (nollywood) that does not contain little or much gender insensitive expressions that discriminate against women in it. this is why this study aims at exploring sexist expressions in nollywood movies, by analyzing some films that include hellinger and bubmann’s patterns of classification in them because some works have examined sexist language using mills’ (2008) classification of sexism while others examined using glick and fiske’s (1996, 2001), but not much works have been done on sexist expressions in the language of nollywood movies using hellinger and bubmann’s (2001, 2003) classification and this is the gap which this present study attempts to fill. the choice of nollywood movies is informed by the fact that movies present the cultural background and identity of the country to the outside world. therefore, this paper seeks to answer the following questions: i. what makes an expression sexist? ii. what forms of hellinger and bubmann’s pattern of sexism do the characters use? iii. how does the language used in the movies discriminate against women? literature review the concept of sexism is one of the most controversial domains in the recent sociolinguistic studies. its role is to sustain patriarchy or domination of male, through conventional ideologies and material practices that repress women on the basis of sex or gender. most languages are sexist which is due to the fact that many l anguage communities are built on a patriarchal system. however, the fact that different languages have different forms of expressing sexism makes the research on parameters of sexism in languages to become of great interest among scholars. likewise alhassan, who examines single lexical items, phrases, proverbs, popular sayings as well as language in active everyday use in conjunction with the social and cultural circumstances that define usage practices or add gendered meanings to the language and finds that proverbs, naming, social gender and referential gender are common forms through which sexism is expressed in dagbanli, the language spoken in ghana. ndimande-hlongwa and rushubirwa (394), on the other hand, discuss how isizulu and kiswahili languages enhance such inequality through words and phrases, and conclude that swahili language shows sexism through agreement, social gender, idioms and referential gender. saimon (150) explores sexist expressions in nyakyusa language by using data collected from nyakyusa speaking people as key informants through mobile phone interviews and concludes that nyakyusa exhibits some elements of sexism through five forms of sexist expressions, namely, referential gender, social gender, lexical gender, proverbs and idioms, and agreements. therefore, it is clear that sexist expressions have been explored using mobile phone interviews, newspapers and news report, but none have been done in movies, thus, a need to explore sexist expressions in nollywood movies. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 3 ifechelobi & nwaenyi theoretical framework sexist expressions can be seen in many different languages. mills (2008), proposes a model where she specifies two types of sexism which are overt and indirect sexism, glick and fiske (1996, 2001), on their part, formulate ambivalent sexism which is divided into hostile and benevolent sexism, and hellinger and bubmann (2001, 2003) propose different model for the examination of sexism in language. however, this study adopts hellinger and bubmann’s (2001, 2003) patterns of sexism in human language as its theoretical framework. they identify ten patterns of sexist expressions, namely, a. grammatical gender b. lexical gender c. referential gender d. false gender (generic masculine) e. social gender f. gender related to structure g. agreement h. pronominalization i. coordination of conjoined nouns j. proverbs and idioms this study examines three of their patterns: referential gender, false gender, and social gender in the language of nollywood characters. referential gender: this occurs when certain references in the language are made to a single gender (women). according to hellinger and bubmann (8), referential gender “relates linguistic expressions to the non-linguistic reality; more specifically, referential gender identifies a referent as ‘female’, ‘male’ or ‘gender-indefinite’”. this means that a noun can indicate a male, a female or indefinite gender. referential gender is concerned with “whom a particular personal noun or pronoun actually refers to in a given context” (motschenbacher, 25). it is an important category because grammatically, lexically, or socially gendered personal nouns may not necessarily be used correspondingly (motschenbacher, 26). for example, the word, ‘guys’ is used to address a mixed-gender group or an inclusively group of females. another example is the use of gendered pronoun to refer to a gender-indefinite personal noun such as ‘that patient…he’. in other words, using an anaphoric pronoun to refer to a genderindefinite personal noun talking about a specific male or female person is often dependent on referential gender (motschenbacher, 29). social gender: this type of gender is based on how certain statuses are perceived to belong to men only or women while it is not an inherent character of such status (hellinger and bubmann, 2001, 2003). it is not concerned with biology or grammar; rather it is the “socially imposed dichotomy of masculine and feminine roles and character traits” (kramarae and treichler, 173). that is why nissen (5) states that social gender is the “property of a word according to which people assign ‘generally male’ or ‘generally female”. moreover, it does not directly label nouns as ‘male’ or ‘female’ instead it makes a gendered interpretation of these nouns more likely (motschenbacher, 29). in other words, it is concerned with the gender assumptions and stereotypical associations that people assign to different personal nouns. in english, social gender may surface through generic anaphoric references to personal pronoun antecedents (for example, referring to a mechanic as ‘he’ and a nurse as ‘she’) or through overt opposite-gender marking (for example, male babysitter and woman surgeon), the latter being one of the means to reverse. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 4 ifechelobi & nwaenyi false gender (generic masculine): this is concerned with the state whereby male pronoun or noun is used for all human beings (hellinger and bubmann, 2001, 2003; mills, 2008). the word ‘man’ is the main generic masculine term. mills (89) states that “the most common examples are when ‘he’ and ‘man’ are used for referring to both men and women, and it is more common to visualize a male person when interpreting a word that includes ‘man’ and this might lead to stereotypes of certain occupations”. the english word ‘man’ is a generic term that refers to ‘a human being’, ‘human beings as a group’, or ‘a male human being’. in society, men are considered the norm of the human species and this shows inferiority to the women race. men and women are supposed to be treated equally, but it is not the same in the english lexicon where the word ‘man’ is referred to both male human being and the whole race as well. this shows how women are rendered invisible when referring to the general gender. therefore, in this present study, the classifications by hellinger and bubmann (2001, 2003) are used as the theoretical framework to explore sexist expressions in nollywood movies. methodology this study employs qualitative method using descriptive design. the population consists of the movies while the samples are the sexist expressions. data were collected from six nollywood movies which are moth to a flame (2016), mr perfect (2017), dark heart (2018), tailor my heart (2019), win a heart (2020) and loving ellen (2020). the technique for data collection is done by observation and note-taking. analysis the present study is qualitative in nature. data were collected and analyzed by grouping the sexist expressions according to the three out of ten patterns of classification proposed by hellinger and bubmann (2001, 2003). however, the total number of the sexist expressions used is twenty. results table 1: forms of hellinger and bubmann’s patterns of sexism in the movies sexist forms explored examples and number of appearance referential gender guys, gendered pronoun ‘he’ social gender female driver, female pastor, female bodyguards false gender (generic masculine) man, gateman, manning the gate research question 1: what makes an expression sexist? sexism is not just about statements which seem to excessively focus on gender when it is not relevant. according to mills (2) statements may be considered to be sexist if they “rely on stereotypical and outdated beliefs, when referring to a particular woman”. examples are shown below: exchange 1 somizi: look, you guys, your problem is not a problem at all. i have told you what to do if it is about her hitting you. fifi: hmm, what should he do? somizi: smack you around the bed so you can understand how it feels. fifi: you told him to hit me back? wow. somizi: look guys, we don’t want any distractions. (win a heart) the statements above depict unconscious sexism as it is usually done both knowingly and unknowingly. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 5 ifechelobi & nwaenyi exchange 2 roseline: babe, who’s she? ford: who? joan? but i told you before. she’s my employee. roseline: that drives you? your driver? ford: yes. roseline: (chuckles) wow! ford! are you gaddafi? next you tell me you are hiring female bodyguards, eh. ford: roseline, don’t start. roseline: i shouldn’t start? tell me, ford, how did this happen? did you send out a memo or advert placement that you wanted a female driver? (moth to a flame) in exchange 2, the use of these feminine suffixes is sexist as it decreases the value of occupational titles. exchange 3 edward: i’m really, really sorry, that was my gateman. rachael: it’s okay. i see you are very passionate by your dogs. edward: oh yes, i don’t joke with my dogs at all. you know what they say, you know, a dog is a man’s best friend. yea, in fact, i am very good at dogs. (mr perfect) the expression in exchange 3 above is purely sexist because the word ‘man’ is used for all human beings (male and female inclusive). research question 2: what forms of sexist expressions do the characters use? the data reveal the following forms of sexist expressions: a. referential gender such as exchange 4 elvis: but this is really really beautiful, i tell you. ellen: really? elvis: yea, it’s nice. you know what they say about painting, right? they say that every painter paints according to how he feels on the inside. (loving ellen) in the above exchange, gendered pronoun is used to refer to a gender-indefinite personal noun. b. social gender such as exchange 5 annex: hei! look at you. you look good. desmond: have a seat, have a seat. (to kimora) how are you? kimora: i’m very well. thank you. annex: bad manners. pardon me. my sister, tasha. tasha meet ade and kimora. kimora: hi, tasha, really nice to meet you. tasha: same here. annex: guess what guys? she is a pastor. ade: a lady pastor? hmm, that’s really admirable. (dark heart) c. false gender (generic masculine) such as exchange 6 nkem: lucky ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 6 ifechelobi & nwaenyi lucky: sir. welcome sir. nkem: is this your duty post? lucky: (stammering) sir, i just come to to ehm to nkem: is this how you are manning my gate? (tailor my heart) research question 3: how does the language used in the movies discriminate against women? the language used in nollywood movies discriminate against women because it presents women as people who should not have the same right, position and responsibility as men. fi'aunillah's, (148) supporting this view, states that sexist language leaves women “yearning for equal treatment for females and a freedom from the domination of men". the language defines them as less significant than men and depreciates them (romaine, 39). the language used in nollywood movies also discriminate against women by derogating them since women are more likely than men to be portrayed as sexual objects through the use of language. another way that sexist language derogates women is through different connotations for words that may have once been parallel, for example, ‘pastor and pastor mrs’. all of the allegedly parallel words for women have negative connotations and in some cases, sexual connotations, that the male terms do not have. using terms relating to women that put them in a ‘power down’ position, for instance, ‘lady pastor’, ‘female driver’, and ‘female bodyguard’ is another way sexist language derogates women. discussion of findings as shown in the results, there are three patterns of sexism used, namely, referential gender, social gender, and false gender (generic masculine). in referential gender, the word ‘guys’ in exchange 1, though it seems as if it is gender inclusive (male and female), is sexist because its first impression reveres men as one cannot actually say ‘what are you girls saying?’ or ‘what are you babes saying?’ when males are involved without sounding politically incorrect. the word ‘guy’ expresses a sense of solidarity as well as negative feeling. also the gendered pronoun ‘he’ in exchange 4 is used to refer to a gender-indefinite personal noun which shows how the english language treats man as the center of the society and rarely notices the existence of woman. men are viewed as the ones representing all the human beings. this practice contributes to women’s invisibility in language and reflects a male dominated society. social gender is the second pattern used in this study. this findings show that there is asymmetry association of certain social status between men and women. in exchanges 2 and 5, for instance, we see the words ‘bodyguards’, ‘pastor’ and ‘driver’ used as general terms for the professions, but adding the word ‘female’ to those words when referring to women is a way of discriminating against women which creates the impression that women are inferior and dependent on men in every aspect of life. the third pattern is the false gender. in society, men are considered the norm of the human species and this shows inferiority to the women race. men and women are supposed to be treated equally, but it is not the same in the english lexicon where the word ‘man’ is referred to both male human being and the whole race as well. such words as ‘man’, ‘gateman’ and ‘manning’ used in exchanges 3 and 6 are sexist as they are used to represent male and female as well. the term ‘gatekeeper’ is better because it is gender inclusive. this shows how women are rendered invisible when referring to the general gender, that is, how women disappear from the contextual landscape when masculine generics are used as a reference to both male and female. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 7 ifechelobi & nwaenyi conclusion this study aims at exploring sexist expressions by the characters in nollywood movies using hellinger and bubmann’s (2001, 2003) model. findings show that referential gender, social gender, and false gender are common in nollywood movies. the findings also demonstrate the extent to which this language can discriminate against women. following the findings, the researcher calls for papers that deal on the strategies for eliminating sexist expressions in nollywood movies. works cited alhassan, salifu. “language and gender: the construction and reproduction of gender in dagbanli.” linguistics. university of ghana, ghana.1 jun. 2012. thesis. atkinson, kathrina. “language and gender”. women’s studies: a reader. ed. stevi jackson. hertfordshire: harvester wheatshef, 1993. 66-75. print. fi’aunillah, tristy. k. “sexist language in the lord of the rings film trilogy” language horizon 3.1 (2015): 143-149. print. glick, peter. and fiske, susan. “the ambivalent sexism inventory: differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism” journal of personality and social psychology, 70.3 (1996): 491-512. print. glick, peter. and fiske, susan. “an ambivalent alliance: hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality” journal of american psychologist, 56.2 (2001): 109-118. print. hellinger, marlis, and bubmann, hadumod, eds. gender across languages: the linguistic representation of women and men. amsterdam: john benjamins, 2001. print. helliner, marlis. and bubmann, hadumod. “the linguistic representation of women and men” gender across languages, 2, (2003): 1-26. print. kramarae, cheris. and treichler, paula. a. a feminist dictionary. boston: pandora, 1985. print. mills, sara. language and sexism. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2008. print. motschenbacher, heiko. “structural linguistic gender categories and discursive materialization: a deconstructionist analysis” indiana university working papers in linguistics, 8.3 (2008): 21-46. print. ndimande-hlongwa, nobuhle. and rushubirwa, leonce. “gender inequality and language reflections in african indigenous languages: comparative cases from isizulu and kiswahili” alternation special edition,13 (2014): 390-410, print. nissen, kjaer. “aspects of translating gender” linguistik online, 11.2 (2013): 4-10. print. romaine, suzanne. (1999). communication gender. london: routledge, 1999, print. ruether, rosemary. r. sexism and god-talk: toward a feminist theology. america: beacon press, 1993, print. saimon, musa. “sexist expressions in nyakyusa” issues in language studies, 9.1 (2020): 144 154. print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 8 ifechelobi & nwaenyi filmography dark heart. dir. chuks john ejiofor. perf. mike godson. mindset studios. 2018. dvd. loving ellen. dir. victor okpala. perf. frederick leonard. dope 7 media production. 2020. dvd. moth to a flame. dir. onesoul. perf. femi jacobs. heat factory i.c.i. 2016. dvd. mr perfect. dir. paul igwe. perf. wole ojo. whitestone studios. 2017. dvd. tailor my heart. dir. charles uwagbai. perf. frederick leonard. oakfil production studios, 2019. dvd. win a heart. dir. solomon mac-auley. perf. nwakaego nwosu. avizariah production. 2020. dvd. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 16 odinye & ebingha vocality in sefi atta’s women: a critique of everything good will come dr. ifeoma ezinne odinye department of english and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: ie.odinye@unizik.edu.ng /ifeomaodinye@gmail.com & beatrice n. ebingha department of english and literary studies university of calabar email: ebinghabeatricengwede@unical.edu.ng abstract courage spurred by assertiveness is the hallmark of feminist tenets. despite discriminatory roles that challenge female consciousness for self-identity and liberation, self-fulfillment still occupies the center of female discourse within the entrenched cultural hierarchical gender inequality. amidst negative and less significant portraitures of female characters in male authored texts, women writers have continually remained relentless in their effort at positioning women at the center of their artistic creations. centrally positioned, these heroines are equipped with vocality for self-actualization and emancipation both at home and beyond—a spontaneous act structured to unweave patriarchal irrational ideology. this is achieved by placing the women characters in a beneficial position necessary for their assertive consciousness. theoretically, this paper is hinged on feminist tenets and arched on the exemplary female vocality and its impact on self-actualization in sefi atta’s everything good will come. the aspects of style are also discussed as the artist’s sensibility in developing the themes. keywords: vocality, feminist tenets, self-identity social background and atta’s creative sensibility the social background of sefi atta’s everything good will come is set in lagos during the military era at the first instance and civilian regimes later. both eras are characterized by dictatorship of the army and the fanatical zeal of corrupt civilians in power. atta’s choice of a protagonist, a girl of seven remains a unique aesthetic mode of detailing events and tracing the social, moral and psychological development from the purview of the narrator. undisputedly, enitan, the protagonist asserts and punctures the myth of male subjugation through her father’s encouragement and education on the need to be liberated. she confesses thus: “from the beginning i believed whatever i was told, downright lies even about how best to behave, although i had my own inclinations.” (everything good 1). the above personal ideology is intricately linked to atta’s title which summarizes enitan’s inclinations leading to her perceptual vocality and dream actualization at the end of the novel. enitan lives in a world of two divergent views—an excessively influential view of her father who insists she must assert herself by studying her books to avoid being confined to the kitchen as woman (atta 20-21); and her mother, the true african woman who represents the african womanist, and teaches enitan how to become a good wife through culinary skills in the kitchen as seen in the remark made by enitan’s father, “i see your mother is making you understudy her again” and her mother retorts, “it won’t harm her to be in here” (atta 20). enitan’s education also extends to various aspects of motherhood bothering on issues of “blood and babies and “sex” (atta 23). these are the ways erin sunday, enitan’s mother accentuates the need for enitan to grow up understanding and undertaking the roles ascribed to women by the society which are geared towards earning her a reputation as a good housewife. one thing is certain, the conflicting models of training in her home and her relationships with men contribute to enitan’s vocality and strength. enitan’s graduation as a lawyer demonstrates her inner ability. she is indeed a dynamic personality— a lawyer in her father’s firm (atta 118), a credit control accountant in a bank (atta 181) and the bank’s company secretary (atta 190). in her relationships with men, atta portrays her as a radical mailto:ebinghabeatricengwede@unical.edu.ng ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 17 odinye & ebingha feminist who would not tolerate the excessive ego of men or be naively oppressed and controlled in relationships. this is evident in her relationship with her husband, niyi who claims to have phobia for the kitchen and allows enitan do all the house chores while he sits in the living room reading newspapers and magazine. even a simple gesture of bringing drinks for his siblings on visitation is dreaded by him. enitan thus, challenges and dismantles the patriarchal belief of making the woman a slave to the man in all ramifications. this is achieved by a skilled mark of orality that solicits her husband’s assistance in petty chores. she states: “you have hands”, and niyi responds, “my friend”. “show some respect” and she replies, “go to hell” (atta 186). enitan’s vocal ability enables her protest against domestic oppression—a perpetual engagement with domestic chores strictly left for wives. her quest for complementarity equips her oratorical skill geared towards her liberation. she shouts: “why can’t you go to the kitchen? what will happen if you go? will a snake bite your leg?” (atta 187). atta in the above discussion portrays the typical african man as proud egoist whose preoccupation is to lord and suppress the woman without an iota of human mercy. the detention of enitan’s father results to the crumbling of her marriage with niyi. enitan’s inability of procreating early becomes an opportunity for niyi to force silence on her. enitan confesses: “that was how my thirties found me, in a silence state. i felt as though i’d been running in midair for years” (atta 189). notably, enitan’s challenging pregnancy does not constitute a barrier to her father’s freedom. she defies both her doctor’s advice and her husband’s recommendation and insistence on bed rest and equips herself with inner strength and self-induced vocality in fighting for her father’s release from prison. in the same vein, the house wives including grace ameh, the journalist also lend their voices and strength to actualize their self-worth. their self-expressiveness showcases them as strong, assertive and powerful women. their unity in vocalizing a collective decision becomes a strong force for the immediate release of the men in detention. the women resolve, “we would write letters to our president, asking for the release of our relations, whether or not he reads them. we will not stop until our relations are freed. there were other campaign groups like ours, and they often appeared in the press. some were petitioning for the release of women journalists. we gained strength from their voices” (atta 330). the success of the women’s struggle and subsequent release of their relatives is a source of inner joy to enitan whose inclination propels a confession that—“everything good will come…” (atta 335). enitan’s achievements reassure her, that despite her rejection by her husband and family members, every good thing will come to her. the most penetrating appreciation of her vocality draws the title of the novel from her confession as captured in the above quotation. indeed, we see a fascination borne out of courage and determination—remarkably, enitan is armed with a good career, a child and a voice. her revolutionary action protests the slanderous focus of her husband and inlaws. women and vocality: the feminist streak in everything good will come against the docile and voiceless women portrayed in male authored texts, atta in her novel showcases women who are assertive and are able to speak out for the world, especially the patriarchal domain which helps them gain their self-worth. the women through their vocal ability made choices that propel their development against patriarchal domination. helen chukwuma in her paper entitled “voices and choices” posits that, the female character in african fiction hitherto, is a facile lack-lustre human being, the quiet member of a household content to bear children, and unfulfilled if she does not…. docility and complete submission of will is demanded and enacted from her. this traditional image of women as indeterminate human beings, dependent, gullible and voiceless, stuck especially, in the background of patrilinage which makes most african society. (131) the above assertion is true of most maleauthored works and indeed in true life situations even in this contemporary age. therefore “feminist writers… deploy diverse tropes to unsettle male-invented ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 18 odinye & ebingha conventions considered inimical to the selfdevelopment of the girl-child in the society” (sule egya 211). in odinye’s view, the diverse tropes are summarized as “feminist consciousness which helps fictional readers to conceptualize authorial thoughts and feelings by allowing them to see how the discourse of girlhood or womanhood is partially part of the autthor’s memory” (42). amongst african female writers, sefi atta has contributed immensely in role reversal in her novel thereby giving the woman a voice. enitan from seven years is strong-willed coupled with her father insistence on her studying law as a ploy to inherit his profession (atta 40). the choice of law and the decision to send enitan to london to study is to give her a voice and to have an edge over her contemporaries. it is to make her live above cultural limitations in actualizing her self-worth in a male dominated society. to confirm the above, egya, sule posits that enitan’s father seems to set her on the path of female liberation, ready to do all he can to see her free from cultural restrictions” (atta 226). this crave to empower enitan makes her father insist on her joining the debating society rather than girls guides for as he puts it; “girls guides are nothing but kitchen martyrs in the making” (atta 40). just like the law profession, the debating society entails constructive arguments. as such, right from the outset, enitan is positioned for vocality as debates and law connote vocality. hence, enitan’s father from childhood prepares her through the debate society for her future profession which later lends her a voice in the society. sefi atta also uses education as an instrument of vocality in the novel. okereke aptly describes education as a, formal western education, a colonial heritage, which has been a positive liberating force for nigerian women. it has equipped them for self-definition by raising their consciousness to their subjugation by a male-dominated society” (133). the above assertion vividly describes enitan, a lawyer and grace ameh, a journalist, who have been equipped through education—a good platform for conquering male prejudices. formal education is indeed gave them a unique voice which serves as a liberating force fighting for the release of the political detainees. this educational awareness leads the duo to attend the literary readings. in her address to the over forty attendees who are mostly male, armeh eulogizes the assertiveness of winnie mandela, the wife of the political prisoner, nelson mandela and her contributions towards his release during the apartheid regime in south africa which she basically achieves as a result of her education and awareness. simply put, the women’s educational background contributes effectively to their vocality—a courage displayed through writings leading the eventual release of enitan’s father and other political prisoners. during the literary readings, enitan observes “i was in awe of the people i was listening to, that they wrote without recognition or remuneration, and more so that the denounced injustices as a group at the expense of their freedoms and lives… i thought that none of them could be fully conscious of the implications of speaking out” (atta 264). grace ameh is another woman who would not let the government’s intimidation cease her vocality. she achieves this as a correspondent with the oracle magazine. grace’s active participation at various conferences like the literary readings where she eloquently condemns the government who incarcerates innocent citizens without justice is not taken for granted. her husband, joe remarks, “my wife writes. she doesn’t get royalties, instead she gets locked up. you see my trouble.” (atta 233). seffi atta through the narrator also presents a courageous woman, kudirat abiola whose vocality propels her to launch a campaign for her husband who is unjustly incarcerated after winning a free and fair presidential election – m. k. o. abiola. the narrator states: “abiola was campaigning for her husband’s release and for a re-instatement of our general election results. kudirat abiola had become the symbol of the africa i’d been at odds with…fighting for her husband’s political freedom” (atta 250). this injection by the author is to ginger enitan to action in order to fight for the release of her father and other political detainees. moreso, grace ameh’s play, ‘the fattening house’ is an apt platform for the expression of her vocality despite the political intimidation. however, in the face of pervasive intimidation, she goes underground, yet remaining a voice for the oracle magazine. on the other hand, enitan’s father who is a strong advocate for women liberation, is the force behind enitan’s vocality. he regrets that women are not vocal enough because of their roles as wives and family managers. as such, he ensures that enitan is well educated and assertive. in essence, despite warnings from her mother, in-laws and husband not to challenge the government when her father was ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 19 odinye & ebingha detained, she insists on going ahead with the fight for her father’s release. and grace ameh charges her, “…yes, yes, but you have a voice….use your voice to bring about change” (atta 258-259) by this, ameh encourages her to join other women, human rights and civil liberty organizations in the struggle for the release of her father and other political detainees. interestingly, while atta encourages vocality in women as depicted in the characters of enitan and ameh, she castigates the likes of erin sunday, enitan’s mother and mrs toro franco, niyi’s mother, who represent the voiceless african women. these older women, silenced by patriarchy devise various means of survival in their homes. for enitan’s mother, the church becomes her refuge, while niyi’s mother decides to dwell under her husband’s oppression. this is evident in niyi’s mother’s speech to enitan as she tries to reconcile enitan and niyi after a misunderstanding; she states clearly “i was not born into this family. i married into it. it was not easy for me as a young bride….the franco men are difficult. but you know my dear, when two rams meet head on, nothing can happen until one backs down”, and further states, “ what you did for your father, that was right but you were wrong not to consult your husband first. he is the head of the house” (atta 302). the above assertion renders niyi’s mother voiceless as summed up in the words of orie chibuezu, thus: “notably the summary effect of patriarchal lordship is silencing the woman, muffling, unmuting her voice or browbeating her to remain voiceless” (160). the two women, enitan’s mother and mother in-law represent the traditional african women who are meant to be docile, subservient, passive and powerless. even erin, enitan’s mother could not express her condition for the world to hear but is gradually withdrawn into her shell, moved out of her matrimonial home and died before the end of the novel. enitan’s vocality therefore enables her command her brother in law, big foot, to join in serving food during a little family get-together. this earns her the name “women’s liberator” (atta 310) by big foot. seffi atta succeeds in breaking the silence through enitan against the yoruba custom where a woman is expected to keep silence. and grace ameh who comes from the middle belt region of the country also demystifies silence because of her exposure and education. both women represent the radical african feminist. florence orabueze observes that sefi atta “tenaciously believes that silence is no longer golden in the face of oppression and degradation” (281). sule egya in a stronger term posits “atta’s new woman is also the professional woman but she expands the limits of the so-called radical african feminism to embrace the spirited, native commitment to the political struggles of her society” (225). therefore, atta reverses the role of her novel. she allows sunday taiwo to raise his voice against the government for the political detainees while the other men including “uncle fatai, niyi, alabo, degogo and debayo kept silent when the nation is burning and at the imprisonment of sunny” (orabueze 285). these men represent the voiceless, passive, and powerless citizens at a time there should be assertive and aggressive action towards the government that has unjustly incarcerated their friends, relatives and in-laws. the implication of this role reversal entails that a woman cannot be adjudged by her sexual biological roles but by her ability to face challenges and break the bounds instituted by patriarchy in actualizing her dreams and self-worth. this position is what sefi atta and other women writers like akachi adimora-ezeigbor, chimamanda adichie and others have set out to achieve in their respective novels. facets of style in atta’s everything good will come the aesthetic qualities of a good literary work depend largely on the style of the writer. onukaogu and oyenrionwu see style in literature as “everything the writer does to ensure that his work conveys the intended message effectively and at the same time create the level of beauty required of good art” (45). a writer may deploy different facets of style in transmitting his or her message to the targeted audience. these include proverbs, idiomatic expressions, flashback, language, portrayal of characters, narrative point of view and so on. for the purpose of this paper, different facets of style such as language, narrative technique and symbolism will be discussed. sefi attah weaves different facets of style to buttress her stance as a feminist with strong ideological portrayal of the woman as an independent, strong willed and vocal being. she negates the patriarchal ideals that subject the woman to a traditional kitchen, subservience and voiceless. atta through style creates a radical, assertive and vocal woman. sule egya posits, “atta’s new woman is also the professional woman but she expands ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 20 odinye & ebingha the limits of the so-called radical african feminism to embrace a spirited, normative commitment to the political struggles of her society” (225). through style, attah projects a protagonist who will not give in to patriarchal and societal expectations because she is a female gender, but “believes that true freedom can only come when both men and women discard the webs of silences that ensnare them by raising their voices to be heard in protest and making sensible choices” (orabueze 257). attah’s protagonist vehemently rejects the voiceless condition of women and she is placed side by side the older generation of women who represent the womanist and whose silence either destroys them or keeps them under patriarchal bondage. atta, through style silences the men and empower the women to fight for the freedom of the political detainees. these detainees also symbolize the african woman who is imprisoned either as a girl child under her father and brother or wife under her husband. hence, atta’s narrative technique clearly shows that the woman is endowed with strength and vocality to change every situation within and outside her domain. these styles will be handled in the succeeding sections. language: language is the writer’s use of words in realizing the various element of the novel which includes theme, characterization, and narrative technique. it is the element used to distinguish one character from the other and a medium through which literature is expressed (ezeigbo 16-17). atta in the novel deploys various styles of language to capture women’s vocality, oppression and the domiciliation of the novel as a nigerian and african novel by expression. atta uses strong terms to describe the women’s situation in nigeria and places side by side the voiceless and the voiced through language use. she creates in enitan, her protagonist a young girl who places herself above others through vocal strength. she says to herself “at least i was a decent eleven-year-old. she barely reached my shoulder, even in her high heel shoes” (everything good 14). from childhood, enitan sees and moves herself with some level of superiority as seen in the above quotation when height, and not age makes her feel superior to sheri. this advantageous position of sheri plays out in their later life as it concerns african feminism. in enitan’s conversation with sheri, she says “i want to be something like… like president” when asked who will cook for her husband, she says “he will cook for himself”, what if he refuses?” she answers, “i’ll drive him away” (atta 30 & 31) and she adds, “who wants to marry him anyway” (atta 31). atta creates in enitan an unimaginable bold assertiveness and gives her powerful vocality from her young age because she understands what she wants as a woman. furthermore, when sheri asks her how many children she will want to have, enitan answers “one” (atta 29). orabueze asserts that “atta criticizes the customary dictation that motherhood must be the natural and biological quest for every woman” (atta 260). the quest for motherhood has also swallowed up the voices of women in the society as portrayed in the novel and in the characters of erin whose inability to give her husband, sunday, a male child pushes him out of their home and mrs toro franco whose voice is completely seized because of the traditional ideals in marriage and motherhood. enitan states, “toro franco, she was one of those women who swallowed her voice since the day she got married” (atta 183). atta places the vocal and the non-vocal women side by side to achieve her struggle for women’s liberation. in her view, women can only be liberated when they come out of the shell of inferiority complex and subservient position through vocality. also, enitan’s vocality gives her the impetus to pry into her mother-in-law’s state of being the ‘object of manipulation’ in a home full of men and boys. she tells her about the kitchen which patriarchy has designated to be a woman’s abode. “it’s hot in here”, toro responds, “don’t worry”, “the boys should help”, “what can the boys do”. she further questions, “don’t you ever feel lonely here ma? isn’t the kitchen the loneliest room?” (atta 183). atta interrogates the question of subscribing only the women to the kitchen while men and boys idle away in the sitting room. enitan protests this situation in her home when she openly tells her husband, niyi to “go to hell” (atta 186) if he cannot serve his brothers drinks from the kitchen. and she further reflects about the burden women are subjected to in the name of respect. “i had seen how women respected men and ended up shouldering burdens like one of those people who carried firewood on their heads… and foreheads crushed. we their daughters were expected to continue. we had no choice…. but there was a saying, and i’d only ever heard it ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 21 odinye & ebingha said by other women, that books were not edible” (atta 186). from the foregoing, atta’s new women have rejected the old generation’s status quo of domestic servanthood. enitan further reflects, “the expectation of subordination bothered me most. how could i defer to a man whose naked buttocks i’d seen? touched? obey without checking on my humanity, like a fish bone down my throat” (atta 187). atta’s enitan rejects male dominance, subjugation and relegation to the kitchen. she breaks the bond of the old woman to emerge as the voice in her generation. atta also uses language to emphasize the tepid attitude of men and the constitution as regards the rights of women. enitan’s father insists on the women waking up to fight for the detainees and enitan reacts: “women”, “we have our own problems”. no husband, bad husband, husband’s girlfriend, husband’s mother. human rights were never an issue till the rights of men were threatened” (atta 196). this implies that, women have been reduced to bother about irrelevant issues as mentioned above by the patriarchal society. the women do not care about their rights except it bothers on men. the above expressions show the level of voicelessness the women have been subjected to. in orabueze’s view, “enitan believes that true freedom can only come when both men and women discard the webs of silences that ensnare them by raising their voices to be heard in protest and by sensible choices” (atta 257). through language, atta showcases women as political voices and activists. the men like niyi are portrayed as voiceless and hopeless. he argues with enitan on the possibility of fighting for her father’s release. he argues, “if you have no sense in your head, at least i do. what, should i walk to the presidential palace and ask them to release my wife’s father? please, sir. my wife’s father is locked up. please release him, sir” (atta 238). he warns enitan to desist from playing fucking political activist (atta 238). in strong terms, enitan insists: “i said that i will. that i want to. it’s the chance that i’ve been waiting for” (atta 325). enitan’s vocality dismisses fear of divorce from her marriage because, “no one’s “no” is final than niyi’s but i pressed further” (atta 326). and she adds, “…. now, it was motherhood” (326). enitan becomes the liberated woman and her prove of motherhood enhances her vocality. consequently, grace ameh’s career as a journalist earns her vocality which she uses to fight the oppressive government which earns her several detentions. she is the women’s voice and she encourages other women to rise to the challenge since the men have remained silence and docile. she charges enitan , “…but you have a voice, which is what i always try to tell people. use your voice to bring about change” (atta 258). ameh represents the radical female activists. she eventually gains victory for the fight of illegal political detainees along other women. atta uses strong diction to portray women’s strong voices and political activism thereby emasculating the men and rendering them voiceless and helpless— unable to fight for their fellow men in the face of political oppression. atta also uses language to localize the novel as a nigerian work. the use of pidgin is sparingly used and portrays uneducated characters and its acceptability in nigeria. sheri uses pafuka (atta 14) in describing the execution at the beach to enitan. enitan also responds to pierre, her house boy, “i beg, put am for there” (atta 212) to come down to the level of peirre’s education and understanding. the use of hausa language also, localizes the novel as seen enitan’s exchange of pleasantries with her gate man “sanu madam”, and “sanu, mallam” respectively (atta 201). atta also showcases mother tongue interference through the m.d of enitan’s bank. he describes enitan as “segsy” for sexy, “sginny legs” for skinny legs and “mizeez frango” for mrs. franco. this interference is very prominent amongst nigerians and africans at large. atta uses imageries to further showcase women’s vocality and assertiveness in the novel. according to m.h. abrams, “imagery is used to signify all the objects and qualities of sense perception referred to in a poem or work of literature...” (169). it is used to evoke the mental picture in a work of art. atta uses the “president” (atta 30) to place enitan on the scale of vocality and superiority at an early age when eniatn says she wants to become a president. this is because one of the major duties of the president is to address the nation and direct the affairs of the country. this comes with vocal ability ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 22 odinye & ebingha which later becomes enitan’s lot. the choice of “actress” (atta 30) by sheri also depicts one who will be taking instructions from others. that is why she gained economic independence without the required vocality to fight for other women and citizens. also, the children invoke military images playing. they joke with words like, “halt. who goes there? boom you’re dead” (atta 29-30). these images represent the setting of the novel, which is during the military rule. atta uses the imageries of “blood, babies and sex” (atta 24) to explain the inevitability of womanhood and motherhood as instituted by patriarchy and the society which has equally deprived so many women the required vocality to assert themselves. this fear causes enitan to reject marriage and child bearing as she responds to her mother’s counselling. “i will not marry”…. “i will not have children” (atta 23). atta’s use of language and style in her novel places her on the radical angle of the feminist struggle. she deploys powerful language and imagery to question male suppression and subjugation on the females and imbues them with the spirit of docility by their inability to act on a sensitive issue. she advocates the need for women to be expressive in order to gain a voice of liberation. attah emasculates her male characters by empowering the women to take swift actions in times of controversy. this goes a long way in promoting complementarity which entails that both males and females must come together to assist one another. conclusion women’s vocality in women’s fiction has moved them away from the status of docility, subservience, passiveness and powerlessness to becoming aggressive, powerful and a subject of utmost importance to her family and society. atta through her characters has developed both individual and collective females who became voices for the oppressed and political detainees at a time when the country is facing military dictatorship. she emasculates the highly educated men making them exhibit their weaknesses and fears at a time when their aggressive nature and vocality are most required to fight for the release of friends and relatives. no doubt, atta’s women in the novel have specifically experienced a paradigm shift from the domestic sphere to the political domain for the unique purpose of achieving a voice of freedom—privately and publicly. her aesthetic handling of the story is perfect as she weaves in so many issues in the country within the period into one volume. works cited abrams, m.h. a glossary of literary terms. port worth: harcourt brace jovanovich college publisher, 1993. print. atta, sefi. everything good will come: a novel. cape town: double story books, 2004. print. chukwuma, helen. “introduction: the identity of self”. feminism in african literature: essays on criticism. ed. helen chukwuma,enugu: new gneraation, 1994.ix. print. …. “voices and choices. the feminist dilemma in four african novels”. literature and black aesthetics. ed. ernest emenyonu. ibadan: heinemann, 1990.131. print. egya, sule e. “the woman in nigeria fiction: zaynab alkali akachi adimora ezeigbo and sefi atta”. writing female image in african fiction. ed. sophia obiagulu ogwuede. ibadan: university press, 2013 . 211-232. print. odinye, i.e. “fleshing out memory through feminist consciousness: psycholoanalyzing violent girlhood experiences in buchi emecheta’s the bride price”. igwebuike: an african journal of artsand humanities. vol.5.no.3. 2018:41-60 ogunyemi, chikwenye o. “women and nigeria literature”. perspectives on nigeria literature: 1700 to the present. vol. 1. ed. yemi ogunbiyi. lagos: guardian books, 1988. 65. print. okereke, grace. “education as a colonial heritage and the nigerian woman in literature”. language, literature and communication: a multi-disciplinary journal of arts. 2002.133. orabueze, florence onyebuchi. society, women and literature in africa. port harcourt: m. and j educational books, 2010. print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 23 odinye & ebingha orie, chibueze prince . “voicelessness, post-coloniality and woman beings: c.n adiche joins the conversation with purple hibiscus”. nigerian literature today. a journal of contemporary nigerian writing. ed. allwell abalogu onukagu and eziechi onyerionwu. no1, april, 2010. 160. print. onukaogwu, allwell a. and onyerionwu, ezeichi. 21st century nigerian literature: an introductory text. ibadan: krafts book, 2009. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 15 squealer’s use of euphemism and doublespeak in george orwell’s animal farm chinyere alozie-onumadu girls’ secondary school ikenegbu, owerri, nigeria. email: chinyere.alozieonumadu@gmail.com abstract this paper reviewed the various communicative functions of euphemism and the implication of doublespeak. politeness theory developed by brown and levison in 1978, goffman’s theory of face and steven mccornack’s information manipulation theory founded in 1992 were adopted in analyzing squealer’s utterances in orwell’s animal farm. in describing the communicative functions of euphemism and implication of doublespeak, the descriptive research design and the qualitative method were used to analyze nine utterances from squealer. from the analysis, the researcher found out that although euphemism and doublespeak are inter-related, the phenomena differ. the study also revealed that doublespeak can be notorious in conversation. keywords: euphemism, doublespeak, information manipulation theory introduction euphemism and doublespeak are closely related. a phrase in doublespeak as well as in euphemism is a roundabout way of saying something. euphemism has a great effect on people’s daily communication. it can make a harsh topic softer and an embarrassing conversation agreeable while adhering to social communicative conventions. in other words, it saves the faces of both sides and enable people to communicate successfully. on the other hand, doublespeak is an expression that deliberately reverses the meaning of words. it may take the form of euphemisms (e.g ‘downsizing’ for ‘layoff’), it primarily meant to make ‘the truth’ sound palatable. the phenomena also play the part of showing politeness, concealing feelings and deceit (www.cliffnotes.com). broadly speaking, euphemisms are sweet-sounding or at least inoffensive, alternatives for expressions that speakers or writers prefer not to use in executing a particular communicative intention on a given occasion whereas doublespeak is almost always intended to confuse and deceive people. it is the complete opposite of plain and simple truth; it distorts words and phrases in order to bury a truth (allan and burridge, 35). weaver ii and hybels (96) define euphemism as an inoffensive word or phrase that is substituted for other words that might be perceived as ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 16 unpleasant. they claim that sometimes government agencies or other institutions create euphemisms to cover up the truth. when euphemism is created by an institution, they are often referred to as doublespeak. doublespeak is seen in the character of squealer in animal farm (af) by george orwell. squealer is highly skilled delivering making speeches to the other animals. he is described in the book as a brilliant talker and persuasive who confuses the other animals by twisting the truth. this can be seen when he teaches the sheep to bleat “four legs good, two legs better!” (af, 92) all who use language should be concerned whether statements and facts agree and whether language is, in orwell’s words, ‘largely the defense of the indefensible’. although doublespeak is a form of euphemism, they differ. in order to differentiate the two phenomena, in order to cover the research gap, this study will therefore throw more light and emphasis on the difference(s) between doublespeak and euphemism by answering these research questions: a) to what degree is the use of doublespeak/euphemism notorious in conversation? b) to what extent are doublespeak words used to denote the opposite of their actual meaning? c) to what extent is the use of euphemism in expressing oneself? conceptual clarification the concept of euphemism one communication strategy used by speakers is called ‘euphemism’. euphemism is derived from the greek phrase ‘euphemismos’ meaning ‘to sound good’. various scholars define euphemism in different ways: according to hudson (261), euphemism is the extension of ordinary words and phrases to express unpleasant and embarrassing ideas. rawson (1) on the other hand sees euphemism as ‘a powerful linguistic tools that are embedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plainspoken, never get through a day without using them. mashak et al (202) say euphemism is an international concept but it is conveyed according to the conventional norms of certain societies. leech (45) on the other hand, defines euphemism as ‘the practice of referring to something offensive or delicate in terms that make it sound more pleasant. sanderson (259) also states that euphemism ‘can be used as a way of being vague and unclear or to cover up the truth or reality of a situation.’ lutz (348) claims that euphemism can also be a tactful word or phrase which avoids directly mentioning a painful reality. euphemisms are often used in everyday speech to soften difficult situations. here are a few examples of euphemism: a) dan, we have to let you go. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 17 to ‘let someone go’ is to sack/fire someone. this is euphemism that sounds much better and nicer than the harsh truth of the situation. b) she is a curvy woman. ‘curvy’ is often used as a euphemism for ‘overweight’ according to wang (152), there are two kinds of euphemism: traditional euphemism and stylistic euphemism. traditional euphemism refers to those related with taboo language such as birth, illness, death, sex and so on. if it is expressed directly, people may have the feeling of vulgarness, crudeness, harshness and rudeness and that is taboo language. on the contrary, if it expressed indirectly, people may have the feeling of elegance and politeness and that is euphemism. stylistic euphemism has nothing to do with taboo and it is actually flattery and praising. rawson (3) on the other hand, divided euphemisms into two general types: positive and negative. the positive euphemisms inflate and magnify, making the euphemized items more important than they really are. the negative euphemisms deflate and diminish. it is defensive in nature. the negative euphemisms replace language that people prefer to avoid using. examples include ‘harvesting’ in place of ‘killing’. the effect and function of euphemism a good knowledge of euphemism can make us keep a good relationship and promote effective communication among our humans. euphemism as one of the most useful forms of devices exists in all kinds of languages and plays very important and practical roles in various aspects of our lives. it is a universal phenomenon used in language by human beings. keyes (8) says in his book euphemania: our love affair with euphemism. little affairs that euphemism has important social functions. it can maintain the use and efficiency of the words of taboo. as a part of politeness principles, euphemism has found its wide application in various kinds of works including george orwell’s animal farm. there are many euphemisms in animal farm. the most emotional one is when boxer grows ill after working so diligently without questioning anything. when he literally works himself to sickness, the pigs did not take care of him but sent him away to be slaughtered. three days later it was announced that he had died in the hospital at willingdon, in spite of receiving every attention a horse could have. squealer came to announce the news to the others. he had, he said, been present during boxer’s last hours. ‘it was the most affecting sight i have ever seen! said squealer, lifting his trotter and wiping away a tear. i was at his bedside at the very last. and at the end, almost too weak to speak, he whispered in my ear that his sole sorrow was to have passed on before the windmill was finished. ‘forward, comrades! he whispered. ‘forward in the name of the rebellion, long live animal farm i ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 18 long live comrade napoleon! napoleon is always right’ those were his very last words, comrades’. after this, squealer tried to explain away. ‘yes, boxer died but he died well in a hospital (af, 85). however, boxer’s last words were euphemistic because they were to press on with the rebellion. euphemism plays two important functions: a) politeness function: this function respects others, keep them from being hurt, avoid presumption and indecent assault in communication and make them accept some bad things pleasantly. euphemisms are used in general, to show one’s politeness and respect. b) functions of building and maintaining a good relationship: euphemism is a big part of politeness principle and is used extensively in commercial correspondence. vague language, affective words, gentle verbs and interrogative and conditional sentences are all manifestation of euphemism. euphemism functions effectively in saving face. the concept of doublespeak doublespeak is the abuse of public language to influence people’s opinion based on partial or incorrect information. according to gibson and lutz, the term ‘doublespeak’ was coined in 1972 and comes from the fusion of two terms that orwell used in his novel nineteen-eight-four newspeak and doublethink. the vocabulary of newspeak is reduced to ambiguous terms which make the citizens of oceania indifferent to the government’s policies, powerless against inappropriate activities and unable to think critically. on the other hand, doublethink means a type of thinking that can hold ‘simultaneously two opinions which cancelled out, knowing them to be contradictory and believing in both of them’ (orwell, 22). lutz (347) says“doublespeak is a very conscious use of language as a weapon or tool by those in power to achieve their ends at our expense”. chopra (1) agrees with lutz by saying doublespeak refers to the use of language that purposefully disguises the meaning of words in order to make it more bearable to the recipient. he went further to say that the majority of the users of doublespeak are the political entities. this can be seen in the role played by the pigs especially squealer in george orwell’s animal farm. the researcher agrees that doublespeak is an expression deliberately constructed to cover its actual meaning and it makes the bad seem good and the negative appear positive. moreover, it is hard to spot and identify at a first glance. lutz also gave at least four kinds of doublespeak. the first is the euphemism, an inoffensive or positive word or phrase used to avoid a harsh, unpleasant or distasteful reality. however, when a euphemism is used to mislead or deceive, it becomes doublespeak. a second kind of doublespeak is jargon, the specialized language of a trade, profession or similar group such as that used by doctors, lawyers, engineers, educators etc. jargon can serve an important ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 19 and useful function. within a group, jargon functions as kind of verbal shorthand and allows members of the group to communicate with each other clearly, efficiently and quickly. but jargon, like the euphemism can also be doublespeak. it can be pretentious, obscure terminology used to give an air of authority and prestige to speakers and the subject matter. jargon as doublespeak often makes the simple appear complex. in this sense, it is used not to express but impress. the third kind of doublespeak is gobbledyogook or bureaucratese. such doublespeak is simply a matter of piling on words, of overwhelming the audience with words, the bigger the words and the longer the sentences. sometimes gobbledygook may sound impressive but when the quote is later examined, it doesn’t even make sense. this is evidence in squealer’s speech to other animals in the farm. the fourth kind of doublespeak is inflated language that is designed to make the ordinary seem extraordinary, to make everyday things seem impressive; to give an air of importance to people, situations or things that would not normally be considered important; to make the simple seem complex. he furthered says that doublespeak is dangerous because it can affect and eventually destroy the function of language, which is communication between people and social groups. the corruption of the function of language can be serious and have far reaching consequences (lutz, 348). euphemism versus doublespeak as mentioned before, there is a close relationship between euphemism and doublespeak in which the latter is considered as one category of euphemism. as a point of similarity between the two phenomena (euphemism and doublespeak) both of them use good words to hide bad words. meanwhile, the main point of difference euphemism and doublespeak is that euphemism is used in a well-mannered way with good intentions associated with it and with deception but when a euphemism is used in a deceitful way in hope of misleading people; it becomes doublespeak rawson (2). lutz (152) agrees with rawson when he mentioned that when a euphemism is used in a negative way, it becomes doublespeak. in fact, doublespeak is the complete opposite of plain and simple truth. it distorts words and phrases in order to bury a truth whereas euphemism attempts to make certain situations seem more palatable. squealer’s role in george orwell’s animal farm squealer is seen as the official mouthpiece of dictator napoleon. he is known by the other animals as a ‘brilliant talker’. his reputation is that of one who ‘could turn black into white’ (af, 6). he possesses the innate ability to turn ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 20 the other animals’ arguments around with wordplay that have them agreeing with issues that just moments ago had them enraged. this is seen most notably with the mystery of the missing milk. the animals in the farm had assumed that the extra milk will be shared equally (af, 14) but squealer convinced them that the milk will be used to supplement the pigs. he explains to the other animals by overly complicating his language thereby taking advantage of the poorly-educated animals that have difficulty following complex argumentative strategies. squealer aligns himself with the other animals by pretending to be more interested in their well-being than his own. he effectively gains their total agreement by subtly suggesting that if the pigs aren’t well fed that they will be unable to protect the other animals, possible this will lead to the return of the hated mr. jones. on hearing this, the animals agree to reserve all extra milk and apples for the pigs’ sole consumption, an opposite opinion to the one they had prior to listening to squealer’s doublespeak. squealer’s talent lies in his ability to manipulate language to suit the particular demands of his audience and the situation. when he wants to hide his intentions or the truth, he uses overly complex words and ideas to intimidate the other animals and make them feel intellectually unequipped to join in the discussion. one example of this is squealer’s claim that napoleon has been behind the decision to build a windmill all along. squealer is also guilty of oversimplifying language when it suits his purposes. he manipulates the sheep by teaching them the phrase ‘four legs good, two legs better’ (af, 51) so that the sheep might try it out at the appropriate moment to silence any voice that might arise from the other animals when they see the pigs walking upright in direct contradiction to the original maxim of animalism “four legs good, two legs bad’ (af, 12). through the character of squealer, orwell demonstrates the danger of doublespeak in manipulating the other animals to the point where they are no longer able to recognize the truth. theoretical framework the study is guided by politeness theory, the concept of face and information manipulation theory (imt).politeness theory and the concept of face were developed by brown and levinson in 1978, building on goffman’s theory of identity and facework. the linguists’ major goal was to find out why people do not tend to use simple and direct language in a conversation but rather complex and sometimes indirect phrases especially if a hearer has to be motivated to do a particular act. for instance, squealer often used euphemism to convince the animals of the merits to ridiculous policies – ‘once again all rations were reduced, except those of the pigs and the dogs. for the time being, certainly it had been found necessary to make a readjustment of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 21 rations’ (af, 77). squealer often used words such as ‘reduction’ for ‘adjustment’ was an attempt to suppress the complaints of other animals about hunger. it works because reduction means ‘cutting’ the food supply while readjustment implies changing the current amount of food. there are two types of face – negative and positive faces. as brown and levinson state, a distinction has to be made between negative and positive faces, which are both treated as perpetual wants. positive face wants are defined in two ways: on one hand, they refer to a person’s desire to be accepted and approved of in a certain group and on the other hand to the appreciation of the self-image by others. this also means that a speaker’s goals in a conversation have to be accepted by or even desirable to other speakers in order to fulfill the positive face wants (cf.thomas 169). this is evident in the roles played by mollie and boxer in animal farm. negative face, on the other hand, highlights a person’s independence and possibility to act on one’s own (cf. verschueren 45). this is also evident in the characters of all the animals in manor farm owned by mr. jones who rebelled to get their freedom. the roles played by napoleon and other pigs are also seen as negative face. another relevant theory the researcher used for this study is steven mccornack’s information manipulation theory (imt) founded in 1992. imt is a theory of deceptive discourse design. the theory suggests that deceptive messages function deceptively because they covertly violate the principles that govern conversational exchanges. given that conversational discussants possess assumptions regarding the quantity, quality, manner and relevance of information that should be presented, it is possible for speakers to exploit any or all of these assumptions by manipulating the information that they possess so as to mislead listeners. in the novel animal farm written by george orwell, the pigs especially squealer used their eloquent ability in language to manipulate other animals. manipulative speech is used to try to control others for selfish ends.in chapter five, after napoleon has his dogs chase snowball off the farm, he decrees there will be no more sunday debate over farm policy. a committee of pigs will make the necessary decisions. when some of the animals protest this policy, squealer makes a manipulative speech in which he depicts napoleon’s blatant power grab as a burdensome sacrifice the leader makes for the good of the other animals. squealer also uses fear against the animals, warning them that any misstep could bring farmer jones back. he states, ‘one false step, and our enemies would be upon us. surely comrades, you do not want jones back’. (af, 38) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 22 in chapter six, napoleon announces that animal farm will start doing business with neighbouring farms. as this is a complete violation of the founding principles of animalism, the animals are again disturbed. as usual, squealer is brought out and raises manipulative questions to confuse them, he asked: ‘are you certain that this is not something that you have dreamed, comrades? have you any record of such a resolution? is it written down anywhere?’(af, 44). however, this study used qualitative and descriptive methods. nine utterances from squealer were drawn from george orwell’s animal farm to find out among other things how euphemism/doublespeak is notorious in conversation. given the limited time frame and space for this study, the researcher used only one novel for the analysis. the data for the research were collected from the literary text and the documented sources were books written by renowned linguists. the utterances were analysed based on the importance of euphemism and the dangers of doublespeak. having looked at the various views of linguists on the phenomena euphemism and doublespeak, this section analyses the squealer’s utterances drawn from the novel animal farm by george orwell. the data were used to answer the research questions that guided the study. ex. 1 ‘comrades, do you know who is responsible for this? do you know the enemy who hascome in the night and overthrown our windmill? snowball! boxer claimed that they saw snowball bleeding during the battle. squealer is quick to cast doubt on their version of events. ex. 2 ‘the plot was for snowball, at the critical moment, to give the signal for flight and leave the field to the enemy. and he very nearly succeeded – i will even say, comrades, he would have succeeded if it had not been for our heroic leader, comrade napoleon’ (55). for squealer, language is no longer linked to truth; it no longer has any purchase on reality. he constructs a parallel universe with a language all of its own, a language that exaggerates, distorts and ultimately destroys what is truly real. when the windmill collapses due to a storm, squealer immediately blames it on the long-gone true hero of the animalist revolution – snowball. ex.3 ‘comrades!’ he cried, ‘you do not imagine, i hope, that we pigs are doing this in a spirit of selfishness and privilege? many of us actually dislike milk and apples. i dislike them myself. our sole object in taking these things is to preserve our health. milk and apples…we pigs are brain workers. the whole management and organization of this farm depend on us…do you ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 23 know what would happen if we pigs failed in our duty? jones would come back! yes, jones would come back…surely there is no one among you who wants to see jones come back? (af 24) squealer’s physical ‘skipping from side to side’ during such explanations parallels his ‘skipping’ words. also, squealer makes the animals feel guilty yet again when he says, ‘it is for your sake that we drink that milk and eat those apples. he backs this up with evidence; ‘many of us actually dislike milk and apples. i dislike them myself. our sole object in taking these things is to preserve our health’. ex.4 ‘you have heard, then, comrade,’ he said, ‘that we pigs now sleep in the beds of the farmhouse? and why not? you did not suppose, surely, that there was ever a ruling against beds. a bed merely means a place to sleep in. a pile of straw in a stall is a bed, properly regarded. the rule was against sheets, which are a human invention. we have removed the sheets from the farmhouse beds, and sleep between blankets. and very comfortable beds they are too! but not more comfortable than we need, i can tell you, comrades, with all the brainwork we have to do nowadays, you would not rob us of our repose, would you, comrades? …surely none of you wishes to see jones back? (af 47) when the pigs moved into the farmhouse, squealer makes the first substantial change in the commandment: he adds with sheets to the injunction against sleeping in a bed. squealer uses two techniques here: first, he outright lies and pretends that the addition was always there. by making the alternative seem seditions, he convinces the others that the commandments were not changed, but that they just ‘don’t remember’ the addition. second, he argues semantics, acting as if the original commandment still applies. the data in extracts 1-4 answer the research question 1 a)to what degree is the use of doublespeak/euphemism notorious in conversation? ex.5: it is no longer needed, ‘comrades… beast of england was the song of the rebellion. but the rebellion is now completed. the execution of the traitors this afternoon was the final act. the enemy both external and internal has been defeated. in ‘beast of england,’ we expressed our longing for a better society in days to come. but that society has now been established. clearly this song has no longer any purpose’ (af 60-61). after witnessing the execution of other animals by napoleon, clover and the other animal sitting around her sang the “beast of england’ three times. shortly after singing the song sorrowfully, squealer approached them and announced that by a special decree of comrade napoleon, ‘beast of england” ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 24 had been abolished, the animals were taken aback and muriel asked why. squealer explains that the rebellion has now ended with the slaughter of the unfaithful and that, being a song of the rebellion, ‘beast of england’ has no further purpose. the animals are now to sing mimimus’s anthem which begins with the lyrics: animal farm, animal farm, never through me shall thou come to harm! (af 61) ex.6: in his speeches, squealer would talk with the tears rolling down his cheeks of napoleon’s wisdom, the goodness of his heart and the deep love he bore to all animals everywhere, even and especially the unhappy animals that still lived in ignorance and slavery on other farms (af 63). in chapter 8, napoleon is given numerous prestigious titles such as father of all animals, terror of mankind and protector of sheepfold, ducklings’ friend and the like. squealer even shed tears as he publicly praises comrade napoleon for his wisdom and benevolence. ironically, napoleon is responsible for the terrible living conditions on the farm and continually reduces food rations, leaving the majority of the animals malnourished and starving. ex.7 boxer: what is that gun firing for? squealer: to celebrate our victory! boxer: what victory? squealer: what victory, comrade? have we not driven the enemy off our soil, the sacred soil of animal farm? boxer: but they have destroyed the windmill. and we had worked on it for two years! squealer: what matter? e will build another windmill. we will build six windmills if we feel like it. you do not (appreciate, comrade, the mighty thing that we have done. the enemy was in occupation of this very ground that we stand upon. and now thanks to the leadership of comrade napoleon we have won every inch of it back again! boxer: then we have won back what we had before. squealer: that is our victory (af 72). the destruction of the windmill marks animal farm’s final, irrevocable turn for the worse. as the windmill earlier symbolized the hopes of snowball and a future of leisure, its explosion at the hands of frederick symbolizes the absolute impossibility of snowball’s dreams. the battle of the windmill is bloody and less effective than the battle of cowshed. a cow, three sheep and two geese were killed and nearly everyone was wounded. squealer’s logic in proving that the battle was a victory is an incredible display of political doublespeak. boxer cannot conceive how squealer can all the battle victory, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 25 until the pig explains, ‘the enemy was in occupation of this very ground that we stand upon. and now thanks to the leadership of comrade napoleon we have won every inch of it back again!’ the data in extracts 5-7 answer the research question 2 b)to what extent are doublespeak words used to denote the opposite of their actual meaning? ex.8 all animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others (af 92) this contradictory phrase is a euphemism for saying that all animals, which are not pigs, are less privilege than the pigs, of the ruling class. old major’s original idea was to create an egalitarian society ruled by animals, where every animal was equal and voted von policies that affected the farm. however, napoleon immediately usurped power and began to rule the farm as a ruthless tyrant while simultaneously creating an aristocracy of pigs, who enjoyed special privileges and made every significant political decision. squealer manages to alter each commandment to corroborate with napoleon’s political agenda as the pigs become more and more powerful while they continue to oppress the other animals. the phrase more equal implies that some animals, namely pigs, have more privileges than other animals. the other animals are essentially considered second-class citizens while the upperclass pigs enjoy luxurious lives. logically, the phrase more equal does not make sense but successfully conceals the true nature of the commandment. squealer’s ability to manipulate language and confuse the animals into passively accepting their fate is embodied in the last remaining commandment (www.enotes.com). the data in extracts 8 answers the research question 3 c) to what extent is the use of euphemism in expressing oneself? the findings from the analysis were discussed in accordance with the research questions. for research question 1, the analysis showed that doublespeak exaggerates, distorts and destroys what is truly real. based on research question 2, the researcher found out that doublespeak can be ironical. squealer’s utterances in extracts 5-7 denote the opposite of their actual meaning. finally, the research shows that although euphemism and doublespeak are inter-related the phenomena differ. this is evidence in extract 8. research question 3 shows that euphemism makes a harsh comment/situation softer and agreeable while doublespeak deliberately reverses the meaning of words. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 26 conclusion euphemism and doublespeak as phenomena of language, is observed everywhere in all human societies and it is used in all human interactions especially in politics (for doublespeak). it is predictable that euphemism will gain more publicity and respectability unlike doublespeak. as a matter of fact, euphemism is penetrating every corner of the world through the main channels as music, books, media houses etc. should we say same for doublespeak? the important of euphemism can only show itself when they are used in communication. since euphemism is so important in this world, more research should be done to find out other functions of this phenomenon other than its communicative function. also, researcher should find out if doublespeak as its positive effect on communication. works cited allan, keith and burridge, kate. euphemism & dysphemism: language used as shield and weapon. new york: oxford university press, 1991. print brown, penelope and levinson, stephen c. politness: some universals in language usage. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1987. print channell, joanna. vague language.shangha: foreign language education press, 2000.pp 220. gibson, walker and lutz d. william. doublespeak: a brief history, definition & bibliography, with a list of award winners. united states: national council of teachers of english, 1992. print goffman, erving. “on facework: an analysis of ritual elements in social interaction. psychiatry”, 18, 213 231.http.www.enotes.com/homework-help/chapters-25997. accessed 28 may, 2020. hudson, richard anthony. sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. cambridge: up, 1996. print keyes, ralph. euphemania: our love affair with euphemisms. newyork: little, brown and company, 2010. print leech, geoffrey n. principles of pragmatics. london: longman, 1983. print lutz, william. doublespeak. new york: harper and row publications, 1989. print …. the new doublespeak: why no one knows what anyone’s saying anymore. newyork: harper perennial, 1996. print mccornack, steven a. “information manipulation theory”. communication monographs, 59, 1-16. 1992. print orwell, george. animal farm. harlow: longman group limited, 1989. print rawson, hugh. a dictionary of euphemisms and other doubletalk.newyork: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 alozie-onumadu 27 crown publishers, 1981. print wang, xin. “cooperative principle in english euphemism”. english language teaching. (3) 1,11-14. print weaver ii, l. richard and hybels, saundra.communicating effectively 11th ed. london: mcgraw-hill, 2015. print ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 127 a critical discourse analysis of the debate among the gubernatorial candidates in anambra state 2017 election prof. jane ifechelobi department of english language & literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: jn.ifechelobi@unizik.edu.ng & ifunanya laurencia ebekue management information and computer technology unit nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email:li.ebekue@unizik.edu.ng abstract this study examines a critical discourse analysis of the debate among the gubernatorial candidates in anambra state 2017 election. the role of language in creating and sustaining power relations as well as ideological structures in anambra state, nigeria is also being examined. these power relations are formed, enacted and legitimated by the application of certain linguistic devices. the researcher attempts to disentangle hidden meanings and connotations of power in gubernatorial debate speeches in anambra state. five aspirants are involved in the debate. the study adopts critical discourse analysis (cda) and halliday’s systemic functional theory. the choice of the above is as a result of the researcher’s observation that cda does not have a unitary theoretical framework. the researcher hopes that the contribution made to scholarship in cda will help to create awareness on the power of words and utterances in political debate discourse. the study, thus, concludes that in real sense, the texts produced, disseminated and expended in the 2017 gubernatorial electioneering debate in anambra state of nigeria ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 128 did not only promote unequal power relations, rather they also produced, reproduced, legitimized and maintained social structures that sustain domination. keywords: discourse, critical discourse analysis, political discourse, speech (debate) introduction discourse analysis urges us to move from seeing language as abstract to seeing our words as having meaning in a particular historical, social and political condition. our words are politicized, even if we are not aware of it, because they carry the power that reflects the interest of those who speak. discourses can also be used for an assertion of power and knowledge, and they can be used for resistance and critique (chilton, 2002). one such occasion where discourse can be used to assert, sustain and legitimize power is debates/campaign speeches. there are different topics and fields which invite cda to perform its priceless job, however, if there is one social field that is most fitting here, it is that of politics. essential to the idea of politics are such issues as power, legitimization, persuasion, struggle for dominance, and coercion. in the different kinds of discourse that one can think of as political, such as political debates/speeches, demonstrations, parliaments, broadcast interviews, campaigns, advertisements, manifestos, and so forth, some of these issues clearly manifest and all these are the fields of ideological battles. this is not surprising because, as van dijk contends, “it is eminently here that different and opposed groups, power, struggle and interests are at stake. in order to be able to compete, political groups need to be ideologically conscious and organized” (11). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 129 one of the important factors that establish the political figures’ success in reaching their aspiration and winning the public consensus in this continuous power struggle is their capability to persuade and impress their audience through texts reproduction, power sustenance and unequal power relations. according to teittinen “the winner is a party whose language, words, terms and symbolic expressions are dominant once reality and the context have been defined” (1). this is where the need for critical listening and reading is felt more than any other time to realize what the reality is and how it is distorted through delicate and skillful use of language. language is the key creator of the social world. politics is one of the major events that pervade every human’s social world. this means that to some extent language and politics are intimately linked at a fundamental level. in fact, as chilton puts it, ‘the doing of politics is predominantly constituted in language’ (6). other scholars have corroborated this close link between language and politics. the whole essence of politics as identified by beard is the wish to gain power, exercise power and keep power, and language is the major vehicle for achieving these goals(2). awonusi sees the relationship between language and politics as ‘bidirectional’ – language affects politics and politics affects language (10). opeibi also sees the relationship as ‘symbiotic’. the study of language and politics can be identified by scholars from two different disciplineslinguists and political scientists. while each of these disciplines focuses on different issues, they have some meeting points. politics is concerned with power: the power to make decisions, to control resources, to control other people’s behaviour, and to control their values. as ayoade, a foremost nigerian political scientist rightly asserts: ‘language is the conveyor belt of power. it moves people to vote, debate, or revolt. it is therefore central explanation of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 130 political stability or polarization’ (724). the meeting point in the research of language and politics and their intersection is critical discourse analysis. the critical discourse approach engages the discourse approaches to any text that could be termed political. among other things, texts and talks of professional politicians and political institutions have been studied from these perspectives. these include debates, campaigns, interviews, manifestos, rallies, and so forth. these kinds of studies are generally classified under political discourse analysis. from the foregoing discussion of political discourse, it then can be conveniently said that the debate among the gubernatorial candidates in anambra state in 2017 election, which is the focus in this study, constitute political discourse. therefore, the motivation for this study hinges on the need to create critical language awareness on the masses and to explore through the works of other researchers in the field of cda to determine the extent to which the texts produced and consumed in the 2017 anambra election debate in nigeria promote or hinder the promotion of asymmetrical power relations, social structures and identities. significant in the study is the projection of individual and group ideologies through linguistic devices. in essence the work examines the aspect of power and ideological features that the gubernatorial debate reflect with a view to determining the interpersonal component of linguistic features that instantiate power and how the dominated or oppressed groups may discursively resist such abuse. conceptual review and theoretical framework studies that apply cda methods to nigerian political discourse have increased recently. some of these studies will be looked at under this heading. in a speech delivered by obasanjo, the former president of nigeria addressing pdp elders and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 131 stakeholders forum, taiwo identifies the strategies he used in legitimizing himself and the party he represents, as well as his coercion and intimidation of opponents, thereby expressing discourse power (taiwo, 2008:191-205). using another speech delivered by obasanjo, ayoola examines his address to the national assembly in 2005 which analysis was positioned against the socio-political context in which the speech was delivered – that of the speakers’ move to bid for a third term after spending the constitutionally required two terms in office. he notes that obasanjo’s employment of personal deixis, emotive lexis and structure, the semantic field of war and military syntax helped him to project his message in the speech.(cited in ademilokun and taiwo 2013) in another article, ayoola argues for the employment of cda methods for the interpretation of the meanings and elicitation of the discursive strategies in sociallyand politically-based text (2008:44). in line with this submission, most studies on cda ask questions about how discourse structures are deployed in the production of social dominance.(cited in ademilokun and taiwo, 2013:440) this is premised on the fact that words are not ideologically neutral; rather, they betray our social, cultural, political and historical inclinations. a few scholarly studies on campaign speeches also exist and this will be reviewed in the following paragraphs. in a synchronic stylistic analysis of campaign speeches during the 2007 general elections, omozuwa and ezejidiaku (2009) identify the stylistic devices used by the candidates. they observe that campaign speeches are embellished in rhetoric and propaganda. the following also characterized their diction such as: repetition, promise, colloquialism, metaphor, word coinages, pidginized expressions, figurative expressions, exaggeration, abusive and vulgar utterances. other studies on nigerian campaigns https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274485436_discursive_strategies_in_newspaper_campaign_advertisements_for_nigeria's_2011_elections https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274485436_discursive_strategies_in_newspaper_campaign_advertisements_for_nigeria's_2011_elections ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 132 corroborate these findings. taiwo identifies political lampooning of the opposition through newspaper advertisements as one of the major campaign strategies of nigerian politicians during the 2007 general election in the country. opeibi provides a structural and functional description of the emerging trends in negative advertising during political campaigns in nigeria. he observes that nigerian political campaign discourse is characterized by negative political advertising, particularly in newspapers. in his observation, many of the political office aspirants abandoned positive, issue-focused, image-building advertisements and engaged in rhetorical strategies of direct attacks on their opponents. abdullahi-idiagbon in a critical discourse analytic study of presidential campaign speeches during the 2007 presidential election in nigeria, investigates the ideological undertones in the campaign speeches of selected presidential candidates. in his findings, he notes the manner in which the aspirants manipulated the linguistic resources to project the messages in their discourse. the styles reveal the use of connotative expressions, topicalization, passivization, persuasion and promises, euphemism and repetition to present their ideological leanings. it is also important to stress that doctoral dissertations have been written on different aspects of nigerian political discourse. notable among these are oha (1994), which is a stylistic study of speeches of the two notable figures in the nigerian civil war, yakubu gowon, the then military head of state, and emeka odumegwu ojukwu, the military leader who led the failed secession of the biafra republic. opeibi (2004) did a study on discourse analysis of the 1994 presidential election campaigns in nigeria. from stylistic and text-linguistic perspectives, ayeomoni (2007) did a lexical analysis of speeches of selected nigerian military leaders. the above mentioned studies on ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 133 nigerian political discourse have identified pertinent linguistic features in different kinds of political speeches made by nigerian political actors. these include their peculiar rhetorical, pragmatic, discursive and stylistic features. it is clear from all these studies that the nigerian political class employs different innovative linguistic means during political campaigns to canvas for, assert, maintain and resist power in discourse. of interest to the present study is political debate, which became about the most popular means of campaigning during the 2017/2018 general election. prior to that period, most political campaigns were done faceto-face, print media and billboards. a major feature of the political debate is that they are products of careful thought, exploring a possible number of historical and social issues that will persuasively convey their message. in the present study, cda is brought into action in the realm of political discourse as we examine how the verbal and visual aspects of the political debate demonstrates how politicians engage in power tussle through the mass media during the 2017/2018 elections in nigeria. this endeavour, for us, is significant in considering the fact that media political debates not exceptional are a major tool with which nigerian political parties and politicians exercise discursive and social powers. thus, evident in the discourse is usually the image of ‘self’ and ‘others’ consequent upon the goal of the discourse producers, which is to seize power at all costs. therefore, this study attempts a critical interpretation of anambra gubernatorial debate among political parties in 2017 elections beyond the codes used in them. there are many theoretical frameworks presented by cda practitioners. the prominent and widely used ones as highlighted by rahimi & riasati (2011) are fairclough (2003), van dijk (1997), hodge and kress (1993) and van leeuwen ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 134 (1996). in the words of rahimi & riasati (2011), fairclough is seen to have contributed to the field of cda significantly. this is so because he was the first to create a theoretical framework that provided guidelines for future cda research. the thrust of his framework is on the belief that language is a complex part of social life. the dialectic relation between language and social reality is realized through social events (texts), social practices (orders of discourse) and social structures (fairlough, 2003). fairclough’s method tries to make clear the ideological and power patterns in texts. he provided three-dimensional framework for text analysis which is widely used today in the field of cda. the three dimensions are: the linguistic description of the formal properties of the text, the interpretation of the relationship between the discursive processes/interaction and the text, where text is the end product of a process of text production and as a resource in the process of text interpretation and lastly the explanation of the relationship between discourse, social and cultural reality. fairclough’s method of analysis covers not only ‘what’ (discourse features) but also the’ how’ and ‘why’ which are based on interpretation and explanation of texts. the need to go beyond ‘what’ in discourse is based on the assumption that there are certain underlying assumptions behind certain selections. these assumptions are never value-free and innocent; rather they are ideologically driven and motivated. he believes in a “hidden agenda” (rahimi & riasati 2011).the framework by hodge and kress has the dichotomous categorization of “euphemism” and “derogatory” thrust. the main focus of a particular vocabulary item will be on its origin of classification, schemes, and ideologically significant relations such as synonyms, antonyms, and hyponyms, relational values and expressive values. the application of different euphemistic or derogatory terms leads to ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 135 different presentations of realities and therefore ideologies (rahimi & riasati (2011). van dijk’s framework provided some illustrations of the categories that he believes to be important in doing cda studies. he asserts that the main point of the analysis is to show how various ideologies are expressed in various kinds of structures. these structures cannot be presented here because there are hundreds of them. van leeuwen’s framework is based on the belief that social actors are influenced by the policies and decisions of powerful organizations which either include or exclude them from the centers of power. he explains the principal ways in which social actors can be represented in discourse. this frame work according to rahimi and riasati consists of the following: 1. exclusion (suppression vs. back grounding) 2. inclusion (activation vs. passivation, generalization vs. specification, individualization, assimilation, indetermination (anonymous), determination, nomination and categorization, functionalization and identification, impersonalized social actors, abstraction objectivation. for the purpose of this study, the research integrates elements of fairclough’s and van dijk’s sociocultural and sociocognitive approaches to discourse as well as principles from halliday’s sft. fairclough’s model is adopted because it provides a description and interpretation of discourses in social context and offers an explanation of ‘why and how’ discourses work. the model attempts to examine both the linguistic features that are explicitthose that can be identified and described in a discourse. the model also offers explanation of the underlying or hidden meanings and ideologies. the choice of the above is as ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 136 a result of the researcher’s observation that cda does not have a unitary theoretical framework. the researcher hopes that the contribution made to scholarship in cda will help to create awareness on the power of words and utterances in political campaign discourse. method of data analysis the issue relating to social and political lives of language users cannot be undertaken effectively by employing one theoretical framework or method of analysis. this is the belief of cda scholars. they adopt a combination of different levels of analysis and analytical tools for political texts which is referred to as ‘multi method approach’. texts are not simply products of a sender but a representation of a complex set of rules and influences which can be visible or not, thus communicated in message form to the intended receiver. for the sender and receiver to explore the text/message therein, they need to be critical. the analyst is critical in observing the invisible relations between people expressed in the language while the reader is critical not only to his subject of investigation but to his own context. in analysing this study, the works of fairclough, van dijk and halliday’s are basis of its analytical framework. fairclough’s analysis is based on three components description, interpretation and explanation. he distinguishes between these three different stages of critical discourse analysis. the first stage is description, which is concerned with the formal features of the texts, such as vocabulary and grammar. the second stage is interpretation, where intertexuality and members’ resources play a major part. this stage is concerned with the relationship between text and interaction. the third stage, which is ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 137 explanation, concerns the relation between the interpretation and social context. fairclough attempts to establish a systematic method for exploring the relationship between text and its social context. he did so by stating that all stages are essential to make a thorough critical discourse analysis, that is, the linguistic properties of texts are described (text analysis), the relationship between the productive and interpretative processes of discursive practice and the texts is interpreted and the relationship between discursive practice and social practice is explained. in the process of interpretation also members’ resources (mr) is drawn upon. mr refers to the background knowledge which is drawn upon to interpret texts. this background knowledge is cognitive because it resides in people’s head. mr, which is brought into the process of production and interpretation, is implicit. such implicitness is usually contained in taken-forgranted background knowledge. to understand how ideologies are produced, it is not enough to analyse texts; the discourse practice (how the texts are interpreted and received and what social effects they have) must also be considered. the analysis focuses on micro and macro level of analysis which are two levels that are obtained in the unpacking of ideologically biased discourse. the micro level is concerned with the analysis of lexical choices in the speeches while the macro level concentrates on the communicative situation and the function(s) the speeches are meant to perform. a critical insight into the lexical choices, mood and modality deployed in the speeches as well as their communicative functions unfolds the power relations hidden in the speeches. also the mental model representation unravels the role of ideologies within the society which may allow for polarization, influence and manipulation. for a critical discourse analysis to be successful it revels the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 138 ideological assumptions and power imbalances that shape a text’s creation. the features of language which are ideological capitalized include all aspects of meaning: lexical meaning, presuppositions, implicatures, coherence, entailment etc. and formal features of texts. systemic functional theory approach will be used in analyzing the internal structure of the utterances. halliday's model has been considered very adequate because it contains relevant analytical categories like mood and modality as well as their various communicative functions which uncover the power relations in the debate speeches produced during the 2017 gubernatorial elections in anambra state. in this work, both the meanings produced through the formal linguistic elements and those produced using the background knowledge or information what fairclough calls members’ resources are considered complementary for the total description and interpretation of the data. this framework proceeds from identification of lexical choices, the communicative situation and the functions of the speeches including the mental model representation to specific social situations to which they correspond and highlight their functions simultaneously all within the cda framework. findings the findings produced from the debate captured discourse structures that have implications of power and unequal power relations in terms of power as strategies of domination and mind control/ manipulation and also ideology based on the context of use. ideology of isolation/personality profiling: the ideology of isolation / personality profiling is evident in the debate speeches studied in this work. this quality is peculiar in this era of exposure and awareness, masses believing that personality is the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 139 key and not political affiliation. three extracts were gotten from the debate from three aspirants.“i have a broad platform. i live in the state, i have been in government” the above statements portray the candidate as the right person to be elected because of his involvement in the state’s affairs. (oseolaka obaze, pdp aspirant). the governorship aspirant of all progressive grand alliance in the person of willie obiano is so full of himself. he believed in his efforts and achievements in the state as stated here “my government is upto date in payment of salary, pension and gratuity”. as the incumbent governor of the state, he believes that he has done so well more than his predecessors that is why he fronts his personality to the audience. the use of language as an instrument of social interaction is clearly conveyed. the candidate is using language to interact with the people by demonstrating the attitude of gratitude and appreciation. godwin ezemo, ppa aspirant is not left out in seeking for the support of the electorate through employing ideology of isolation/personality profiling in his speech “i have brought investments back to anambra because i want the best. we are lacking in all fields. i have decided to forgo my comfort zone to sacrifice for the state. i will focus on security, health. agriculture, education, empowerment and environment”. the personality projection arises as a result of exposure and awareness rather than on political parties. this is an era when political party one belongs does not count rather the persons personality and achievement. this premise gives rise to personality racketing in the debate. ideology as a weapon of negotiation: the utilization of ideology as a weapon of negotiation between the candidates who are seeking political offices and the electorate were projected in two extracts from the governorship aspirants. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 140 if we can have steady power supply and good roads, our industries will grow, we are going to manufacture more. most of the power lines in anambra are 33kvainstead of 330kva, i will do more on power if am elected governor, i will also work on many roads… (tony nwoye, apc aspirant) the speaker on the extract above highlighted the epileptic situation of power supply and state of roads in our state. this was done to get the attention of the masses to their needs in their daily dealings. he promised to do more on power thererby enhancing the business activities of the state. the speaker b reasoned with the masses to vote for him for that will help him take the education of our children to the next level as seen in this extract “... nigeria is a subject of continuous negotiation. only 13 per cent of our students in jss are computer literate. the education our children are getting is the education of yesterday, i will take them get the education of tomorrow. (osita chidoka, upp aspirant)”. the power of negotiation was powerfully employed in the two extracts. ideology of positive self-representation of “us” and negative other representation of “them”: two extracts were showcased. in one of the extracts apga aspirant projects his own image by attacking the opponents in a subtle manner. the expression: “i am the only guy here that can do that” is intimidating and clearly projects power. he ended up in castigating his opponents for the audience to see how weak they are in other not to vote for them. “tony doesn’t have the executive capacity; he hasn’t even worked in his entire life”. the statement above is really castigating and taints the image of the opponent in question. for willie, tony should not be voted for since he has not been in an executive office in his live and that disqualifies him being the governor of anambra state. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 141 speaker b (obaze oseloka, pdp aspirant) sees himself and party as serious-minded people while seeing his opponent as unserious as captured here; “i hate to think that we came here to ridicule people, this is serious business”. the above statement was made to disabuse the minds of the electorate in the statement made by the opponent. the speaker further buttresses his point by saying that “they” can fix whatever went wrong during the opponent’s reign, seeing the state to be broken during “their” tenure as the executive governor of anambra state. a political aspirant tends to present himself/ herself and his or her group in positive terms and other groups in negative terms. he does this by selecting some socially shared mental model with a negative connotation in the text and the essence is to capture different ideological positions. they resorted to attacking their opponents’ character and ability. the essence of this factgiving strategy is to make the audience reject their opponent and accept the speaker(s). the background information recalled by the speaker is a biased platform to project his own ideology. power and domination: this strategy is used by the political aspirants to show power, authority and supremacy, especially supremacy of a particular view or belief over that of others. the asymmetrical power relations between the speaker and the audience is best revealed in these lexical items, “run”, “built”, “protection, “stand”. by implication, it is the dominant, the allpowerful governor aspirant who is in-charge and who wants the dominated, the less privileged to see things in the light of his view. as the dominant social group, these politicians have the privilege and the advantage to control what can and should be said and which perspective to foreground in discourse. power as liberalism: this is a case of demonstration of power as liberalism which is vigorously pursued by the speakers in the debate. one extract was showcased. “we do not need to import ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 142 things we need to generate what we need”. this is just a common sense ideological representation by the speaker to sensitize the people to accept his offer. there are two structures in this extract – “we” and “others” and the power relation shows the privileged “we” and the less privileged “others”. the question tries to liberalize the power and prompts the audience in order to get their attention in an attempt to chart a common front with the audience. most of the clauses in the extract, which were declarative, made no specific claim to power relations. power as mind control/ manipulation: under this heading three ideologies were explored; positive ideology of self, which run through the extracts with the declarative item “i”. this expression depicts the speaker as a saint, “i am not campaigning against peter obi”. he wants the masses to see him as a saint who is never interested in castigating his opponents. the ideology of personality profiling and negative other representative were also deployed to control the mind of the people. the speakers did not just deploy the ideology of personality profiling, but used it as a tool to influence the people and to control their mind into believing in them. the ideology of negative other representative was also implied to manipulate the people to accept their candidacy. “i am here to offer myself selflessly”. “i have offered myself to assist the less privileged and indigent people”. these expressions are used to influence the electorate, the less privileged into approving his candidature. the use of the expression “anambra state is wallowing in trouble” is directly pointing at the man on sit and invariably other opponents in the battle of winning the electorates’ heart in electing their governor. the analysis so far shows political speeches that are so expertly constructed to dominate, deceive, manipulate and of course get the electorate to cast their votes in support of the speakers. whether the promises are fulfilled ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 143 eventually is quite a different thing. the politicians usually make such haughty promises to gain the support of the people and this is the main purpose of the speeches. under this, two extracts were used. discussion of findings in this study, the researcher has viewed political debate speeches that encode power and dominance with ideological undertone. the work also reveals some hidden meanings and messages that are rooted in the linguistic expressions used. the linguistic and extra-linguistic variables of the communicative event including the socio-cultural, socio-political and socio-linguistic indices of the environment which influence the structure and the functions of the political messages were also considered. the researcher has demonstrated that discourse has structure, meaning and action. in fairclough’s opinion, discourse reflects an action. secondly, there is a dialectical relationship between discourse and social structures, in which social structures determine and create social process. efforts have also been made to give a comprehensive account of the structure, hidden meaning and communicative actions and effects of the pieces of discourse used as election debate texts produced during the period. the application of analytical tools from fairclough’s members’ resources, van dijk’s socio-cognitive approach and halliday’s system of mood and modality as theoretical bases has enabled the researcher to describe the debate discourse as a strong tool for creating and enacting power and ideological functions. the multi-method approach adopted in this inquiry has helped the researcher to account for the interface between structures of discourse and structures of power involved in the gubernatorial political debate speeches. the method shows the power of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 144 language as strategies for domination, liberalism, mind control (which is a form of manipulation) and ideological projections as instrument for isolation/personality projection, negotiation, positive self and negative other representation. moreover, ideology as noted in the study can be used as an instrument of personality projection, selfpromotion or what van dijk calls selfglorification strategy. the purpose is simply to win the support of the populace. so, they try to promote themselves beyond measure in order to achieve the much desired self-glorification. the study, therefore, concluded that anambra state gubernatorial aspirants made use of their speeches in the debate as tools not only for gaining support but also for establishing, maintaining and sustaining power and unequal power relations in the 2017 elections. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 145 works cited abdullahi-idiagbon, m.s. “language use in selected nigerian presidential election campaign speeches: a critical discourse analysis perspective”. journal of the english studies association (jnesa). 13(2) september 2010. 30-44. ademilokun, mohammed and rotimi taiwo. “discursive strategies in newspaper campaign advertisement for nigeria’s 2011 elections”. discourse and communication. 7(4) september 2013. 435-455. anambra state governorship debate pt 1-4 www.channelstv.com november 17 2017. 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(ed.) discourse as social interaction. london: sage, 1997. van dijik. politics, ideology and discourse. retrieved may 15 2018 from http/www.discourse-in-society.org/teun.html. 2004. web. ….“multidisciplinary cda: a plea for diversity”, ed. wodak, r. and m. meyer. methods of critical discourse analysis. london: sage, pub., 2001. …. 'discourse, context and cognition'. discourse studies. 8(1): 159-177, 2006b. …. “ideology and discourse analysis”. journal of political ideologies 11(2): 115-140. 2006c. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 104 njoku the role of macrostructures in complex information reduction juliana chinwe njoku department of english language and literature alvan ikoku federal college of education, owerri email: juliananjoku3@gmail.com abstract complex information reduction refers to the recapitulation of the salient facts from a long text or discourse. it is akin to writing a summary. this paper therefore, examines the role of macrostructures in producing summaries. macrostructures are said to be the global textual structures that form the global meaning of a text. they deal with the overall topic, the theme and the schematic organization of discourses or texts, they represent the gist of an entire text. macrostructures are obtained by the application of transformational rules on the micro propositions of a text. these transformational rules are called macro-rules and they include: deletion, use of super-ordinate terms, selection and invention. these rules represent the cognitive operations that occur in complex information reduction. developing the skills for writing summaries is very important. the skills are needed in school for general academic work and for research purposes. the skills are also needed in most professional fields in life after school. this paper submits that effective summary skills can be developed if the principles underlying macrostructures are followed. the paper is hinged on macrostructures of discourse, a model for summarization proposed by kintsch and van dijk in 1978, and later expanded by brown and day in 1983. keywords: complex information, summary, text, macrostructures, micro propositions introduction thorough comprehension is a pre-requisite for summary writing. people read for different purposes. the task or the assignment (purpose) for reading any given text can influence the reading activity. a student whose reading task is to summarize a particular text, has to understand the text thoroughly before he/she can respond intelligently to his/her given task. a text can be simple or complex. complexity or non-complexity of a text can be measured by its length, component parts, level and use of language, readability, comprehensibility and organizational structure. these can affect the comprehension and interpretation of a text. as a text is read, a cognitive load is placed on the reader who decodes and interprets the text and incorporates the textual propositions into his/her knowledge base. the reader who successfully comprehends a text, builds a representation of it in his/her memory, which activates other related information already stored. to facilitate these retention and recall processes, macrostructures are required. this is because, a reader may not be able to store and retrieve all the single propositions in the text, but he/she can understand the text as a “whole” and give a summary of it by constructing macrostructures out of the sequences of propositions that make up the text. this in essence reduces the highly complex information to a manageable size. macrostructures are used to express the global meaning of a text. they are obtained by semantic mappings (transformations) applied to the local sentential meanings of the text/discourse. these mappings are called macro-rules and they include: deletion, use of super-ordinate terms, selection and invention. these macro-rules represent the cognitive processes that operate in (complex) information reduction. clarification of concepts complex information the word “complex” denotes having many parts that is, being made up of various interconnected parts. it should not be confused with the word “complicated” which connotes being difficult. this means that something can be complex without being difficult (web.dictionary.co). information on the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 105 njoku other hand is knowledge communicated either in verbal or written form, on a particular topic, idea or circumstance. hence, complex information can be said to be a group of inter-related ideas that form a single whole. slamecka refers to information as “facts and opinions provided and received during the course of daily life” (web.np). according to him, one can obtain information from various sources: mass media, electronic data banks, books, letters, documents and even during discourse. information organized according to some logical relationship is referred to as a body of knowledge, to be acquired by systematic exposure or study. the operations of summary are based on already existing document usually referred to as a text. anderson and hidi support this by stating that “summary is based on material that has already been written” (26). a text can be simple or complex based on certain parameters such as: text type, language use, readability, organizational structure and so on. thus, one can understand the term “complex information”. the concept of a text crystal defines a text as “a stretch of language spoken or written, collected for the purpose of analysis and description” (481). he further avers that “texts are language units which have definable communicative functions, characterized by such principles as cohesion, coherence and informativeness; which can be used to identify what constitutes their textuality or texture” (crystal, 482). halliday and hassan also see a text as “a unit of language in use” which can be “any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole” (12). longe (126) reiterates the fact that the passage so to speak, must contain cohesive devices to qualify as a text. beaugrand and dressler defined a text as a “communicative occurrence which meets seven standards of textuality” (3). these seven standards of textuality include: intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality, inter-textuality, cohesion and coherence. according to them, any natural text, whatever ‘type’ it belongs to, shares these same characteristics. text is sometimes used interchangeably with discourse. however, some linguists make a distinction between text and discourse. van dijk for example, sees text as “a theoretical conception related to a language user’s competence, and discourse as a general term for examples of language use, i.e. language that has been produced as the result of an act of communication” (25). similarly, wang and guo see discourse as “a coherent combination of sentences or sentence fragments that is a result of communication interacted between participants, whether speaker or listener, or writer and reader; while text only refers to written discourse” (460). from the above definitions, it is obvious that a text can be written or spoken. the focus of this paper is on the written text and how it can be summarized. as said earlier, a text can be simple or complex. learning a – z, citing the common core state standards, define “text complexity as a metric that determines how challenging a material is for a child at their specific grade level” (1). according to them, three factors are used to determine the complexity of a text. they are: qualitative measures, quantitative measures and considerations relating to the reader and the task, all of which have to be related on the basis of grade-level appropriateness. learning a – z, citing ccss further states that qualitative measures examine text attributes that can only be evaluated by the person who is reading the book or passage. the reader is required to consider such factors as: 1. levels of meaning 2. clarity and convention of language use 3. knowledge demands 4. structural organization of the text and 5. visual complexity levels of meaning: this is concerned with, if the purpose is explicitly stated or vague, and if the text has a single level meaning or multiple meanings. clarity and convention of language use considers: if the language is clear or vague and purposefully misleading; if the language is contemporary and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 106 njoku familiar or unfamiliar and achaic; if the language of the text is conversational or academic; and if the text is cohesive or lack cohesion. knowledge demands consider if the text has a single theme or multiple themes; whether the text deals with common everyday experiences, or present experiences that are likely vastly different from those of the intended readers; and whether the text is presented from a single or multiple perspectives. structural organization considers how the text is organized: chronologically or in another logical pattern; if the text is arranged with complex and loosely connected content and whether the sections in the text are clearly labeled. visual complexity considers whether the graphical devices in the text are relatively simple and helps the student to understand the material being read, or whether they are complex and for “show”. learning a – z further avers that, quantitative measures are what teachers rely upon to determine the difficulty of a text. they consider the following: length of the text, sentence length and number of difficult or unfamiliar words. finally, considerations relating to the reader and the task constitute the third vital component. in this case, each reader brings different skills, background, and motivation to the act of reading, for instance, a student who is interested in the topic being read is likely to bring more background knowledge to the reading task and want to learn more. the importance of the assignment itself can also influence reading activity. for example, a student who reads for leisure or skims an article for a piece of information, places less demand on the reading task, than a student who is reading to summarize. summary as a concept summary has been given many definitions by various scholars. eyisi defines summary as “a concise, clear, logical and readable presentation of a longer passage, giving only the major points” (65). according to her, when a story or an account of anything is shortened or abridged so that only the relevant issues are preserved, the story or account is said to have been summarized. norisma, sapiyan and rukaini define summary as “a condensed version of an existing text” (180). according to them, summary skills involve processes such as reading and understanding the content of a text, identifying the most important information in the text and producing a shorter version of it. ikonta and ugbede also aver that summary is an aspect of writing that represent “a short-to-the point distillation of the main ideas in a text” (2). the key points are noted without examples and the vocabulary may change, but the main ideas remain.cismako also sees summary as “getting rid of smaller details and leaving only the primary points” (1). similarly, azikiwe defines summary as “clearly and concisely writing out identified main points and ideas to give the gist of a passage” (162). geatz and pladke see summary as “presenting a shortened version of the original work in one’s own words” (259). according to them, when you summarize, you condense a text to its key ideas. reducing a long work to its bare essentials requires that you fully understand the message of the text. it also helps you understand the massage of the text. it also helps you understand how ideas are organized in a text. from the above definitions, we can deduce that, a person involved in summary writing must read a passage, understand it thoroughly and replace it with a shorter version that contains the same information as the original but in a compressed form. only the main points identified would be included in the summary. summary is not a re-write of the original piece, rather the writer uses his/her own words to express briefly the main ideas and relevant points in the piece he/she has read. the purpose of writing a summary is to give the basic ideas of the original reading. to qualify for a good summary, the summary has to be concise, clear, coherent and true to the original text. the idea of conciseness is to cut verbiage without sacrificing meaning. so, the writer has to briefly present, the information required in a few words as possible. clarity is hallmark of effective summary. it involves choosing words deliberately, constructing sentences carefully, to convey exactly the meaning you want. ambiguous and vague words are enemies of clarity. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 107 njoku coherence requires that the different parts that make up the summary stick together. being true to the original text means that personal opinion, information from external sources, no matter how related they may be to the content, must not be included in the summary. the summary must retain only the information contained in the original reading. the concept of macrostructure macrosturcture is a semantic construct, concerned with discourse production and comprehension. it is used to represent the overall or global meaning of discourse. according to louwerse and graesser, the term macrostructure for global principles of text organization was first proposed by bierwisch in 1965, for narrative structures in literary texts, as evidenced in her work “poetic und linguistik”. later some scholars proposed similar narrative grammars as in labov and waletzky’s “narrative analysis: oral version of personal experiences” in 1967; and trodov’s “poetique de la prose” in 1971. in fact, “the development of the concept of macrostructure should be seen against the background of the development of narrative structures” (louwerse and graesser, 5). very much later, the term became established in “text linguistics”. it was introduced by van dijk in 1972 in his work “some aspects of text grammars: a study of theoretical linguistics and poetics”. van dijk further explored the notion of macrostructures in 1977 in his book text and content explorations in the semantics and pragmatics of discourse. later in 1978, the semantic construct was developed into psychological notions of discourse comprehension by kintsch and van dijk in their work “towards a model of text comprehension and production”. according to them, macrostructures are global textual structures that form the global meaning of a text. they are created by the application of macro-rules to a sequence of propositions derived from a text; which results to a set of macro propositions that form the gist of the text. louwerse and graesser posit that “macrostructures are abstract semantic descriptions of the semantic content of a text, similar to a text’s global meaning and theme, thus providing global coherence” (4). they further aver that macrostructures being higher level properties of sequences of propositions cannot be identified at the surface level of the text. however, some indicators of macro propositions can be identified such as titles of texts, sub-titles, and topic sentences which occur either at the beginning or end of a paragraph and so on. similarly, van dijk states that, macrostructures refer to the essence of the text; that is, the topic or thesis being exposed in the text. macrostructures specify what a discourse, as a whole, “is about”; not by enumerating the meaning of all the sentences that make up the text, but by applying certain rules that reduce complex information. for instance, from a long and complex sequence of propositions of a story such as: mary took a taxi… she arrived at the airport … she walked to the check-in counter of air france… there was a long queue … she saw an old friend and … she ate a sandwich … she was later checkedin … we may infer the “global” meaning or macroproposition as mary flew to paris. textopedia also aver that macrostructures explain how and why language users produce a ‘gist’ of what they have heard or read; not only for complex information. macrostructures are necessary to organize, reduce and manage such complex information. the diagrammatic illustrations below differentiate macrostructures from microstructures. 1. macrostructures of texts macropropositions they support the general ideas of the text. they are also known as the main ideas micropropositions they support the macropropositions. they are also known as secondary ideas ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 108 njoku deletion generalization 2. theoretical framework this paper is hinged on semantic macrostructures of discourse, a model for generation of recall and summarization proposed by kintsch and van dijk in 1978. according to them, the operation of the macrostructure is to reduce the information in a text base to its gist. macrostructures are obtained by the application of macro-rules on the sequences of the micro propositions of the text, to get at the ‘macro’ or global meaning. kintsch and van dijk proposed three macro-rules namely: deletion, generalization and construction. the rule of deletion demands that propositions that are not relevant to the meaning of the text, should be deleted. non-relevance here means that the particular act is not a condition for the other acts that follow in the sequence. consider this example: the clever students who won the competition are from the south east.in this example, there are three propositions: i. the students are clever ii. they won the competition iii. they are from the south east by the deletion rule, the summary writer can delete proposition (iii) leaving (i) and (ii). the macro proposition will then read – the clever students won the competition. in this instance, being from the south east is not a condition for winning the competition. the rule of generalization permits the summary writer to map a sequence of actions unto their common “superact”. in other words, a series of different propositions can be summarized into a more general proposition. consider the example that was given earlier about the story of mary going to paris. mary flew to paris is the “super-act”, while other actions (micro proposition) that led to this are subcomponent parts of the super-act. the next rule is construction. the rule permits the summary writer to construct one proposition from a number of propositions. consider the following example: janet decided to visit her uncle in the city. she went to the bus station and purchased a ticket. she went to a shop nearby to buy a gift for the uncle. by the time she came back, the bus had left. she looked at her watch and concluded that it was wrong and she was late. from the text above, we can construct the following macroproposition: janet missed the bus. the difference between generalization and construction is that generalizations are made from the input propositions; but in the text above the verb “missed” was not mentioned. later in 1983, brown and day expanded the macro-rules given by kintsch and van dijk. they came up with six rules. the expanded macro-rules are given below with the original ones in bracket: 1. delete unimportant or trivial information 2. delete redundant information 3. substitute a list of item with a super-ordinate term 4. substitute a list of actions with a “super-act” 5. select a topic sentence if any is given 6. invent a topic sentence if none is provided construction 1 and 2 are the same with kintsch and van dijk’s rule of deletion which has been explained and exemplified above. for clearer explanation of the expanded version of the deletion rule, unimportant information refers to minor details, examples and illustrations; while redundant information includes macropropositions usually a paragraph contains a specific macroproposition, followed by several supportive ideas. micropropositions in each paragraph of a text, there will be several micropropositions, some of them will be more relevant than others. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 109 njoku information that are repeated, restated or reworded, which is regardless of its importance, considered redundant. since summaries are meant to be brief and concise, repetitive and trivial information should be deleted. rules 3 and 4 are the same with kintsch and van dijk’s generalization rule. however, for a clearer explanation of brown and days rule 3, a summary writer is expected to use a super-ordinate term or an umbrella word to substitute a list of items. for example, if a text contains a list such as: cats, dogs, goldfish, gerbils and parrots, one can use the term “pets” to replace the list (brown and day: 4). rule 4 has been well explained earlier. brown and day’s rule 5 says, select a topic sentence where it is given. usually, a unit of the text called a paragraph discusses one main idea. this main idea is expressed in a “topic” sentence. the summary writer is expected to locate this topic sentence, select, rephrase and include it in his/her summary. finally, rule 6 is the same as kintsch and van dijk’s construction rule. here, the summary writer is expected to construct or invent a topic sentence where none is given. he/she can do this bycombining the meaning of the input text with his/her background knowledge to arrive at the message that is being conveyed; then he/she can construct the topic sentence for that unit. the role of macrostructures in producing summaries macrostructures are used to represent the overall or global meaning of a text. they deal with the meaning of a text as a whole. in other words, macrostructures are used to summarize a long text and reduce it to its gist. to produce a summary, the student has to read a given passage first, for thorough understanding. he/she may not be able to recall or remember all the micro propositions (individual sentences) that make up the passage, but he/she will have a general idea of what the passage is all about and can summarize it. this is made possible by the cognitive processes that generate macrostructures used in summarizing texts. these cognitive processes are referred to as macro-rules. they are transformational rules applied on the input propositions of a text, to arrive at its global meaning. in other words, macrostructures for summarizing texts are generated by the application of macro-rules.these macro-rules include: deletion, selection, invention and the use of super-ordinate terms. they represent the cognitive operations that occur in the production of summaries. according to abushihab, students have to follow different steps in order to write an effective summary based on the macrostructure framework. for instance, redundant and trivial materials have to be deleted, main ideas have to be identified and selected, a list of items that belong together has to be replaced by a general term and a macro proposition has to be constructed to replace sequences of micro propositions in a text that is to be summarized. this short passage taken from asudo, marsh and oni, will exemplify how macrostructures function in the production of summaries: miss odu was beautiful and poised, an obvious contrast to mrs. falolu and other teachers, with their outdated clothes. she looked something between twenty-five and thirty, but did not try to make herself look older as most of other young teachers in the school did. she wore a bright green, floral cotton dress and had her permed hair styled beautifully. and on her feet were glamorous, black high heeled shoes. she is beautiful, abi? whispered bunmi, the naughtiest girl in the class, to her friend, enitan. enitan, eyes fixed on the new teacher nodded. there was something about this lady that attracted her. miss odu began to speak. ‘i’m pleased to meet you all. i want you to know that i’m always available if you need me for anything other than your studies.’ this brought some giggling from the back row, but she ignored it and continued. ‘i want you all to regard me not only as your class teacher, but as friend too. i’m here teach you all your subjects. i want to help you with any problems you may have or any questions you may want to ask. perhaps you may want to discuss your choice of secondary schools for example.’ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 110 njoku it was obvious to all the children as she talked, that this was a very frank and understanding person. all the other teachers never seemed to have enough time for the pupils outside classes. in spite of her young age and good looks, she seemed almost motherly, with a confident and sympathetic voice. (45-47) this passage has four paragraphs, to summarize it, the student has to identify the main ideas lodged in each paragraph. paragraph 1 focused on the physical appearance of miss odu. a combination of macro-rules of selection and deletion were applied to summarize the paragraph: miss odu was young and beautiful.paragraph 2 introduced two pupils in miss odu’s class. the selection rule was applied to summarize the paragraph: enitan was attracted to the new teacher.paragraph 3 focused on miss odu’s speech: miss odu promised to teach and counsel the studentsparagraph 4 reflected on the general impression the children had on their new teacher. a combination of macro-rules was also applied to summarize the paragraph: the children felt that miss odu was understanding and motherly. however, the gist of the passage is captured in this single sentence: miss odu was more caring than the other teachers. in the section that follows, practical examples of how macro-rules are applied to generate macrostructures that summarize a text are given. application of macro-rules in generating macrostructures used in producing summaries the macro-rule of deletion there are two types of deletion: (i) delete unimportant or trivial information (ii) delete redundant information. consider the following examples: re-writethe following sentences below and delete all unimportant and redundant materials. 1. all said and done, and in the final analysis, the decree must be obeyed by these poor helpless villagers. macrostructure: finally, the decree must be obeyed by the villagers analysis: “all said and done” share the same meaning with “in the final analysis”. it renders the information redundant. so, one is deleted and the other one reduced to a single word – “finally”. the modifiers “poor” and “helpless” are unimportant, hence they are deleted. 2. our website has made available many of the things you can use for making a decision on the best dentist. macrostructure: our website presents the criteria for determining the best dentist. note the following points: “presents” replaces “has made available” “criteria” replaces “many of the things you can use” “determining” replaces “for making a decision”. 3. many have made a wise observation that when a stone is in motion, rolling down a hill or incline, that the moving stone is not likely to be covered all over with the kind of thick green moss that grows on stationary unmoving things. they become a nuisance giving the impression that they haven’t moved in a long time and possibly would not move any time soon. macrostructure: a rolling stone gathers no moss (6 words) analysis: this short passage is full of redundant materials: i. “in motion”, “rolling down”, “the moving stone” all share the same meaning (the notion of movement). ii. “hill” and “incline” also share the same meaning iii. “stationary”, “unmoving”, “have not moved”, “would not move” are redundant ways of saying the same thing. iv. “in a long time” and “any time soon” also share the same meaning v. the phrase “to be covered all over” is replaced with a single word – “gathers” ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 111 njoku result: all the redundant and unimportant information were successfully deleted and the short passage which was made up of sixty six words, was reduced to only six words. the use of super-ordinate terms two types of substitutions are required here: 1. replace a list of items with a super-ordinate or general term 2. substitute a list of actions with a “super-act” or “macro-act”. consider the following examples: re-write the following sentences replacing the list of items/actions with a general term: i. james went to the market and bought hoe, shovel, go-to-hell, machete, cutlass, pruning saw and spade. macrostructure: james bought farm implements/tool.farm implements or farm tools is the general term for the list given above. ii. ken decorated the house with roses, lilies, hibiscus, marigold, and allamanda. macrostructure: ken decorated the house with flowers. iii. george did the arithmetic problems, then he did the five-page reading assignment on social studies. finally, he studied the spelling list for tomorrow’s test. macrostructure: george did his homework. all the sentences are the sub-component acts of the “global” or “macro-act” of doing his homework. the macro-rule of selection this rule applies where the topic sentences are explicitly stated. on identifying the topic sentence the student then re-states it in his/her own language, using as few words as possible. it is a punishable offence to lift the topic sentence verbatim from the original passage. consider the following example: identify the topic sentence in the following short passage and restate it in your own words: 1. his choice of career has been criticized by his teacher. his father had also attempted to dissuade him from it. his friends as well had laughed at his ambition. but sam kolade did not give; he was determined as ever to become a champion wrestler. macrostructure: despite all oppositions, sam kolade was bent on becoming a wrestler. note: the underlined sentence is the topic sentence, but it was condensed to get at the answer. (no verbatim lifting!) the macro-rule of invention the rule of invention states that where there is no topic sentence, or where the topic sentence is not explicitly stated, the summary writer should invent or construct one. the summary writer has to infer from the sequences of sentences that make up that unit or paragraph, the meaning that the author wants to convey. he relates this with his world view or personal experience and finally arrives at a conclusion. then he/she constructs a topic sentence for that unit, where the main idea is not explicitly stated. example: provide topic sentences for the short passages below: 1. a lot of children came and brought presents. they played games and blew bubbles at each other. a magician came and showed them some magic. later, jennifer opened her presents and blew out the candles on her cake. macrostructure: jennifer had a birthday party. 2. sarah was playing football. fatima was jumping over a rope. selma was drawing a house and matilda was running round the field. macrostructure: the children were playing. according to abushihab, the construction/invention rule does not eliminate irrelevant propositions. rather, all the propositions are constructed into a single macro-proposition. recommendations an adage says, “make hay while the sun shines”. the overall importance of summary skills underscores the need to introduce the skills to our children early in school. it is pertinent to note here ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 112 njoku that without the knowledge of macrostructures, and how they are derived through the application of macro-rules, developing effective summary writing skills will be a mirage. based on this, the paper recommends the following: • there is need for total over hauling of our school system to accommodate programmes that will enhance reading and writing skills in schools. • more specifically, summary writing instruction should be taken seriously in our secondary school curriculum. • language teachers should be given refresher training on how to teach summary writing. • they should acquaint themselves with the knowledge of macro-rules and macrostructures and how best they can use them to teach the students how to write summaries. • parents should join hands with schools to provide the students enough reading materials to enable them engage in extensive reading, which will in turn enhance their store of vocabulary. • students should be exposed to varieties of sentence structures which enable flexibility in sentence construction and restructuring that are required for paraphrasing and integration of ideas in summary writing tasks. conclusion summary writing is about eliminating wordiness and producing a clear and concise account of a material read. often, writers use several small ambiguous words to express a concept; wasting energy expressing ideas that are better relayed through fewer specific words. summaries take care of all these and help to reduce complex information to its gist. the benefits of developing effective summary skills cannot be over-emphasized. summary skills help students at all levels in their general academic work. their reading skills improve and they have better understanding of the materials they read across all subjects. they develop critical thinking as they evaluate what to take up as important information and what to discard in any reading they engage in. at the tertiary level, students often write academic/research papers. in these papers, information is gathered from many sources and included in the work. this is usually done to make the work more forceful and convincing. a few direct quotations are allowed but generally, students are expected to summarize or paraphrase this information in their own words. summary writing gives practice in this rather difficult task. in the world of work, each profession has its own special needs for summary skills. the professional teacher needs it to gather the knowledge/information that he/she wants to pass across to his/her students. the executive manager who is busy with so many engagements prefers the summary of a report instead of having to wade through a very long report. the journalist needs the skill to select and present essential information from among a host of information available to him. even the housewife, who makes a list before going to the market, unconsciously engages in summary skills. suffice it then to say that acquiring effective summary skills is not an option; it is a must development for students at all levels. they are life-long skills needed, not only in school but also in the world of work and in life after school. works cited abushihab, ibrahim. “the role of pragmatic macro-structures in textual interpretation. international journal of linguistics. vol.7 no. 1 2015. accessed 2 may, 2021, http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijlv7.1.7207. anderson, valerie and hidi, suzanne. “teaching students to summarize”. educational leadership journal. 1998: 26-28. accessed 10 july, 2014. azikiwe, uche. language teaching and learning and learning. onitcha, nigeria: africana fep publishers. 1978. print. cismako, tony. “paraphrasing and summary: purdue online writing lab. 2009 accessed 2 . may, 2021. https://owe.purdue.edu/esl_students. crystal, david. a dictionary of linguistics and phonetics black well publishing. 2008. print. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijlv7.1.7207 https://owe.purdue.edu/esl_students ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 113 njoku de beaugrande, robert-alain and dressler, wolfang, u. introduction to text linguistics. new york: longman, 1981. dictionary . co (an online dictionary) eyisi, joy. the mechanics of reading comprehension and summary writing. nimo, anambra: rex charles and patrick. 2005. print. gaetz, lyme and phadke, suneeti. the writers world new jersey: pearson education. 2009. 259-263 print. halliday, michael a.k. and hassan, r. cohesion in english. london: longman. 1976. ikonta, nonye r. & ugbede, ngozi j. “reading strategies: acatalyst for enhancing comprehensive summary writing proficiency among high school students in lagos nigeria”. university of lagos journal vol.2 no.1 2014 https://ir.unilag.edu.nig/3932. kintsch, walter and teun, a., van dijk. “toward or model of text comprehension and production.” psychological review. vol. 85 no.5, 363-394. 1978, accessed 10 july, 2015. learning a – z common core: “text complexity”. 2010 prek 5 common core resources & tools. https://www.learninga-z.com/site. accessed 3 may, 2021. longe, victor. “teaching the art of precise and summary writing”. in ubahakwe, ebo (ed) the teaching of english studies: reading for colleges and universities. ibadan: ibadan university press. 115-136. 1979. print. louwerse, max m. and graessar, authur. macrostructures. in e.k. brown (ed). the encyclopedia of language and linguistics. amsterdan: elesvier, 2006. norisma, idris; sapiyan, baba and rukaini, abdullah. “identifying students’ summary writing strategies using summary sentence decomposition algorithm”. malaysian journal of computer science. vol.24(4), 2011 180-194. accessed 10 july, 2016. slamecka, vladirmir. “information processing”. encyclopedia britannica. 9 august 2018, https://www.britannica.com/technology/informationprocessing. accessd 2 may, 2021. textopedia-discurso & socieded. “macrostructure”. teun a. dijk. version 1.0. october 17, 2005. accessed 2 may, 2021. van dijk, teun a. macrostructures. hillsdale: nj erlbaum. 1980. print. wang, yuan and guo, minghe. “a short analysis of discourse coherence”. journal of language teaching and research. vol.5, no.2, pp. 460 – 465. finland: academy publisher 2014 doi.10.4304/jltr.5.2460-465. accessed 10 july, 2016. wikipedia (online dictionary) wikipedia.org accessed 2 may, 2021 https://ir.unilag.edu.nig/3932 https://www.learninga-z.com/site https://www.britannica.com/technology/informationprocessing ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 96 odinye & ebingha language and style as feminist extension in nuruddin farah’s from a crooked rib dr. ifeoma ezinne odinye department of language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria ie.odinye@unizik.edu.ng & beatrice n. ebingha department of english and literary studies university of calabar email: ebinghabeatricengwede@unical.edu.ng abstract this research explores language and style as feminist extension in farah’s from a crooked rib. in other words, the study examines how plot, narrative technique and setting have influenced farah’s stylistic pattern. this is achieved through a semantic analysis and interpretation of some lexical items and patriarchal descriptions of hemmed-in somalia gender prejudice and female inferiority in farah’s novel. the lexical items visible in the title “from a crooked rib” have acquired cultural meanings that contend with feminist tenets of female assertiveness and emancipation. within the feminist circles, symbolic patterns of fictional exposition delineate farah’s motifs—journey and slavery. keywords: language, style, semantics, feminist extension introduction one does not overlook the fact that language has a universal value dealing with human thoughts and creativity. as a tool of literary communication, linguistic resources are explored to create an aura of verisimilitude—an evidence that captures the semiotic mould within a given cultural context. the argument presented above is an implicit endorsement that a literary artist chooses the semiotic elements or features within a well-known geographical setting to interpret a trend. there is either an acceptance of this trend or an implicit rejection leading to satirical jabs. basically, there is a symbolic affinity between reality and thematic preoccupation inherent in the artist’s text. in terms of originality, the novelist’s artistic truths and efforts become a technique that aids the narration. certainly, the artist’s linguistic usage remains a device in evaluating the significant features or qualities of the literary creation. in describing social or cultural situation, literary elements visible in the forms of plot, diction, theme, setting, character, narrative technique and point of view are necessary for a coherent evaluation. a good knowledge of these elements is very paramount in interpreting experiences within an imaginative genre. all these are articulated using words, phrases or sentence patterns that capture a unique historical point in time and physical regions with a peculiar emotion. if one should indulge in any form of analogy about language and style, then it is important to understand that no writer’s pattern of writing is incidental or supplementary—all manner of imaginative documentations are ideas represented as style. a concatenation of narrative events is meant to achieve a desired effect—to communicate the complexity of human experiences in a variety of meanings which may be structural, lexical, semantic and general. we can also conceptualize body language, facial expression and gesture as part of the inherent language with nuances of interpretations and meanings. so effective are the above forms in interpreting the artist’s philosophical idea within a given literary text. since every social background calls for humanistic and moral attention which is inexhaustible, this paper explicates language and style as unconstrained index of asserting gender ideologies and space in nuruddin farah’s from a crooked rib. feminist patterns: stylistic and semantic analyses of farah’s from a crooked rib an objective approach to nuruddin farah’s novel sees a technique of conscious feminist undertone– impressive expressions that are not culture-bound. a clear view as suggested by odinye (2019) mailto:ie.odinye@unizik.edu.ng mailto:ebinghabeatricengwede@unical.edu.ng ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 97 odinye & ebingha stresses the obvious fact that “the social positions of girls and women in most african societies are closely related to the roles they play in society” (116). no doubt, the novel has revealed instances of patriarchal impressionistic purposes in addressing gender identity. the title of farah’s novel, from a crooked rib draws semantic interpretation—an ideal approach to ameliorate female condition. the above phrasal expression which forms the title of farah’s text conveys a symbolic interpretation that binds users’ utterances to cultural concepts in order to understand gender ideologies—patriarchal and feminist as dialog components. the social prestige ascribed to the expression is very symbolic because it speaks to its content in many ways. farah’s title cues the readers into the central idea of the novel—the enduring tradition of drained female essence. to stress clearly, there is an intensification of the critical language understanding, an urge to overhaul farah’s thematic foundation on which the patriarchal cultural outlook of gender identity is erected. this critical semantic interpretation solely hinges on feminist mentality. the central motif of the novel is built around the interpretative meanings of the title from a crooked rib which acquires a cultural meaning in the context of the novel. semantically, there are two levels of meaning in the novel; the lexical usage of the expression and the contextual meaning which is intricately interpreted within a feminist idiolect—the language of the superior ‘oedipal figure heads’ to the perpetually fixed dependent inferior females. using the oxford advanced learner’s dictionary, the lexical items in the title are defined below with the use of english as a first language: a) ‘from’—is a preposition indicating an origin, starting point or the initial reference connected to the subject of discussion (599). b) ‘a’—is one or any indefinite example of something making reference to a singular item of a group (1). c) ‘crooked’—means straight, having one or more bends or angels (349). d) ‘rib’—any of a series of curved bones occurring in 12 pairs in humans and other animals and extending from the spine to or toward the sternum (1256). the above lexical items are represented in this paper, first as words used within the l1 circumstances and secondly as words with contextual meanings under a custom or established practice within a given cultural milieu in l2 context (the use of english as a second language).in the context of the novel, the denotation, connotation or idea connected with the individual word that forms part of the title acquires certain culture-bound interpretations. in reading from a crooked rib, we know that there is a subtle semantic discussion which draws meaning from the text. the title helps the readers to understand and interpret characters’ utterances, by analyzing the grammatical structure of their expressions, and identifying relationships between characters’ words within the context of somalia culture and islamic religion. from a close reading of the novel, we know that ebla owes allegiance to a patriarchal figure, probably her legally married husband, awill despite his unending infidelity. this realization is undoubtedly aligned to somalia’s islamic patriarchal ego—a religious cultural context that gives undue power of superiority to males over the inferior females. no wonder, when awill addresses his wife ebla, we perceive a mixture of ego and male superiority: ‘you know how you were created? awill asked smiling. ‘yes, i know.’ ‘let me tell you that you were created from the crooked rib of adam…’ and if anyone tries to straighten it, he will have to break it’. (from a crooked rib, 170) certainly, awill proudly announces to his wife a clear stance of somali religious ideology that “a woman’s prophet and second-to-god is her husband” (from a crooked rib, 151). awill’s confession gives a structured illumination on female position—a being formed from a single curved rib of a man. thus the composition of a woman’s body is solely dependent on a man’s physical and spiritual essence symbolized by ‘a bended or curved rib’. the words ‘crooked, bended or curved’ perform an adjectival function, often originally adjectives but used as nouns within the context of expression. the technicalities relating to the adjectival syntax elicit female total submission, humility and overall acceptance of male superiority or dominance. the interpretation of the expression, from a crooked rib centers on the subordinating position of females as second-class citizens simply fashioned for ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 98 odinye & ebingha men’s use or manipulation—a total ownership of body and soul. it is observed that the extract ‘from a crooked rib’ in the title aligns in thought with the extract ‘…from a crooked rib of adam’ captured in awill’s utterances in the quotation above. the two occurrences of the expression are adherently and ideologically connected through the act of conscious reiteration obviously having the same referent— man. structurally, the name “adam” is a male given name, the progenitor of homo sapiens in the purview of abrahamic religious practices—interpretatively, eve (ebla) is created from one of the curved ribs of adam (awill). awill and ebla through the recognized traditional marriage rites belong in the same chain of identity. the logical assumption within the text places awill in the position of adam as a model. notably, the extract, “and if anyone tries to straighten it, he will have to break it” (from a crooked rib, 170) is challenging the feminist construction of female consciousness which inscribes ebla with both psychic and physical mobility strewn with huge negative consequences. the use of the modal auxiliary verb ‘will’ in english customarily attaches compulsion of destruction on an action that attempts to straighten the curved or crooked rib. ebla’s daring psychic and physical deviation from the somali-islamic value of female docility and voicelessness imposes a protest against male hegemony culminating into series of insensitivity and troubles in her patriarchal clime. the focus of the extract “from a crooked rib” is a figurative expression that makes reference to the thematic preoccupation of the novel. farah draws on a memorable line spoken by a character (awill) as the title of his novel. therefore, the title functions to emphasize the parallel themes of female oppression and national consciousness. there are several levels on which we can interpret farah’s title. first is the actual implied statement made by awill concerning the subordinate role of the female gender. the second is the interpretation of ebla’s quest for freedom and subsequent strategies employed to resist male subjugation which only ends in negotiation and complementarity. despite ebla’s continuous quest to escape patriarchal oppression, we see her at the end of the story, literally reconciling with her first husband awill, the man who has raped and cheated on her several times. ebla’s statement foreshadows this reunion “... awill was the only husband i married willingly…” (from a crooked rib 158). we can move on to the symbolic meaning of the title. the narrator (awill) makes a point in telling the readers that ebla as his wife is part of his crooked rib. in a wider context, farah depicts ebla’s experiences as a symbolic representation of the condition of the female gender in somalia and their overall dependence on men for survival. through the relation of substitution, farah presupposes symbolic images to adequately capture female subjugation and her inability to pass beyond the limits of patriarchal bizarre challenges. one implication of the discussion is that farah explored the journey motif as a stylistic device towards female emancipation. farah begins his novel with physical and psychological mobility. the narrator observes that, “ebla desired, more than anything to fly away; like a cock which has unknotted itself from the string tying its leg to the wall…. she wanted to fly away from dependence on the seasons, the seasons which determine the life or death of the nomads…” (from a crooked rib 13). note that the narrator’s utterances do not contradict ebla’s situation—a coercive attempt by ebla’s grandfather to marry her off without due consultation to “giumaleh, an old man of forty-eight: fit to be her father” (from a crooked rib, 9). ebla’s indifference to a man who has given her hand in marriage to an old man in a mere exchange for camel sets the pattern of her assertiveness (from a crooked rib, 15). in the quotation above, it is necessary to do a lexical study in order to see the purported negative cultural pattern that propels ebla’s ignominious choice of escape. for instance, the words ‘fly away’ is semantically interpreted in the text to mean ‘unrestrained, light and free”.ebla’s flighty quest is likened to the imagined swift movement of a bird in situations that betray its search for tranquility. in the extract, the semantic interpretation one can give is that ebla symbolizes the ‘cock’ that has unknotted itself from the string of patriarchal webs—a situation that presents man as the predator. farah’s use of the semiotic element ‘camel’ signifies a hierarchy of importance placed on the animal culturally over the girl, ebla. the patriarchal betrayal and its collocation with ebla’s flight is an obvious journey for mobility—a quest for freedom (emotional and physical).in fact, farah inscribes “mobility (physical and psychological) as the starting point of female consciousness in somalia ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 99 odinye & ebingha muslim culture that imposes immobility on the female” (okereke “the journey as trope…” 91). indeed, this journey is a journey of growth into consciousness raising for the protagonist. stylistically, from a crooked rib is held together and organized around certain journey rhythms and journey motifs (movements) that act as centripetal forces, making for cohesion in the various elements of the novel. first, there is the rhythm of resistance and physical motion on ebla’s part, a rhythm that provides an important thematic concern revealing the escape routes which ebla takes to negotiate a space with men (tiffo and awill). farah’s artistic arrangement of these rhythms and movements is a credit both on his artistic insight and on his novelistic technique. farah arranges each movement so that it appears more complicated and grievous than the preceding one, assuming a deeper dimension in ebla’s pitiful march towards negotiation with men. ‘movement’ in from a crooked rib has many semantic implications and farah’s exploration of these implications is a laudable achievement of his artistic intuition. the term, ‘movement’, in one sense, means ‘physical motion between points in space’ and in another sense; it means ‘motion of the mind or feelings (emotion)’. in essence, ebla literally tries to escape from patriarchal oppression each time there is a movement. when ebla first escapes from her nomadic environment, her scornful embittered grandfather could not understand why she should abandon and disregard the somali tradition of being married off to a man based on his choice. this first escape is indeed a movement that shows ebla’s consciousness about her plight as a girl. ebla’s movement as a motion of the ‘mind or emotions’ describes her psychological disposition or feelings towards societal, cultural and individual maltreatment or oppression of the girl-child as a result of her gender. to ebla, “… the allotment of assignments denoted the status of a woman, that she was lower in status than a man, and that she was weak.… (from a crooked rib 13). the journey in farah’s from a crooked rib unfolds in three movements—first, second and third movements. each movement depicts an escape from patriarchal oppression and subjugation which equips ebla with a new experience as well as some assertive traits that enable her to explore her physical, emotional and psychological growth. the first movement of ebla’s journey is an escape from the imposing limitations of a traditional society to empowerment through space and time. ebla chooses to revolt against patriarchal subjugation by escaping from her nomad rural setting to belet wene to avoid an arranged marriage with an old man (giumaleh). this journey is a movement away from the traditional somalia muslim culture that subjects girls to forced marriage through bartering. the second movement depicts a physical journey from the urban setting of belet wene to the city of mogadiscio. ebla flees belet wene with the widow’s nephew (awill) without the consent of her cousin, (gheddi). ebla escapes because gheddi like her grandfather wants to marry her off to a broker as a wife. in the third movement, ebla makes a revolutionary movement to obstruct patriarchal marital law by marrying tiffo as her second husband. this third movement is a physical movement from awill’s house to tiffo’s house as a new bride. the third movement shows ebla’s revolutionary stance and assertiveness to seek for equality and freedom of choice and expression. the third movement also captures the climax of the story, ebla’s marriage with tiffo drives her to self-examination and deep reflection. through ebla’s speech, the reader x-rays the false consciousness which has blinded her mode of reasoning towards male chauvinism. ebla reflects on her experiences and comes to the conclusion that she is still trapped in the web of men. she escapes from the old man, giumaleh, only to end up with another old man, tiffo. she becomes aware of her position and thus confesses her dealings with men: “giumaleh, i never saw him. it was only verbally done between him and my grandfather. diris made an arrangement with my cousin…. awill was the only husband i married willingly…” (from a crooked rib158). indeed, ebla learns through her experiences and assertive journey for emancipation. she learns the ethics and subordinating position of somalia culture that leaves the female gender without a choice. in fact, ebla’s bitter experiences as a bartered girl and a social misfit who marries a second husband for revenge teaches her great lessons. these experiences are vital in raising her consciousness. okereke observes that “experience is thus a vital weapon in woman’s survival and achievement of growth. the journey becomes a journey of growth from innocence to knowledge, from naivety to experience” (“the journey as trope…” 95). by escaping from two planned marriages, eloping with awill and marrying tiffo, ebla has gained experience through her journey. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 100 odinye & ebingha the motif of slavery is also a recurring element in farah’s from a crookedrib. significantly, farah attacks the somali cultural milieu for treating girls like slaves. in the novel, ebla’s individual right to freedom of choice is abused and denied. in fact, through the experiences of ebla, farah seems to suggest that ebla lives in a patriarchal society that places constraints on the girl child’s concept of life. ebla is bartered like animals for marriage proposals by her grandfather and cousin, gheddi, without her consent. she serves as a slave girl to gheddi’s wife, performing mean roles of milking cows, feeding other animals and nursing gheddi’s baby. in essence, farah stresses that the somali society exploits girls through a system of assigned and devalued roles. ebla’s status as a slave girl is further seen when gheddi uses her as a smuggling channel for his illegal business. farah’s representation of the girl child as a slave in somalia is further seen in awill’s inhuman act of rape that violates ebla’s right. this act of violence is an abuse of human rights which exposes male chauvinism and men’s perception of girls as mere property to be owned and used. to liberate ebla from male chauvinism, farah imbues her with assertive traits to revolt against patriarchal oppression and subjugation. unfortunately, ebla succumbs to the same fate she wishes to escape— this shows a cyclical structure because she ends where she started from, though with more experience, knowledge and power in gender issues. setting is an essential element in examining the style of a text. the “setting of a narrative work is the general locale and historical time in which its action occurs; the setting of an episode or scene within a work is the particular physical location in which it takes place” (abrams 157). the setting as an element of fiction is very important in understanding the concept of foregrounding and backgrounding. poynton suggests that “ideological meanings come into view as a result of power configurations where ideology not only reflects the society that produced it, but remains bound together to reinforce its own identity” (18). the setting of farah’s from a crooked rib is situated in somalia. the general setting of the novel conveys the picture of an islamic religious traditional setting that offers no space for female emancipation and exploration of basic human rights based on western ideology. this depiction gears farah’s fictional creation towards reconstructing somalia to give meaning to female existence. in view of the above, meriem observes that in farah’s fiction, “women’s struggle for freedom and for the right to voice themselves becomes an allegory for a nation in search of its voice. new womanhood becomes interchangeable with a new somalia…” (84). the physical settings such as ebla’s nomad setting, belet wene and mogadiscio provide an atmosphere that oppresses and subjugates the protagonist to different forms of violence. these acts of violence are evidently linked to the patriarchal mentality and structures inherent in the above settings. in ebla’s rural nomadic encampment and belet wene, she is exposed to bartering and forced marriage. also, in the city of mogadiscio, ebla is raped by awill. notably, all these settings are synonymous with girl child oppression and subjugation. the plot forms a stylistic pattern in farah’s from a crooked rib. farah’s plot is presented in a chronological order. in essence, the story adopts a linear plot structure which employs a narrative memory to depict the experiences of ebla. structurally, from a crooked rib is divided into four parts (4) namely: part one, part two, part three and part four. part one comprises chapters 1-3, part two contains chapters 4-15, part three has chapters 16-20 and part four contains chapters 20-30. the structure of the novel consists of four basic parts: exposition, complication of conflict or rising action, climax, denouement or resolution. farah uses prologue to expose the events that would lead to conflicts in the main plot. the prologue performs the basic function of exposition by introducing a character, an old man whose actions would create conflicts in the story. the omniscient narrator introduces the temperament of a character (ebla’s grandfather) who is unhappy about a given situation that deviates from the normal family and traditional modes of living. the angry mood of the old man (ebla’s grandfather) indicates a serious conflict which forces him to rain curses on his subject of discussion (ebla). the narrator comments: “he could curse. that was all he could do. other than that, he could give advice, but now he cursed” (from a crooked rib 3). the plot of farah’s from a crooked rib is designed to achieve the effect of satire. satire in a literary work is designed to achieve the effect of ridiculing and evoking contempt, indignation, or scorn. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 101 odinye & ebingha farah adopts satire as a variety of plot patterns in order to ridicule and expose varying religious, traditional and cultural elements that subjugate the girl-child. he develops the plot of from a crooked rib to clearly show the gradual movement of ebla’s struggles from rebellion to self-assertion and finally to negotiation. farah’s plot relies heavily on suspense to heighten the protagonist’s purpose for emancipation which keeps the reader’s sense alive till the resolution of the story or conflict. the plot of the novel develops into conflicts as ebla escapes from her family’s rural setting to a city (belet wene). the plot further takes a feminist dimension as ebla becomes more determined and assertive in her struggle for liberation against patriarchy. in fact, the plot offers surprises to the readers when ebla represses her assertive quest for emancipation and reconciles with her oppressor, awill. this creates an emotional pull that keeps the readers pathetic towards the condition of the female protagonist. in essence, the resolution of ebla’s conflict through reconciliation with the oedipal figurehead that sexually abused her, is one way farah tries to expose the fact that human rights violation constitutes a huge problem in somalia. the plot of farah’s from a crooked rib is appropriate for exposing violence on the female gender because it clearly exposes the abuse of female bodies through forced marriage, bartering and sexual exploitation. farah’s plot through the journey and slavery motifs exposes various views on female oppression and how ebla surmounts her oppression. farah’s plot is symbolically cyclic in nature because we see ebla returning to the oppressive condition she once rejected. significantly, farah’s portrayal appeals to the readers’ emotions and draws their concern to the helpless condition of females in somalia. narrative technique is one of the stylistic devices visible in farah’s novel. obviously, the value attached to his novel does not merelycenter “on its impact but on how the story is told” (onyekwere 124). therefore, narrative technique becomes a good literary tool that enhances a writer’s style of writing. the stream of consciousness technique is extensively employed in the novels of farah. this technique uses monologue to capture free expression of inner feelings and thoughts of ebla as a female protagonist. it also helps her to comment on her bizarre conditions as well as evaluate them.farah in writing from a crooked rib adopts the omniscient point of view which is a common term for: the assumption in a work of fiction that the narrator knows everything that needs to be known about the agents and events; that he is entirely free to move as he will in time and place, and to shift from character to character, reporting (or concealing) what he chooses of their speech and actions; and also that he has privileged access to a character’s thoughts and feelings and motives, as well as to his overt speech actions. (abrams 134) the narrative features of farah’s novel are also very interesting, especially the use of the third-person omniscient narrator to capture the inner dialogue and thoughts of all the characters. by allowing ebla to express her feelings and condition, farah’s ultimate goal is to show more than tell. this is evident in situations where he allows the individual characters to express their thoughts using monologue. farah uses monologue to x-ray the emotions and psychological disposition of his protagonist, ebla. one must not fail to draw attention to farah’s use of point of view to empower his protagonist. farah is an intrusive narrator who not only reports but freely comments on his characters, evaluating their actions and motives and expressing his views about human life in general. the omniscient narrator introduces ebla as a girl who wants to escape from patriarchal holds and thus engages in an emotional quest to liberate herself. according to the narrator, “ebla had been toying with the idea of leaving home for quite some time. however, she did not know whether this would be temporary change of air ― in a tow ― or a permanent departure…” (from a crooked rib 8). the above quotation foreshadows ebla’s movements for self-assertion and empowerment in the novel. the omniscient narrator who knows the thoughts of every character gives the readers a clue to understanding the thoughts and feelings of ebla as the protagonist. from the narrator, we can see where the sympathy and interest of farah lies. in the beginning of the novel, ebla is physically described by the narrator to also attract our sympathy towards her plight: “she was very tall, but this was not exceptional here. she stood six feet high. she would have been very beautiful, had it not been for the disproportion of her body. she thought about things and people in her own way, but always respected the old and the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 102 odinye & ebingha dead…” (from a crookedrib 8). the above description is in contrast with the way farah describes ebla’s grandfather as an ‘old man’ who rains curses on a vulnerable granddaughter (from a crooked rib 6). farah employs point of view to disapprove patriarchal superstructures that oppress and limit the female gender. the omniscient narrative perspective helps readers to understand the way a given character perceives her oppression and relates with other characters. the way the omniscient narrator goes into the minds of different characters helps readers to understand what motivates their actions in the plot. these motivations are also perceived as the processes of characterization where a given character is defined by his or her attitudes and experiences. farah’s use of the third person omniscient narrator allows the readers to get the story from the characters themselves. this is deduced from the characters’ speech, thoughts and action—that is questioning of self through inner dialogue. in essence, farah objectively presents his story without imposing himself on the narration. in the novel, farah allows ebla to question the demeaning gender inequality instituted by patriarchy. from ebla’s rhetorical questions, we can decipher that she is physically and psychologically tortured by somalia’s savage culture. she therefore interrogates herself by questioning the reality of women’s existence: but why is a woman, a woman? to give companionship to man? to beget him children? to do a woman’s duty? but that is only in the house. what else? she asked herself. surely a woman is indispensable to man, but do men realize it? (from a crooked rib 12) farah’s narrative style is unique as a result of the density of his sentence structure and the unbroken flow of thought and awareness in the waking mind of the protagonist. in narrating ebla’s assertive nature for freedom from asha’s advice and manipulation, farah employs the stream of consciousness to “capture the full spectrum and flow of his heroine’s mental process in which sense of perceptions mingle with conscious and half-conscious thoughts, memories, feelings, and random associations” (abrams 165). ebla thought over the question many a time, and finally she made up her mind. ‘asha doesn't have to tell me what to do and what not to do…. it is me who marries or is divorced, so she doesn't have to put her nose into my private business. i will tell her to keep out of it. in future i am responsible for whatever i do. tomorrow, i will tell her. tomorrow. in future i will be myself and belong to myself, and my actions will belong to me. and i will, in turn, belong to them’. (from a crooked rib142) monologue is also a special technique used by farah to capture ebla’s inner dialogue and thoughts about the culture of valuing boys more than girls in somali society. this is what ebla perceives as gender inequality or discrimination that confers an inferior position on girls, while boys are highly valued. ebla comments: why is it only the sons in the family who are counted? for sure this world is a man’s – it is his dominion and is going to be his as long as women are oppressed as long as this remains the system of life. nature is against women. if a woman wants to argue about her fundamental rights not being fulfilled by her husband, it is always a man that she must see –at government office and every other place. before she has opened her mouth, she is condemned to the grave. aren’t men the law? (from a crooked rib 84) farah allows ebla to express herself in monologue so as to portray the pitiful condition of girls and women in somalia. ebla’s monologue is very symbolic, because it shows her frantic efforts to escape from patriarchal subjugation. the monologue below summarizes her efforts: woman? ‘she asked in a grunting male voice, ‘are you a cheat?’ ‘sometimes.’ ‘but why?’ ‘because men cheat me.’ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 103 odinye & ebingha ‘i take revenge upon them.’ ‘yes, but why?’ ‘i don’t know, i am innocent. i don’t know what to do. i don’t know what i do sometimes. i do things; just do them without really getting myself involved. i put my faith in my man, but once i lose it, then it is hard to regain it. it is jealousy and insecurity that causes most misunderstanding.’ (from a crooked rib 166) ebla interrogates herself in order to express her repressed emotions and make a stance that – men and women are equal irrespective of their biological differences. also in the above quotation, ebla is able to foreground the image of the female gender in somalia society, as people whose bodies are constantly haunted by men’s crooked sexual drive and chauvinistic behaviour. through ebla’s voice, the readers are able to understand her pain and emotional torture in a male dominated society. from the above quotation, it is also clear that the superego is an important factor in illustrating the fate of the protagonist in her act of rebellion and revenge against oedipal figureheads. her monologue suggests that she is disillusioned and wants to conquer oedipal forces of domination, depression and oppression. indeed, the unconscious sense of guilt, with the corresponding need for rebellion, satisfied through manipulating men like tiffo, plays a decisive part in ebla’s willingness to revenge or challenge awill’s infidelity and oppression. significantly, farah’s narrative techniques help to explore the theme of violence, self-assertion and self-actualization. also, farah’s adoption of different narrative techniques helps to create an impact that provokes sympathy from the readers. conclusion from the foregoing, it is clear that plot, narrative technique, setting and semantic interpretation based on contextual meanings attached to some lexical items contributedto farah’s creative style. the semantic extension culminates into a contextualization of facts that has captured the semiotic mould within the somalia cultural context—a trend of bartering that imposes inferiority and savagery on the female gender. more importantly, the lexical items of farah’s title have acquired additional cultural meanings in order to account for the unique somali socio-cultural experience hinged on female subjugation and oppression. works cited abrams, m.h. a glossary of literary terms. new york: holt, rinehart and winston, inc.,1971. abrams, m.h.and g.g. harpham. a glossary of literary terms. 10th ed. london: wadsworth cengage learning, 2012. farah, nuruddin. from a crooked rib. london: heinemann, 1970. hornby, a.s. oxford advanced learner’s dictionary of current english. 7th edition. new york: oxford university press, 2006. kempson, r.m. semantic theory. london: cambridge university press, 1977. meriem, helmi ben. “(re)claiming the body of the somali woman in nuruddin farah’s from a crooked rib”. bildhaan: an international journal somali studies. 15.1(2015):83-105. odinye, i.e. violence against girls: a feminist perspective on nuruddin farah’s from a crooked rib in journal of linguistics, language and culture (jollc) 6(1).113139.2019. okereke, grace eche. “the journey as trope for female growth in zaynab alkali’s the virtuous woman”. currents in african literature and the english language. 1.1 (march, 1997):91-101. onyekwere, t.b. “narrative techniques/points of view”. appreciating the craft of literature. a book of readings. eds. a.a onukaogu and o. okpara. aba: assemblies of god, 2004.123-140. poynton, cate. language and gender: making the difference. victoria: deakin university press, 1985. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 1 conduit corruption: a multimodal critical discourse analysis of sleaze in nigerian socio-political system prof. jane n. ifechelobi department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: jn.ifechelobi@unizik.edu.ng & winifred ngozi nwachukwu email: wnwachukwu@yahoo.com abstract corruption has become endemic among many nations of the world, nigeria inclusive. she, more than any other country in africa, has suffered under the crippling influence of corruption despite her much-touted position as “the giant of africa”. to this end, several responses to this ugly scenario have emerged ranging from the literary to the visual. this study is a modest attempt to investigate the conceptual representation of sleaze in the political cartoons of mike asukwo and the multimodal resources deployed in creating such cartoons. the population of the study is 50 cartoons from asukwo’s businessday on-line publications between 20152018. the study provides a qualitative analysis of five cartoons on the themes of conduit corruption. they are purposively sampled to ensure they align with the theme of the study. the study adopts kress van leeuwen’s (2006) social semiotics and kress and van leeuwen (2001) multimodal critical discourse analysis frameworks for its analysis. the findings show that through asukwo’s form of signification that corruption has eaten deeply into the fabrics of the nation. it further proved the analytical framework adequate for the interpretation of images thereby making the cartoon genre a formidable force in the fight against corruption as asukwo sarcastically shows. keywords: multimodal critical discourse analysis, social semiotics, semiosis introduction background to the study analysing visual language has always been a problem as many people interpret images just as they appear. semiosis as a form of communication is concerned with the exchange of messages through signs. communication among humans is often done with the intention of conveying messages or meaning through the act or process of signification. signification in this regard means the ability of signs (whether visual, textual or gestural) to communicate meanings. according to pierce, the world is perfused with signs if not entirely made up of signs, (pierce 1931). consequently, all known cultures rely on signs to convey messages swiftly and conveniently. thus, given that communication is meaning oriented, the ultimate goal of semiotics is to unravel the meanings that are built into all kinds of human interactions including those that come from words, symbols, narratives, symphonies, paintings, and comic books to scientific theories and mathematical theorems danesi (2007). the universality of pictures is incontestable especially with the advancement in technology. again, human experience has now become more visual and visualised than ever before. the tendency in the modern world therefore is to rely on pictures because they make communication more comprehensible, quicker and more effective (mirzoeff, 1998). this is captured in what has come to be called the “pictorial turn” in which the visual is also being acknowledged as an essential component of communication (mitchell, 2004). in other words, visual messages are much more succinct and provide clearer summary of events or issues. such messages are given preference over conventional media in view of their unique features in communicating and retaining information (benoit, klyukovski, mchale and airne, 2001). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 2 a political cartoon is a form of political and editorial comment which is necessary and worth studying for its distinctiveness and significance. it is a hybrid of pictorial and verbal representations where the artist is given the license to mock and “censure” the actions of the powerful through the force of ridicule (duss, 2001, manning and phiddian, 2004). the cartoonist targets well known politicians and critical issues in his criticism (niven, litcher and amundson, 2003). cartoonists deploy both graphic and discursive resources in their works. the pictorial representation of events and issues function like riddles which need decoding. the cartoon genre equally entails the use of cognitive mechanisms to decode these complex metaphoric presentations. which re-enact reality. like the court jesters of old, cartoonists speak to powers that be through their caricatures. cartoons, therefore, have become tool kit for the cartoonist as he joins in the war of criticism through his caricatures. notably, political cartoons come handy at a time when it is considered perilous to be too openly critical of an authority. to survive, therefore, the cartoonist has to code his messages. many people can say what corruption is all about but it has no clear cut definition. its definition is dependent on the context in which it is examined. however, the incontestable thing is that corruption is a multifaceted problem facing the world. it has both destructive and inimical effects on all aspects of societal and human development. in other words, corruption is a phenomenon not peculiar to any nation, race, gender, creed, sexual orientation, rather it transcends national boundaries and frontiers. aluko, (2009). the nation’s corruption problems emanate from people who accord a lot of respect to material wealth regardless of how such wealth was acquired. the cliché if you cannot beat them, join them makes the race for the acquisition of wealth endless in the nation. little attention is paid to morals since it is generally believed that the end justifies the means. buttressing the idea, nwaobi (2004) avers that nigeria must be one of the very few countries in the world where a source of wealth is of no consequence to others. people clamour around those who have “arrived” as they are given places of honour in the society. wealthy people who are known to be corrupt are regularly courted and praised by communities, religious bodies, social clubs and other private organizations. as a result, such people are often under pressure from their friends, and relations to share out the loot. in order for them to maintain the standard and satisfy societal expectations, they country has to remain in the vicious circles of corruption. corruption exists in all societies. the major difference in the case of nigeria is the extent of its pervasiveness and its implication for good governance, value system and political culture in particular tanzi, (1998); mutiullah, (2013). hence, in the last few years, it has become a fashionable theme in the nigerian media. news headlines often indicate the various levels of embezzlement ranging from tips, money laundering, payment of salaries to “ghost” workers, kick-backs to contract scams, bribery, fraud, favouritism and nepotism. according to page (2018), “nigerians themselves view their country as one of the world’s most corrupt; it perennially ranks in the bottom quartile of transparency international’s corruption perception index”. corruption in nigeria has gotten to the level of being referred to as a pandemic that has reached an insoluble level. commenting on the spate of corruption in the niger delta development commission, (nddc), ojugboh, in an interview with chinwo (2020), notes the pervasive corruption, flagrant abuse of due process, abandoned projects and poor quality delivery among others at the nddc. he noted that some of the awards were not spurious, but criminal as records available show that most of the awards were not backed by budget. the writer adds that the manner in which the political office holders neglect the projects they are supposed to execute and squander the entire money allotted to them is alarming and bothers on the pathological. the assertion is supported by the recent development involving the former efcc chairman who was accused of embezzling recovered billions of naira and also not accounting for seized hundreds of houses. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 3 commenting on the level of the scandal and corruption that greet the buhari administration, eriye (2020) questions the genuineness of the administration’s much touted fight against corruption. the writer notes that it has been double and even triple whammy of scandals for the buhari administration that leaves its much-trumpeted anti-corruption credentials in tatters. reacting, he asks, “what difference has been made if the same stomach turning tales of sleaze are being churned out by the system in manner that keeps pace with the regime it replaced?” (the nation, july 15, 2020). this level of sleaze explains why it has been described as a cancer that has eaten deeply into the fabric of the nigerian polity (okolo, okiemute and akpokighe, 2014). combating corruption all over the world has remained a herculean task and nigeria is not exempted. there are different dimensions to corruption such as socio/psychological dimension; religious dimension; sociocultural dimension; political dimension depending on how it affects that facet of the society. the various acts of corruption range from how it is practiced by individuals to how it is practiced by organized systems. the socio/psychological dimension of corruption holds that the act of corruption is socially generated. as such, individuals and corporate organisations are seen as products of the society or their environment. these various acts of corruption rub off on the larger society, affecting it adversely. societies are therefore encouraged to make concerted efforts aimed at checking the menace of corruption as it is the major course of underdevelopment among nations. many people have joined in the fight against corruption, condemning it in all its ramifications. contributing to curbing the menace, the media employs different metaphorical expressions to describe and condemn the damages caused by corruption. political cartoonists join the vanguard of critics in challenging this social pandemic. cartoons are thus, used to lampoon the prevailing economic situation. mike asukwo craftily condemns the different ways individuals and agencies have been siphoning money out of the government’s coffers, this he tagged conduit corruption. having examined what corruption is and how destructive it can be to a nation, the study examines asukwo’s caricature presentations and their apparent critique of corruption and other unseemly activities in nigeria. it also examines how effectively the tropes deployed could convincingly convey the message to viewers. the present study seeks to:  explore the meaning potentials in the political cartoons  investigate the multimodal resources deployed in creating them. theoretical framework the study adopts two-pronged frameworks involving kress and van lueewen (2006) social semiotics and kress van leeuwen (2001) multimodal critical discourse analysis theories. the choice of these two theories is based on their interrelatedness and suitability in ensuring that the various aspects of the data sets are given equal and in-depth treatment. specifically, while visual semiotics (a.k.a. visual grammar) holds that “visual communication is always coded” (kress and van leeuwen, 2006:32), its fundamental thesis was inspired by the communicative meta-functions of language as already established by systemic functional linguists. the theory, holds that both visual communication and verbal discourse (i.e. language) work together to “form a comprehensive meaning making unit. in other words, the three meta-functions of language – ideational, interpersonal and textual – espoused in systemic functional grammar (halliday 1978), correspond neatly with the three communicative functions of visual signs – representational, interpersonal and compositional meanings. the second prong of theoretical framework is the multimodal critical discourse analysis (mcda). the mcda is relevant to this study because of its multifaceted approach in combining both the denotational and connotational meanings of visual and verbal signs. the denotational meaning focuses on the literal message of the signs while the connotative meaning focuses on both the sociocultural and ideological underpinnings of such signs. furthermore, the multimodal framework notes the inadequacy of only one resource in a communicative event, and incorporates other artefacts in the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 4 meaning making process. in applying the theory to the present study, therefore, attention will be paid to the denotation and connotational meanings that underlie each cartoon. methodology the study adopts a descriptive research design. this descriptive design is based on the qualitative interpretation of the data from political cartoons produced by mike asukwo. the cartoons represent an important visual contribution from the cartoonist to the raging problem of corruption and sleaze within the nigerian political context. the population of the study comprises 50 cartoons on the theme of corruption. these cartoons were collected from the electronic version of laughter in the mirror (asukwo, 2018). a sample size of 5 cartoons dealing specifically on conduit corruption within the nigerian democratic dispensation are selected for the study. again, in ensuring a seamless selection of the relevant cartoons, the study adopts a purposive sampling technique. this is a non-probability form of sampling. the choice of this sampling is predicated on the fact that it allows the researcher to come up with a manageable number of cartoons from those with shared features and themes. the selected cartoons are rich in semiotic resources, thus opening up interesting interpretations. the analysis is based on the key concepts and theses of semiotics such as, the images’ representational, interactive and compositional meanings. data presentation the term conduit corruption is a metaphorical exploration of the diverse ways money was siphoned from the government coffers by individuals and agencies. the cartoonists used different symbols to represent the corrupt practices among the various agents of government. figure 1. how the nigerian government feeds pupils in a lockdown figure 1 above denotes a pregnant woman feeding from a bowl tagged n13.5b. she sits on a dais labelled humanitarian affairs and through an umbilical cord, feeds a child sitting under a hut. the presence of a book in front of the child indicates he is a pupil. connotatively the cartoon is based on the much-touted federal government school feeding programme (sfp). according to the minister for humanitarian affairs and disaster management, a total of 13.5 billion naira was spent in feeding some school children during the covid-19 lockdown. this claim caused a stir all over the country as the citizens wondered if ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 5 actually the children were fed, given that they were not going to school during this time. it is a coded message with the cord representing the channel through which the money was siphoned. figure 2. the uncommon transformation the cartoon in figure 2 above denotes an ill-fed cow grazing on a sparse grass. the impoverished cow is gleefully being milked by a character tagged the aks house of representative and transporting the milk via a pipe to a house tagged governor in retirement. connotatively it is an indication of how the governors and lawmakers jointly milk the state, its impoverished state notwithstanding. ironically, the uncommon transformation was not for the generality of the people but for personal gain. the store house is for future use while the resources are milked dry at the expense of the citizens. figure 3. subsidy scam clinic the oil sector is fraught with endemic corruption. the government removed the oil subsidy to enable it utilize the subsidy funds to support productivity within the sector. the insatiable corruption embedded within the domains of the public and private sectors made the subsidy lose its essence. in figure 3 above, the law makers labelled nass are literarily presented as medical personnel attending to the disko who is the patient. the doctor and nurse infusing dollars into it by way of drip while he smiles from his sick bed having gotten a life line through the infusion of dollars to his system. the cartoon connotes the dollar ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 6 pumped into the sector were made to enrich private individuals at the expense of the generality of the people. it is a scam and another avenue for siphoning funds. niger delta commission embezzlement is a type of crime/fraud where a person misappropriates the assets entrusted to him/her. most times the assets are used for unintended purposes. it involves theft of resources by persons entrusted with the authority and control of such resources. figure 8 above shows a man and a woman being flushed through the tunnel struggling to keep afloat. it depicts the former niger delta commission chairman who embezzled billions of naira meant for projects. he is shown in an embattled situation with his former deputy as they were being washed away through the tunnel. figure 4. niger delta commission the security vote security vote in figure 10 above depicts a military personnel fighting insurgency. the cartoon indicates how money is lavished on security personnel who in turn feed fat and are unable to carry out the operations. the officer with the bulging stomach says he is ready to ‘frontally’ confront the insurgents. insecurity becomes another conduit pipe through which money is continuously siphoned by the various agents of the government ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 7 figure 5. the security vote discussion of findings aside the use of denotation and connotation to symbolically represent corruption, the cartoonist effectively utilized kress and van leeuwen (2006) framework to indicate the interdependence of the different modes in a communicative event. social semiotics provides a way of analyzing the relationship between, people, places and things depicted in the cartoons. according to halliday, any social action tends to be encoded “linguistically in the form of ideational meaning. the ideational metafunction, is realized through the speaker’s cultural and personal experiences of the external world, his/ her thoughts, feelings and reactions to the processes taking place in this external world (kress and van leeuwen 2006). these are expressed through the presentation of caricatures drawn from the producers’ environments. for an instance, the woman in figure 1. captioned “how the nigerian government feeds pupils in a lockdown” above is adorned in a hijab which is the traditional attire of the moslem women. it easily gave up the identity of the minister for humanitarian affairs. again, women are known to nurture their unborn by feeding them through the umbilical cord. the cartoon presents a pregnant doing the same. ironically, she eats while the cord connects her, not to a fetus but to an infant who merely stares. the cord is a metaphorical presentation of the channel through which funds are siphoned by the ministry of “humanitarian affairs” which she represents. figure 3. is presented as a scam the subsidy used in injecting life line to the dyskos ended in private pockets just as the budget for fighting insurgencies end up in private stomachs. figure 4. shows the chairman of the niger delta commission and the managing director fighting dirty in public and opting to go down the drain together. figure 5. shows the much touted fight against insurgency which entailed the voting of huge sums of money to curb the menace. unfortunately, such funds are diverted into private pockets. the cartoon shows an over bloated soldier, unable to stand, fighting from a sitting position. more so, instead of the sophisticated weapons used by the terrorist, he uses a catapult, a traditional hunting tool to fight the deadly group. this makes a mockery of the whole situation. the empty cans of sardines and other canned drinks indicate the level of seriousness and genuineness in the fight. it presents the money budgeted for the fight as going into what is tagged ‘stomach infrastructure’ in a common parlance. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 8 the interpersonal metafunction concerned with communicating attitudes and evaluations are depicted through represented characters which bring the cartoonist into the context of the situation. the characters help in the expression of his own attitudes and judgements, while seeking to influence the attitudes, and behaviour of others. he communicates his viewpoint and perspective through the characters. figure 1. condemns the feeding of school children programme during the lockdown. again, figures 2., 3. and 4. condemn the use of state resources for personal gains while figure 5. attacks the hypocritical fight against insurgency. many of the participants are presented as offer contacts. they merely communicate information to the viewer as there is no direct eye contact with him/her. the participant in figure 2. however, is realized as a demand contact as he looks directly at the viewer as if in need of an explanation. the vectorial directionality presented by the cartoons present a reading path for the reader. the reader follows the direction of the pipes to see where the food in figure 1. is being channeled. same are applicable to the pipe in figure 2. and the flow of the drip in figure 3. vectors are also formed by the hands of the participants in figure 4. as they engage in a scuffle. the catapult in figure 5. channels the viewer’s attention to the soldier’s target. many of the participants are symbolic representations. they are used to signify one form of corruption or the other. all the participants are frontally presented showing equal power relations with the viewer. the textual metafunction, is realized through the organization of language into a coherent text. images can be read to convey meanings. the lacing of the elements together helps in their reading. information value is realised through the placing of the elements within the frame. the elements placed at the left are taken as given and as old information while the ones placed at the right are taken as new information. this therefore presents a reading path of from left to right. for instance, image reading is realised through the empty sardine tins which show the officer to have been enjoying himself, eating gluttonously rather than engaging in the on-going fight against insurgency. in a related development, image reading was also achieved in the scuffle between the minister for niger delta development commission (nddc) and his assistant in figure 4. they are seen fighting dirty in murky waters of corruption after embezzling public funds. image reading is in other words known as picture speak as the obvious smile on the aks representative shows while he milks dry a malnourished cow in figure 2. figure 3 reveals the smile of satisfaction from the dyskos as the dollars are deposited in their system via a drip. the other agent of corruption is nass symbolically represented by the nurse and doctor abating crime. the elements within the frames in the analysed cartoons are connected in one way or the other. like a narrative, the frames equally provide a reading path for the cartoons. salience is realized also through the depiction of the soldier’s tommy, as he ‘frontally confronts the enemy’. his poise shows lack of commitment in the fight against the enemy. salience is also realized by foregrounding the cords in the various cartoons, thereby attracting the viewer’s attention. on the other hand, the linguistic accompaniments help in driving the message home. in figure three for instance, the doctor asks the patient how he feels and his response shows the contentment in spite of his lying on a hospital bed. his contentment being from the dollars rolling into his pocket. in figure 5., the soldier announces his state of preparedness for the battle. his utterance confirms his frontal readiness. the artist employed the technique of labelling in some of the analysed cartoons. he also used speech balloons which helped in reading the thoughts of the represented characters. the accompanying texts help in elaborating the presented viewpoints by making the pictures more distinct. this, therefore, shows the indispensability of both the verbal and visual modes in a communicative event. conclusions this paper has demonstrated how cartoons have been used to depict the level of sleaze in the nigeria sociopolitical terrain. it shows some of the avenues through which individuals and agencies siphon funds from government’s coffers. though cartoons are presented from the humorous perspective, they serve as social comments, representing the cartoonist’s viewpoint as he comments on the social malaise. noting that corruption is the bane of many countries as it is the major cause of underdevelopment, the cartoonist creates ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 9 awareness, condemns the social evil while entertaining viewers. the multimodal analytical framework proved adequate for the anaylsis as it ensured that all facets of the data are treated adequately. the research has proved the cartoon genre a formidable force in the fight against corruption, especially during repressive regimes. the study recommends a research on the much touted fight against corruption by the government to ascertain the level of sincerity in it. works cited aluko, m. a. (2002). the institutionalization of corruption and its impact on political culture and behaviour in nigeria. retrieved from nigeria. nordic journal of african studies, vol. 11(3) on 23 september, 2019. asukwo, e. (2018). laughter in the mirror. lagos: doculand print and copy center. benoit, w., klyukovski, a., and mchale, j. a. (2001). a fantasy theme analysis of political cartoons on the clinton-lewinsky-starr affair. retrieved from critical studies in media communication, 18(4) retrieved from doi: 10.1080/07393180128097. chinwo, e. (2020, july 19). nddc: a disturbing cesspool of corruption. retrieved september 12, 2020, from thisdaylive.com. duus, p. (2001). presidential address: weapons of the weak, weapons of the strong. the development of the japanese political cartoon". retrieved from retrieved from cambridge unversity press on 2december 2018. eriye, f. (2020, july 15). comedy of scandals. the nation. retrieved august 23, 2020, from thenatiomonline.net on august 23, 2020. halliday, m. (1978). language as a social semiotic: the social interpretation of language and meaning. london: edward arnold. houser, n. and kloesel, c, (1992). the essential peirce, selected philosophical writings, vol. 1 (1867– 1893). indianapolis, in: indiana university press. kress, g. and van leeuwen, t. (1996. 2006). reading images: the grammar of visual design. london: routledge. kress, g. and van leeuwen. (eds.) (2001). multimodal discourse: contemporary communication. oxford uk: oxford university press. kress, g. and van leeuwen. (2001). multimodal discourse: the modes and media of contemporary communication. london: arnold. manning, h. p. (2004). “in defence of the political cartoonists’ licence to mock”. retrieved from austrialian review of public affairs vo, 5 no. 1 pp. 25-42 http//www.austriliareview.net/journal/v5/n1/manning.pdf. mirzoeff, n. (1998). the visual culture reader . new york: routeledge. mutiullah, a. o. (2013). rethinking public administration with advance attitude. abuja: omotosho publishers. niven, d. s. (2003). “the political content of late night comedy”,. retrieved from international journal of press/politics https://doi.org/10.1177/1081180x0300080003007. okolo, p. okiemute, r. and akpokighe, o. (2014). corruption in nigeria, the possible way out. global journal of human sciences. f. political science vol. 14, issue 7. retrieved from https://socialscienceresearch.org/index.ph page, m. t. (2018). a new taxonomy for corruption in nigeria. massachusetts avenue, nw: in carnegie endowment for international peace publications department. https://doi.org/10.1177/1081180x0300080003007 https://socialscienceresearch.org/index.ph ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 odinye 203 the hood in nostalgia (a poem) ifeoma ezinne odinye, phd department of language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria email: ifeomaodinye@gmail.com ie.odinye@unizik.edu.ng the wind sings dirges of ancestral savannahs coloured in green and grey on wet bellied soil with exhausted antennae. the hood, my former earth had a smile like the twilight yearning in desire to meet the dodging sky every night— a natural gesture wheeled by fate in a widening gyre of pure innocence. in hood’s stead, anyanwu, the sunshine was before noon bearing a shower of warm beaming rays. it gave hood’s children a push onto their knees. this push lifted their hands and legs to grab the best of the land the land they gently nurtured in god’s muse as seasonal visitors; a joyful season; an expression of exceeding luck for harvest. the hood was a system with life where everything was moving in lines shedding ceremonial roles, afternoon respected the morning evening honoured the night. plants fed continents with roots and primaeval fruit. perfection stood in white robe the past with memory. mailto:ifeomaodinye@gmail.com mailto:ie.odinye@unizik.edu.ng ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 odinye 204 the hood had merry beings and warrior friends incubated in iroko—the strong gaint udala, the mother of many children that breastfed all with her juicy milk nkwu, the special one that graced every homestead like ancestral warriors uni, the sweet one coloured in ripened yellow apparel akpu, the benevolent one that fed millions without complaint ji, the king of foods who graced many ceremonies with grand aura of a kind a memory clouded in sweet reality. the hood had an aura of royalty a palace decorated with nature’s flowery friends, roots and nuts the feeble nchuanwu scented the meandering pathways accompanied by ugu, mgbolodi and arira onugbu, the bitter one graced every pot with special taste for meals akwu coloured the soups in milky reddish yellow ede thickened water to coat the balls of fufu meant for throat journey a special memory—the one flavoured by ogili and ugba. the hood had sailed with her league of friends for decades until she stretched her hand to welcome a stranger from far land. under hood’s silent watch future coiled in the air uncharted, hearts are notched with kindred spirits of baobab and obeche trees yoked in crafted jealousy, a totem of gentle civilization silenced by ferocious invaders. dark powers stood in the way of the hood, armed with unusual sense, iron and powder a sensual fear; a metal fear in python-like coil throbbing the heart of the hood in chains of dark clouds. fate and faith played in swirling vortex innocence and maturity fought in solitude tangled in a long witted battle— a long tale sprayed in inhibition. the passage with memory. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 odinye 205 now, time stagnates here, retiring goodness to rest in the morning; the goodness amadioha sentineled the east in past glory until justice, unity, peace and love were wrenched on dark alters occasioned by undelightful company of unchained barking dogs the flowery palace was replaced with hardened gaint bricks in all corners sugar replaced uni in sweet savory taste plastic, rubber, paint, chemicals and chaff became special delicacies! everything embraced a new lyric; a new dance! now, hood’s children are coloured in a new ascent masked with concentrated madness in the world, a pattern with no pattern hood’s life is deformed; the body is severely damaged with deep wounds the okro stem is now tougher than its owner the once tender yam tendril can no longer be guarded rain falls amidst sunshine things fall apart, the old and young dance together in nakedness both slavered into modernity of a joke! there are no adults; there are no children all foods are for all—sweet, bitter, sour, tasty, tasteless! blowing the thought-pipe, memory rolls the picture of the past with clouded innocence: men and women joyous in sacred gatherings free from mischief kings robed in justice smiling in satisfaction boys and girls in meandering lonely paths laughing without insidious intent caught in between exhausted shivering after a long fatigued dance under the cool blazing sun; under the dazzling watch of amadioha, the all seeing, the all knowing! now, the rhythm has changed the fear of amadioha no longer stirs the pudding of the heart hearts stare downward in cloned worship children sing like adults glued in praise men and girls stand here and there stirring the chocolate pot that doesn’t burn in the open women and boys agitate in motion bustling in active service a claim of modernity cowed into grace! ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 odinye 206 now, the hood’s map is lost the leaders are standing still at the centre parents are driven by the wind in continental drive children spread in surfaces of different shapes— so free moving up and down; down and up! there is no direction! everyone, a master on elevated social standing; slaying alone in elevated thoughts of the known and unknown. peace sleeps without waking! trouble plays without resting! murmuring covers everywhere—a pandemonium! memory slipped in at intervals gracing hood’s children with deep thoughts about past and present souls stared in heavens indulging in fantasy of the past mind strolled to futile hope holding tightly to the best in the past hood when deep dimples graced young cheeks frequently after rattling in groups with friends under the cold rain. the silvery drops of rain glowed their hearts into one leaving pieces of joy sparkling in their hearts. like the green forest, their hearts widened like giant grasses catching fun in freedom. now, they have deserted the hood; they are blinded by dazzling energy of making giant strides a modern effort that almost blinded their eyes by force in far cities— a money call with sharp cannibal teeth; a fast life with fancied security cloned in black countenance. in reluctance, they smiled broadly recollecting the golden path graced with purity the thought of hood suppressed their pain of seclusion; children forced out of the hood in search of self and future. mixed up in feelings, they scooped up their emotions to follow the future refreshing their joys of hood journeys in endless giggle to re-open the moments that melt the heart. a dream to catch the fallen star after escaping the prison! ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 odinye 207 (glossary of igbo words) akpu (cassava): a tropical root plant which is the source of tapioca. a staple food common among igbo people akwu (palm nuts): the edible seed of elaeis guineesis, the palm oil amadioha: a deity (god) in igbo religious worship anyanwu (sun): the star that the earth revolves around and from which it receives light and warmth arira: slimy edible green plant rich in vitamins ede (cocoyam): the edible root of the plant malanga used in thickening local soups iroko: african hardwood obtained from several african trees of the genus chlorophora ji: the edible, starchy, tuberous root of that plant, a tropical staple food nchuanwu (scent leaf): special naturally scented leaves for cooking special food in igbo land nkwu: a tree of the family arecaceae usually characterized by having a single stem or trunk, directly fromwhich several leaves or fronds give a shape like an outstretched hand ogili: a special native dark condiment made from edibleseedpods mixed with otherlocal ingredients for cooking delicious igbo soups onugbu (bitter leaf): special edible green bitter plant used in making local soups in igbo region of nigeria udala: african star fruit known for its sour taste. it is believed to be a friend of all; a potent source of childbearing ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 odinye 208 ugba: a local delicacy made from cutting edible seedpods mixed with local ingredients uni: a small yellowish oval-shaped fruit commonly known for its long lasting sweetness on the tastebud. it is called a sugar fruit. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 56 okwara & ogene homosexuality: the aftermath of child neglect in dibia’swalking with shadows harriet chinonso okwara & professor mbanefo s.ogene department of english language & literature nnamdi azikiwe university awka, anambra state sm.ogene@unizik.edu.ng abstract the same sex unions have over the years witnessed a lot of positive and negative reactions across the globe. this is made possible by the religious and cultural orientations of the countries involved. in africa, many countries prescribe strict ban to its practice and as a result, persons who have this kind of orientation experience homophobia that often lead to trauma and depression. as a result, researchers have ventured into studying the causes of this social anomaly with the view to ameliorating the depression and psychological disorders it causes on the persons with such sexuality and by extension lessen the negative effects it has on the society. this research uses psychoanalysis as its theoretical framework. psychoanalysis explores the mind of the author in relation to the reality projected in his literary text. with this in mind, this study investigates the parental role in the sexual development of their children using dibia’swalking with shadows and finds out that absence of parental guidance, love and care in the early stage of adrian’s life leads him into homosexuality. the novel is set in nigeria where cultural and religious orientation arrogates the practice of homosexuality; hence, adrian’s society frustrates, depresses and drives him to neurosis. keywords: homosexuality, child neglect, psychoanalysis, cultural orientation introduction children are always vulnerable with regards to the choices they make and sadly most of these choices make or mar them later in life. this necessitates parental and adults’ guidance in the shaping of the lives of the children to something socially acceptable but unfortunately because of some perceived uncertainties and a refocus in priorities by some parents, some of these children are left at their detriment. neglect and lack of parental guidance in the child’s early stage of life have led to untold consequences like armed robbery, drug abuse, prostitution and sometimes sexual none conformity (homosexuality) in his adult life. this to a great extent shows erosion of values and ideals on the part of the parents that consequently model the individualinto a social misfit. this research throws its searchlight on dibia’swalking with shadows with the view to determining the role of the parents in shaping their children’s sexual orientation. in nigeria and most africa countries, sexual orientation is patterned alongside cultural and religious lines. different societies of the world have peculiar orientations and cultures that underline their perception to realities and the acceptance of a practice. this becomes evident when a particular society rejects a practice that is accepted by another. from the above ideology therefore, it becomes pertinent to see that some practices especially sex and sexual related issues receive a different appraisal and acceptance in african society different from the perceived sexual liberty obtainable in some western countries.culturally, africa is heteronormative (favours heterosexual union) because of the high significance it places on child bearing. african culture and orientation place high value to heterosexual marriage which is aimed at biological procreation. one of the apologists of this ideology, mwalimuavers that ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 57 okwara & ogene the “homosexuals cannot procreate. no male can have “sex” with another male and produce a child through that act. no female can have “sex” with another female and produce a child through that act” and that “bearing and rearing children in the perpetual circle of the living, the ancestors and the unborn are a fundamental element of afrikan culture”(290). mwalimu is of the view that african culture arrogates homosexuality because of its non-reproductive results. biological reproduction and childbirth give validation to heterosexual union in african perception. religion is another tool that reinforces the condemnation of the practice of homosexuality in africa. in the words of senayon olaoluwa, “the framing of same sex sexualities and gender variances as ‘unafrican’ is related to the purchase of christianity and islam, two abrahamic religions that have domain influence on contemporary africans” (21). in olaoluwa’s view, the influence of religion (christianity and moslem) gives rise to the conception that the practice of homosexuality is outside african culture. african society is predominately christian and islamic religion adherent who are guided by the principle stipulated by the holy bible and the qur’an. the bible provides the tenets for a christian living and outlines its principles which run contrary to the same sex union. it says in leviticus 18:22 that, “you shall not lie with a male as with a woman. it is an abomination.” the book of qur’an also outlaws this practice in these words, “indeed you approach men with desire instead of women…you are a transgressing people” (97:80-81, 26:165). many countries in africa ban the practice of homosexuality with stringent measure ranging from imprisonment, lynching to death. undoubtedly, nigeria is an african country and shares this unique ideology with africa. in the nigerian cultural setting, sex and sexual unions must happen between a man and a woman; any sexual behaviour that goes contrary to this patterned structure is viewed as taboo and abomination and consequently frowned at. this becomes the underlining factor to nigeria’s prohibition of the practice of homosexuality. in 2014, nigeria’s former president, goodluck jonathan signed the same sex marriage prohibition bill into law. the law enshrined in section 214 of the nigerian penal code (third edition1967) prescribes that, “any person who has carnal knowledge of any person against the order of nature or permits a male person to have carnal knowledge of him or her against the order of nature is guilty of a felony and liable to imprisonment for 14 years”. section 217 also surmises that: any male person who, whether in public or private, commits any act of gross indecency with another male person, or procures another male person to commit any act of gross indecency with him or attempts to procure the commission of any such act by any male person, whether in public or private, is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for three years. (nigerian penal code, third edition,1967) the law also prescribes the same penalty to rape and consensual intimacies on persons of the same sex. the law also prescribes 10 years jail term for those who encourage or convince the victims into such unions. the nigerian legal stand on homosexuality reinforces her firm belief on christianity and islamic tenets on one hand and her cultural orientation of heterosexual union on the other. with nigeria’s ideological belief on the concept of homosexuality, persons who practice same sex sexuality are driven to depression, trauma and alienation. since this is the case, this research goes to reassert the indispensable role of the parents and by contrast shows the untold consequences of lack of parental guidance in the child’s sexual development. methodology this is a qualitative research. it will employ the use of dibia’s literary text, walking with shadows and other related materials as a means of gathering its information. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 58 okwara & ogene conceptual framework many authorities have defined the term‘homosexuality’. martin m.w. defines homosexuality as “the sexual orientation in which one’s primary attraction is to a member of one’s own sex” (245). in the view of jennings, homosexuality is “the orientation of sexual need, desire, or responsiveness towards other persons of the same gender (529). bullough vern posits that, “homosexuality,’ a philologically awkward hybrid of greek and latin elements … applied to people who love those of the same sex, while "heterosexuality," equally philologically impure … applied to those who gained pleasure from the opposite sex” (9).from the above submissions therefore, homosexuality refers to romantic, sexual attraction or intimacy between people of the same sex. it embraces all sexual orientations and identities which run contrary to heterosexuality. child neglect child neglect “is frequently defined as the failure of a parent or other person with responsibility for the child to provide needed food, clothing, shelter, medical care, or supervision to the degree that the child's health, safety, and well-being are threatened with harm” (child welfare information gateway, 2). child neglect also comes in forms of lack of care, love, emotional support on the part of the parents or those responsible for a child to a point that the child’s social development is impaired. when this is the case, the child may seek these needs from wrong sources which sometimes results to sexual non conformity. theoretical framework this research employs the psychoanalytic literary theory as the premise most appropriate for it. psychoanalytical theory studies the mind’s disposition to reality. in applying this theory to literary works, the reader investigates the inner workings of the characters to really discover the motives behind their actions and by so doing elicit the perception of the author to the reality projected in his text. sigmund freud, an austrian neurologist and physician, is acclaimed the foremost proponent of this theory. the theory was developed in the early 20th century for the treatment of his neurotical patients. freud’s an outline of psychoanalysis (1949) provides a clearer understanding of how the theory works. according to the theorist, the human mind is made up of the conscious, the preconscious and the unconscious. freud speculates that, the ‘unconscious human mind’ comprises three functional components known as the id, the ego and the superego. in the view of the theorist, “the id has the quality of being unconscious and contains everything that is present at birth and the instinct” (freud,14). every human being is born with the id and it accounts for obsessions at food, sexual instincts and lack of consideration or moral implications. when this is left unchecked the individual will be controlled by the libido. the id contains two basic instincts called eros (desire for survival) and thanatos (drive for destructive or death). the ego on the other hand is another component of the conscious mind which controls man’s actions in a sophisticated environment. the ego reconciles the id (inordinate desires and lust) and the superego (the refined life) through some psychic apparatus called ‘defenses’. defenses in freudal perspective includes, ‘repression, denial, sublimation, regression and many others. the theorist also asserts that most of the conflicts encountered by the human mind take its origin from the early stages of life, what freud calls ‘the psychosexual stage.’ he theorizes that human psychological development takes its root from predesigned successive psychosexual stages which comprises; the oral (birth-1year), anal (1-3years), phallic (3-6), latency (6puberty) and genital (puberty-adult). the scholar proposes that the first five years of life is very ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 59 okwara & ogene essential to the formation of adult behaviour. during these periods, mcleod suggests that “the id must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between frustrated wishes and social norms” (1). as the individual grows, these psychosexual stages pose challenges that must be resolved before the individual will advance to the next stage. if these issues are successfully resolved, the result is a healthy personality; on the contrary the individual will be fixated. specifically, “psychoanalysis as a theory seeks to explain the complex relationships between a particular character and others by giving insights to the role of traumatic experiences in heightening emotion (fear or anxiety)” (odinye, 43). a psychoanalytical exploration of homosexuality as a consequence of child neglect in dibia’swalking with shadows a cursory look at the back page of the literary text walking with shadows, shows that the author, jude dibia’s is a prolific writer of nigerian origin. he is described as ‘daring and controversial’ by his readers and critics. his literary text, unbridled won the ken saro-wiwa prize for prose fiction in 2017. in most works with psychoanalytical perspective, writers expose difference in gender binaries. these gender differences are mostly couched in their language and expressions which help transform their characters into balanced or fragmented characters. the male writers demonstrate the inherent dominating mindset in the male characters over their societies; an ideology best described as patriarchy.the male character in a patriarchal society is according tohaleem shamaila portrayed “… as a brave, courageous, bold, reserved, confident and rational being” (56) but dibia swiftly uses a twist of this patriarchal ideology by subjecting his protagonist adrian to the position of a pathetic, withdrawn, neglected and unloved character; the fate that stereotypically aligns to the females characters in a male dominated society. dibia reveals that “…their parents have pointedly ignored him. and his brothers too. they had made him invincible and he had become so. he was a sissy! and everyone hated a sissy” (wws, 115). his family forces him to feel and act in a particular manner, all in his bid to get some love and acceptance by his family. this by implication is the lot of the female characters in a patriarchal society. as these patterns continue, adrian’s character remains distorted and fragmented. his family therefore becomes a symbolic factor that drives him into psychological disorder and trauma. judith herman highlights this distorted personality as a constituent of eroded structures. in her words “repeated trauma in adult life erodes the structure of personality already formed but repeated trauma in childhood forms and deforms personality” (96). just like the female character in a patriarchal system, he seeks for liberation and freedom. this freedom gets realised in the practice of same sex affair; an act deemed as abhorrent in the society. through his literary text, dibia reveals that religious and cultural orientation of nigeria favour heterosexuality.with the above stance therefore persons who engage in sexual none conformity mostly represses these sexual diversities to appear ideal and be accepted in the society. with the mechanism of repression, the individual personality gets fixated in his sexual development. as these continue over time, the individual’s psychological development further gets inhibited and in severe cases, becomes fragmented. this is clearly seen in the case of adrian, the protagonist of the text, walking with shadows. in the novel, dibia creates a protagonist whose unpleasant childhood memories of hatred, discrimination and neglect leads to his taking on a sexual orientation frowned at by his society. according to freud, “the id has the quality of being unconscious and contains everything that is present at birth and the instinct” (14). the id is a reservoir for sexual desires and passions that are crude and unsophisticated. the id is also responsible for adrian’s unabated cravings for his family’s love and acceptance. the narrator says that“his parents’ love and approval were two things he had coveted all his life. he had ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 60 okwara & ogene wanted to be the ideal son that they could be proud of and show off to their friends”(123). adrian wants to be the perfect son. all his life his craving was for his family’s love and recognition but no matter how hard he tries he realizes that he could not possibly attain that height. owing to this, adrian’s character did not develop as a normal heterosexual man as his childhood craving for love was doused by his parents’ ill treatment of him against what his parents feel for his brothers. his two brothers got all the love in their childhood. the narrator says: their mother treated chiedu like a king. he never had to do any kind of house chores and was also shown off to her friends like the heir apparent. chika enjoyed being lifted up in the air and shrieked with glee as he pretended to be an airplane in his father’s strong arm…all adrian could do was watch from his little corner with an uneasy smile on his face…but wanting some recognition and acceptance. when he was lucky, he got a smile but sometimes he wasn’t even noticed. (wws,46) he tried to get some love from his father by trying to go under his father’s shade after his father takes his bath so that the drizzle from his hair falls on him. dibia reveals that: as a boy, at about seven or eight years old, he adored his father. when his father came out of the bathroom, he would move to the balcony to comb out his thick afro with a wooden fork-like comb. light drops of water still trapped in the hair would drizzle down. in his young mind, adrian had believed that these were showers of love. it was the closest he ever felt with his father. the ritual had become so important to him then, as he realized rather earlier that he was not the favourite of either of his parents. they loved him to some degree…chiedu was his mother’s favourite and chika who was his father’s champion. (wws,45) his brothers also taunted him during their childhood years. at one time, his brothers had played an unhealthy prank on him by putting him in a carton and throwing him down the staircase. his moaning and pains did not elicit pity from them. adrian also gets bullied at school and at one time in the house was accused of the money he did not steal. adrian continues to seek love and acceptance from his family but was constantly rejected. his childhood experience was a case of total neglect and outright disregard. he had continually craved for this parental attention but was constantly neglected. “…their parents have pointedly ignored him. and his brothers too. they had made him invincible and he had become so. he was a sissy! and everyone hated a sissy” (115). he had at once won a price for sports at school and hoping this will win him that parental love from his parents but he rather gets an uncomfortable comparison from his father, “next time, try to aspire to be the most intelligent pupil in your class like chika was” and so year after year he had tried to be the best at something academic, but hard as he tried, he could never be the perfect son” (124). finally he says “…and i have to admit, i‘ve spent my entire life waiting for my parents’ approval” (124). the id shows itself in these excessive longings which are not met. the above harsh experience and many similar ones and more importantly the fact that adrian was punished innocently as a result of the money chika stole makes the family to despise and hate adrian. as a result adrian gets isolated, withdrawn and secluded from his family and society. these experiences caused him to shield himself from the human environment and into recluse. he was seen as different, reserved and a loner. his family has made him a recluse. he gets bottled up and stunted in his growth as a heterosexual person as against his brothers who enjoyed all the love and had their sexuality patterned differently. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 61 okwara & ogene as adrian grows up he continues to seek this parental love denied him in his childhood. this lack of parental love and guidance which adrian experiences paves way for the type of choice he made as pertaining to his sexuality. to fill this gap adrian engages in something socially unacceptable. even though he didn’t know initially how to describe the act he had been engaged in but he knew that right from his childhood he had been sexually attracted to boys and then to men.this explains how adrian satisfies the longings of the id sexually but as he grows up and comes to terms with the ethical voice of the superego which shows itself in his society’s ideals and values, adrian learns that his society abhors the practice of homosexuality. dibia notes that “being gay was certainly not in african culture. the whole idea was so foreign, so unnatural” (wws,35). from nigeria’s religious perspective, pastor matthew tells adrian that “it is the devil that tempts you my brother” and as a result, he needs “…to pray for god’s mercy and strength” (wws,174). adrian also realizes that his family conceives homosexuals as ‘faggots’ and the practice of it abominable. this realization plunges him into fear; fear of homophobic attacks that lead him to deny his sexuality and get married; fear that leads him to repress his childhood incidents and appear idealistic. all through adrian’s life, the reader notices that adrian is controlled by fear; fear that prevents him from telling his family about his sexual choice because of their indifference to him during his childhood, he lacks the courage. out of fear, he denies any incident that tries to probe his sexuality. denial here comes from this repressed fear; fear of homophobic attacks from a social structure whose sexual orientation is in opposition to the internal conflict in his mind. adrian’s internal sexual disposition and the cultural and religious background of his society are in opposition. this is responsible for the internal conflict adrian suffers throughout the texts that models his character into a robotic and superficial personality. he lives by his society’s prescriptions and by extension an alienated personality. to bring a balance and avert the worries that come from fear and to forestall the mind’s degeneration into the neurotical state, the ego employs the mechanisms of repression, denial and sublimation. it is also pertinent to note that adrian’s sexual development gets inhibited at the level of the libido. his childhood craving for love and acceptance which he suppresses in his unconscious mind constantly surge out and this is responsible for his unabated craving for love and acceptance, this by implication results to his inability to grow to the next stage of his sexual development. this affirms freud’s assertion that most of the conflicts encountered by the human mind take its origin from the early stages of life, what freud calls ‘the psychosexual stage.’ he theorizes that human psychological development takes its root from predesigned successive psychosexual stages. these predesigned successive psychosexual stages take effect from the first five years of life and is very essential to the formation of adult behaviour. as the individual grows, these psychosexual stages pose challenges that must be resolved before the individual will advance to the next stage. if these issues are successfully resolved, the result is a healthy personality. on the contrary the individual will be fixated. from freud’s analogy therefore, it becomes evident that adrian’s fixation on sexual growth draws from the unresolved conflicts repressed in his childhood. conclusion dibia shows that some institutionalized structures in the family and the society many a times are issues that mold peoples’ lives in different dimensions. in his view, parental roles are indispensable tool that pattern a child into an asset or a social misfit. through an authorial intrusion, dibia asks the society a soul searching question. in his words, “have you ever wondered how many homosexuals there are out there? if we as parents don’t monitor our ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 62 okwara & ogene children and guide them in the right path, they could make the wrong choices later in life” (wws,101). works cited bible new revised standard version, 1989. bullough, vern. homosexuality: a history (from ancients greece to gay liberation). new york: routlegde, taylor $ francis group. 1979. freud, sigmund. an outline of psychoanalysis. new york. norton, 1949. herman, judith.trauma and recovery. new york: harper collins. 1992. jennings, t.n. dictionary of pastoral care and counselling nashville: abingdon press. 1990. martin, m.w. everyday morality: an introduction to applied ethics (2nd edition). california: wadsworth publishing company, 1995. mwalimu, baruti. homosexuality and the effeminization of afrikan males.usa:akoben, 2003. odinye, ifeoma. “fleshing out memory through feminist consciousness: psychoanalyzing violent girlhood experiences in buchi emecheta’s the bride price”. igwebuike: an african journal of arts and humanities vol. 5 no 3, 2019. senayon. olaoluwa. the human and non-human african sexuality debate and the symbolisms of transgression. in z. mathebeni, s. monro and v. reddy (ed(s)), queer in africa: lgbtqi identities, citizenship and activism._ london: routledge, taylor & francis group, pp. 21. (2018). the penal code 2014: same sex marriage prohibition act. the federal government of nigeria. retrieved, november 29, 2021. print. the qu’ran. translated by m.a.s abdel haleem, oxford up, 2005. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 142 chukwu & alozie-onumadu profanity in nawal el saadawi’s woman at point zero prof ephriam chukwu department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, akwa ea.chukwu@unizik.edu.ng & chinyere alozie-onumadu girls’ secondary school, ikenegbu, owerri, imo state chinyere.alozieonumadu@gmail.com abstract this study examined the negative effects of profane words on the individuals. swearing is prevalent in our society and men are said to be bigger swearers than women. although swearing is not gender-specific, it is believed to be reserved for men because women are expected to speak ‘properly’. (knyazyan, 2015). one of the purposes of the study is to investigate the effects of swear words on the individuals. the work achieved this by investigating through qualitative descriptive method the literary workof nawal el saadawi’swoman at point zero, to reveal the negative effect of profane words on the individuals. a total number of five (5) utterances were purposively selected from the texts. impoliteness theory propounded by jonathan culpeper in 1996 formed the theoretical framework. this theory helps in analysizing the selected utterances from el saadawi’swoman at point zero. an attempt was made to see the extent profane words affect individuals. the researcher found out that most people swear to ridicule a person, to attack the face, the damage the face, to accuse, to express one’s feelings and so on. the study recommends that other researchers should broaden the study using other approaches (i.e pragmatic and stylistic approaches) other than sociolinguistic approach. keywords: sexism, profanity, profane words, swearing, impoliteness theory introduction communication plays an important role in human life. without communication, people in the society will not be able to understand each other since they do not have any social contact. social contact is very essential for human beings because it is a foundation through which connection is built among people in the society. therefore, to make a social contact function properly, people need to have language as a means of communication. as a means of communication, language has several functions.some people use words that are considered profane to express themselves especially when angry. some of these profane words are taboo, euphemism and dysphemism. they are used to swear, insult or mock a person.many words and expressions are viewed as taboo and dysphemism. such words are those used to described death, sex, our bodies and their functions; and words used to insult other people. this paper also shows how we use language playfully and figuratively in order to swear and to insult. this can be seen as euphemism. euphemism is an important part of everyday speech. many linguists, sociologists and anthropologists have noted the crucial role that euphemism plays in different aspects of real-world communication. euphemism, therefore, can be examined through different discourses: social, religious, linguistic, political and so on. it is also believed that euphemism is employed to exert an effective emotional power on a listener’s mind. hence, euphemism is an expression intended by the speaker to be less offensive or troubling to the listener than the word or phrase it replaces (sadock, 43). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 143 chukwu & alozie-onumadu statement of the problem language is very vital in the society. it can be used to redirect the consciousness of the society. there are quite a number of research works on profanity and sexism. knyazyan (25) looked at male and female profanity in english anecdote. amadi (121) looked at sexism in english: a lexical study of teachers’ vocabulary choices in select institutions of higher learning in south-east nigeria. also, kremin (18) looked at sexist swearing and slurs. however, very few researchers focused on the use of language as a potent tool used to oppress and suppress women and the implications of the use of profane words on the individual. this study filled the gap in scholarship and the researcher intends to fill it by exposing the negative effects profane words have on the individual. the following research questions are expected to guide this paper: a. to what extent is language used in expressing profane words in el saadawai’swoman at point zero? b. to what degree does the effect of the use of swear words and have on the individuals in e saadawi’swoman at point zero? the concept of profanity profanity can sometimes be interpreted as antisocial, harmful and abusive if, for example, it is intended to harm or convey aggression and hostile emotions (stone, mcmillan and hazelton, 66). mabry (214) says that profanity also refers to the use of obscene language including taboo and swear words, which in regular social settings are considered inappropriate and in some situations unacceptable. mabry further says that profanity includes sexual references, blasphemy, objects eliciting disgust, ethnic-racial-gender slurs, vulgar terms or offensive slang. on the other hand, jay and janschewitz (5) advise that instead of thinking of swearing as uniformly harmful or morally wrong, more meaningful information about swearing can be obtained by asking what communication goals swearing achieves? they went further to say that swear words can achieve a number of outcomes as when used positively for joking or storytelling, stress management, fitting in with the crowd or as a substitute for physical aggression. speech involving profane words has a stronger impact on people than regular speech and has been shown to be processed on a deeper level in people’s minds (jay, caldwell-harris and king, 99). jay and janschewitz (6) noted that swearing is a natural part of language development and that male speech differs from female speech in terms of swearing. the reasons for using swear words depend on the person and the situation, yet profanity is commonly related to the expression of emotions such as anger, frustration or surprise (jay and janschewitz, 6). types of swearing taboo the word ‘taboo’ has become universal and widely used nowadays. the term originates from the tongan language which is spoken by the inhabitants of polynesia in the pacific archipelago. it was first defined and introduced in english in 1777 by captain james cook and it usually means ‘untouchable’ or ‘forbidden’. many words and expressions are viewed as ‘taboo’ such as those used to describe sex, our bodies and their functions and those used to insult other people (allan and burridge, 30). cook uses taboo (or tabu) to describe the behaviour of polynesians towards things that were not to be done, entered, seen or touched. for instance, there are food taboos in most societies. these are mostly religion-based: the vegetarianism of hindus, the proscription of meat on ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 144 chukwu & alozie-onumadu fridays during lent among catholics, the proscription of pork in islam, the constraints of food preparation in judaism and so on. various definitions of taboo roth (39) asserts that taboos can be a repugnant and appalling action which includes the display of some bodily functions. fershtman, gneezy and hoffman went further in their definition: hughes (343) admits that taboo transforms into some prohibitions and restrictions varying in all societies. hughes tries to expand the definition into some aspects in which taboo is manifested. the manifestation could be in several relations of things, creatures, human experiences, condition, deeds and words. hughes notes that taboo is linguistically rooted in ‘word magic’ in which people believe that certain creatures or forces cannot or must not be named. in addition to this, allan and burridge (32) explain that taboo arises out of social constraint on the individual’s behaviour where it can cause harm, discomfort or injury. according to allan (160), “that which is taboo is forbidden”. taboo words are those considered offensive, shocking, or indecent when used in certain contexts. allan and burridge (30) define taboo as a proscription of behaviour for a specifiable community of one or more persons, at a specifiable time, in specifiable contexts. from the foregoing definitions and explanations of taboo, it can be understood that different contexts of place or time serve different manifestations of taboo. this is why several authors such as allan and burridge (32) claim that there is no absolute taboo. euphemism euphemism is as old as language itself. tal (111), states that the old greek people used euphemism to avoid talking about bloody mythological creatures by the holy and gracious ones. he also confirms that the romans tend to omit rough expressions from their speeches by replacing them with expressions accepted by the society. euphemism is an important part of everyday speech. many linguists, sociologists and anthropologists have noted the crucial role that euphemism plays in different aspects of realworld communication. euphemism, therefore, can be examined through different discourses: social, religious, linguistic, political and so on. it is also believed that euphemism is used to have an effective emotional power on a listener’s mind. hence, euphemism is an expression intended by the speaker to be less offensive or troubling to the listener than the word or phrase it replaces (sadock, 43). dysphemism dysphemism is technically the opposite of euphemism. whereas euphemisms seek to soften the impact of some horrific event or taboo subject by indirect language and calming metaphors, dysphemisms are starkly direct, metaphorical or gruesomely physical (hughes, 344).hughes claims that although dysphemism was first recorded in 1884, it has only recently been unlisted in many general dictionaries and reference books. allan and burridge (35) agree with hughes that dysphemism is the opposite of euphemism and, by and large, it is tabooed. allan and burridge claim that speakers resort to dysphemism taboos are sometimes referred to as doing the ‘unthinkable’. even thinking about violating a taboo is problematic. the sanctions associated pertain not just to the behaviour that contradicts the taboo, but also merely thinking or considering such a behaviour. under this interpretation, a taboo is aform of ‘thought police’ that governs not just human behaviour, but also its thoughts (142) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 145 chukwu & alozie-onumadu to talk about people and things that frustrate and annoy them; that they disapprove of and wish to disparage, humiliate and degrade. allan and burridge go further to say dysphemistic expressions include curses, name calling and any sort of derogatory comment directed towards others in order to insult or wound them. theoretical framework the theoretical framework of this research was based on impoliteness theory by jonathan culpeper in 1996. impoliteness theory jonathan culpeper made good use of brown and levinson’s model of politeness to introduce his theory of impoliteness which is considered a “parasite of politeness”. although impoliteness is based on brown and levinson’s politeness, culpeper refutes brown and levinson’s view of politeness as “marginal” to everyday conversation. it asserts that understanding the notion of politeness is impossible without comprehending impoliteness phenomenon and, therefore the analytical framework of impoliteness needs to be improved and receive the due consideration (mullany and stockwell, 72). the culpeper’s model has an advantage because it is built on real life data. the most well-known definition of impoliteness is mentioned by culpeper cited in bousfield andlocher (134) in which he described impoliteness “as the use of strategies designed to attack face and thereby cause social conflict and disharmony”. super-strategies for impoliteness culpeper sets up five super strategies by which impoliteness can be created and received, these are: bald on record impoliteness: according to bousfield (71), this strategy is employed when there is much face at risk and when a speaker intends to damage the hearer’s face thus the impolite utterance will be performed directly and clearly. positive impoliteness: bousfield and locher (135) claim that this strategy is used to damage the hearer’s positive face want. culpeper (252) cited in mullany and stockwell (72) adds a range of sub-strategies to positive impoliteness and these include: a. ignoring and snubbing the other. b. denying common ground with the hearer. c. selecting a sensitive or undesirable topic to talk about. d. using appropriate identity markers. e. being disinterested and unsympathetic with the hearer. f. looking for disagreements. g. using obscure language and inserting secretive words without the discourse. h. using taboo words. negative impoliteness: this strategy is designed to attack the hearer’s negative face want (thielemann and kosta, 238). culpeper cited in mullany and stockwell (73) says that negative impoliteness involves the following sub-strategies: a. scorn b. frighten c. ridicule d. and invade the hearer’s space literally or metaphorically. sarcasm or mock impoliteness: according to thielemann and kosta (239), this strategy, the speakers performs the fta using politeness strategies which are clearly insincere. in other words, sarcasm means the use of one or more sub-strategies which are superficially suitable and accepted but deeply, they have the opposite meaning (bousfield, 72). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 146 chukwu & alozie-onumadu withhold politeness: withhold politeness happens when a speaker does not do politeness strategy that is wished by the hearer, or he speaker just keeps silent (thielemann and kosta, 239). functions of impoliteness culpeper (252) proposes three functions of impoliteness. they are: affective impoliteness, coercive impoliteness and entertaining impoliteness. affective impoliteness: affective impoliteness is one of the specific functions in impoliteness strategy. here, the speaker exposes his anger towards the hearer and this consequently generates a negative emotional atmosphere between the speaker and the hearer (huang, 150). coercive impoliteness: the function seeks a rearrangement of values between the speaker and the hearer. it is like that the speaker has his current benefits reinforced or protected. the benefits could be material (e.g speaker uses this function to force hearer to give him something) or symbolic (e.g an impolite insult to reduce hearer’s value and increase speaker’s own). culpeper believes that this impoliteness type takes place, to a greater extent, in situations where the producer belongs to a higher and more powerful social level than the hearer’s level. entertaining impoliteness: culpepper states that this function involves entertainment at a potential target of the impoliteness. the potential target is also called a potential victim. in this case, the victim is not often aware of the impoliteness that is done by another participant, but the participant who is entertained is aware of the target. methodology the utterances drawn from the selected novels were subjected to qualitative descriptive analysis. the qualitative descriptive method was used to describe the utterances that were made by the characters in order to ascertain the effect profane words have on an individual and the reason people use swear words. the representation of the textual data were described based on the theoretical framework (impoliteness theory), the study also answered the research questions. data presentation and analysis woman at point zero by nawal el saadawi s/n utterances types of profanity output strategies super strategies types of impoliteness 1 they’re going to hang her in a few days time. what use are you, or anybody else to her. leave her alone! (p. 2) dysphemism seek disagreement negative impoliteness affective impoliteness 2. for after all, i was only a successful prostitute. (p. 9) euphemism insincere sarcasm/mock politeness entertaining impoliteness 3. his mouth was like that of a camel with a big opening and wide jaws. (p.18) dysphemism ridicule negative impoliteness affective impoliteness ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 147 chukwu & alozie-onumadu 4. she is a good girl but the world is full of bastard. (p.37) dysphemism insincere negative impoliteness coercive impoliteness 5. how dare you raise your voice when you’re speaking to me, you street walker, you low woman! (p.52) dysphemism attack face bald on record impoliteness affective impoliteness discussion of findings the researcher analysized 5 utterances from the novel under the subheading: types of profanity, output strategies, super strategies, types of impoliteness.the major type of profanity found from the analysis was dysphemism. the researcher successfully found out the reason people swear. some of these reasons were to ridicule, attack face, being insincere and to seek to disagree. based on the result of the data, the researcher tends to compare the present work with previous researchers. putrianalysized dysphemism in series titled teen wolf season 1. putri used allan and burridge’s theory to find the types of dysphemism and the purposes of the use of dysphemism. apart from the finding (i.e people mostly swear when they are angry) that is closely related to putri’s findings, this present research used textual data that was purposively drawn from the novel for the analysis. moreover, the object of this present work extends to more findings and it successfully analysized the types of profanity in the novel. conclusion there are a lot of profane words that are not borne out of emotions. the swear words can be used to entertain the hearer. though the present study has done reasonably well on the analysis of profanity, the analysis is by no means exhaustive. as a result of limitations, among which time was a ‘principal factor’, the study was restricted to a study of profanityusing the sociolinguistic approach only. a critical examination of this phenomenon, however, reveals that other approaches such as a stylistic approach and pragmatic approach were not covered in the present study. we therefore recommend further studies in these areas. works cited allan, keith. natural language semantics.hoboken: wiley-blackwell publishers, 2001. print allan, keith. andburridge, kate. forbidden words: taboo and the censoring of language. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2006. print. amadi, gloria .u. sexism in english: a lexical study of teacher’s vocabulary choices in select institutions of higher learning in south-east nigeria: a dissertation. imo state university, owerri, imo state. 2020. culpeper, jonathan. impoliteness: using language to cause offence. cambridge: cambridge university press. 2011. print. el saadawi, nawal. woman at point zero.london: zed books ltd. 1983. print hughes, geoffrey. an encyclopedia of swearing: the social history of oath, profanity, foul language and ethnic slurs in the english-speaking world. new york: m.e. 2006. print jay, timothy, caldwell-harris, catherine and king, krista.recalling taboo and non-taboo words. american journal of psychology. 121, 83-103. 2008. jay, timothy and janschewitz, kristin.the science of swearing.the observer, 25, 5-6. www.psychologicalscience.org2012. http://www.psychologicalscience.org/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 148 chukwu & alozie-onumadu knyazyan, anna.gender and disparaging humour. a journal of armenian folia anglstiks 11(2(14)), 25-32.2015. kremin, lena v. sexist swearing and slurs: responses to gender-directed insults. manuscripts written during rma linguistics,utrecht university, utrecht, neitherland. 2017. roth, alvin e. (ed.). “repugnance as a constraint on markets”, journal of economic perspectives, 21 (3), 37-58)2007. sadock, jerrold m. towards a linguistic theory of speech acts.new york: academic press. 1993 print ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 148 combatant children: a study of some selected african novels ijeoma eucharia ugwuanyi english department, fce (t) umunze, anambra state email: ijeomaugwuanyi2013@gmail.com abstract this paper investigated combatant children of war in uzodinma iweala’s beasts of no nation and ishmael beah’s a long way gone: memoirs of a boy soldier. it examined the ways the authors have portrayed children as combatants of war, the authors’ use of grotesque features, and the consequences of war on the lives of the children. a content analysis of the works was examined employing the post-colonial theory. it exposed the new wave of exploitation of children who have been a signifier not only of war and lawlessness, but also of a marginally alienated african people. through the evaluation of the characters as children and soldiers, as innocent and guilty, and as protectors and destroyers, it becomes clear that the children need to be protected from any form of violence. psychoanalytic theory was also adopted as the children suffer disorder that cause them to lose contact with reality and their behavior become bizarre. at the end of the study, it was discovered that combatant children were exposed to dangerous acts of militancy at the expense of their basic needs of life. this paper advocates for children’s rights and protection, and putting to an end the use of children to commit all sorts of crimes, including employing them as soldiers. keywords: children, african novels, psychoanalytic theory mailto:ijeomaugwuanyi2013@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 149 introduction there are unique features of legends or epics which establish some links with beasts of no nation by uzodinma iweala and a long way gone: memoirs of a boy soldier by ishmael beah; except for pre-colonial novel of thomas mfolo’s chaka which used magic. chaka is inoculated by a magician, sorcerer and a priest with medicine of blood: “your sole purpose should be to kill without mercy and thus, clear the path that leads to the glory of your kingship” (17). chaka turns to a killing machine like a child soldier today. chaka is eventually consumed by the violence that made him king and he lives out the rest of his days in what can be described as schizophrenia. both during and before chaka’s time, children were not warriors. according to ocaya-lakidi, dent, “the standing army was made up of young bachelors in their warrior age grade. it was young men in their twenties who saw actions” (12). studies do show that african society is structured in age-grades and age sets which have some connections with war. although age grades and age sets are closely connected with war and the formation of armies, age sets are created for socio-cultural matters such as marriage. uzodinma iweala and ishmael beah’s novels about children who engaged in war use their grotesque imagery to offer a new representation of children’s marginalization as a result of war. this paper takes into account not only the tragic, ugly or grotesque deviance and inversion through which combatant children are portrayed, but also the meaningful patterns that lie hidden in these features and make the issue of using children to fight war understandable. this issue of children engaging in war is prominent after the end of colonial rule. the post-colonial theory offers a new perspective on how post-colonial children are both victims and agents of violence. this paper examines the ways the authors have portrayed the children as combatants in ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 150 war, the stylistic features found in the works and the consequences of war on the psyche of the children. children as combatants in war children are uniquely vulnerable to military recruitment and manipulations into violence because they are innocent and impressionable. they are forced or enticed to join armed groups. agu, a twelve-year old child soldier in beasts of no nation, having witnessed the killing of his father by enemy soldier hides because he thinks he will be safe after being separated from his mother and only sister. he is given the choice of joining the army or being killed. as part of his initiation, and to prove that he is not a spy, agu is given a machete and he is ordered to hack a man (an enemy soldier) to death. the commandant assures agu; “it’s just like killing a goat. just bring this hand up and knock him well” (21). with this last order, the commandant closes his hand over agu’s as the boy holds the machete, and brings it down on the enemy’s head. agu, in this justifies his action saying: i am not bad boy. how can i be bad boy? somebody who is having life like i am having and fearing god the whole time…i am soldier and soldier is not bad if he is killing, so if i am killing them, i am only doing what is right. (23-24) ishmael beah’s a long way gone: memoirs of a boy soldier explains the tactics of manipulations used to obtain and brain wash children, turning them into killing machines which, ultimately made it extremely difficult for them to leave and reintegrate into the society. the protagonist, ishmael and his brother junior, together with his friends, mohammed and talloi are stripped of their homes, and the family fear and uncertainty as they search for parts of their country that have not been ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 151 affected by war in order to seek refuge. they are accosted by charles taylors and a few mercenaries from burkina faso. they join the group. ishmael started fighting from ten years old “his teen years are killing field”. he attests that: “my squad is my family, my gun is my provider and protector and my rule is to kill or be killed” (126). children who are recruited into fighting wars are turned into killers through a brutal initiation process in “a long way gone”. new recruits are often forced to kill the escapees or even the members of their family to prove they are worthy of recruitment. if they refuse or try to decline, they will also be killed. they force recruits to eat or drink the blood of their freshly killed victims with the explanation that the initial ruf (revolutionary volunteer front), are carved wherever it pleases the rebels, with a hot bayonet. this not only means that you are scared for life but that you cannot escape from them. children who fight war are victims whose participation in conflict bears serious implications for their physical and emotional well-being. they are commonly subjected to abuse and most of them witness death, killing and sexual violence. mary hugas in her report for unicef in 2007 observed that it was estimated that approximately 35,000 children were being used for military purposes in african’s most intense conflicts in north sudan, south sudan, central african republic and nigeria. hugas maintained that some african leaders recruited them because they have claimed that children, despite their underdevelopment, brought their own quality as combatants to a fighting unit, being often remarkably fearless, agile and hardy. these children face harrowing experiences of pain in war and injuries to their young bodies. they are forced by hardship into manhood. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 152 in recruiting the children as soldiers, they are forbidden to use their birth names, traditional names or any other names related to their past experiences with their families. they are instead given war names that identify them with their roles in the war. in the beasts of no nation some of the boys are given names as rambo, strika, preacher, griot etc. this is intended to severe their links with their people, eliminate their desire to escape and rejoin their families, and accept their new world and roles. they are indoctrinated into believing untrue things and that the so called enemies killed their parents and took away their loved ones, and therefore, must die. thus, anybody the boys come across, man or woman is an enemy. to make them stronger, braver, and forget their families, they are shown war movies and they are given hard drugs. these take away their humanities. agu in beasts of no nation is enticed by the commandant’s uniform and shiny sword, holding gun as the commandant is shouting: “left, right”, left, right”. the conductor tells agu that being a soldier is like “falling in love”. agu believes him so much that he joins the military. while the war rages, he becomes increasingly divorced from the life he has known before the conflict started – a life of school friends; church services, and time with his family are no longer intact. as he recalls these “sunnier times”, his daily reality continues to spin further downward into inexplicable brutality, primal fear, and loss of selfhood. in a long way gone, military commanders, often times, force children to take drugs like amphetamines, crack cocaine, palm wine, brown and brown (cocaine mixed with gun powder), marijuana and tranquilizers in order to disengage the child’s action from reality. according to ishmael in a long way gone, “taking the drugs made it easier for them to kill because it numbed them of any emotion” (95). once the children are ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 153 addicted to drugs, they will do just about anything that is ordered. they now evolve from boys into soldiers. this creates loss of identity for both the rebels and the boys. they are handed over ak – 47 and then, drugs become part of their world. ishmael beah recounts walking through villages killing everyone in sight. he is now quite different from the boy who loved hip-hop and danced around to the music. the war has taken many parts of his spirit. he does not know fear because he is filled with drugs which bring a false sense of power. agu, in beasts of no nation confesses, “gun-juice” (drug) makes one stronger and braver to kill. “everybody is always wanting gun juice because it is drug and it makes life easy… it tastes like licking sweet (55). drug makes the boys not to feel hungry when they are fighting: “everybody is looking like one kind of animal and smelling like chicken or goat, or cow” (58). after taking drugs, the protagonists and other combatant children indulge in sexual exploitation. the soldiers turn the children into sex machines; agu describes what happens after the commandant has told him to remove his cloth. so i was removing them. and then, after making me touching his soldier and that entire thing with my hand and with my tongue and lip, he was telling me to kneel and then he was entering inside of me…. (85) through sexual exploitation and general act of brutality associated with the war, the boys lose their faith and innocence. quoting molarah wood in his review of beasts of no nation, “agu, is not only aroused by acts of violence, penises are soldiers’ standing at attention, and the abusive commandant ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 154 gives the boy special favours because, as the child says: ‘i am saluting his soldier for him” (147). agu’s rape of a woman keeps haunting him and he continually wrestles with the thought of whether he is a devil or not. ishmael beah’s memoirs of the people he has raped and killed caused him migraine, sleeplessness and sadness in a long way gone. grotesquery as a stylistic feature employed by the authors there are many stylistic features employed by uzodinma iweala in beasts of no nationand ishmael beah in a long way gone: memoirs of boy soldier, such asjourney motif, memoir, grotesquery among others, but this paper focuses on grotesquery. anything grotesque, according to oxford advanced learners dictionary is “strange, bizarre, ugly and unnatural so as to cause fear” (525). it focuses on human body and all the ways that it can be distorted. however, as a stylistic form, it presents many difficulties. it intersects with many other stylistic variations, such as comedy, parody, caricature, horror, bizarre, tragedy, and the absurd. the first impressions of child soldiers’ human behavior are often confusing, making it difficult to speak of these actions without wishing to classify them as grotesque. according to harpharm, galt in his work, the grotesque: strategies of contradiction in art and literature, the word designates “a condition of being just out of focus, just beyond the reach of language” (3-4). in this case, it accommodates the things left over, when the categories of language is exhausted. it is a defense against silence when other words have failed. in art, some objects or things are presented to us as grotesque or monstrous, but as harpham explains, “hideous dragons” and “terrible beasts” are not necessarily grotesque. those creatures, simultaneously, invoke and repudiate our conventional language based categories. the grotesque is understood by most critics as a mingling of human with animal features or mechanical ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 155 elements, the monstrous, the mishaps, which sachs gysin in the grotesque in american negro fiction, simply refers to as “the inverse of the ideal” (31). it is evil or absurdity portrayed in incongruously compounded human and non-human images that are in various degrees both disturbing and abstract. in her study of child soldiers in africa, alvinda, honwana describes child soldiers as “those who find themselves in an ambiguous position that defies dichotomies between civilians and combatants, victims and perpetrators, initiated and initiators, protected and protectors, and as others argue, even human and non-human” (7). agu and ishmael beah, the protagonists in beasts of no nation and a long way gone can be described as beasts, the equivalent of animals. they are a combination of humans and beasts. they lack a socially defined place. they create a world that remains incomprehensible because, while childhood is associated with innocence, weakness, and dependence upon adult guidance and care, children who are engaged in war by contrast, are associated with strength, aggression, and the responsible maturity of adulthood. the paradoxical combination of childhood and combatant becomes unsettling because children at war find themselves in an unsanctioned position between childhood and adulthood. “before the war we are children but now we are not” (beasts of no nation 46). ishmael beah and other children who engage in war, as well as agu and strika are simultaneously producers and products of violence on the one hand; they are initiators and responsible for actions of violence while on the other hand they are subject beings. they respond positively to the needs of those they are loyal to. in the role of soldiers, they are put in a position of domination, while as children; they are unambiguous victims of abduction. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 156 if agu and ishmael seem grotesque, it is not necessarily because of their odd appearance, but because, as individuals, they represent a corrupt or alienation of familiar forms. taken as symbols of life and death, the child and the gun are two elements that fuse two opposites into one, although the gun the boy holds up (as soldiers do in time of war) is for self-protection and therefore, life saving. agu, ishmael and his friends are threatened by their identities on one hand, and those imposed on them by dominant elements of society which refer to them as outlaws, outcasts or public dangers on the other hand. it is the prevailing grotesque images of these combatant children as seen through the distorting lens of the society that is part of the appeal of this paper aimed at protecting the children fighting wars; preventing them from doing what adults do. the transformation of a child soldier into a cruel being may or may not be descriptively convincing. his body is a reflection of a decadent post-colonial world. by aligning tropes (which is a deviation from literal convention or proper language use, swerves in location sanctioned neither by custom nor logic) like madness, obscene, violence, and so on, and with these grotesque analysis like distortion, animation, and so on, it shows that the tropes are devices provided by language which we can use to identify problematic areas of ishmael and agu’s cognitive experiences. hence, “the power of words is injected into language from outside, that is, from the institutions which delegate authority to the speaker” (thompson john, 69). uzodinma iweala and ishmael beah employ their grotesque imagery to offer a new representation of children’s marginalization as a result of war. this paper takes into account, not only the tragic, ugly, or grotesque deviance and inversion through which combatant children of war are portrayed, but also the meaningful patterns that lie hidden in these features and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 157 make the issue understandable. their harrowing experiences of pain in war should not be praised; instead, we make a spotlight to show how combatant children have been forced into manhood by hardship. grotesquery is a useful technique employed by the authors to show a decadent post-colonial society. it is a symbol of culture which has failed, on one hand, to control the passions of the younger ones, and on the other hand, to improve the conditions of children that drive them into violence. the war in sierra leone is taken to the climax by rebel leaders such as foday sankoh. the actions of people like samuel doe, charles taylor, johnson, sir leaf and so on, are far more violent, grotesque and terrifying. consequences of war on the psyche of children as characters many of the children who engage in war have extreme cases of bitter experiences which lead to emotional problems. their dreams to become useful in life are aborted by engaging in war. they are hunted by people they killed during the war. ishmael beah’s memoir takes one through his suffering, survival and an endless struggle against the seemingly impossible. as a former boy soldier, he tells his high school friends his encounters during the war as a warning for others not to venture into such act. agu and ishmael in beasts of no nation and a long way gone respectively, experience loss of identity, and loss of their family members who are slain in the war. they also experience the loss of their innocence. horror, fear and danger follow them to both unconscious thought, leaving them in a world where day and night are the same. they help in the destruction of their villages. adults and most respected members of african society begin to fear their own children, as they kill and set villages on fire. they now behave like beasts which have no nation. the variables that ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 158 “pull” children towards violence are parallel to the “push” factors. because of their age, immaturity, curiosity, and love for adventure, children are susceptible to temptation of becoming combatants. the fact that the children try to justify themselves by giving reasons for becoming soldiers is what ogunmola, kasimo calls “push” as opposed to “pull” factors. by “push,” it means that there are factors which give children no choice but to get involved in violence while “pull” refers to those which slowly attract them and encourage them into violence. trauma, brutalization, deprivation and other socio cultural related issues are among those push factors which drive children into violence. conclusion uzodinma iweala and ishmael beah, as the authors have given a voice in their stories. the voice as narrators, although given expression through the gunshots, is a metaphor of the deconstruction of society. these children remind us of their pain, sadness and death which some of them survived while others did not. recruiting children for military purposes is harmful for a number of reasons. children’s development, health and well being are disrupted when they are drawn into military organizations. they suffer a severe disorder that causes them to lose contact with reality. their thoughts, perceptions and emotion become distorted and their behavior may be bizarre. children engaging in war have lingering effect of exploitation in a post-colonial contest. it continues to haunt the african continent. the children are now exposed to dangerous act of military. this paper advocates protecting them and putting to an end the use of african children to commit all sorts of crimes, including employing them as soldiers. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 159 works cited beah, ishmael. a long way gone: memoirs of a boy solider. faircr: straus and giroux, 1998. dent, ocay-lakidi. “manhood, warrior hood, and sex in east africa: perspectives from the 19th and 20th centuries” journal of asian and african studies. kattel, vol. 5, no. 2, jul. 2007. pp 12-13. galt, harpham. the grotesque: strategies of contradiction in art and literature. princeton: up, 2008. gysin, sachs. the grotesque in american negro fiction, franke, 2000. hornby, a.s. oxford advanced learners dictionary 8th ed. oxford, 2010 iweala, uzodimma. beasts of no nation. john murray. 2005 mfolo, thomas. chaka:a historical romance. oxford: up, 1931 ogunmola, kasimo. “socio-economic injustice and gonysim; war lordism and terrorism in the sierra leone civil war” war lords of our time. cambridge: up, 2009. thompson, john. studies in thetheory of ideology. polity, 2008. united nations. state of the world children’s report maryhugas, unicef, 2007.house report 518. wood, molara. “uzodinma iweala’s beasts of no nation”. war in african literature today 26. edited by ernest emenyonu. heinemeann, 2008. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 9 onebunne & akujobi students’ slanguage in nnamdi azikiwe university (unizik) awka, nigeria: any positivity? l.a. onebunne department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria. email: la.onebunne@unizik.edu.ng & dr. o.s. akujobi department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria. email:os.akujobi@unizik.edu.ng abstract the use of ‘’slangs’’ as a language of communication among students of nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria was investigated to ascertain the communicative pertinence of slang among undergraduates and the extent to which slang positively affects communicative performance of the students.the survey research design was adopted for the study and the sample population comprised of 278 undergraduates from three faculties of nnamdi azikiwe university awka, nigeria: faculty of arts, faculty of engineering and faculty of management sciences. questionnaires were dispensed to participants who were drawn from the faculties through a purposive sampling technique. among other things, the study showed that among different text types in which slang is used, almost all the respondents use slang in spoken language, in chat and messenger and in emails to friends, some of them in email, and some also in private letters. one hundred and eighty-nine (189) respondents are igbos while 58 respondents are yorubas and hausas. all the respondents use slang in english, 169 respondents use it in igbo while 143 respondents use it in other languages other than igbo, yoruba or hausa. slang positively affects the communicative competence of undergraduates of nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria. keywords: slanguage, positivity, unizik, undergraduates, nigeria introduction it becomes obvious that no human society can exist without language. wallwork summarised the uses of language below: i. for phatic communication i.e. as a social regulator; ii. for ceremonial purposes; iii. to keep records; iv. as an instrument of action; v. to convey orders and information; vi. to influence people; vii. to enable self-expression; and viii. to embody and enable thought (12). language has been broadly categorised into formal and informal usage. emenanjo (5) categorised language into formal usage which consists of the standard expressions not restricted to any register, and informal usage which comprises colloquialisms, slang and pidgins. standard language refers to a prestige variety of language used within a speech community (crystal 450), and is perhaps the most difficult to “denaturalise” (roth-gordon 4). it conforms to an institutionalised norm which can be used in the mass media, in teaching the language to foreigners and so on (crystal 450). under informal usage, we have colloquialism, which is used in everyday informal conversation. there is also pidgin, which is normally not the native language of any of its speakers, but emerges from people of different linguistic backgrounds who have come together for one purpose or the other. lastly, slang is an informal language because it uses informal words and expressions that are not mailto:os.akujobi@unizik.edu.ng ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 10 onebunne & akujobi considered standard in the speaker’s language or dialect but are considered more acceptable when used socially (“wikipedia”). students at universities often develop their own in-group vocabulary which only members can understand. a number of such students’ slang expressions and the degree of their use vary from university to university. as in any language, slang reflects the experiences, beliefs and values of its speakers. yet college/university slang is not a complete language (“slang in college” 1). college/university slang is also descriptive and contains many symbols for food or eating, effective or ineffective performance, money, intoxication and college places. college/university slang has its share of criticism due to its effects on the english language. writers and language experts have come out against the use of slang saying it is “wrecking the language” and have called its users “vandals” (humphrys 1). linguistic traditionalist worry that slang will reduce users’ ability to write correct english sentences, and will harm their spelling and vocabulary (holloway 1). others say that slang (including texting or internet slang) simplifies and abbreviates language, thereby robbing language of its subtlety and complexity (trevett and houlahan 2). in contrast, in an unscientific pool conducted by edutopia.org, some educators feel that slang has positive effect on the students (russell 6). they feel that anytime you can get students to write, it is positive (russell 6). they believe that students are writing more than ever before because of slang (especially internet slang) (russell 6). educational researchers discovered that students are writing more and revising more (“ny times”). one of the features of slang is that it is only intelligible to those people associated with the group or groups who use it. new students (even the smartest and most communicative competent “freshmen”) find it difficult to understand the language used on campus. this is due to the fact that slang “provides different symbols from which communicated messages can be constructed “ (“slang in colleges” 1). slang is more than just words. like communication in general, slang is a process that characterises a communication environment as casual and familiar. students use it when they talk with their friends and in informal situations like when chatting in social networks. this paper intends to study slang usage among the undergraduates of nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria with the view to know its communicative pertinence among the students. a lot of studies have been directed towards reiterating the negative influence of slang on a second language learner’s communicative competence. very few studies have been directed towards finding out if slang could actually help a second language learner in achieving communicative competence in the target language. can slang among undergraduates be just another sign that their communicative competence is deteriorating? or can slang help to enrich their vocabulary or language experience? this paper aims to find out the communicative pertinence of slang among undergraduates, the extent to which slang positively affects performance of the students. the study intends to answer the following questions: to what degree do the undergraduates use slang for communication in the university? to what degree does slang positively affect the academic performance of students in the university?, to what extent do students use slang expression to enrich their vocabulary? defining slang slang might not be beyond definition, but it is “incapable of precise definition” (partridge 69). an early definition of slang is found in the encyclopaedia britannica: ...in what is now the usual sense a general name for the class of words, more or less artificial or affected in origin or use, which are not recognised as belonging to the standard vocabulary of the language into which they have been introduced, but have an extensive currency in some section of society either as a means of concealing secrets or as intentionally undignified substitutes for those modes of expression that are employed by persons who value themselves on properties of speech. (207) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 11 onebunne & akujobi the above definition mentions four major points. firstly, it says that slang is in the “words” or the “vocabulary”. a linguist may describe this as belonging to the lexicon (as opposed to the grammar). secondly, it states that the word “slang” does not belong to the standard variety of language spoken in the larger society. later on in the same page it is claimed that “...slang is a conscious offence against some conventional standard of propriety” (207). this statement clearly shows a general prescriptive view towards language which was common at the beginning of the 20th century, but this part of the definition also expresses that a speaker who uses slang does so intentionally. thirdly, the quote refers to “some section of society” – a speech community which, fourthly, has something to conceal or wants to be secretive. the notion of secretiveness is a function of slang that is unique in its nature. the encyclopaedia britannica also mentions another feature of slang that is not included in any of the later definitions, namely “that slang is neither a part of ordinary language nor an attempt to supply its deficiencies” (207). productivity is a well-known feature of language. however, newly coined expressions are usually only needed when there is a lack of words for a certain concept or invention or otherwise only lengthy descriptions for the concepts exist. in contrast to that, slang is not absolutely necessary. nevertheless, slang continuously produces and uses new words. an eminent authority in the field of slang and the author of a dictionary of slang and unconventional english is eric partridge, who dedicated many years of his life to the collection of slang expressions. however, when he wrote the entry for the term slang in collier’s encyclopaedia, he did not attempt to write his own definition for it. he refers to, and seems to favour, the definition in webster’s third (new) international dictionary which describes slang as: ... a non-standard vocabulary composed of words and senses characterised primarily by connotations of extreme informality... composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, chapped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties, usually experiencing quick popularity and relatively rapid declines into disuse. (gove 2137) this definition raises the notion of informality as a feature of slang. slang is not used in formal speech or writing. in fact, in his list of functions of slang, partridge even goes as far as claiming that slang is intentionally used to decrease the formality of spoken, as well as written discourse (70). the webster definition also hints at two points that are related to each other: the creativity of slang and its rapid change. some slang expressions which were frequently used by unizik students five years ago are only known to a few students today or sometimes to nobody anymore. normally, language change is a very slow process, but – maybe due to its restriction to a relatively small speech community or to its creativity – slang alters more quickly. the creativity of slang can have many reasons, for example, the fact that slang is often used to be secretive or to portray wit. there are more reasons or rather functions of slang enumerated by partridge and later referred to by andersson and trudgill (87) and crystal (53). for this paper, we shall examine student slang. theoretical framework the theoretical framework on which this research is based is the communication accommodation theory which states that a person seeks either to emphasise or to minimise the social differences between himself/herself and the other person in conversation. according to giles and coupland, accommodation is to be seen as a multiple-organised and contextually complex set of alternatives, regularly available to communicators in face-to-face talk. it can function to index and achieve solidarity with or dissociation from a conversational partner, reciprocally and dynamically. (61) there are two basic accommodation strategies convergence and divergence – which are deployed by individuals to signal identification with, or dissociation from, the communication patterns of others (thanasoulas 1). divergence “refers to the way in which speakers accentuate speech and non-verbal differences between themselves and others” (giles and coupland 36), and convergence is “a strategy ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 12 onebunne & akujobi whereby individuals adapt to each other’s communicative behaviour in terms of a wide range of linguistic/prosodic/non-vocal features, in other to reduce social differences” (giles and coupland 35). according to miller, “convergence and divergence may be upward, by means of a shift toward a prestige variety, or downward by means of a shift away from it” (169). for instance, consider a student (possible a fresher) who wants to make new friends when chatting in social network like facebook may converge upwards towards his intended friends by using slang; or when a communicative competent student converges downwards towards his friend when asking him to lend him some money in order to win his approval. this paper fits into this theory because slang is seen as an alternative to standard language by the students as they understand the language due to the impression that the form of the language is not considered important. slang is regularly available to students when they interact face-to-face or when they chat in any of the social networks. also, it is an exercise either of wit, ingenuity or humour. students coin words and phrases to describe their special experiences and beliefs. methodology this paper is a survey research. the design is considered suitable since it seeks information on the positive effect of slang among undergraduates of nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. the population of this paper covers the undergraduates from three faculties: faculty of arts, faculty of engineering and faculty of the management sciences. participants are drawn from the faculties through purposive sampling technique. the reason for this is that the researchers believe that these faculties have vast number of students that resort to informal use of language. from the investigated area, 278 students were selected for the study. a structured questionnaire was used to elicit responses from the studied population. the questionnaire contains 17 items sub-divided into two (2) sections “a” and “b”. section “a” contains four (4) items designed to obtain personal information of the respondents. the items have options and blank spaces to enable the respondents to tick or complete as appropriate. section “b” comprises 13 items to determine the frequency of the slanguage among the undergraduates of unizik. 105 copies of the questionnaire were distributed to each of the selected faculties. the research instrument was administered to the respondents by the researchers and some of their friends. returned copies were analysed and used for the presentation of data. a frequency of occurrence was established from the copies of the questionnaire returned and the data collected were organised into various statistical representations. the formula for the analysis was: number of respondents x 100 total number of students 1 therefore, the percentage method was used as a statistical tool. the data collected and analysed were used in answering the research questions. presentation and analysis of data below are responses of students from the different faculties as obtained from the questionnaire. name of faculty total number of distributed total number returned faculty of arts 105 102 faculty of the management sciences 105 88 faculty of engineering 105 88 total 315 278 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 13 onebunne & akujobi out of three hundred and fifteen (315) copies of the questionnaire distributed to the students, a total of two hundred and seventy-eight (278) was duly completed and returned, and the percentage of the questionnaire returned is as follows: %= 278/315 x 100/1 = 88% therefore, the percentage returned is 88%. discussion the percentage of the respondents within the age range of 17-20 is 27%; 21-23 is 33%; 24-26 is 30%; and 27-30 is 10%. this indicates that respondents within the age range of 21-23 are more in the university followed by those within the age range of 24-26. this supports the assertion that teenagers and youths or young adults use slang more and thus the population is appropriate for this study. eighty eight percent (88%) of the respondents said that they use slang. for those who don’t use slang, 21 out of 34 respondents gave the reason that they don’t know how to use slang terms properly denoting they have some interest in it. those who chose others specified that they were not brought up with it. concerning the different text types in which slang is used, almost all the respondents use slang in spoken language, in chat and messenger and in emails to friends, some of them in any email, and some also in private letters. the number of people who use it in private letters might be so small because hardly anybody writes letters anymore in the age of email and messenger. eighteen (18) respondents admit that they use slang during presentations in class while 17 respondents also admit that they use slang in exams. in contrast to this, when asked in which types of communication they have heard or seen their fellow students use slang, 63 respondents stated that fellow students use slang in presentations in class. some even read it in papers (54) and exams (12). regarding the answer for why the respondents use slang and why they think their fellow students use slang, the response shows that to some extent slang is used for all the functions listed in my answer options. nevertheless, some choices were given priority over others. the first choice, saying that slang is used for the fun of it, received the highest quantum of agreement. 189 respondents said that they and others use slang because it is fun. the main point “to change the situation towards informality” and its sub-point “to be informal/colloquial” were the choices with the second highest agreement. when a person uses slang, the entire situation becomes informal or even colloquial depending on the quantity and quality of slang use. of course, among fellow students slang use is almost necessary or unavoidable if the person does not want to be ridiculed for speaking too formally. the choice “to reduce seriousness” was also seen as sub-point to changing the situation towards informality and it was regarded as important by 135 respondents when asked about their own reason why they use slang and by 117 respondents with regards to other people’s reason for slang use. from the responses “for the fun of it”, “to change the situation towards informality”, “to be informal/colloquial” and “to reduce seriousness” had high frequencies showing that slang positively affects the students’ communicative competence as they use it to adapt in informal circumstances when there is need. the mother tongue of the respondents and in what languages slang is used was analysed. 189 respondents said they are igbos while 58 respondents said they are from other tribes of the country other than igbo, yoruba or hausa. coming to what language in which they respondent use slang, definitely all of them use it in english. 169 respondents use it in igbo while 143 respondents use it in other languages other than igbo, yoruba or hausa. this increases the respondents’ choice of words when speaking or relating with other students in campus. also, the frequency of the respondents’ slang use according to their own opinion was elicited. 26 respondents admitted to using slang in almost every sentence. 125 respondents say they use it frequently but not excessively. 82 respondents admitted to slip in a slang expression from time to ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 14 onebunne & akujobi time. all the answers are almost normally distributed around the maximum of the choice “frequently, but not excessively”. this maximum can be interpreted as a statement that slang is used frequently among unizik students and that it may go as far to become a general part of the students’ vocabulary, which is difficult to avoid in formal situations. again, the respondents seem to agree that slang belongs to the informal or colloquial register of language. according to the data collected, 103 respondents said it is informal, 90 stated it is colloquial. one feature of informal language is that it is used more in everyday speech (especially conversations) than in writing. the vocabulary use of informal register of language is somewhat liberal. also words that express rapport and familiarity are often used in informal speech. so, as the students relate with other students in the university, we hear more of words that expresses rapport and familiarity. the data also shows that 71 respondents classified slang as poetic. this becomes reasonable for the functions of slang according to crystal (53) to be taken into consideration. for these respondents to see slang as being poetic shows that their vocabulary (both active and passive) is enriched with slang, and the use it for creative purposes e.g. to be more picturesque. the analysis showed that a greater number of those who use slang or associate with it have filled in the questionnaire. also, the analysis of those who do not use slang showed that the respondents use slang occasionally which would support the notion that almost every student speaks slang at unizik. the analysis has shown that students use slang not only amongst themselves but also in classroom situations (alimi and arua 20). this i believe is not just an exceptional case but a general tendency. this tendency can be explained from three points of view: first, english is the medium of instruction at unizik, awka but the mother tongue or primary language of only a very small minority of the students and not all students have been educated at schools where english is the medium of instruction before entering unizik. second, poor mastery of the english language could be a reason; and last, carelessness or laziness on the part of the student to proof read their work or paper. it also made it clear that when a person starts learning how to use the slang term, it soon becomes a habit to use the slang with friends for mere enjoyment. since communication is “a social interaction through messages” (fiske 58), it must take place in a social context involving transmitting not only information but also in communicating social values and interpretational relationships (thompson 38). as clearly pointed out by hymes (281), a competent language user needs to know more than just a set of rules for forming grammatical sentences; he/she also needs to know how to use language in a contextually appropriate way. from the analysis, most of the respondents agreed that they use slang frequently but not excessively, and this was interpreted as a statement that slang is used frequently among unizik students. it also showed that this may go as far as to becoming a general part of the students’ vocabulary. thus, as the students use slang expression, it inadvertently helps in their social adaptation of their speech community. recommendations slang has been observed to have communicative pertinence among the undergraduates of unizik owing to the fact it is taken as a convenient language of communication among students. since it is vital for university student’s communication needs, the following recommendations were made by the researcher: 1. slang is a style of its own. since the students resort to it frequently, it can be studied by linguists. this is to know its total or holistic features in helping the students in their communicative competence. 2. users of slang who use slang in very formal situations can strive for mastery in the english language first before using the slang terms. this can be achieved by students’ consciousness in the use of the english language. 3. the second language learner cannot be discouraged from using slang as this research has shown that young adults/youths/teenagers’ preferences in their speech with their peers result ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 15 onebunne & akujobi in rich variation in language use and to a large extent, the development of their communicative competence. conclusion this paper discovered how slang positively affects the students’ communicative competence. man needs language to control his environment; the more he uses it, the better his control. therefore, the students should note that language is the basis of any society they find themselves in life. works cited alimi, modupe m, and arua e. arua. “gender and student slang in the university of botswana”. english language and literature: cross-cultural currents. eds. arua, arua e, bagwasi, mompoloki m, tiro sebina and seboni, barolong. cambridge: new castle, 2006. anasuidu, b. n. “nigerian english slang coinage processes”. journal of linguistic and african languages. nsukka: 1987. andersson, lars-gunnar and peter trudgill. bad language. oxford: blackwell, 1990. crystal, david. language and the internet. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2001. .... a dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. 6th ed. oxford:blackwell publishing ltd., 2008 .... the cambridge encyclopaedia of language. 2nd ed. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1997. emenanjo, e. n. linguistics, language and the nation. port harcourt: inaugural lecture, university of port-harcourt, 1988. giles, howard and nikolas coupland. language: contexts and consequences. pacific grove: brooks/cole publishing co., 1991. gove, philip babcock. ed. “slang”. webster’s third new international dictionary of the english unabridged: with seven language dictionary. 3. chicago: encyclopaedia britannica, 1986. holloway, james. “sms and its negative effects on language”. ehow.com, web. 8 dec. 2011. humphrys, john. “i h8 txt msgs: how texting is wrecking our language”. daily mail, web. 2 jul. 2007. miller, k. communication theories: perspective, processes and contexts. 2nd ed. new york: mcgraw hill, 2005. ny times. “text generation gap: u r 2 old (jk)”. ny times, web. 12 jan. 2012 partridge, eric. “slang”. collier’s encyclopaedia. 21. new york: macmillan, 1988. roth-gordon, jennifer. slang and the struggle for meaning. unpublished phd dissertation. stanford university, california, 2002. russell, liza. “the effects of text messaging on english grammar”. ehow.com, web. 13 dec. 2011. “slang in colleges”. slang in colleges, n.d. web. 20 oct. 2011. thanasoulas, dimitrios. “accommodation theory”. tefl.net, web. 20 oct. 2011. trevett, claire and mike houlahan. “text language risky move in ncew examinations”. n.d. web. 17 jun. 2006. wallwork, j. language and linguistics. london: heinemann, 1969. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 50 challenges of effective communication in the digital nigerian environment christian okey nwaiwu department of languages akanu-ibiam federal polytechnic unwana afikpo, ebonyi state email: christiannwaiwu16@gmail.com abstract challenges of effective communication in the digital nigerian environment is an exposition on how the advent of new technologies and subsequent emergence of on-line communication impacted on the writing efforts of the average nigerian. prior to the coming of the new digital writing, written communication was carried out through the traditional physical and mental method. this medium however, is cumbersome and time-consuming and hence it is identified as one of the inadequacies of traditional communication. the glamour and glitter of the new on-line communication especially among the youths is however, a source of worry to many and the concern of this paper. using interview and excerpts of internet publications, the paper examines the concept of digital communication in nigeria’s environment. it identifies the values and challenges of on-line communication, discusses excerpts of on-line written communication as culled from the websites and comments on how on-line communication has impacted on the written communication of the average nigerian. the paper concludes that the new medium of communication be embraced with caution as the nation works towards joining the global community in this digital age. keywords: effective communication, digital, nigerian environment, trditional, physical and mental method. mailto:christiannwaiwu16@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 51 introduction communication is sine qua non in one’s individual and collective existence. it is necessary for the completeness of society. communication enables one to reach out and co-operate with others in the society. it equally helps in the facilitation and induction of the young into the adult society. according to obi, i. vitus and chris nwaiwu, communication is the passing on “feelings, thoughts, information, ideas, values, attitudes, skills etc” from an encoder to the decoder (14). little, p. believes that this can be effective with the help of “an agreed symbol”(12); that is using the appropriate symbol and language as tools. without a language that is commonly shared and understood codes, symbols or signs that are familiar to the reading audiences (decoders), such communication would be difficult if not impossible and hence, prone to criticism and rejection. communication can take the forms of verbal and non-verbal devices. however, this will be delimited to the verbal form of on-line writing and how it has impacted on effective communication. communication in a digital environment a digital environment is a society that has embraced and cued to the modern technological style of communication through the new media (njoku, steve, 3). the emergence of personal computers and mobile phones is a development that has had great positive impact on global communication. (the world book encyclopedia, 890; neiss and gershon, 22). njoku was of the view that the new world order of the information communication technology (i.c.t) has made the modern society amazingly sophisticated and hence the use of physical and mental abilities to perform tasks, including communication, has radically shifted to the use of electro-mechanical devices (2). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 52 invariably, the challenges to live up to the new world order has given way to globalization, a situation where the entire world is unified into one small village with common socio-economic, political, cultural and educational (linguistic) systems. it is not surprising that the new digital method of communication, has spread so fast within a short period of time when viewed from the angles of the attraction it has on the average nigerian and the excitement with which the youths embrace it. this way, the new digital communication has helped to revolutionalise the entire universe. odowu, fred asserts that in nigeria, digital communication was not heard of until the twilight of the 21st century(9). at present however, there is no facet of the nation’s human endeavour that is not glued to digital communication. the internet, computer, mobile phone and array of other social media available in i.c.t have become a source of excitement to the average nigerian. writing on the influence of mass madia on the academic performance of secondary school students on okigwe metropolitan city of imo state, obah, c. godwin argued that the nigerian youth generally and students in particular are so glued to the media that they regard any information in print, electronic and on-line as models(2). this is because ifechelobi, jane sees the media as “influential users of the english language” and hence the media “suggest and participate in determining standards of correctness(52). invariably, the new on-line media has not helped matters as regard effective communication. the new media style has increased the zeal of a typical nigerian to now read and write (communicate) through browsing the internet, using the google, facebook, twitter, whatsapp and other electronic texting of messages which in most cases, are not in tandem with appropriate style of communication. this is because we want to ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 53 live up to the dictates of the new world order. njoku sees this development though as commendable because the recent new world order has made it such that onlysocieties with the right information, skill and attitudes can be part of the world of automation as building of skyscrapers, jets, robots, underground rail, military arsenals etc. cannot happen throughchance. (12) collaborating this statement, ezenwa-ohaeta n, contained that the dynamic nature of the society and results of recent researches suggest the need for the “transformation from industrial to information age (1). recently, the transparency international came up with an assessment of tertiary institutions in nigeria using quality of research and i.c.t compliance, among other criteria, to rate the best institutions among colleges of education, polytechnics and universities. the implication here is that nigeria cannot be left behind in the glamour and glitter of the new communication. however, the excesses of the average nigerian, especially the youths, in embracing the new digital development and the attendant negative effect the action has caused on effective communication is a source of worry. that the average literate nigerian can no longer communicate effectively and functionally has been attributed to the craze for i.c.t and its subsidiaries. it is important to state that effective communication is a function of appropriate use of language and style. if we recall that the media have been identified as influential users of the english language and if it is no longer in doubt that people look up to the media as conveyors of correct and standard forms of english (ifechelobi, 52), we will understand why on-line digital style of communication is fast becoming a norm in the country. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 54 methodology to obtain the data for this study, a randomly selected staff and students of akanu ibiam federal polytechnic unwana were interviewed. in addition, excerpts of text messages and similar writings culled from the internet were examined and discussed. findings result of findings of this work show that the challenges encountered border on general and technical issues. the general challenges include epileptic power supply, occasional poor network problem and high cost of internet accessories like the modem, flash drive, and mobile phone/computer laptops used for browsing. on the other hand, the technical challenges are specifically linguistic as can be confirmed from excerpts culled from the internet. values of digital communication digital communication by way of on-line interaction has a number of immeasurable values. according to gambo, ahmed, the emergence of the personal computers in the 1960s made a great positive impact on pedagogy. he identified four areas in which the personal computer has positively affected teaching and learning to include volume, speed, tone and accuracy (3). in general, the on-line communication through the social media is an innovation that has been embraced with enthusiasm (weiss and gerhson in njoku, 18, encyclopedia americana, 114). the satellite now links the radio, t.v, internet and many others, and hence communication has become simplified. the internet and related network of computers have made the world wide web (www) a reality. the immeasurable benefit of the internet has made many to see it as the “super highway” and hence the belief that anyone who is out of the internet is far away from the information super highway of the world. little wonder, a covenant university graduate recently slammed graduates who ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 55 can hardly “attach a file to an e-mail” (#newshub8/2/20). a onetime honourable minister of education, professor ruqayatu ahmed rufai, at the investiture of former governor godswill akpabio of akwa ibom state as grand patron of science teachers’ association of nigeria (stan), remarked that an ict-based functional education was the only way to meet the challenges of the 21st century. she assured stan that the curriculum of science education at all levels would be reviewed to be ict-driven, in line with international best practices (stan newsletter,11). a number of other benefits derivable from digital communication can be exemplified in the postings in the twitter, youtube, facebook, whatsapp, gmail and yahoo (among others), which enable ict literate nigerians to communicate with ease. by this way, communication is made faster, easier and more enjoyable than the earlier form of communicating through physical and mental abilities. realizing the immeasurable place which the new digital development holds for the country, the nigerian government formulated the national policy for information technology (it) in 2001 with the vision of making nigeria an ict capable country in africa and a key player in the information society by the year 2005 by using ict as the engine for sustainable development and global competitiveness. the mission was to use it to facilitate education, create wealth eradicate poverty, create job opportunities and enhance competition of nigerians globally (16). it is in recognition of the indispensable role of the new digital world order that the relevant authorities decided to make the acquisition of basic ict skills and capabilities part of the national minimum standards for teachers education. this is because the teaching profession is a communication one. these ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 56 are clearly stated in the national minimum standards of the national commission for colleges of education (ncce 2000), the national universities commission (nuc 2004), teachers’ registration council of nigeria (trcn 1993). implicit of all these is that the era has gone when nigerians cannot afford not to communicate digitally. every literate nigerian is now expected not just to be computer literate, but to be able to prove their e-capabilities in a crazy-driven digital nigerian society. challenges of digital communication on the use of english chukwu, ephraim rightly observes that the essence of communication is to express ideas rather than impress the decoding audience “with dual or multiple interpretative expressions offering no specific message” (18). the number of language ambiguities which he identifies in his paper is relevant in this work. the purpose for which communication exist are information, education and entertainment. humans are always communicating; receiving and giving information and creating or solving problems through communication. humans also communicate by reading and writing, watching television, listening and talking to people. it is important that communication is made simple, devoid of any ambiguity that may send false signal to the decoder or result in any form of misunderstanding. simplicity and concreteness of the encoder make communication effective and helps in understanding a person, thing or situation and enables the communicating parties to resolve differences, build trust, respect and create environment where creative ideas, problem solving, affection and caring can flourish (www.helpguide.org). in the digital information age, one is expected to send, receive and process huge numbers of messages which must be effective and functional. effective communication is about more than just exchange of information. it is also about understanding the http://www.helpguide.org/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 57 emotion behind the information. effective communication can improve relationship at work, home and social institutions by deepening one’s connection with others and improving teamwork, decision-making and problem solving. effective communication enables one to pass even negative or difficult messages without creating conflict or destroying trust. according to otagburuagu, e.j, the access of most nigerians to the internet has made most youths to spend valuable time browsing in the internet and engaging in other communication chores on-line, to the detriment of studying the language skills for better communication(5). this goes to explain how ecapabilities have challenged some nigerians to be lazy in physical and mental communication because of the glamour of the social media. ordinarily, the on-line is not supposed to constitute a threat but an addition to the traditional physical and mental form of communication. a number of writings which appear on-line in recent times are fraught with linguistic challenges arising from social and semantic factors. this makes one wonder if on-line communication has any provisions for proof-reading and editing. unlike years back when on-line communication could only be assessed through the few cyber cafes in town, the reverse is the case now because of the computer and internet facilities which abound in most homes. an ict baseline study by the national information technology development agency (nitda) shows that there are 14,800 ict organizations and institutions in nigeria which offer ict related services (7). abbas, mohamed contends that “by the year two thousand, there were over fifty million internet users and over two billion users projected for the year 2013(18). currently in the year 2020, the figure must have been over doubled considering the quest for e-communication, coupled with the availability and affordability of other e-devices. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 58 achebe has rightly observed that the hunter learns to shoot without missing, the moment the bird-prey begins to fly without perching (22). this is the case with the situation in nigeria where the most important agencies dealing with students now communicate with them online. the joint admissions and matriculations board (jamb), west african examinations council (waec) national examination council (neco), national open university of nigeria (noun), national teachers’ institution (nti) and virtually all tertiary and selected private secondary schools in nigeria now communicate with their prospective applicants and students on-line. the students who are part of the youths on their part, are enjoying the on-line experience as they get more interested in the opportunities provided by the web. how has this trend affected communication? according to www.helpguide.org “effective communication is all about more than just exchanging information. it’s also about understanding the emotion behind the information (28/3/14). widdowson is of the view that the difficulties which users of language encounter arise not so much from a defective knowledge of the system but from an unfamiliarity with language use (67). other scholars who hold this view of functional language include robinson, p; hutchinson and waters (1987) and munby, j (1978). the challenges encountered in on-line communication can be physical or linguistic. among the physical challenges are epileptic power supply, sporadic nature of internet network and high cost of internet accessories like the modem, flash drive and cellular phones for browsing. the linguistic challenges arise as a result of on-line digital writings which are fraught with a number of inadequacies as can be attested from the following excerpts culled from the internet which border on the extent to which they communicate to the internet reading audience. http://www.helpguide.org/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 59  good character is lyk a lite that illungnates. it leaves no room 4 dark thoughts. airtel network 1/2/14. comment the preponderance of abbreviations in the excerpt above may be tolerated as it is assumed the writer is communicating in an informal situation. however the technical error “illungnate” (illuminates) obviously distorts meaning in the sentence.  watch official trailer. visit http://youtube.be/tnrtor deivk. sent 15-march2014. glo network 15/3/14 comment the writer here must have mistaken the spelling of thriller as “trailer” which is a vehicle that can be pulled behind another vehicle, used for carrying heavy load (longman, 1764). in addition, the last line containing the date the message was posted contains a mechanical error of inconsistency in writing of date.  gej defends suspension of central bank governor as over 30 students killed in nigerian schools attack. to get more &enjoys free text voa @n30/wk. comment gej is an abbreviation of a group or an organization the full meaning hopefully, will be disclosed in the body of the report since this is a headline. however, the killing of the over 30 students is deceptive. the killings reported above took place in a single school in nigeria, that is federal govt. college buni-yadi in yobe state. it is not a nation-wide attack on nigerian schools as portrayed in the headline above. therefore, the expression requires an appropriate marker “a nigerian school attack”. again, the last sentence is marred by errors of concord http://youtube.be/tnrtor%20deivk.%20sent%2015-march-%202014 http://youtube.be/tnrtor%20deivk.%20sent%2015-march-%202014 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 60 “...enjoys” and absence of appropriate punctuations which created ambiguity in it.  nigerian state declares friday public holiday celebrates forgiveness day. opera news online 7/2/20 the body of the report reads...governor simon lalong had in february 7 last year inaugurated... comment the preposition “in” is wrongly used in the expression above. assuming the exact date is not mentioned, “in” would be accepted. in this case, the appropriate options are: ....governor simon lalong had on february 7 2019 inaugurated... or ....governor simon lalong had in february last year inaugurated...  supreme court: fr. mbaka called me on phone and pleaded – emeka ihedioha. on-line news report 8/02/20 the opera on-line news above is misleading and good example of fake news. the heading suggest that fr. mbaka pleaded for forgiveness from emeka ihedioda whose removal as governor of imo state came shortly after fr. mbaka prophesied it. read on fr. mbaka equally pleaded with ihedioha to stop seeing him as a political enemy, but a massager of truth from the almighty. ihedioha’s statement was released by his spokesman, chibuike onyeukwu and made available on in the early hour of today. the former governor said that the truth remains that fr. mbaka is quite convinced ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 61 that sacking redress from the supreme court is founded on clear illegitimacy, and nothing will stop him from reclaiming his stolen mandate. comment the entire report is misleading with preponderance of grammar errors. the report shows that fr. mbaka did not plead but gave ihedioha a piece of advice. hence he report should read: fr. mbaka equally advised ihedioha to stop seeing him as .....but a messenger of truth.......ihedioha’s statement was released by his........and made available in the early hours of today. again the last paragraph beginning from “the former governor said.....”lacks the consistency required in reported speech as the writer jumped from simple past “said that” to simple present “remains” etc while the word “sacking” is a corruption of “seeking”.  pretty corper serving in gombe state dies in a ghastlymotor accident. opera new 10/12/20. this is one of the peril of serving her father-land...by the time of filing this report the cause of the accident is yet to be ascertained, also the number of people dead was not ascertained while the injured were ferried to the hospital. comment a ghastly accident is not as serious as fatal accident. since the death of the corper and others whose number could not be determined occurred in that single accident the appropriate word should be fatal not ghastly. the word “peril” is an uncountable noun so the correct usage rather than “one of the peril” is: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 62 this is the peril of ......... or this is one of the dangers of........ by the time of filling this report......(wrong) by the time of filling in this report..... (correct) the cause of accident is yet......(wrong) the cause of the accident was yet....(correct) the injured were ferried to the hospital....(wrong) the injured had been taken to the hospital....(correct) (this is based in the context of use).  reactions as this covenant university graduate blasts, condemns graduate from public universities. opera online news 10/2/20. editorial post this story may not go down well with graduates from other universities especially those who went to publish universities. read on “i’m a covenant university graduate. when i started at my ppa this year, i met other corp members that had graduated from public universities and didn’t know how to attach a file to an e-mail, not talk of writing one.....” comment since the covenant graduate is referring to graduates of public universities generally, the heading of this report “blasts, condemns graduate from.......” should read blasts, condemns graduates... who went to publish universities.....(wrong) who went to public universities ......(correct) .......met other corp members that......(wrong) .......met other corp members who.....(correct) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 63 moreover, a corp member is already a graduate and hence.....corp members that had graduate.....is tautological .......and didn’t know (wrong) .......but didn’t know (correct) ......not talk of.........(wrong) ......let alone write......(correct) from the excerpts in the foregoing, it is clear that the new digital communication is not without linguistic blemish. among the communication inadequacies identified in the new digital communication include fake news, sensational headlines that tend to mislead the reading audience and contradicts the content of the story, unnecessary exaggeration of issues linguistics ambiguities, poor expressions and weak technical control. chuckwu has rightly advised encoders to write with the intention of expressing ideas rather than impressing the decoder “with dual or multiple interpretative expressions that offer no specific message (18-19). the good news however is that there exist avenues through which such ambiguous expressions can be disambiguated by editors and proof-readers of on-line communication before getting them posted. in addition, digital communication is an evolving trend and hence it will be difficult to expect a hundred percent perfection from it. moreover, the traditional method of communication cannot be said to be free from these linguistic inadequacies of online channel. be that as it may, when the two methods are compared, one cannot but embrace the new digital online form of communication for number of reasons.  digital communication has provision for reduction and elimination of technical errors as one can easily click on ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 64 the computer or google with an android device to check and correct spellings.  it makes communication faster than the traditional method. it is faster and more convent to type using the computer than writing using the pen, paper and mental abilities. text messages can also be sent and received in the twinkling of an eye, not minding the distance.  the volume of what is communicated by the medium of the new technology is higher than that of the traditional method.  on-line communication helps in pedagogical tasks such as e-learning. this is because what is communicated visually tends to remain permanent in the mind.  e-communication through projectors and power point presentation appear concise, yet coherent than the traditional method of communication  computer based examinations (c.b.e) as it is now adopted in most internal and external assessment of candidates helps to check examination malpractices. conclusion digital communication, as one of the products of i.c.t, is a welcome development despite its shortcomings. evidence abound to prove that i.c.t and its subsidiaries assist in revitalizing education generally and communication in particular, when its usage is not abused. it is therefore expected and required of everyone to embrace the new technology with caution so as to ensure that positive results are derived from it. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 65 works cited abbas, m. mohammed. “current trends in ict in the third world”. njoku steve, ict and the nigerian teachers: time to catch up with the rest of the world. abuja: trcn, 2006. achebe, chinua. things fall apart. london: heinemann 1982. chuckwu, a. ephraim. “understanding linguistic ambiguities for the effective use of english”. ajells, 6 (1) onitsha, 2015. ezenwa-ohaeto-ngozi. electronic messaging and conventional communication: focus on youths. usa lap lambert academic publishing, 2011. federal republic of nigeria. trcn decree no 31. supplementary official gazette extraordinary 10 (80) part a: pps. a285-a320. 1993. gambo, ahmed. “teaching statistics in a digital society. seminar”, fed. poly. damaturu 13/4/07 hambagda, o.a communication for management. lagos: mouth press ltd. 1996 hutchinson, thomas and a. walters. english for specific purposes. cambridge: cup. 1987. ifechelobi, jane. “language use and the mass media: a focus on selected nigerian newspaper.” ajells. vol. 3 (1), samaria publishers, 2012. longman dictionary of contemporary english. london: oxford, 2010. munby, j. communicative syllabus design. cambridge: university press. 1977. national information technology development agency (nitda). ict baseline study, abuja, 2003. national university commission (nuc) draft bench marks and minimum academic standard: abuja, 2004. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 66 njoku, steve. ict and the nigerian teacher. time to catch up with the rest of the world. abuja: trcn, 2006. obah, g.c. a study of the influence of mass media on the academic performance of sec. sch. students in okigwe. research project, pgde: nti, 2019. obi, v. i and c. nwaiwu. communication in english for tertiary institutions. onitsha: chambers books, 2009. oduwo, fred. trends in the nigerian ict development. an overview of nigcomsat. a final year project, fed. poly. offa, 2007. opera news. newshub 8/2/20. otagburuagu, e. j. “literacy and the nigerian economy in the 21st century”. journal of applied literacy and reading. vol. 3, 2007 peter little. communication in business. london, longman 1979. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 71 nnamdi-eruchalu & mgbogu a stylistic analysis of ipob speeches and jingles against anambra 2017 gubernatorial election geraldine nnamdi-eruchalu department of english language and literature nnamdiazikiwe university, awka, anambra state, nigeria g.nnamdieruchalu@unizik.edu.ng ;geraerus@gmail.com & charity egodi mgbogu department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state, nigeria mgboguegodi@gmail.com abstract this study sets to analyze ipob speeches and jingles against the anambra state 2017 gubernatorial election with the aim of highlighting the stylistic tools used to effectively persuade the electorate to boycott the election. ipob texts have before now attracted little scholarly attention. the theoretical framework that drives this study is the foregrounding theory as propounded by niazi&gautam (2010.) using purposive sampling technique, 7 texts selected from www.ipob.org and www.ipobgovernment.org were used for this research. the analysis reveals that ipob used such stylistic features as repetition of ethnic slur, metaphors, hyperbole, propaganda, registers of war, ‘we’ and ‘them’ linguistic phenomena, hate speech and name calling to discourage the masses from participation in the november 18, 2017 anambra state gubernatorial election. keywords: ipob, anambra, electorate, gubernatorial election, jingles 1.0 introduction nigeria is a conglomerate of diverse nations, with different nationalistic interests, merged together for the administrative convenience of the colonial british government. the different peoples brought together under the name of nigeria are politically, socially, economically, culturally, religiously, linguistically independent of one another and led a self-sustaining lifestyle before they were disrupted by the invading british colonial masters. by 1914 the colonial masters had gained full control of their conquered territory and merged the northern and southern protectorates into one entity called nigeria, and administered them differently. the governments were later unified and granted independence in 1960. from that time till date, the country has been witnessing political and religious instability. among these were the power tussle of the action group in the west, the tiv revolt, the census crises, coups and counter coups, election rigging, tribalism, nepotism, genocide against the igbo in northern nigeria, the biafran secession and the civil war. as if these were not enough, ethnic militias and pressure groups arose in the different regions of the nation each agitating over perceived injustice, maladministration, and or marginalization. among these is the movement for the actualization of the sovereign state of biafra (massob) in the eastern nigeria from which the indigenous people of biafra (ipob) separated. the indigenous people of biafra is led by maazi nnamdi kanu. adonu posits that the promoters of the biafrian secessionist movement have often persuasively communicated to the masses that the postwar transitional justice programme of the nigerian government has been inefficient, and has failed to address the human rights abuses and genocidal crimes committed against the southmailto:g.nnamdieruchalu@unizik.edu.ng%20; http://www.ipob.org/ http://www.ipobgovernment.org/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 72 nnamdi-eruchalu & mgbogu easterners during the civil war (1). ipob agitators have vehemently pointed out in the pages of their newspapers and in social media that since the end of the war, there has not been a president of nigeria from igbo extraction. they further posit that nigeria has been ruled for over forty years by the hausa-fulani from the north and the yoruba from the southwest. in this regard, the average igbo who follow ipob news feel they are still being punished because of the aborted secession of biafra and are thus marginalized. this mindset gave rise to new wave of agitations and a renewed call for another biafran independence championed in the region and in the diaspora by the indigenous people of biafra (ipob). it is against this backdrop that the group and their supporters deploy the persuasive powers of language to sway the masses to support their agenda and jettison the nigerian project. this led to a massive boycott of the november 18, 2017 governorship election in anambra state, which the grouped tagged ofensara day, encouraging the electorate to stay back in their homes and enjoy themselves rather than going out to exercise their franchise. the outcome was a gubernatorial election with the lowest turnout of the electorate in the history of general elections in the state. it was the level of compliance to their messages that attracted the attention of this researcher to find out how language was used to achieve this end. the following research questions would be addressed in the course of this study: 1. to what extent does the language of ipob influence the mobilization of the masses against participation in the november 18, 2017 governorship election in anambra state? how did the language of the speeches and jingles succeed in mobilizing the electorate against the 2017 gubernatorial election? 2. what stylistic devices were contained in the pob speeches and jingles? this study is relevant to scholarship, because it will contribute to existing literature on the discourse of ethnic militia groups. 2.0 literature review 2.1 what is style? ebeogu and nwokocha define style as a distinctive way of writing. it is the art both inherent and acquired, and is often associated with the creative imagination. this implies that style is indeed a distinctive feature (206). it distinguishes one pattern of writing or behaviour from another. according to widdowson, “at the heart of literary creation is the struggle to devise patterns of language which will bestow upon the linguistic items concerned just with those values which will convey the individual writer’s personal vision (37). 2.2 stylistics stylistics on the other hand, according to anagbogu, mbah&eme is conceptualized as the linguistic study of literary appreciation (4). crystal is of the view that stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the features of situationally distinctive uses (varieties) of language, and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups in their use of language (3). stylistics aims to account for how texts project meaning, how readers construct meaning and why readers respond to texts the way that they do. stylistic analysis, therefore exposes or reveals authors sensitivity to language use especially in written texts. lyons adds that the literary use of languages can be seen as one in which the exploitation of their resources at all levels of their structure is particularly effective and creative (290). 2.3 approaches to style there are various approaches to style such as: style as choice, the man, deviation, conformity period, time and situation. a. style as choice ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 73 nnamdi-eruchalu & mgbogu the choice of a writer when it comes to writing is influenced by the social condition of his environment because he is faced with paradigmatic and syntagmatic axes of choices in other to get the most appropriate word for his writing (anagbogu, mbah&eme, 3). paradigmatic axis: this refers to the vertical axis, here the writer out of words of related meaning chooses the one that is most appropriate for the context of his writing. syntagmatic axis: this refers to the horizontal axis, whereby a writer makes a choice between alternative expressions. b. style as the man okoh, umera and anyadiegwu points out that the man being referred to here is the writer himself (46). the notion believes that a writer writes based on his personality, religious inclination, geographical location, education, and so on. although, there are distinctive features that distinguish a writer from another. this special way of presenting information is what this notion considers as style as the man. c. style as deviation okoh, umera and anyadiegwu point out that deviation is one of the principles of stylistics (46). it is simply the breaking of rules which others obey, therefore, when a writer deviates from the normal way of saying or writing something in other to create a unique style, it is said to be style as deviation. the concept of style as the deviation is based on the notion that there are rules, conventions, and regulations that guide the different activities that must be executed. so, when these rules are not followed, deviation sets in. deviation can occur at any level of language description such as phonological, graphological, syntactic lexico-semantic, and textual level. d. style as conformity knowing that there are norms that guide every literary work of art that is presented in line with these norms is said to be style as conformity. for instance, every literary work of drama and prose must conform to its norms of writing in acts and scenes, chapters and paragraphs, and so on. e. style as situation here a writer writes according to the register of his or her area of specialization. this is because each field of study has its distinct language. for instance, in english, we have vocabulary, spelling patterns, pronunciation, and many others. the same goes with literature, its language includes words like; climax, comedy, tragedy, figures of speech, and so on. f. style as period or time this is whereby most writers write in line with the language in use during their time of writing because language is a broad term in which style is located. for instance, in english, we talked about the old english period, middle english, and modern/present-day english period. 2.4 branches of stylistics the various branches of stylistics depending on the school of thought lexical stylistics, linguistic stylistics, phono-stylistics, functional stylistics, and literary stylistics. i. lexical stylistics this studies the functions of direct and figurative meanings, it also looks at the way the contextual meaning of a word is realized in the text. it deals with various types of connotations, expressive, evaluative, emotive, neologisms, dialectal words, and their behaviour in the text. at times, words repeat some lexical items, near-synonyms may also be used to foreground the intended message (bradford, 133). ii. linguistic stylistics it explores the linguistic features of a text, that is, the use of language and its effects on a text. a linguistic stylistician looks at the forms and functions of language in literary work. linguistic ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 74 nnamdi-eruchalu & mgbogu stylistics also studies the devices in languages such as rhetorical figures and syntactical patterns that are considered to produce an expressive or literary style (ayeomoni, 177). iii. phono-stylistics okoh, umera and anyadiegwu posit that phone-stylistic deals with the phonetical organization of prose and poetic texts (47). stylistics phonetics pays attention to style-forming phonetic features, which describe the variance of pronunciation occurring in different types of speech. special attention is paid to features of prose and poetry like rhythm, rhythmical structures, rhyme alliteration, and so on. it also studies deviation in normative pronunciation. iv. functional stylistics this involves all sub-division of the language and its use. its objective is the correlation of the message and the communicative situation. v. individual style study this deals with the style of the author, it also looks for a correlation between the creative concept of the author and the language of his work. vi. literary stylistics this is concerned with figurative and evocative uses of language which characterizes the message being interpreted. it studies the way language is used by a definite person or literary movement. the ultimate purpose of literary stylistics is to explain the individual message of the writing using terms that brings out the significance of the message to others and also to decode a message that has been encoded in an unfamiliar way to express its meaning in a familiar term (ayeomoni, 167). 2.5 theoretical framework this study is anchored on niazi&gautam stylistic theory. this theory postulates that variations in language use embodies different varieties of meaning (106). therefore, deviations from the norm in the use of language provides an opportunity to understand a speaker’s message to the audience. this theory is a useful tool to describe particular characteristics of the text in the discourse of ipob during the 2017 governorship election in anambra state. according toniazi&gautam deviation at the lexical level deals with the words/vocabulary of a language. the significance of the words, their semantic possibilities, irony, emotional associations and other effects are analysed at this level (107). the evocative power of words is determined by the particular connection between diction and imagery and context of usage (niazi&gautam, 109). at the syntactic level, foregrounding theory is interested in the study of the structure of phrases, clauses and sentences. grammatical (syntactical) deviation is a phrase containing a word whose grammatical class violates the expectations created by the surrounding words (niazi&gautam, 107). also, niazi&gautamposit that semantic deviations occur when the meaning of words violates the expectations created by the surrounding words (107). they usually violate the rules of selectional restrictions which are the semantic restrictions that a word imposes on the environment in which it occurs. 3.0 methodology this study used qualitative research method of analysis. this method is preferred in this study because it is suitable for investigating the stylistic features embedded in ipob speeches and jingles during the anambra state 2017 governorship election.the study population comprised all speeches made by ipob against the november 18 governorship election in anambra state., but 14 texts were purposefully selected for the analysis. they were downloaded from www.ipob.org and www.ipobgovernment.org. niazi and gutam (2010) was adopted for framework for analysis. http://www.ipob.org/ http://www.ipobgovernment.org/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 75 nnamdi-eruchalu & mgbogu 4.0 analysis use of pronoun: ‘we’ ‘us’ ‘our’ ‘they’ ‘them’ text 1 they oppress us to the extent where we have to look for any way available to survive despite the fact that our land feeds them all. they are ingrates i must say. anytime we shout foul play they are quick to tag us with names that will give them power to kill us and commit grievous genocide on our lands. the use of they and them to refer to the nigerian government is stylistic device to tag nigerian government as the oppressor of the biafrian course. the above texts also shows that nnamdikanu also used our,we, and usto tag the igbos as the oppressed. this device has become a regular use of language which secessionist agitators have used extensively in the course of promoting their secessionist agenda. text 2 1. ojukwu rose; they tagged him rebel 2. ken sarowiwa rose; they tagged him criminal 3. our youths in the coast rose; they tagged them militants 4. now mazinnamdi kanu rose: they tagged him and the entire biafran race (ipob) as terrorist it is only in nigeria where terrorists do not carry arms and don't kill but rather the supposed organized government is the one killing them brutally. it is only in nigeria where dreaded terror groups are ignored and called criminals and nonviolent race are termed terrorists. it is only in nigeria where terrorists go to court to combat the government about the ill treatment of their people. just like in text 1, text 2 also shows that the promoters of ipob made use of the pronoun ‘they’ ‘them’ to refer to the nigerian government. there is also the use of ‘we’ ‘us’ ‘our’ to refer to the ipob agitators. for instance: they oppress us to the extent where we have to look for any way available to survive despite the fact that our land feeds them all. the sentence clearly points out the use of ‘we’ ‘us’ ‘our’ and ‘they’ ‘them’ is a stylistic device that point out the target or the audience that the speeches of ipob is meant for and the purpose such speeches are meant to achieve. use of repetition text 3: there will be no election in biafra land there will be no election in biafra land 1. when fulani headsmen wipe agatu with ak47 you say nothing even when we want to protest? you said no! 2. buhari one side appointment you say nothing? 3. ipob killing: you do nothing even to ask nigeria government why killing your people? 4. nigeria media destroying the image of biafra all over the world you say nothing? 5. all federal roads in biafra land is dead trap you say nothing? go and see enugu vs onitsha road you will come back with testimony? ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 76 nnamdi-eruchalu & mgbogu 6. all federal school in biafra land is dilapidated, you say nothing? 7. all biafra graduate are jobless and unemployed, you say nothing? furthermore, there is also the use of repetition at the end of each of the question posed by ipob. for instance, the phrase ‘you say nothing?’at each of the sentence. this kind of construction was meant to create special stylistic effect on the text. therefore, the above text is a linguistic strategy to reawaken the minds of the masses on the need to comply with the no election directive. use of metaphor text 4: holy holyholynnamdikalu is another saviour holy holyholynnamdikalu is another saviour holy holyholynnamdikalu is another saviour holy holyholynnamdikalu is another saviour in the above jingle, nnamdikalu was metaphorically portrayed as a messiah and a saviour. the stylistic implication of this was to make the masses believe in his directive as it concerns the boycott of the election. this strategy worked effectively, because it make the people boycott the election. propaganda and name calling text 5: we are not interested in anything violent or war to achieve the sovereign state of biafra because ipob have many potent weapons than ak47, bombs and mortars. truth as our leader said mazinnamdikanu has been preaching all along without fear or favour is the only weapon at our disposal. now that apga has pitched itself as the arch-enemy of biafrans, and chief supporter of nigeria government oppression of biafra. it is good for the political gladiators to understand that it is either nigeria government announce biafra referendum or there will be no peace again in nigeria. propaganda and name-calling is another stylistic feature embedded in the discourse of ipob. this strategy makes the ipob agitators to draw attention to them on how the federal government have dehumanized the biafrans. here, they portrayed nnamdikanu as a saint and a messiah. hate speech and use of threat text 6: 1gbo english onyetuo vote o nabaugwu hausa if you vote, you go and live with the hausa people obiano… obiano… onyetuo vote o nabaugwu hausa if you vote you go and live with the hausa people obiano.. obiano… onyetuo vote o nabaugwu hausa if you vote you go and live with the hausa people okorocha obiano… onyetuo vote o nabaugwu hausa if you vote you go and live with the hausa people okoro-hausa okoro-hausa another feature encoded in the above text is hate speech. the speech is regarded as hate speech because the promoters of ipob agenda resorted to name calling in the bid to press home their demand. the above text which is a transcript of a video jingle is one of the numerous texts which was used to force the masses against participation in the novermber 17 governorship election in anambra state. the jingle was widely circulated in the internet and social media platform through facebook and whatsapp. this text contributed greatly towards the election boycott in anambra state. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 77 nnamdi-eruchalu & mgbogu text 7: but as unscrupulous merchants, the colonial masters and their willing domestic slaves couldn’t care less than focus on their ulterior motives in the exploitation and pillaging of the natural resources in biafra land, while the indigenous people are strategically kept in darkness and forcefully confined in the zoo against their will. but after many years of agonizing life in the zoo republic, the people continued crying and petitioning their god in prayer for his divine intervention. the above text is a typical example of a deviation from the normal language use. here in text, nnamdikalu called nigeria a zoo which can also be seen as hate speech. in the above allegory of a zoo, it became crystal clear that nnamdikalu intentionally called nigeria a zoo which stylistically means that all nigerians are animals including the igbo people that he (nnamdikalu) is trying to fight for. from the analysis of data, it was discovered thatthe linguistic threat issued by the outlawed indigenous people of biafra forced most registered voters to stay away from the november 18, 2017. registers of wars i. we are not interested in anything violent or war to achieve the sovereign state of biafra because ipob have many potent weapons than ak47, bombs and mortars. ii. they tagged him rebel iii. ken sarowiwa rose; they tagged him criminal iv. our youths in the coast rose; they tagged them militants v. now mazinnamdi kanu rose: they tagged him and the entirebiafran race (ipob) as terrorist (text, 2) from the analysis of all the text analysed in this study shows that the promoters of ipob cause made use of register of war to show their level grievances as it concerns the marginalization of the biafransin nigeria. in texts 2, words such as kill, rebel, criminal, militant, terrorist, blood, slavery, freedom, ak47, terrorist just to mention a view were registers of war used to frighten voters against participation in the election. the above registers of war shows that ipob used well-crafted and manipulated language to persuade the masses against participation in the election. 5.0 finding this study has affirmed that the use of pronoun, propaganda, name calling, repetition, metaphor, hate speech and name calling and registers of warwere among the stylistics devices used by ipob to discourage the masses against participation in the november 18, 2017 anambra state election. 6.0 conclusion this study has shown that it is factual to state that the speeches, and jingles of ipob had a great stylistic impact, because the stylistics features embedded in them succeeded to a great extent towards mobilizing the masses against the participation in the november 18, 2017 governorship election. this is evident in the low turnout of voters during the election. the choice of words of ipob created fear in the minds of the electorate by using their speeches and jingle to create the atmosphere of fear. therefore, the masses out desperate need to protect their lives complied with the call for election boycott. 7.0 recommendations in line with the findings of this study, it is recommended that the government should use the medium of language to engage the promoters of ipob in an open discussion and dialogue to ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 78 nnamdi-eruchalu & mgbogu finding a lasting solution to secessionist struggle in nigeria. there is also the need for the federal government to convene a forum for national dialogue where nationality groups and other interest groups in the nigerian society would meet to meaningfully express their feelings about the nigerian state and discuss their ideas on how the country can move forward. also, there is the need to create roles for the members of these ethnic organizations especially the leadership cadre of the secessionist organization in nigeria. works cited adonu, chinedu.rearrest threat: kanu not in hiding – ipob. vanguard newspaper. retrieved 5 september 2017. akmajian. adrian. linguistics: an introduction to language and communication. new delhi: prentice hall of india, 2008. ayeomoni, n. the role of stylistics in literary studies in oyeleye, l &olateju, m (eds.) reading in language and literature. ile-ife: obafemi awolowo university press. 2003. bradford, richard stylistics. london: routledge. 1997. crystal, d. and davy, d. investigating english style. london: longman, 1980. ebeogu, afam and nwokocha, uzoma. issues in humanities and social science. enugu: fasman communication, 1998. leech,geoffrey and short, michael. style in fiction; a linguistic introduction to english fictional prose. singapore: longman.1992. lyons, john. language and linguistics: an introduction. cambridge: university press, 1981. niazi, nozar&gautam rama. how to study literature: stylistic and pragmatic approaches. new delhi: phi learning private limited, 2010. okoh, frank, umera-okeke&anyadiegwu justina. style and literary stylistics. nigeria: coskan associates, 2012. onwukwe, ekwutosi. an introduction to general and literary stylistics. owerri: alphabet nigeria publishers, 2012. wales, katie. a dictionary of stylistics. longman, 1989. widdowson, henry. stylistics and the teaching of literature. london: longman, 1975. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/09/rearrest-threat-kanu-not-hiding-ipob/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vanguard_(nigeria) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 150 ogbazi & onyeachulam the search for identity in african novels: a study of chimamanda adichie’s americanah and odili ujubuonu’s pride of the spider clan prof. ifeyinwa j. ogbazi department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: ji.ogbazi@unizik.edu.ng & sylvanus c. onyeachulam department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: sc.onyeachulam@unizik.edu.ng abstract the problem of identify has been one of the major concerns of mankind in every society and a major theme in literature. the state of identity crisis is seen as one affecting the psychological conditions of a person or group, a situation of internal contradictions within the individual which could lead to different forms of disequilibrium. this study explores “the search for identity in chimamanda adichie’s americanah and ujubuonu’s pride of the spider clan. the theoretical framework for this study is sigmund freud’s psychoanalysis which is concerned with the mind in distress. the duality with the nostalgia of the main characters obviously for different reasons originates from their contact with the different worlds they found themselves in. the ultimate disillusionment in exposure of identity crisis is inevitable in every society as portrayed in the works under study. it was discovered that the foreign environment the characters found themselves and racial problems are the major causes of their search for identity. keywords: identity, psychoanalysis, african literature, diaspora introduction an issue that often comes up in literature is the search for identity, especially among africans who find themselves in foreign countries with a different culture and worldviews. these africans usually feel lost, humiliated or not fully accepted in their foreign environment. in most cases these africans are trained in systems dominated by european culture. but as a.n. nwachukwu in africans and identity says; “the african’s concern is not with an inner voyage of discovery of a self, his concern is his public role, not his private self. the african asks always, not “who am i?” but, “who are we?” his problem is not his own but his people’s” (69). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 151 ogbazi & onyeachulam in a paper presented at the “travel and uniting conference of the university of wolverhampton, w.b. smith writes that: “people often ask the question of what defines someone’s identity. is it the colour of his skin? his language? his birthplace? it could be a combination of all these factors/ (56). he says that although the term identity has a long history, deriving from the latin root “idem”, implying sameness and continuity, it was not until the twentieth century that the term came into popular usage (57). the psycho-historian eric erikson in his construct of ego identity says: “identity is a process located in the core of the individual; and yet also in the core of his or her communal culture, hence making a connection between community and individual” (156). he has developed the term “identity crisis” during the second world war in reference to patients who has lost a sense of personal sameness and historical continuity (basically confused by the identity they have assumed and the one the war was forcing on them) and subsequently generalizes it to a whole stage of life (as part of his epigenetic life-stage model of the eight life stages of man). here, berger in invitation to sociology says: “youth is identified as a universal crisis period of potential identity (157). basically, the problem of identity always pops up as a result of migration. patrick henry in migration and literary identity says that “migration may have collapsed the barrier between time and space but it has also raised the question of who a person really is” (112). thus, the migrating author in diaspora, says patrick, has been rejected and alienated by that singular action of migration, both at home and abroad. they have been seen as too foreign, not even deserving of being called africans by their home contemporaries while they are still seen as foreigners in the land of residence (113). quoting dike omeje, a performance poet, patrick writes: “we have been denied of citizenship and identity by our contemporaries at home; the same way we are being denied by those abroad’ (115). hence, most of these writers create characters in the same state similar to their own. further, patrick says that a progressive examination of african literature reveals that after the arrival of the europeans on african shores in the sixteenth century, slave trade boomed and literature became one of the ways of retaining whatever identity the slaves may have. as literature is still in its oral form, the slaves share their stories as they move from one location to the other. a slave’s fear is that he may never return to tell where he was taken and the telling of his story to the people he meets on his way is to mark his path to the unknown and make his transition to the spirit world safer as orality remains the main vehicle to commune with the spirit world (118). providing a paradigm of the concern in the slave narratives in olaudah equianor or gustavas vassar (his slave name). in his book, he tells the tale of collusion by african chieftains with the white slave traders from his kidnapping in his home village to his eventual sale and journey across the ocean. he has every ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 152 ogbazi & onyeachulam reason to be against his own people but still his book is titled the narrative of olaudah equiano or gustavasvassar, the african. ending the title of the book with “the african”, “equino asserts his right to belong to a people he has left behind long ago but whom he believes he still shares a common heritage with. the critic, s.e.ogude in towards the colonisation of african literature as quoted by chinweizu says that the book is littered with borrowing, both from other contemporary african writers such as ukawasawgronniosaw and from daniel defoe” (75). ogude claims: “in many respects equiano is ignorant of the african continent as defoe’s captain singleton and robinson crusoe and both defoe and equaino build their image of africa in hearsay, pseudo-history and pure fiction” (76). he claims to be an african but wrote like an european. he was, therefore, the proverbial “bat” in igbo folklore. thus, the encounter with migration has moulded characters who are neither africans nor europeans culturally. also noteworthy is colonialism. ngozi chuma-udeh in trends and issues in nigerian literature writes that when the tumult of independence was at its peak, the myth about white superiority begins to wane in the mind of the average nigerian citizen. the ex-soldiers who has gone to the world war and has returned to educate other nigerians at home on the fallibility of the white man. hence, africans begin to travel to europe for the acquisition of knowledge. thus, these africans having imbibed without adulteration the western culture strive to be like the europeans. this striving is an unrealistic fantasy and an effort in futility basically with their black skin. they have lost grip of the cultural values of their people and have become black white men and have also found themselves in a most contractor situation (107). so, it is pertinent to note that the identity question is only answered by the person concerned, it is an assertion of self, the way the respondent perceives himself and not what or how he is perceived. hence, richard henikins states in social identity that “identity is our understanding of who we are and of who other people are and reciprocally other people’s understanding of themselves and others” (86). furthermore, cornel ujowundu in “a guide in studies in the novel” opines; “the position of the individual in search of his identity within his society may be dangerous for him because he may run the risk of being grossly misunderstood by the majority who may then see him as an alien and bent on dragging the society into his alien world. due to his position, he becomes rejected (47). he went further to place characters in three categories:  those whose identity crisis arose from dual cultural experience (adichie’s characters in americanah belong here);  identity crisis as a result of the reluctance of the individual to live up to certain expectations (ujobuonu’s pride of the spider clan belong here); ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 153 ogbazi & onyeachulam  identity crisis deriving from the individual’s certainty that the way of life of his community is wrong, even if the majority accepts it without question (47). the individual in search of identity as can be seen is therefore an outsider, a bat, one whose moral and ideological perceptions belong nowhere and out of tune with the wishes of the larger society. the question of identity is important in the lives of people. people in foreign countries have the problem of integration based on their background and the search for the necessities of life. they are usually discriminated against, marginalized and often oppressed because of their nationality. in the works under study, odili ujubuonu’s pride of the spider clan and chimamanda adichie’s americanah, the africans in diaspora have problems of identity due to the environment they found themselves. so the researcher intends to identify the problems they encounter as a result ofthe foreign environment. the study also investigates the struggles of these foreign nationals to make ends meet in the new environment. conceptual review identity: james marcia in his research on identity statutes of adolescents defines identity as a self-made lively organization of an individual’s beliefs, history, drives and abilities (7). american psychological association dictionary of psychology sees identity as an individual’s sense of self, defined by a set of physical and psychological characteristics that are not wholly shared with any other person and a range of social and interpersonal affiliations. cambridge advanced dictionary defines it as a state of mind in which someone recognizes his character traits that lead to finding out who they are and what you define yourself as being. erikson erik in identity crisis in autobiographic perspective defines identity as a subjective sense as well as an observable quality of personal sameness and continuity, paired with some belief in the sameness and continuity of shared world image (730). identity crisis: erikson in his stages of psycho-social development defines identity crises as the failure of the individual to achieve ego-identity during adolescence (2). he also defines identity crisis as a state when the inner core of an individual changes as a result of failure in his relationship with his environment (3). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 154 ogbazi & onyeachulam self: cambridge advanced learners dictionary define self as the set of someone’s characteristics such as personality and ability, which are not physical and make that person different from other people. oxford advanced learners dictionary on the other hand defines it as a person’s personality or character that makes him different from other people. search: cambridge advanced learners dictionary defines search as: to try to find the answer to a problem. oxford advanced learners dictionary defines it as an attempt to find somebody or something by looking carefully for them/it. psychoanalysis psychoanalytic criticism is the application of specific psychological principles to the study of literature. this kind of criticism approaches the analysis of literary works from the working and psychological dispossession of the human minds. the term, psychoanalysis was founded by the austrian psychologist sigmund freud in the late nineteenth century. psychoanalytic theory, offers a distinctive way of thinking about the human mind and of responding to psychological distress. it looks closely at the unconscious drive that motivates people to act in certain ways. in essence, it is worthy to note that psychoanalysis begins with the concept of the unconscious. freud’s idea of the ‘unconscious’ on which all his theories are based upon is a major breakthrough towards understanding the complex human psyche which was previously ignored by other theorists. freud believed that the unconscious is a part of our biological nature and it operates naturally. he also observes that our actions are determined by our mental reasoning and behaviour. freud suggests that most behaviour are caused by thoughts, ideas and wishes that are in a person’s brain but are not easily accessible by the conscious part of the mind. and when these thoughts and ideas are threatened, they are pushed out of consciousness because awareness of them produces anxiety. psychoanalysis is based on the exploration of the unconscious mental processes as manifested in dreams and disturbed relationship with others. it aims to unearth repressed anxieties and overcome the effects of bad experiences in early childhood, typically using the technique of free association. the unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety or conflict. the psychoanalytic unconscious acts as the repository for experience, thoughts and feelings that are unacceptable and are repressed by the conscious mind. psychoanalytic theory is the theory of personality organization and the dynamics of personality development that guides psychoanalysis. it proposes that personality characteristics are mostly, a reflection of the contents of the unconscious part of the mind. freud in his psychosexual theory combines a description of personality with sexual development of the individual. he ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 155 ogbazi & onyeachulam remarkes that personality-traits evolve through a series of stages that occur during childhood and adolescence and these stages are called psychosexual stage because they focus on mental (psyche) ideas about sex. freud observes that sexual activities that were mostly disapproved of were repressed in to the unconscious and therefore were most likely to influence personality. in establishing the relationship between unconscious and personality, freud divides the individual personality into three categories: the, id, the ego and the supergo, they interact with each other but have their unique characteristics. we shall therefore, relate this theory with the psychological status and problems of the characters in texts studied in this paper. the search for identity in odili ujubuonu’s pride of the spider clan odili ujubuonu’s re-affirms the igbo and african culture in his work entitled the pride of the spider clan. it is a clear attempt on the issue of seeking to know one’s identity and working hard towards fulfilling one’s identity. a trilogy, pride of the spider clan concludes the story started in pregnancy of the gods and continued in treasure in the winds. pride of the spider clan starts when isikamdi, son of nweke, comes back from the bush as a palmwine taper and eze kambite calls him to tell him about the problem befalling their family and to also tell him that he is the one to assume the throne as the king of ezechukwu compound. eze kambite tells him that the problem befalling them is as a result of the loss of an “ofo” that binds the family as their ancestors. the novel is about the identities of isikamdi and odidika. isikamdi, the son of nweke ezechukwu, an arochukwu man and akanji, his mother is prophesied to ascend the throne of the mbaozo people who belong to the aro stalk. however, for that to happen, an “ofo” is to be found and handed over to him by odidika who is to assume the role of priesthood. the ofo is one made of a tree in arochukwu. at the first time when this installation is to be made, an albino is to be sacrificed at such a coronation. the albino’s escape from being sacrificed brings about the loss of the “ofo”, and it has gone from hand to hand as different aro men try to retrieve it. the family of ezechukwu has suffered greatly because of the role they should be playing in the lives of the people and are bordering at the brink of extinction. it is at this time that ujubuonu presents us with the two characters; isikamdi and odidika on whose shoulders the quest will finally be fulfilled. odidika, who is to mediate in handing over the staff of office and isikamdi, who is to be the custodian of the staff now arrives at the scene but are to pass through difficulties as they seek to fulfill their calling. unknown to them and others their paths keep crisscrossing and being endangered and somewhat controlled remotely by forces unknown to them. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 156 ogbazi & onyeachulam the first time isikamdi is introduced to us, he is being summoned by his uncle eze kambite, fate has made it that kambite is not just an uncle, but more of a father as isikamdi’s biological father died as soon as he was born. they are of the aro people but for some unexplained experiences in the past, the family of ezechukwu has been passing through tragic experiences which are about to wipe out the family. so, a solution has to be found to prevent this from happening. all those who become aware of the fact that there is a special role meant for isikamdi seem to die off. that is what happened to ukabia as well as nweke, isikamdi’s father. kambite passes this information to isikamdi as we can see in the prologue, helping him to see the depth of what faces them as a family and to prepare him for the role he is to play. he begins his discussion with isikamdi by reminding him of the tragedy that has befallen their family before his very eyes, such as the fact that he has lost his own father, just like isikamdi has lost his, when he barely knows him. then, the death of his wives except for one and how he tries in vain to beget a son that would continue their family name. then he comes to the crux of the matter, having prepared isikamdi’s mind to the weight of what is facing him; it is time to give him the full doze of the pill. yet, it is to be isikamdi’s personal choice to locate himself in the length of time. kambite says to isikamdi: you will die and i shall follow suit. but your wife would be pregnant and your child would live….. your name shall be and your honour shall transcend the boundaries of umuaro, should you accomplish successfully what is expected of you, then ezechukwu would attain a different position in mbaozo. but, above all things, you have a choice to either refuse to know and let things be the way they are or hear me out and participate fully in its change. (22) kambite give him time to think over the matter and be personally convinced that he wants to do what is required. though kambite gives a week, isikamdi returnes to him to be finally commissioned for his role just after two days. his comments seem to mean that he is ready to face his own death but he wants to get it done with immediately. kambite helps him adjust his view of the situation; to look at it, not as death, but as rebirth, isikamdi exposes his discomfort thus: i am troubled because i do not know whether to say yes or no? a man does not open his eyes and stick his finger into a burning coal. if i choose to climb an iroko tree barehanded, i am the author of my fate. should i ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 157 ogbazi & onyeachulam decide to enter the bush and catch a leopard? it is also my risk. (50) eze kambite insists that he spends the complete four days and a week, before they discuss the matter any further. as he leaves the presence of kambite, he seems to be drained of all strength. odili ujubuonu now goes into letting us into the events that have been the life of the ezechukwu family since the days of nweke’s brother, who has seen odidika and is convinced that he is udo okeke’s child. as he puts two and two together of what he knows about the death of ekemma and her burial, he has no doubt that the young boy is really the son of the couple. ukabia discusses why he is sure that odidika is the prophesied grandchild of okeke okike who would return the lost ofo to the family. however, ukabia still has an aspect of the puzzle not yet clear him. he hears much about the lost ofo and the return of it. but does his own family, the ezechukwu family, have any history of a lost ofo? as the discussion he was having with nweke progresses, his son anounces that some visitors have come to visit him. before the evening when he should have continued the issue with nweke, he dies. nweke knows he is likely the next to go. so, he makes haste to give his own younger brother, kambite, everything he is aware of. on his own part, odidika has lost his father shortly before his birth. her mother, ekemma, becomes pregnant of him. the people are yet to be aware. so, when the pregnancy starts manifesting, people mistakes her for being of easy virtue and accuses adiabuabili, in whom she has taken solace, as being the one responsible. the persecution that follows her leads to her death during the birth of the child. adiabuabili has already exiled himself out of anger for as a result of the false accusation. he and mbandu whose wife egondu is ekemma’s sister, are the only ones there and they bury her inside her house. egondu then takes over the baby and brings him up as their own child. meanwhile, egondu who is pregnant has lost her child that would have been of the same age as ekemma’s; so it is not easy for people to see odidika as not being hers. tragedy follows odidika’s life. the jealousy of the isiani has led to the attempts on the lives of the parents which finally culminate in the death of udo okike and then his wife, ekemma. as for odidika, he thrives in the house of mbandu and a mysterious leopard dies in his hand which turns out to be a man, who would cause problems for him. mbandu decides to exile him to a place he will be safe. mbandu has gone to a diviner to hear his advice. why are you worried, mbandu? am wants the boy to return to mbaozo. he must learn the ways of his people and tread the path charged for him…. have ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 158 ogbazi & onyeachulam you forgotten that you were told that hiccups shall attend his life – challenging hiccups, mbandu? this is just one of them. (45) it is very worrisome that of all places, he is exiled to mbaonu to spend some time with ikedike obidi, who is married to odidika’s aunt. meanwhile, nweke has passed the information which he got from ikabia to his only brother, kambite, and has encouraged him to see to it that the young boy isikamdi is well taken care of and helped to fulfil the role meant for him. the novelist tells us that odidika is placed in the care of mbandu and his wife at the death of his parents. mbandu is thought to be an osu, an outcast or one who is dedicated to a deity and they live in mbaosu. hence, odidika grows to think he is an osu also. as he grows, he one day shoots at a leopard that has been giving his family worries, not knowing that it is a neighbour who has metamorphosed as a wild beast. when he goes close to see the game, he is shocked to see the man dying in his own pool of blood. mbandu acts quickly to preserve odidika’s life by sending him on a self-exile. meanwhile, eze kambite gets to know about odidika and the special role he probably has got to play and starts to show special interest in his welfare. once, he has saved odidika’s life when he was tied up in an evil forest to die because of his interest in young maiden in mbaozo. kambite seems to possess special powers that make him aware of the circumstances of the two young men, odidika and isikamdi, so that he would be right on time to save them from harm. when isikamdi becomes mature enough, eze kambite has him initiated into the cult of the masquerades. in time, he hands over to him the palace of his father so that he could now assume the family’s priesthood as the administrative and religious head of the ezechukwu family. this marks an important step in his march towards resolving the issue of his identity and the identity of his people. the seriousness of isikamdi’s search is heightened by the fact that his journey is kept confidential even to very important members of his family, including his mother and his wife, who is already pregnant. to them, isikamdi is embarking on a very important but long trip to olu. his mother is very furious about this but she could not do anything about this. isikamdi has by now grown to appreciate his uncle’s unselfish interest in him and is ready to do any of his bidding. he is prepared for the journey by two traditional medicine men with eze kambite present under the watchful eyes of the moon. he traverses the length and breadth of igbo land in search of the elusive ofo so as to preserve his family line. as he meets with people, he takes note of their difference towards him and hopes that his own son would not be subjected to such perennial pity. his heart yearned to find his place among his people. ujubuonu puts it this way when he presents us with isikamdi’s meeting with akarachi: isikamdi, once again, watch the familiar reaction of people to his paternity. he hoped that after this trip, his ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 159 ogbazi & onyeachulam own son would never become such an object of perennial pity. (256) unfortunately, as isikamdi moves further in his search, the ofo keeps being elusive and all those from whom he is to get information are dead or missing. finally, it is to okeke okike, a carver from ukpor, odidika’s father, that he is directed as the husband of one of the women that may has a link to the ofo. as isikamdi continues in his tracks in search of the lost ofo, pride of the spider clan takes into the early life of odidika as his foster father reveals his paternity to him. odidika feels very relieved at the information that his excitement is too obvious to his wife. adamma, ujubuonu uses this to show how one feels when he finds answers to troubling questions about oneself. when adamma asks him, “what is the problem, ijenna’s father?” he answers: “something too sudden to believe, too credible to doubt and too well-confirmed to ask further questions” (269). he emphasizes his point with a proverbial expression, referring to his father who has made the revelations: “he cut an iroko tree with his bare hands”. odidika does not want to let things rest before making plans to fix himself in his place among his people: about where we will stay in akanru…..i have been shown my ancestral home. i will begin to make arrangements to start building our home. i shall be busy from now until we move over…. the earlier i finish, the earlier i will give my mother a befitting funeral. (271) the importance of isikamdi’s and odidika’s search is made clear in the fact that one is pulled together always by family ties, odidika’s success and prominence pales into insignificance in comparison with his place among his people. he is ready to forgo everything and return to his own. it is isikamdi who voices this need out loud when he asked about his father in-law and is told that he has gone to settle a dispute back home. isikamdi then exclaimed: “family always pulling someone” (278). then his grandmother makes the analogy from where the book got its name: that is what we are. threads carefully knitted to hold everyone together for peace. places where the threads are in shreds the people suffer pointless pain, competition and wickedness (278). and it is this pointless competition and wickedness that has thrown the ezechukwu family into frantic fight for survival because of the evil of the isiani. it is at this discussion between egondu and isikamdi that she reveals about how the ofo got into the hands of faces that they could not remember. isikamdi’s search has begun to seem fruitless, like seeking a black goat in a ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 160 ogbazi & onyeachulam very dark night. all that is now clear to him is that the ofo most likely would be in the form of a flute. his search now takes him to abanta where he meets okaforekwe and it is at this juncture that the essence of isikamdi’s search is made clear, helping us to see how important it is to the identity of the people of aro. as ekwe tells him of the movement of the flute cum ofo, how ibinukpabi has had a hand in all that has been happening, isikamdi asks a pointed question: “what is the role of the flute in all this?” (205). in answer, ekwe says; i told you that the original flute is not just a musical instrument but an ofo. it will be the spiritual source of authority for us to rule and make all these dreams manifest. but it must get to the rightful owners who are the only ones to do so. (205) ekwe even goes on to show how determined one can be in seeking to place oneself in the stream of time and realize one’s destiny. he says, to isikamdi, when he wonders why the older man feels very satisfied even though he is yet to take hold of the ofo. the tempest may roar, the sea devils will storm but the waters must kiss the shoreline many times daily. it is part of nature’s unalterable laws…. we have done what men should do. to build we must give and not take. we must give our time, our sweat and all that we know (206). the story reverts to odidika’s travails in his hometown now where he now tries very hard to fill his place. he has returned from the kirike where he has built a flourishing gin business with dukubo, a native, as his partner. there, another aro man has watched him carefully and worked hard to protect him. still, problems would always find him and he soon falls out of favour with the spirit maid of the water goddess and has to run for his life. now, his mother’s funeral has been a success and it is about time for his enthronement as the chief priest of the people. still, isikamdi is still away in his efforts to locate the ofoeven though ezekambite and the others back home have lived through the surprises of odidika’spaternity which also has a bearing on ijenna’s bearing, the wife of isikamdi. then, dukubo, odidika’s friend and business partner, arrive bringing home a wrong flute. this pained odidika so much for he is now seeing the search almost being futile. as he discusses with dukubo who volunteers to run back to fiberesima to inform him about the fake flute he has given to them, odidika insists that he waits for his investiture as the isiani. meanwhile, dukubo presents him with a spear as a gift from fiberesima, with instruction that he replaces the tip. this ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 161 ogbazi & onyeachulam makes odidika wonder why fiberesima would give him a gift that is faulty, even though it is beautiful. as he examines the gift with particular attention to the faulty area, the search is realized. he pulled out the metal tip, letting something drop from a hollow inside the spear straight to the space between his legs. he looked down, quickly picking up the item and checking it carefully. “it was the sacred flute”. and he screams in joy: “fiberresima is a wizard” (398). search for identity in chimamandaadichie’s americanah americanah is a new kind of migration story, one that reflects a political shift and a literary one. an incredibly rich tapestry of nigerian and american life and the ways a handful of vivid characters try to live in both worlds simultaneously. kathlyn schulz speaking on adichie’s americanah says in 2013 new york magazine: adichie has scaled up, americanah traverses three genres (romance, comedy of manners, novel of ideas), three nations (nigeria, great britain, the united states), and within each, a swath of the social spectrum as broad and as difficult to nail as the hand spans in a rachimaninoff concerto. it is about identity, nationality, race, difference, loneliness, aspiration and love, not as distinct entities but in the complex combinational relations they possess in real life. americanah explores the tainted and struggling situation that african emigrants in america are locked in. adichie in americanah explores and analyses the circumstantial identity search these emigrants are involved in, having found themselves in an alien world quite different from the one they have always known. as stated earlier, identity crisis in this novel is engineered by migration. migration in effect brings about dual cultural experiences by the characters which lead to alienation for most of them. adichie presents her characters as people in dilemmatic situation. should they exert their identities as africans in america or should they keep their africanness aside and imbibe and assimilate the american culture in themselves for the spur of the moment and when they reunite with their roots, they can pick up their set-aside culture? the former seems impossible because adichie presented an america or, rather, realistically painted an america where, in order to survive, you must belong and belonging not as an african but an african american. this state of unresolved dilemma results in identity ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 162 ogbazi & onyeachulam crisis and the pangs of alienation experienced by the characters. notably, these characters are well on their way to becoming americans. they choose instead to become americans: an identity predicated on experiences rather than nationality, trajectory rather than place. significantly, the peak of identity crisis is reached when these emigrants eventually return to where they emigrated from. having become new beings, can their african identities begin at this phase but their americanness will always raise heads. the duel between these two cultures and its resultant effects on characters is what adichie presents in americanah. the novel opens in princetown, a town so pristine it actually sounds that way. the story begins nearly twenty years earlier, in nigeria, when the teenager ifemelu and a boy named obinze fall in love. they are bright, motivated and earnest – which is to say, everything the nigerian state is not. surrounded by corruption and dysfunction, they eventually respond, as many members of their real life generation did by leaving. ifemelu goes to the united states, obinze rejected by america’s post-11 gatekeepers heads to england, on a tourist visa. he, of course, overstays. eventually, he is discovered and sent back to nigeria where he begins an assent that culminates in a fancy house, a wife and daughter, and a distant, vicious alienated boredom. meanwhile in america, ifemelu finds herself surviving through work so humiliating that she cuts off all communication with obinze and effectively with herself. gradually, though her life swings upward as well, she launches a blog about race in america, earns readers and speaking fees, buys a condo, and begins dating a handsome conscientious yale professor. yet, by the time we meet her in that salon at the beginning of the novel, she has decided to trade all this for a one-way ticket back to nigeria. having left nigeria because of the political disillusionment, ifemelu arrives america. in america, she is besieged by racism and denial. she discovers the most potent of all invincible strings – the nuclear force of our social physics – race. adichie’s analysis of that force is specific, damming, clarifying and comprehensible. she is merciless about white liberal attitudes towards race, with their prevailing mix of awkward self-consciousness, contented ignorance, self-satisfaction and submerged fear. it is pertinent to quote jearnnette macaulay at this point. he says: because of racial discrimination, these people within the confines of territories which had been allotted to them by the government have not been able to lose the dominant aspects of their culture which later on, fused with the dominantaspects on the foreign culture to form a synthesis. this synthesis may be an unconscious evolution as comes out in forms of jazz or the calypso. (81) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 163 ogbazi & onyeachulam some of the observations of racial discriminations are recorded in ifemelu’s blog. a middle-aged man suggested writing about adoption to ifemelu on her blog. he says: “ever write about adoption” nobody wants black babies in this country and i don’t mean biracial, i mean black. even the black families don’t want them” (4). ifemelu was particularly caustic about everyone’s anxious racial jostling; black immigrants towards african americans, caribbean immigrants towards nigerians, senegalese towards nigerians, nigerians who went abroad towards those who stayed behind and so on. these acts of racism led to many immigrants to sell their african identities to become full bred americans and the “long stay” in america should earn them this “americannese”. while discussing with aisha at the salon, adichie voiced ifemelu’s thoughts: “to earn the prize of been taken serious among nigerians in america, among africans in america, indeed among immigrants in america, she needed more years, six years, she began to say when it was just three and a half. eight years she said when it was five. now that it was thirteen years, lying seemed unnecessary but she lied anyway. “fifteen years”, she said. (16) just for survival, many africans discard their names (i.e. their identity) and take up new identities, especially nigerians. ifemelu notes this in page 8. she has once been somebody else. this dialogue ensues between aunty uju and ifemelu: “i talked to one of my friends, i don’t know if you remember her –ngoziokonkwo” she’s now an american citizen and she has gone back to nigeria for a while, to start a business. i begged her and she agreed to let you work with her social security card. “how” i’ll use her name?” ifemelu asked. “of course you’ll use her name”. (106) adichie’s exploration of the conflict of identity crisis is subtle, with the full complement of satire and caricature. she realizes this in the form of a drive attack on both the nigerians who are sufficiently enchanted with especially the american culture, ethos and mannerisms to the extent of proposing a substitution of their own. she does not just lament what america can do to the nigerian in terms of engendering a blatant disregard for things nigerian. she also regrets what nigerians can do to themselves by way of seeking a cultural acceptance by americans. it is in this respect that the abiolairele, taking a cue from hegal’s dialectics sees alienation as a “willed movement out of the self ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 164 ogbazi & onyeachulam and a purposive quest for new horizons of life and experience” (601). back in nigeria before ifemelu leaves for america, adichie exposes what america could do to some nigerians. she does this through a discussion of ifemelu and her friends. ginika plans on traveling to america and this conversation ensues in her apartment: “ginika just make sure you can still talk to us when you come back, “priye said. “she’ll come back and be a serious americanah like bisis,” ranyinudo said. and at the thought of bisi, a girl in the form below who had come back from a short trip to america with old affectations, pretending she no longer understood yoruba, adding a slurry “r” to every english word she spoke. (65) obinze on his part has spent part of his childhood in america. he seems to have developed a phobia for african things and an undying love for american things. adichie says; “he was fluent in the knowledge of foreign things, especially of american things. he often said ‘go to manhattan and see how things are”. (67) he even knew details about american presidents from hundred years ago. adichie never leaves obinze’s mother out. ifemelu observes in her thoughts. “what sort of mother in her right mind will ask her son’s girlfriend to visit? it was ‘odd’. even the expression ‘come to lunch’ was something people said in books” (68) adichie’s use of the word “odd” means that it is bizarre seeing such from an african woman. it was typically american but it came from an igbo woman. when asked why he is really into america and their ways, obinze responds, ‘i read american books america is the future” (70). obinze haslost hope in africa. he believes america is the way forward. ifemelu goes further in her observation of obinze’s mother, being mesmerized by her ways: “obinze’s mother, her beautiful face, her air of sophistication, her wearing a white apron in the kitchen was not like any other mother ifemelu knew” (70). the clutch of america on immigrants, especially nigerians, seems so strong because one cannot stop wondering why ifemelu herself would succumb to this clutch and spell of americanness. she has once said to obinze. “i go very often to the village with my mother, at least five times a year”. (61). while she was leaving for america, ranyinudo said: “the next time we see you; you will be a serious americanah” (100). one would be forced to disgraceranyinudo because of ifemelu’s strong ties with roots but her actions afterwards would make ranyinudo’s statement unarguable. just after three years of stay in america, ifemelu makes a call to a talemarketer and the man says. “you sound totally american” (175), even after saying she is a nigerian. ifemelu’s thoughts after she hung up confirm her fears because of her changing nature. only after she hung up that she begins to feel the stain of a burgeoning shame spread all over her, for thanking him, for crafting his words “you sound american” into a garland that she hung around her own neck why was it a compliment, an ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 165 ogbazi & onyeachulam accomplishment to sound american (175)? on another occasion, an ethiopian taxi driver tells ifemelu that she does not look african at all and when ifemelu asks why, he says; “because your blouse is too tight. i thought you were from trinidad or one of those places. you have to be very careful or america will corrupt you” (206). ifemelu has completely forgotten what nigeria is like. during a call with her mother, adichie says, “when her mother said there had been no light for two weeks, it seemed suddenly foreign to her, and home itself a distant place. she could no longer remember what it feels spending an evening in candlelight” (159). on another occasion, she forgets that there is a kiosk near her house (200). adichie goes on and on attacking nigerians who are enchanted with american culture and ethos, ifemelu calls aunty uju in america and his dialogue ensues: “yes, this is uju, “she pronounced it you-joo instead of oo-joo. “is that how you pronounce your name now?” “it ‘s what they call me.” “well, that isn’t your name”. (104) aunty uju has resorted to calling herself you-joo instead of oo-joo because americans called her that. her inability to insist on using the right pronunciation of her name suggests that american clutch and grip is too strong. at a grocery store, aunty tells dike her son to put something he has picked up. adichie describes it thus: “dike put it back,’ with the nasal sliding accent, ‘pooreet-back. ‘and with the accent emerged a new persona, apologetic and self abasing” (108). in the car, aunty uju reprimands her son better by pulling his car. when dike presses his palm to his ear in pain, uju said to ifemelu; “this is how children like misbehaving in this country. jane tells me that her daughter threatens to call the police when she beats her. imagine. i don’t blame the girl, she has come to america and learned about calling the police” (109). jane’s daughter would not do that in nigeria because africans believe in the cliché, “spare the rod and spoil the child,” even the police. nigerian parents even go corporal just to correct a child. aunty uju’s reprimanding of dike in the car away from glaring eyes shows that if she had done it in the open, americans around could report her to social services. even at that, uju was bent on making dike a complete american. when ifemelu speaks igbo to dike, aunty uju’s response is, “please don’t speak igbo to him. two languages will confuse him” (109). ifemelu responds that they all spoke two languages while growing up and uju replies: “this is america. it’s different” (109). uju has become someone else. her identity as a nigerian is in question. ifemelu gives in and concludes that america has subdued her (110). when ifemelu first arrives america, a friend explains to her, “this is america. you are supposed to pretend you don’t notice certain things. “this is because of the curious behaviour of a cashier in a clothing store who, in asking which of the two sales people helped her, attempts to distinguish between the two of them on every imaginable basis except the obvious one-skin colour. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 166 ogbazi & onyeachulam worthy of note, adichie satirically talks about these new identities and its state. this new americanness is half-baked and it is visible in their accents. nigerians try so hard to fit in by copying the accents of the americans. bartholomew, a man aunty hopes to settle down with is one of such characters. ifemelu observes: he spoke with an american accent filled with holes, mangling words until they were impossible to understand. she sensed from his demeanor a deprived rural upbringing that he tried to compensate for with this american affectation, his gonnas and wannas (115). on another occasion, in a restaurant, ifemelu notes the accents of the waiters who were african: “when they speak english to customers, it was broken, curious as though they had not quite eased into the language itself, before taking in a slangy americanism. words come out half complete” (9) africans in america are at crossroads in identity. they are not africans anymore and neither are they fully fledged americans because each is half backed in them. they are half africans which is partly their doing and half americans yearning and trying to be full-fledged but their half africaness will always gnaw and rear heads displaying whom they really are which they have kept in denial. they are caught between two cultures and their identities are in chaos. in a nutshell, they are bats. it saddens ifemelu that her aunty’s situation has reduced to settling merely for what is familiar. adichie goes on and on taking a clean sweep and exposing what immigration to america could do to the identity of nigerians. she presents us with more characters in the state of identity crisis. in london, emenike, a friend of obinze, has completely turned british. he has married a white woman georgina, not out of love but just to be accepted in the british society. he now speaks and acts like the british. hear him: “but the americans love ‘us’. brits, they love the accent and the queen and the double-dealer “(272). the emphasis on “us” implies that emenike, a nigerian, considers himself british. when ifemelu starts dating biane, an american, she tells her parents that she is leaving baltimore to new haven to live with him, but hear what adichie has to say, “telling her father that she was moving in with a man to whom she was not married, was something she could do only because she lived in america. rules had shifted, fallen into the crooks of distance and foreignness” (314). adichie in her artistic grandeur created dike as a character in a pathetic situation began right from birth-an african born in america. he knew nothing about africa, his roots, though nobody would blame him, he is ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 167 ogbazi & onyeachulam completely american but part of the blame would go to his mother who denied him from speaking two languages. once with ifemelu, dike asks her “what are you doing that? eating a banana with peanuts?” “that’s what we do in nigeria. do you want to try it?” “no, i don’t think i like nigeria coz” (113). america has made dike hate his origins. after a meeting with some friends, ifemelu thought of dike and wonders what he is and what he would be considered as: “american african or african american. he would have to choose what he was or what he was would be chosen for him” (147). dike becomes internally conflicted. he is an american by birth and african by roots and origin but how could he reconcile the two identities. he has written about his situation in an essay and his mother voiced out her feelings to ifemelu: “how can he say he does not know what he is? since when is he conflicted and even that his name is difficult”. and ifemelu responds: “ithink he wrote that because that’s the kind of thing they teach him here. everybody is conflicted, identity this, identity that” (217). this internal conflict in dike must have made him think of this place and existence on earth, thereby making him to attempt suicide. he yearns to end it all because he believes that he does not belong anywhere. he has no place in america. his skin colour speaks against him in america and on a visit to africa; he feels his disposition and behaviour are against him. ifemelu blames uju for dike’s attempt on his life and his feeling towards himself! “do you remember when dike was telling you something and he said, we black folks, and you told him you are not black?” i didn’t want him to start behaving like those people and thinking that everything that happens to him is because he’s black”. “you told him what he wasn’t but you didn’t tell him what he was. you never reassured him” (379). even on a visit to nigeria, everything seems strange to dike. he is surprised to see so many black people like himself. when the power goes off after he arrived, the buzzing whirling sounds of ifemelu’s ups startles him. he says: “oh my god, is that like a fire alarm” (423). he complained about the heat, about mosquitoes biting him (425). he knows nothing about his roots butadichie has created in him unquenching regret, a yearning, a hunger to have been part of this root. he is like an alien in his own world. he wanted to be a part of this world. he says: “i wish i could speak igbo” (424). worthy of note is adichie’s creation of a nigerian character that remains unchanged. ginika is such a character. her long stay in america does not change whom she is, an african. upon ifemelu’s arrival, ginika has gone to pick her up. ginika says: “we are entering university and that’s where wellon ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 168 ogbazi & onyeachulam campus is, shay you know?” according to ifemelu, “ginika has lapsed into nigerian english, a dated, overcooked version, eager to prove how unchanged she was. she has, with a strenuous effort, kept in touch through the years. ifemelu does not have the heart to tell her that nobody said “shay” anymore. adichie’s creating ginika shows that there are still allegiant africans in america that have refused to give in to the american spell of identity change. it seems being obinze’s lover is part of ifemelu identity. hence, when she gets involved with a tennis coach during her search for a job, she feels she has lost the identity. she, thereby, cuts all ties with obinze. armah’s reunification motif is not an understatement because these africans yearn to visit home. in a discussion with obinze, emenikesays, “i miss naija. it’s been long but i just haven’t had the time to travel back home” (265). blaine and ifemelu are perfect together in their relationship but ifemelu wants more. the hunger to return home and back to obinze cannot go unnoticed. adichie noted: nigerian became where she was supposed to be, the only place she could sink her roots in without constant urge to beg them out and shake off the soil and of course there was obinze. her first love, the only person with whom she had never felt the need to explain herself (6). when elaine asks her why she is leaving, she simply answers, “i have to” (7). adichie further explains that phrase; she had not had a bold epiphany and there was no cause. it was simply that layer after layer of discontent had settled in her and formed a mass that now propelled her. she did not tell him because it would hurt him to know she had felt that way for a while, that her relationship with him was like being content in a house but always sitting by the window and looking out (7). ifemelu eventually returns to nigeria and her identiy crisis begins. adichie describes, “lagos assaulted her” (365). everything felt strange to her and her thoughts, “she felt the dizzying sensation of falling, falling into the new person she had become, falling into the strange familiar. had it always been like this or had it changed so much in her absence” (385). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 169 ogbazi & onyeachulam ifemelu no longer remembers anything, even bus stops and the side streets but significantly, she drops her accent as ranyinudo observed. she is completely an americanah. adichie describes further; “she was no longer sure what she was now in lagos and what was new in herself (387). in ranyinudo’s house, the weather irritated her and she asks; “what sort of humidity is this? i can’t breathe” (390). on a visit to aunty onenu’s house with ranyinudo, she describes the house as ugly but in her thoughts: “she had once found houses like that beautiful but here she was now disliking it with the haughty confidence of a person who recognized kibsch” (393). ifemelu and doris, another american returnee, find themselves hating and criticizing some nigerian expressions which have been in vogue even before they left. doris tells ifemelu: “don’t you hate it how people say i’m pressed or i want to ease myself when they want to go to the bathroom (405). consequently, ifemelu finds herself possessing two personalities, each personality in conflict with the other. she knows her deeds and actions are making her become an american. her personality and psyche love american things but she does not want to accept that. she is scared of whom she is becoming. she is scared of her fading and diminishing nigerianness. she fights so hard to make the african part of her to win the conflict and that is why she tries so hard to drop the american accent. in a meeting of american returnees, she finds herself in a pretentious state. while discussing with fred, a fellow returnee, she defends things about nigeria, even though they are in denial. thus when ranyinudo says, “you are no longer behaving like an americanah (393), she is pleased with herself. also, in a discussion with obinze, she uses the word asshole (435), an american word. when obinze says it’s an american word, in surprise she replies, “is it?” (435) america has become part of her. on another perpective, when ifemelu gets reunited with obinze, she feels that lost identity of hers has been resorted but obinze finds himself in a dilemma. his, is the highest point of identity crisis. their long period of separation and denial overwhelms them. obinze could not control himself anymore. who exactly is he? how could he reconcile these two conflicting situations, being kosi’s husband and ifemelu’s lover? who is he exactly or who does he want himself to be? the feeling of identity crisis is overwhelming. he describes kosi as “that second skin that had never quite fitted him snugly” (456). in obinze’s thoughts as the author describes, “he blamed ifemelu for making him a person who was not entirely in control of what he was feeling” (461). he begins to think about divorcing kosi. he blames himself for marrying kosi in the first place because of ifemelu’s appearance and like the writer voiced out, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 170 ogbazi & onyeachulam “since ifemelu came back he found himself seeking stores of men who had left their marriages and willing the stories to end well. the children more contented with separated parents than married unhappy parents” (467). ifemelu is like part of his being and identity and an overwhelming spell which he has long been in search of and has eventually found but is in confusion on what to do with this newly found identity. when obinze tells okwudiba about his intention to leave kosi, okwudiba feels his behaviour is also foreign. according to him: most of us did not marry the woman we truly loved. we married the woman that was around when we were ready to marry. so forget this thing. no need of this kind of white people’s behavior. we don’t behave like that please. (472) in conclusion, onyerionwu says this of adichie; adichie’s engagement of nigerian diasporic realities and experiences has been privileged by her fairly extensive stay in the usa spanning more than one decade, one senses a significant biographic link between adichie and the fiction of the diasporic inclination, especially as many as marry of her characters are young female characters in their prime, for whom emigration to america has meant the decisive turning point of their lives. (239) conclusion this work has examined the notion of search for identity in the novel, with reference to chimamanda adichie’s americanah and odili ujubuonu’s pride of the spider clan. adichie and naipaul’s artistic response to the experiences of the migrated individuals has benefited from their own considerable experiences. adichie being an immigrant in the united states explains her narrative passion, physical and psychological proximity with the characters and what happens to them. adichie’s investigation of many aspects of the diasporic experience provides different perspectives and images of america ranging from the depressingly negative to the endearingly positive. but her crucial panafrican advice for any immigrant is that he or she should take as much of the positive offerings and opportunities that america so generously presents. but, in doing that, he or she should give back to it as little as possible, especially where it concerns his or her cultural dignity. as feminist writers continue to search critically into the quality of women’s lives in view of the human rights enshrined in the united nations agenda, and raise questions about the shortcomings of entrenched negative social values, their works are compelling and appropriate, especially at this time when the needs and experiences of women have become a global concern. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 171 ogbazi & onyeachulam in americanah, the author portrays the life of a nigerian who had been overseas and tried to imbibe the western culture more than the white man. she exposes how self-conceited such ones become in their attempt to even speak like the white man, dress like the white man, even acculturate themselves in the white man’s lifestyle. they become what the igbo man would call usu, the bat, which, according to folktale, does not belong to terrestrial animals or to birds. odili ujubuonu on his part in pride of the spider clan depicts the aro people as having lost their pride of place and have to pass through many difficulties, including deaths, as they must have to find the symbol of authority which would place them in their rightful position. the search for their identity narrows down to two persons, isikamdi and odidika, who spared no efforts in fulfilling their responsibilities. ujubuonu uses the various aro men by whom the two principal actors come across to show how determined one can be in search for one’s identity and pride of place. works cited acholonu, rose. “the west indian novelist and cultural assertion” in journal of black culture and black consciousness in literature. heinemann educational books, 1987. adichie, chimamandangozi, americanahh, kachifo ltd. 2013. bamberg, michael, “who am i? narration and its contribution to self and identity” in theory and psychology. sage publishers, 2010. chuma-udeh, ngozi. trends and issues in nigerian literature. base 5 press, 2007. erikson, erik, identity crisis in autobiographic perspective, “daudalus 99, the making of modern science (biographical studies). fall publishers, 1970.kofi agyekum, “art in a society in transition” in african quarterly, on the arts. vol. ii no. 4 1999. kronenfield, jeffrey z. “the communalistic african and individualistic westerner” in critical perspectives on nigerian literature. heinemann, 1979. maduka, t. chidi, “the afro-american and the predicament of american satsion” in calabar journal of literature and black aesthetics. heinemann educational books, 1990. nnoli, charles e. issues in african literature. treasure resource communications ltd, 2009. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 172 ogbazi & onyeachulam nwachukwu, anthony n. africans and identity. africana frist, 2016. patrick, henry, “migration and literary identity”. new encyclopedia britannica macropaedia. volume 2. william banton, 1992. smythe, hugh h. and mabel, m. smythe. the nigerian elite. stratford unviersity press, 2017. ujowundu, cornel o. a guide to studies in the novel. bels books, 2007. ujubuonu, odili. pride of the spider clan.jalaa writers’ collective, 2011. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 208 transitivity in proverbs in achebe’s things fall apart akabuike ifeoma g. department of english, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam campus. email: ifyakabuike2014@gmail.com abstract this paper shows how transitivity can be used to classify verbs and clauses through many processes in achebe’s proverb in (things fall apart. halliday’s systemic functional grammar (sfg) was adopted as the theoretical framework. its aim is to clarify the meaning of proverbs beyond a literary work. the paper focused on “transitivity” in ideational metafunction in analyzing the verbs according to the different process types. the researcher employed a qualitative design because the data is displayed in the form of string of words. the analysis was done in line with the adopted theoretical framework. the study revealed that the transitivity system can analyze clauses as expressed in proverbs effectively. again, the author made the most use of material process type. this shows that action words were mostly used in the proverbs. keywords: transitivity, systemic functional grammar, process types and proverbs. introduction proverb is one of the tools with which writers justify the actions of characters, criticize bad ethical and immoral behaviours while advocating right virtues and morals. through the use of proverbs, writers try to express the wealth of philosophy, mailto:ifyakabuike2014@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 209 wisdom and perception of life as they affect and control their community. also, writers write to reflect the realities of their time and to highlight the peculiar socio-political and economic situations that have exerted a lot influence in shaping them and pushing their frontiers as writers. in a bid to recreate a believable account of a given set of people, many african writers have tended to look inwards, deep in the oral tradition of the people. in this regard, many african writers incorporate a lot of proverbs and other cultural artifacts in their works. in this study, the researcher explored the linguistic representation of imaginary events, the people and things involved in the proverbs in achebe’s things fall apart, using halliday’s transitivity system. the reason is to find out whether the analysis of the transitivity system: process type, in terms of what is represented by the verbal group in the clause have helped to bring out meanings intended by the writer for easy understanding of the novel. drawing on halliday’s transitivity, the study analyzed proverbs from a semantic-grammatical point of view. this research will enable the readers to appreciate the creativity, beauty and achebe’s style of writing evident in the use of proverbs in the text under study. again, an investigation of the linguistic choices in proverbs would help the reader to understand both complex, literary meanings and expand the reader’s understanding of halliday’s transitivity as a linguistic tool to explore or analyze proverbs which will help to further/ cement the relationship between language and literature. statement of the problem proverb played an integral role in things fall apart, because one can hardly tell effectively, an african story that involves her ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 210 rich cultural past and heritage in isolation from the rich proverbs that are part of the love of the people. achebe made abundant use of proverbs in his work under study and one may argue that those proverbs were not accidental but intentionally incorporated by the writer as part of his techniques to achieve a desired style of writing. these proverbs also serve as a way of asserting the african unique cultural values. since the writer’s tool is word made possible by language, proverbs have become an effective tool and technique with which writers store and weave ideas and thematic issues together. this all important literary genre has not been analyzed with systemic functional grammar. generally, it has been viewed from the literary angle, hence this study: transitivity in proverbs in achebe’s things fall apart. the question for this linguistic analysis of proverb will concern the choice of words, grammatical form and text structure in terms of their experiential values: 1. to what extent can the transitivity system analyze clause found in the proverbs? 2. what are the different process types recognized in the language and structures by which the proverbs were expressed in the text under study? 3. to what extent can the transitivity system solve the case of reference in contexts of potential ambiguity? proverbs and their importance several scholars have attempted to define proverb, each from the dimension or viewpoint that is more appealing to them. this has given rise to various definitions of proverbs, found in many scholarly publications. ruth finnegan quoted in asika and akabuike (34) defined proverb as “a saying in more or less fixed from marked by shortness, sense and salt and distinguished by the popular acceptance of the truth tensely expressed in it. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 211 mieder (2004:24) in support of the above assertion by finnegan said that proverb “is a short, generally known sentence of folk of wisdom, truth, morals and traditional views in metaphorical, fixed and memorizable form which is handed down from generation to generation”. akporobaro (2001:110) argues that proverbs are “about old-age wisdom but many of them are rhetorical and humorous”. proverb in the words of nwoga is a “terse statement which figuratively gives expression to traditional wisdom relevant to a given situation”. achebe (2008:7) sees it as” “the palm oil with which words are eaten”. proverbs are very useful in the african society especially in igbo society. most usages of proverbs according to umeh (233) “serve to: basically protect the user in the speech act that necessitated the proverb usage, justify whatever situation the use is in, to insult or castigate the recipient”. also, asika (2014) on achebe’s use of proverbs in things fall apart rightly said that, proverbs play an integral role in things fall apart, for one can hardly tell effectively an african story that involves her rich cultural past and heritage in isolation from the rich proverbs that are part of the love of the people. achebe made abundant use of proverbs in his work and one may argue that those proverbs were not accidental but intentionally incorporated by the writer as part of his techniques to achieve a desired style of writing. the proverbs play integral role in the making of the novels. these proverbs serve as a way of asserting the african unique cultural values. the proverbs used in the novel are familiar. achebe was able to borrow some of these proverbs and he blended them perfectly in his literary work that one can hardly ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 212 differentiate this oral mode of communication in the literary from. (140) on the role of proverb above, asika is saying that achebe succeeded in telling the african story from a real african perspective and with the african voices too. we can as well observe from the above that proverbs have become part of the prominent and reoccurring aspect and technique of writing in many of the literary works that replete the african scene. since the writer’s tool is word made possible by language, proverb has become an effective tool and technique with which african writers store and weave ideas and thematic concerns together. the notion of clause in the light of sfg as the highest unit in the grammatical rank, the clause is viewed in the light of systemic functional grammar as a grammatical resource for all the three languages metafunctions: construing the world, enacting social roles, and presenting information. according to bloor & bloor (2013), clause can be seen as: ‘clause rather than word’ or sentence is the unit of analysis in systematic functional. and the function of a clause is analyzed in terms of: (a) subject, finite, predicator, complement and adjunct (sfpca) (b) theme and rheme (c) given and new and (d) process and participant or transitivity system. sfpca captures syntactic niceties of the text. theme-rheme and givennew indices deal with the way a text is packaged and the way information in a text is structured in a clause. however, a process and participant analysis of text reveals the way language users manipulate language to represent their perception of reality. (107) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 213 again, a clause according to halliday (2014) is: a fundamental property of language is that it enables human being to build a mental picture of reality, to make sense of their experience of what goes on around them and inside them. here, again, the clause is the most significant grammatical unit, in this case, because it is the clause that functions as the representation of processes. transitivity specifies the different types of processes that are recognized in the language, and the structure by which they are expressed. (101) halliday (1973:1) points out that there are three lines of meaning in a clause: the textual meaning, the interpersonal meaning, and the ideational meaning(s) (the clause has three metafunctions: textual, interpersonal and ideational metafunctions as can be illustrated through the table below. metafunctions the professor was analyzing the function that a class can perform textual theme rheme interpersonal mood residue ideational actor process (material) goal transitivity traditionally, transitivity is normally understood as the grammatical feature, which indicates if a direct verb takes a direct object. if a verb takes a direct, it is described as transitive, and it is called intransitive if it does not. an extension of this concept is the ditransitive verb, which takes both a direct and indirect object. halliday, however, found the new concept of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 214 transitivity. this new concept represents a further development of the old concept. in halliday's conception in his introduction to functional grammar, whether a verb takes or does not take a direct object is not a prime consideration. transitivity is a part of ideational function of language. the ideational function of the clause is concerned with the “transmission of ideas”. its function is that of “representing ‘processes’ or ‘experiences’: actions, events, processes of consciousness and relations” (halliday, 1985:53). the term “process” is used as in a … extended sense, “to cover all phenomena…and anything that can be expressed by a verb: event, whether physical or not, state or relation” (halliday 1976:159). halliday views that “processes” expressed through language are the product of our conception of the world or point of view. he further notes, that “our most powerful conception of reality is that it consists of “going-ones” : of doing, happening, feeling. being. these goings-on are sorted out in the semantic system of the language, and expressed through the grammar of the clause…clause evolved simultaneously in another grammatical function expressing the reflective, experiential aspect of meaning. this…is the system of transitivity. transitivity specifies the different types of process that are recognized in the language and the structures by which they expressed” (halliday 1985:101). the semantic processes expressed by clauses have potentially three components as follows: 1) the process itself, which will be expressed by the verb phrase in a clause. 2) the participants in the clause, which refer to the roles of entities that are directly involved in the process: the one that does, behaves or says, together with the passive one that is done to, said to, etc. the participants are not necessarily humans or even animate; the term “participant entities” would be more accurate (halliday ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 215 1976:160). the participant entities are normally realized by noun phrase in the clause. 3) the circumstances associated with the process, which are typically expressed by adverbial and prepositional phrases. (halliday 1985: 101-102). with these three components of transitivity one can analyze the mind-set or worldview “framed by the authorial meaning (fowler 1986:138) in literary or non literary texts. the first principle of a transitivity analysis is to uncover the principle “who or what does what to whom or what” in simple terms, it refers to the relationship between the action of an actor and its effect upon the goal. in order to get a clear picture of what is happening from the viewpoint of one’s subjective reality involved in the story the following process is helpful; (1) isolate the process per se and determine which participant (who or what) is doing each process (2) determine what sorts of process they are and which participants is engaged in which of type of process. (3) determine who or what is affected or seems to be affected by each of these processes. (burton 1982:202). ezeifeka (2018:166) noted that in the transitivity system, processes are divided into six groups: material process, mental process, behavioural process, verbal and existential processes. material process material process consists of action or doing clauses conducted by the agents. bloor and bloor (2013:110) termed it as “the prototypical action type clause of traditional school grammar and that most material processes could reasonably be said to involve doing words” and take mainly transitive verbs. e.g. gave, bought, break, tub etc. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 216 relational process relational process is the process of being, according to thompson (2004:96), it identifies one entity in favour of another. its verbs are: be, remain, seen, have, exemplify, felt, belong etc. ryder (41) stated that “this process is used for many functions including indentifying and attributing. a girl identified is relational a young person identifier mental process the mental process is the process of perception and cognition. it deals with how we perceive and present the world to ourselves. it consists of verbs like, think, know, feel, smell, hear, see, want, like, believe etc. there are two kinds of participants in this process, the sensor, who does the action and the phenomenon which according to ryder (40) is “the entity that is inducing the state” i sensor saw mental ali phenomenon yesterday circumstance verbal process verbal processes are the verbs of saying like: tell, speaking, announce, promise, ask, bloor and bloor (2013:122) noted four participants in this process: “the sayers, the receivers, the verbiage and the target. obi praised ebuka before other students in the class he gave smith some cash s (subject) f/p (finite/predicator) c (complement) c (complement) actor material beneficiary goal ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 217 obi praised ebuka others students in the class sayer verbal target receiver circumstance existential process existential processes are those that have only one participant, the existent. it has two main forms of grammatical realizations: 1. with a copular verb and an empty “there” as subject e.g. there were five of us in the party. 2. with copular verb, the existent as subject and usually a circumstantial adjunct e.g. twenty of us were in the party. there is a passenger by the door there circumstance is existential a passenger existent by the door circumstance behavioural process behavioural processes are the processes of physiological and psychological behaviour. bloor & bloor (2013:126) stated that ‘it is the grey area between material and mental processes. the only participant is labeled behaver. they are represented by verbs such as coughing, watching, listening, laughing etc. e.g. he is laughing he behaver is laughing behavioural in conclusion, we noted that transitivity specifies the different type of processes that are recognized in the language and the structure by which they are expressed. each process type provides its own model or schema for construing a particular domain of experience. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 218 using the above process types as analytical tools, it is possible to pin-point how the writer represents the dominant agent of the text and so, uncover the motivation and bias of the text producer and for understanding the proverbs better. this paper analyzed proverbs used by achebe in things fall apart using hallliday’s transitivity theory. theoretical framework the theory on which this research work is based is transitivity system in michael alexander kirkwood halliday’s systematic functional grammar (sfg). sfg is a form of grammatical description developed by michael halliday in the 1960s. sfg considers language as a system for expressing meaning in context. to halliday (2004:5), systemic refers to the view that language is organized in a network of systems or interrelated sets of options from where users make choices. in other words, when we use language, we make choices from the sets of available options. it equally emphasizes the function which natural languages serve. functional refers to the view that whenever we make choices from the sets of available options, we do so in order to fulfill a communicative purpose. according to this theory, language has three basic functions which he calls “metafunctions”. this is one of the basic concepts around which the theory of sfg is constructed. he observed that languages are metafunctionally organized into three kinds of semantic components which are: ideational, interpersonal, and textual metafunctions. ideational metafunction refers to the way language conveys and organizes the cognitive realities of experience. when we interpret the clause in the views of experimental metafunction, we analyze and label it in terms of transitivity system. transitivity is a way of classifying verbs with reference to the relationship of the verb ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 219 to other structural elements of the clause. it expresses who does what, to whom, when, where and how through the verbal process types. empirical studies several scholars have carried out and concluded researches on the study of proverbs and in the transitivity system-rems umeasiegbu carried out a study on the works of chinua achebe. the aim of his study was to prove and validate that proverb is a part and parcel of what literary creative artist under the influence of his creative ingenuity puts to existence. in his study, he was able to demonstrate how the proverbs used by achebe tells us much about the values of the igbo society. he clearly demonstrated how such proverbs served as thematic statements reminding us of some of the major motifs in the novel, ranging from the importance of status, the value of achievement, the idea of man as sharper of his own destiny. he found out that proverbs can only be well understood from the context of usage because context gives life to proverbs and their meaning. existing studies on the use of proverbs in achebe’s literary texts had been investigated from different fields of studies but none used a theory to analyze the proverbs. the scholars examined, had made tremendous effort to establish the significance of the use of proverbs in achebe’s work in the society. however, it has been discovered that these studies have not adequately paid attention to how efficiently language is used in proverbs, hence this study transitivity in proverbs in achebe’s things fall apart. methodology the researcher used qualitative method to carry out this study. the design is a qualitative design because it is displayed in the form words. it is aimed at analyzing transitivity in proverb in ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 220 achebe’s things fall apart. research questions were designed in such a way that the researcher obtained evidence which addressed the questions. the data of this study were obtained from achebe’s things fall apart. the proverbs were randomly selected from the novel and used for analysis. the method of data analysis for this study was textual analysis. textual data were analyzed in line with the theoretical framework adopted. data presentation and analysis (tables 1-6) transitivity analysis of proverbs in achebe’s things fall apart s/n process type f & % examples 1 material process 32, 33.6% those whose palm kernel are cracked for them by their benevolent spirits… a chick can be spotted… the very day it hatches. that since men have learnt to shoot without missing… he has learnt to fly without perching. that the sun will shine on those… who stand before it… it shines on those… who kneel under them. i cannot wash my hand with spittle… he has put a knife on the things… that held us together… that as the man danced… so the drums were beaten for him. living fire begets cold impotent ash. that fills the mouth… who pays respect for his greatness… he can curse the gods of his fathers and his ancestors… the dog suddenly turns on his master. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 221 material process material processes are processes of material doing and the express the notion that an entity physical does something which are or may not be done to some entity. the participant roles may be actor and goal depending on whether the process is transitive or intransitive. the process may also be in the passive or active voice. excerpt 1: he can curse the gods of his fathers and his ancestors like a hunter dogs that suddenly goes mad and turns on his master (tfa 134). this proverb is grouped under the type as metaphor. it has three processes of material type. these are: a. he can curse the gods of his fathers and ancestors he can curse the gods of his fathers and ancestors like a hunter’s dog actor material process goal circumstance the hunters dog turns on his master actor material process goal the above is an example of material process found in the text. it is indicated by the verb curse which is an action and a doing verb. “he is the actor. it does the action of ‘cursing’ and the receiver of the action ‘the gods of his fathers and ancestors’ becomes the goal. in the second example, the hunter’s dog is the actor which performs the action of “turning”. the sentence is transitive too. it has the goal ‘master’ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 222 2 mental process 16, 17.8% he grew rapidly like a yam tendril in the rainy season… that will grow… one would think… whenever you see a toad jumping in broad day light… then know that… he knew… it soon grew another… okonkwo fame has grown like a bush-fire in the harmattan. a man paves the way for his greatness. mental process mental processes are one of sensing (feeling), cognitive (thinking), perception (perceiving through five senses), and inclination. it has senser and phenomenon as its two participant role. here is an example of mental process. excerpt of mental process he grewrapidly like a yam tendril in the rainy season senser mental process cir phenomeno n cir that will grow in the examples above, grew, will grow, see, know, grew, has grown, respectively are all mental processes. they represent states of mind or psychological events. he, that, you, you, he, it, okonkwo’s fame are all senser while like the yam tendril, a toad, that, another, like a bush fire are all phenomenon. in mental ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 223 process and in passive situation, the phenomenon becomes the senser. this is one way in which the material process is different from the mental process. we don’t have that example here, it is very important that it is noted. 3 relational process 27, 30% when the moon is shining… the cripple becomes hungry for a walk. an old woman is always uneasy… that something is after its life… he was a fierce fighter… the clan was like a lizard… okonkwo was as slippery as a fish in water… i am evil forest… i am dry-meat… amalinze was a willy craftman… it is play… the relational process relational excerpt the cripple becomes hungry for a walk carrier relational attribute relational processes are of two types: attributive and identifying. attributive relational processes are those that describe an entity by ascribing attribute to them while identifying process is used to identify a person. the participant roles for attributive relational processes are carrier and attribute while those of identifying are identified and identifier. for instance, in the excerpt above, nos 1,2,3,4,5,6,9 and 10 are all attributive relational process while nos 7 and 8 are identifying. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 224 this is because identified knows himself well. he identified himself with those identifiers. 4 verbal process 14, 15.6% when a man says yes, his chi says yes too eneke the bird says our elders say as the saying goes said an old woman as the dog says if one says no the other as our people say verbal process this is the process of saying or symbolically signaling. the person who produces the utterance is given the self-explanatory title of sayer; the verb, the verbal process, and the representation of the words actually spoken, which is in the context, we label quoted (bloor and bloor: 2013:125). according to them the function quoted is realized as direct speech but it is a reported speech, the function becomes ‘reported’. but since quoted and reported are separate clauses from the clause containing sayer and process, they are not participants in the clause. verbal excerpts as the dog say, ‘if i fall down for you and you fall down for me, it is play’ sayer verbal quoted 5 existential process 1, 1.1% there was a saying in umuofia ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 225 existential process this is the process of existent. they are expressed by verb of existence e.g. be and exist. this type of process has two main forms of grammatical realization. they are (a) with a copular verb and an empty there and (b)with a copular verb, the existent is subject and usually a circumstantial adjunct. the researcher found just one existential process has only one participant. example, there was a saying in umuofia existential existent cir here the empty ‘there and was constitute the existential process while ‘a saying’ becomes the goal. was shows the existence of something. what is existing is ‘a saying’ 6 behavioural process 5, 5.5% looking at a kings mouth they should not forget to be humble when the old banana tree dies who kept louder than the bereaved when mother cow is chewing grass behavioural process for behavioural process, only one participant is required. this participant is called behaver. for example, when the old banana tree dies behaver behavioural process tables 16 above: selected proverbs from achebe’s things fall apart source: adopted from emodi, 2018. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 226 types of participants in proverbs table 11 s/n types of participant frequency percentage 1 actor 32 19.6% 2 goal 17 10.2% 3 senser 15 9.2% 4 phenomenon 9 5.5% 5 recipient 2 1.2% 6 client 3 1.8% 7 carrier 15 9.2% 8 attribute 15 9.2% 9 identified 12 7.3% 10 identifier 12 7.3% 11 sayer 14 8.6% 12 quoted 14 8.6% 13 existence 1 0.6% 14 behaver 3 1.2% total 163 100% discussion of findings the tables above show the types of processes and participants in the proverbs. the processes are categorized into six different types: material, mental, relational, verbal, existential and behavioural. the researcher found 32 material processes from the proverbs in the text under study. the material processes according to halliday’s theory are processes of “doing and happening”. for instance, cracked,spotted, cursed, jumped, hatches, shoot, perch,wash and so on. these material processes shows that somebody (actor) did something to some entities (goal). material process expresses events in the outside world and activities which occur in real world. there are 32 actors ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 227 (actors are used to refer to individuals who are responsible in carrying out the action). the research equally found out that there are 17 goals (the ones that receive the actor of the actor). the goal is optional especially when the mental processes is intransitive. in addition, we can observe from the examples that most of the actors are personal pronouns: i, he, we, their, … mental processes express events in the outside world and activities which occur in real life experience. for example: in the proverb “let the kite perch and the eagle perch…” nwakibie is the kite and okonkwo is the eagle or it could be any other human in the real life experience. nwakibie in that proverb is showing appreciation for okonkwo’s visit and stress the need for accommodating one another. the action word there “perch denotes accommodation. the widely use of material processes in describing actions demonstrated by the actors in the probers, show that the narrative is action-packed. another process seen is relational process. there are about 27 relational processes which consist of 15 attributive relational processes and 12 identifying relational processes. they are used to assign attribution and describe an individual by attributing a quality or qualities to someone. for instance: “an old woman is always uneasy when dry bones are mentioned in proverbs” in this proverb, okonkwo’s attitude/reaction (uneasiness) is being linked to this father’s indolence (laziness) each time the matter is raised. that is to say that connecting/linking okonkwo to the father’s laziness keeps him uncomfortable. little wonder okonkwo chose to be hard-working and not lazy. next is the mental process. the researcher found 16 mental processes. the participants are senser and phenomenon. they are used to show the character’s feeling, thought, knowledge, perception, affection and desire. for example, “a chick that will ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 228 grow into a cock can be spotted the very day it hatches” “a chick refers to nwoye” (senser) that will grow (mental process). the proverb is uttered to show okonkwo’s condemnation of nwoye’s strong effeminate/unmanly attitude. verbal processes according to haliday is a process of saying which encodes the mental operations by the physical actions of ‘say’, so it is intermediate between mental and metal processes. there are only 14 of the verbal processes. verbal processes are usually realized by direct and indirect question. for instance, “when a man says yes, his chi says yes too”. okonkwo said yes strongly, so his chi agreed. this proverb depicts will power, determination and dedication to succeed in life. the list existential process and behavioural process were not used in a large percentage 1% and 5% respectively. again, from the quotation of bloor & bloor (2013:101) in this paper, it is clearly said that the only unit of analysis in the transitive system is clause. the transitivity system can also help users of language to express their experiences, or what bloor and bloor call “representation of their perception of reality. this paper agrees with bloor and bloor because the unit of analysis of proverb in this paper is the clause. furthermore, the researcher explained some ways of analyzing clause by the transitivity system. for instance, in line with the quotation of halliday (2014:101) and ezeifeka (2018:166) agrees with this research that transitivity specifies the different types of processes that are recognized in the language and the structure by which the proverbs were expressed. from those quotations, we conclude that by analyzing clause by transitivity system we can know exactly the processes in a language and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 229 also know how human beings also state their experiences in the world. for instance, let us see some examples of these processes. there are three elements in transitivity analysis-processes, participants and circumstances. but the researcher’s analysis is focused on the processes and participants. therefore, circumstances are left out completely. conclusion the ideational function allows language users to present their world experience through the lexicogrammatical choices they make, which are part of the transitivity system. the transitivity system proposed by halliday is composed of six processes: material, mental, relational, verbal, existential, and behavioural. transitivity is an important semantic concept in the analysis of representation of reality, in that transitivity enables us to analyze and represent the event and situations in different ways. relying on the transitivity analysis, the reader can uncover the thoughts of participant and sorting out who does what, to whom, where, when as expressed through language in the proverbs and can help readers understand the proverbs better. from the analysis, i conclude that the transitivity system can analyze clause effectively and that the transitivity systems specifies the different types of processes that are recognized in the language and structure by which proverbs are expressed. works cited achebe chinua. things fall apart. london: pearson education ltd, 2008. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 230 akinmede, arinola. “the decline of proverbs as a creative oral expression. a case study of proverb usage among the ondo in the south western part of nigeria”. an international journal of language, literature and gender studies (afrrev laligens). vol. 1 (2) april-july, 2012. akporobara, f.b.o. african oral literature. lagos: princeton publishing company, 2001 alimi, s.a. “a study of the use of proverbs as a literary device in achebe’s things fall apart and arrow of god . international journal of academic research in business and social sciences. vol 2 no. 3, 2012. asika, ikechukwu emmanuel & ifeoma grace akabuike. african prose narrative: an introductory text. awka: scoa heritage ltd, 2014. bloor, thomas and meriel bloor. the functional analysis of english: a hallidayan approach. new york: routledge, 2013. burton, d. (1982). “through glass darkly: through dark glasses”, in r. carter (ed.) language and literature: an introductory reader in stylistics. london: unwin hyan. 194-214. butt, d. fahey. using functional grammar: an explorer’s guide. sydney: national center for english language teaching and research, macquarie university, 2000. eagleton, terry. ideology: an introduction. london, new york: verso, 1991. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 231 eggins, s. an introduction to systemic functional grammar. new york & london: heinemann, 2004. emodi, l.n. “transitivity and ideologies in proverbs in achebe’s things fall apart”. unpublished doctorial seminar paper. nsukka: unn, 2018. ezeifeka, chinwe. discourse analysis: concepts and approaches. awka: patrobas nig. ltd., 2018. fabb, n. linguistics and literature. oxford: blackwell, 1997. fairclough, n. “critical linguistics/critical discourse analysis”. malmkjaer, k. (ed). the linguistic enclopedia (2nd edition). london: routledge: 102-106, 2002. fowler, r. linguistics: criticism. oxford: oxford university press, 1986. halliday, michael, a.k. & mathiessen christian m.i.m. an introduction to functional grammar (4th ed) london routledge, 2014. halliday, michael. alexander rinkwood language as social semiotic: the social interpretation of language and meaning. london: edward arnold, 1973. melrose, r. the communicative syllabus: a systemic functional approach to language teaching. london: cassell 1995. mieder, wolfgang. proverbs: a handbook. greenwood press, 2004. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 232 nwoga, d.i. “the igbo poet and satire”. uche egbulem abalogu (ed.) oral poetry in nigeria. lagos: federal ministry of culture, 1981. opera, s.c. aspects of functional grammar, book 2: a systematic approach. owerri gabtony prints ltd, 2018. osani, dumbi. “the aesthetics of proverbs in nigeria fiction: d.o. fagunwa and chinua achebe. english and linguistics (pel). 9, 2008. ryder, m. transitivity: stylistic approaches (pdf), retrieved fromhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication1286735442 .transitivity stylistics approaches. teo, p. “racism in the news: a critical discourse analysis of news reporting”. two australian newspaper, discourse and society. vol. 11 (1). pp. 7.48, 2000. thompson, g. introducing functional grammar. london: arnold, 2004 umeh, okey. “the english proverbs and usage” (ed) in eyisi, j and dolly ekpunobi. english for academic purposes. nimo: rex charles & patrick. 2007 winick, stephen d. “intertextuality and innovation in a definition of the proverb genre.” cognition, comprehension and communication: a decade of north america proverb studies (ed.) baltmanrismweiler, germany: schneider verlag hohengehren, 2000. https://www.researchgate.net/publication1286735442.transitivity https://www.researchgate.net/publication1286735442.transitivity ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 48 chukwu & amadi an analysis on pragmatic force in olusegun obasanjo’s open letter to goodluck jonathan prof. ephraim chukwu department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka ea.chukwu@unizik.edu.ng & andrew ndiwe amadi school of general studies, imo state polytechnic, umuagwo – imo state ndiweamadi16@gmail.com abstract political language use is usually targeted at gaining advantage over political opponents. in order to achieve this desire, political leaders tactfully employ carefully chosen speech acts and particular verbal and non-verbal exchanges through which they achieve their communicative goals. this study investigated the pragmatic force, the illocutionary intention, which former president obasanjo strove to achieve in his open letter – before it is too late – to then incumbent president jonathan. the aim was to analyse how he maximally utilised the speech acts to convey his message to the electorates. bach and harnish’s model of speech act theory, which accounts for the illocutionary intentions of a language user, served as its theoretical framework. thirteen sample utterances purposively selected from the data were subjected to descriptive qualitative analysis. the findings revealed that four speech acts kinds were predominant in the open letter. these acts were generally used to persuade the nigerian masses cum electorates to accept obasanjo’s intention which was to ensure the exit of then incumbent president jonathan from the seat of nigeria’s presidency. critical analysis of the language of the letter revealed that the language of political leaders tended towards “anointing” and handing over power to candidates of their choice. keywords: language, pragmatic force, open letter, speech acts, obasanjo 1. introduction language, no doubt, is a very important feature of human beings. every functional society requires it for the purpose of communication. according to kecskes (3), communication results from interplay of intention and attention motivated by socio-cultural background that is privatised by the individuals. however, the pattern of communication differs among various occupations. for instance, political language use is usually targeted at gaining advantage over political opponents. thus, political leaders persuade listeners (in most cases, the masses cum electorates) to toe their political line of action, irrespective of whether they benefit from that or not. in order to achieve their desired objectives and communication goals, political leaders tactfully employ carefully chosen speech acts and particular verbal and non-verbal exchanges. according to austin (cited in osisanwo, 60), speech acts are processes in which “a person performs an act such as stating a fact, stating an opinion, confirming or denying something, making a prediction or a request, asking a question, issuing an order, giving a permission, giving a piece of advice, making an offer, making a promise, thanking somebody or condoling somebody”. the above and more constitute the pragmatic force of a given speaker’s utterances. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 49 chukwu & amadi while corroborating the above definition, mey (95) maintains that “speech acts are verbal exchanges happening in the world. uttering a speech act, i do something with my words: i perform an activity that (at least intentionally) brings about a change in the existing state of affairs …” such changes in states, especially as it affects who mounts a given political position, are usually the targets of political leaders. these are effectively achieved when the perlocutionary effect(s) of an utterance is/are noticed through the hearer’s action(s). there are several media of communication. one of them is letter writing, of which open letter is a kind. this medium has constantly been leveraged by nigeria’s former president, chief olusegun obasanjo gcfr, to convey his (hidden) intentions to the direct and indirect addressees of his open letters. thus, this study seeks to explore the pragmatic force, communicative goal, of obasanjo’s open letter to former president goodluck jonathan in order to bring out the communicative value of the letter.studies on political discourses of notable nigerian political leaders, whether from the rhetorical, pragmatic or stylistic perspectives, have concentrated on their speeches. thus, the pragmatic study of the language of obasanjo, in his open letter – before it is too late – to jonathan, has not been significantly addressed. this study tries to fill that gap, using bach and harnish’s (1979) model of speech act theory. however, some concepts relevant to the study require clarification. they are discussed in the following section. 2. conceptual clarification 2.1 pragmatic force it is apposite to briefly define the term pragmatics here, before delving into the meaning of pragmatic force. the definition of pragmatics, though, varies according to scholars. generally, however, scholars (bach and harnish, 1979; leech, 1983; thomas, 1996, among others) note that pragmatics accounts for the specific meaning of utterances in particular social and situational contexts. pragmatics is fundamentally concerned with communicative action in any kind of context. this essence is captured by leech and short (290) thus: the pragmatic analysis of language can be broadly understood to be the investigation into that aspect of meaning which is derived not from the formal properties of words and constructions, but from the way in which utterances are used and how they relate to the context in which they are uttered. the communicative action of any given utterance constitutes the pragmatic force. every communication process sets a goal which speakers intend to achieve. usually, this goal is mainly the creation of meaning which a given speaker targets to deliver to the recipient(s). pragmatic force, therefore, is the illocutionary intention which a speaker uses language to achieve. it is the illocutionary and social goal of an utterance; in other words, the illocutionary function or force of a given utterance. hakim, haryati and suparno (168) refer to pragmatic force simply as “functions of utterances”. they further refer to it as illocutionary force and posit that it is actually “the function of words, the specific purpose that the speaker has in mind” (hakim et al.173). similarly, ezeifeka views the “pragmatic force” or “point” as the action one performs in saying something. she posits that “illocutionary acts carry the force of … performing actions through utterances” (ezeifeka54). pragmatic force/illocutionary force is usually achieved through speech acts. when a speaker utters something in a language, an act (speech act) has been performed. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 50 chukwu & amadi speech act is one of the essential domains of pragmatics. austin who originally drew a threefold dimension of speech acts named them locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts (cited in lyons 730; mey 95). these acts are discussed in the section on theoretical framework. 2.2 the concept of open letter it is already a fact that communication is central in the overall essence of human existence. the art of communication is carried out through many means including letters. letter writing, according to ugot (29), is “a form of communication which aims at informing or persuading someone. through letters, we can express our feelings, desires and even pass on information to different people and organisations”. conventionally, letters are addressed to individuals, groups or organisations and the contents are usually for the consumption of only the affected person(s) or group(s). nevertheless, letters can be made open depending on the occasion or the interest of the writer. an open letter is a letter that is intended to be read by a wide audience, or a letter intended for an individual, but that is nonetheless widely distributed intentionally. open letters are usually written to emphasise the addressee’s responsibilities in a given matter and to provoke a public debate. in most cases, open letters are politically motivated as they seek to arouse certain emotions from the public and garner public support for a cause. they are circulated to the public through newspapers and other media. according to george (2), an “open letter is meant to change something or draw attention to something …. but if your goal is to change something, an open letter should be a part of your strategy and not the strategy itself”. thus, when open letters are written to political leaders, especially incumbent presidents of a country, as in the case of the data for this research, they are intended to draw the attention of the citizens (the masses who voted the incumbents into positions) to salient issues that would prepare the electorates’ minds to take a better position when elections come on board. chief olusegun obasanjo, to the knowledge of this researcher, is the only notable nigerian leader who had employed this tool (of open letter) effectively in the nigerian political landscape. the open letter analysed in this work is the means (parts of the strategies) used by him to draw the attention of nigerians to the evils and inabilities noticed by him in the administration of the then president jonathan. the real strategies lie in the dominant speech acts used to reach an intended political end. it, therefore, interests this researcher to investigate the effectiveness of the open letter in bringing out the communicative intentions of the writer and eliciting necessary response from the addressees. 3. theoretical framework this research, however, is anchored on bach and harnish’s (1979)model of speech act which dwells on “intention” and “inference”. particularly, bach and harnish seek to explain how the illocutionary force intended by the speaker is inferred by the hearer. according to them, the need for inference arises because many speech acts are indirect. they argue that a speaker has an intention for uttering a statement, and that the hearer needs to infer what the intention of the speaker is, based on the mutual contextual beliefs (mcbs) that they both share. mcb refers to salient contextual information shared by both the speaker and the listener with relation to a given communication setting. bach and harnish (5) call such pieces of information ‘beliefs’ rather than ‘knowledge’ because “they need not be true in order to figure in the speaker’s intention and the hearer’s inference”. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 51 chukwu & amadi bach and harnish (40) categorise illocutionary acts into two: communicative and non communicative (conventional). the communicative illocutionary acts, which formed the basis for analysis in this work, is sub-divided into:constatives, directives, commissives and acknowledgements. it is noteworthy that the illocutionary act is the communicative act that is intended to be achieved by an utterance (jackson and stock-well 180). it is what is meant but not explicitly stated. according to dada (cited in abuya 9), illocutionary act is the core of the speech act theory. therefore, obasanjo and jonathan have shared knowledge of the nigerian political situation, including the workings of government. equally, nigerians are aware of the hardship and other associated problems which they are passing through during the administration of jonathan. to that end, all concerned are capable of inferring meanings from the utterances contained in the open letter referred to in this work. this forms the basis for adopting the above theory. 4. methodology obasanjo’s open letter – before it is too late – to jonathan which was published in the daily trust newspaper of 12 december 2013 constituted the data for analysis in this study.thirteen sample utterances were purposively selected and subjected to descriptive qualitative analysis. bach and harnish’s theory in the classification of acts performances in language was used to x-ray the pragmatic force (illocutionary intention) which obasanjo intended to achieve in the open letter. 5. data analysis four speech acts kinds namely, constatives, directives, commissives and acknowledgements were identified in the open letter. in what follow, some examples of the use of the speech acts are discussed. 5.1 constatives these are acts which commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition. they also express a speaker’s belief and his desire that the hearer forms a similar one. sample 1: i could sense a semblance between the situation we are gradually getting into and the situation we fell into during the abacha era performatively, the above utterance is an indirect act of warning. it is hinged on the mutual belief that, in the nigerian political landscape, the abacha era was marked with period of national pains, chaos, tyranny, underdevelopment, austerity, and mutual suspicion. the intention is to raise consciousness among nigerians and put jonathan at alert so as to avoid repetition of unpalatable history. sample 2: mr. president, you have on a number of occasions acknowledged the role god enabled me to play in your ascension to power the locution is a direct act of claiming. indirectly, it is used to inform the people of obasanjo’s role in raising jonathan to his present political position. it means obasanjo was instrumental in jonathan’s political successes, and as such, jonathan should be loyal and heed the advice or rather instructions of his political god-father. sample 3: uptill two months ago, mr. president, you told me that you have not told anybody that you would contest in 2015 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 52 chukwu & amadi directly, the utterance is an act of claiming. it performs an indirect illocutionary act of representing the addressee as a liar. it further defames jonathan’s public image and thus warns him not to contest the 2015 presidential election. sample 4: to allow or tacitly encourage people of “ijaw nation” to throw insults on other nigerians from other parts of the country … is myopic and your not openly quieting them is even more unfortunate while urging jonathan to call the ethnic jingoists among the ijaw people to order, the expression accuses and condemns the addressee. it is mainly intended to tarnish the image of jonathan since he is presented as being sectional and tribalistic in dealing with the nigerian people. sample 5: allegation of keeping over 1,000 people on political watch list rather than criminals … and training snipers and other armed personnel secretly and clandestinely acquiring weapons to march for political purpose like abacha ... if it is true, it cannot augur well for initiator, the government and the people of nigeria similarly, the above sample is an indirect act of accusing and warning the addressee, but presented in a passive voice to avoid holding the speaker responsible as the original source of the allegation. the overall intention is to present the addressee as one who engages in unjustified killings and other heinous acts. the expression raises the awareness of nigerians to such heinous tendencies of jonathan thereby making them to beware of such devilish character. 5.2 directives these are utterances used by the speaker to make the hearer do something positive in the speaker’s/writer’s thought pattern. sample 6: i want nothing from you personally except that you should run the affairs of nigeria not only to make nigeria good, but to make nigeria great for which i have always pleaded with you and i will always do so the above sample urges the addressee to do the right thing that will make nigeria great. indirectly, the utterance exonerates obasanjo from possible accusations of undue interferences to jonathan’s government and also clears him from being perceived as a selfish leader. it further presents obasanjo as a caring leader while portraying jonathan as a careless one who does not deserve any further benefits from nigerians. this could have possibly made the electorates vote against jonathan in the said election. sample 7: please, move away from fringes or the extremes and move to the centre and carry all along this is a direct expressive act of begging. indirectly, it accuses jonathan of being sectional and highly unfair in his dealings with both the peoples democratic party (pdp) members and nigerians generally. the emphatic “all” projects further these divisive tendencies by jonathan while the overall intention of the utterance is to weaken the peoples’ interest in him and thus make them withdraw their support for him. sample 8: mr. president, let me again plead with you to be decisive on the oil and gas sector so that nigerians may not lag behind despite the seeming request made here, the utterance is intended to highlight the allegation that jonathan has abandoned the “olokola and brass lng projects”. it reveals that the addressee is becoming inimical to viable development projects that could boost the economic base of the country. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 53 chukwu & amadi sample 9: move away from culture of denials, cover ups and proxies and deal honesty, sincerely and transparently with nigerians to regain their trust and confidence the utterance is a direct act of commanding. its indirect illocutionary implication is that the addressee can no longer be trusted in any way. therefore, he does no longer deserve the high office of nigeria’s presidency. the utterance tarnishes jonathan’s public image thereby sustaining hatred for him from the electorates. 5.3 commissives these are acts which commit the speaker in varying degrees to some future actions. sample 10: i will want to see anyone in the office of the president of nigeria as a man or woman who can be trusted, a man of honour in his words and character the expression is a direct illocutionary act of stating. it is, nevertheless, an indirect commissive act of vowing to work against the success of jonathan if he contests in the 2015 presidential election. already, the writer had laid the platform for his decision when he implied that the addressee is corrupt and untrustworthy. since the delight of every citizen of a country is to have a faithful, less corrupt and caring leader, the utterance may have convinced the electorates that jonathan has come short of these attributes, and as such can no longer be supported to continue. the utterance further advises jonathan to desist from his evil deeds. sample 11: i have done and i will continue to do and say what is first in the best interest of nigeria and second what is in the best interest of the party based on the misunderstanding, rancour and quarrels among the leadership of the ruling pdp, obasanjo portrayed himself as a peace loving fellow who would continue to toe the path of peace for the benefit of the nation. he therefore sees jonathan’s intention to contest as something which will threaten the peace of the nation. the utterance is a commissive act of ensuring the addressee leaves the presidential office based on the “agreement” that he would serve for only one term. the writer believes that keeping to the “agreement” is in the best interest of both the country and the party. 5.4 acknowledgements they are used to express psychological state and attitude of a speaker towards a given circumstance. sample 12: you were exemplary in words when during the campaigns and the 2011 elections you said “my election is not worth spilling the blood of any nigerian” this sample is an expressive act of commending. the indirect illocutionary value of the utterance is that obasanjo now feels disappointed with the addressee since he is unable to stop the seemingly politically motivated boko haram menace and other forms of insurgency leading to bloodshed across nigeria. it depicts non-fulfilment of a promise and a request to quit on the basis of non-performance. sample 13: today, you are the president of nigeria, i acknowledge you and respect you as such the utterance is an indirect illocutionary act of asking jonathan to live up to his responsibilities which include lightening the burden of the people, ensuring good governance and upholding equity since he is still the nigerian chief executive officer. moreover, it reminds him that he may not continue to enjoy such position as change is always permanent, and imminent in his case. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 54 chukwu & amadi 6. discussion the analysis above has revealed that the speech acts employed by former president obasanjo in his open letter to former president jonathan constituted different kinds of illocutionary acts. these are constatives, directives, commissives and acknowledgements. the constative acts implied that obasanjo used language to entice the audience into discrediting the addressee of the letter and therefore believing in him. directives were used to call on the addressee to do the rightful things and desist from the dangerous paths he is toeing. they were, in fact, used to warn the addressee against the damaging effects his actions may plunge the country into, if he fails to turn a new leaf. the commissive acts were used to project the writer’s new resolves which were mainly to remain patriotic to nigeria, decline his membership of the ruling pdp and ultimately work againstjonathan’s second term presidential bid. acknowledgements showed that jonathan has not really done much that worth commendation, according to the writer’s assessment. the few instances of it were used to commend the earlier disposition of the addressee. yet, the writer now expresses his disappointment in the addressee, giving the alleged derailing from his original position. thus, the perlocutionary effects were that obasanjo was able to elicit from the first addressee, jonathan, an open reply – re: before it is too late – where the latter tried to clarify the nigerian masses on most of the allegations leveled against him. secondly, obasanjo was able to convince the second addressees (the nigerian masses, since it was an open letter) to form a corresponding attitude that he intended. this manifested in the fact that they believed in him and voted against jonathan in the 2015 presidential election. this brought about jonathan’s loss at the polls. 7. conclusion based on the findings, the work concludes that language remains a veritable tool which political leaders and office seekers use to convince, woo or lure the electorates to either retain or withdraw their support from a given leader or candidate.this is noticed through their choice of utterances which is usually characterised by hidden intentions that are implicitly stated, and aimed at individual interests. in fact, the instrument of the open letter offers a viable platform through which political leaders achieve their intentions of gaining advantages over political opponents. works cited abuya, e.john. a pragma-stylistic analysis of president goodluck ebele jonathan inaugural speech. english language teaching vol. 5 (ii). published by canadian centre for science and education. 2012. 8-15. <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v5n11p8> 15 august 2019. web. bach, kent and harnish, robert m. linguistic communication and speech acts. cambridge: the m.i.t. press. 1979. print. ezeifeka, chinwe.discourse analysis: concepts and approaches. awka: patrobas nigeria limited. 2018. print. george, james. the art of the open letter: how to write one that people can’t help but read. 2019.<https://www.mindmybusinessnyc.com/how-to-write-the-open-letter/>.30 september 2019. hakim, juhariyah n, haryati, sri and suparno. an analysis on pragmatic force used by the main character in newell’s film mona lisa smile. journal of pragmatics research vol. 01, no. 02. 2019. 166-175. print. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v5n11p8 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 55 chukwu & amadi jackson, howard and stock-well, peter. an introduction to nature and function of language 2nd ed. london: continuum international publishing group. 2011.print. kecskes, i.situation-bound utterances as pragmatic acts. journal of pragmatics. state university of new york, albany, united states. 2010. print. leech, g.n.principles of pragmatics. new york: longman group limited. 1983. print. leech, geoffery n. and short, michaelh.style in fiction: a linguistic introduction to english fictional prose. london: longman group limited. 1981. print. lyons, john.semantics ii. london: cambridge university press. 1977. print. mey,jacob l pragmatics: an introduction 2nd ed. uk: blackwell publishing. 2001. print. obasanjo, olusegun. before it is too late. 2013. retrieved on 15 august 2017. web. osisanwo, wale.introduction to discourse analysis and pragmatics 2nd ed. lagos: femolous fetop publishers. 2008. print. thomas, jenny.meaning in interaction: an introduction to pragmatics. london: longman. 1996. print. ugot, m.i. letters as a form of communication. a.a. onukaogu (ed). communication in english for polytechnics and other colleges.calabar: bon universal ltd.1994. 28–41. print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 nwagbara 88 the poet and his ancestors: a study of selected african poems andrew ibeawuchi nwagbara department of english language and literature nnamdiazikiwe university awka email: dewnigo4@gmail.com ai.nwagbara@unizik.edu.ng abstract the notion of the ancestors is a reoccurring index amongst adherents of traditional religious worship. some poets of african descent have however used the ancestral motif to craft excellent poeticized narratives. these poets in their poems have exalted the ancestors to levels of eminence. this paper traces the relevance of the ancestors in the cosmology of the cultural and religious milieu of the african people. it discusses the use of the ancestral theme in kofi awonoor’s “songs of sorrow i and ii”, birago diop’s “vanity” and “viaticum” and kwesi brew’s “ancestral faces”. the magical realism literary theory is in tandem with the sentiments expressed in these poems. the views of these poets tally with the pre-eminent status the traditional religious believers confer on the ancestors. keywords: ancestors, magical realism, african worldview introduction who are the ancestors? in african tradition past and present, it is believed that the human soul remains alive even in death. this belief cuts across various religions, but more pronounced amongst the adherents of the traditional religion. richard gehman agrees with this view and asserts that this belief system is common amongst “most african peoples from the earliest times (gehman, 105)”. for yusufu turaki “the ancestors hold a place of preeminence in the traditional society. if they are not worshipped, they are at least highly revered (turaki, 34)”.while citing steyne, he asserts that life has no meaning apart from ancestral presence and ancestral power. t.n.o quarcoopome sees the ancestors as “the heroes and heroines of the various tribes (quarcoopome, 43)”. apart from occupying prominent status in the lives of african people, the ancestors perform diverse functions for the living. smart ninian’s view is that “ancestors are generally assumed to be interested in some way in the continuance of the line, so the gift of offerings to them is a means of promoting the fertility both of human beings and of the environment (ninian, 36)”. gehman’s opinion is that the prominent role the ancestors perform for the living is that of serving as intermediates between man and god. to turaki mailto:dewnigo4@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 nwagbara 89 the ancestors are the “most powerful, basic and primary component of the kinship system in an african community (turaki, 176)”. quarcoopome believes that the ancestors possess extra-human powers and “with these powers they are able to intervene in the lives of the living members of the society (quarcoopome, 43)”.despite their roles as the intermediates between man and god, they perform the sacred duties of being the guardians of public morality. to quarcoopome they perform the role of adjudicators in the affairs of the living and prescribe appropriate punishment for those who disobey “the norms of the society with diseases, crop failure etc.” (43) on the other hand, their off springs who behave well are rewarded with good health and good harvest. francis njoku shares quarcoopome’s sentiment and sees them as “mediators between man and the supreme being (njoku, 128)”. they are consulted for their guidance and “given offerings for their continued influence on the living by helping them to resolve their day to day problems.” for david durkheim, the guidance role of the ancestors over the living begins from conception. according to him, it’s one of the duties of the ancestors to not only watch over the new born at birth, but influence positively all his engagements as he grows and protect him from all dangers. bartholomew abanuka expands the engagement of the ancestors in the african cosmology by classifying them into grades. to him the position an ancestor occupies in the land of the dead “is determined by the ancestor’s accomplishment for the community. in a positive sense, those who not only performed great feats for the community, but also died in grand old age, have the most noteworthy credentials for being ranked among the ancestors (abanuka, 34)”. for joshua onwuliri, it’s “those who lead a good life, live to a ripe old age , die good death, and are accorded full burial rites” (52) that should be identified as ancestors.this paper attempts to discuss the preponderant importance of the ancestors in some selected african poems. it x-rays the omnipresence statue the poets confer on them. it is appropriate to prefix the research attempt with a literary theory that will elucidate thecontextual and metaphorical interpretations that the poems will proffer. magical realism as a literary theory is considered germane. this is because it incorporates elements of thesupernatural which the ancestors are. the most profound work on this topic to my mind remainsthat of chanady who in her famous book, magical realism and fantastic: resolved versusunresolved antinomy, details some fundamental principles of magical realism theory as anenriching platform for critical discourse of art that certainly includes poetry. the most importantof these for me is her view that this concept is “characterized first of all by two conflicting, butautonomously coherent perspectives… the acceptance of the supernatural as a part of everydayreality (18)”. it is this view that the ancestors, who are supernatural, are part of the everydayexistence of the africans that has influenced the worldview of the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 nwagbara 90 african poets who havepicked these entities as the epicenter of their poetic narratives. thus, it is the presence of theancestral motif in some selected african poems that is the bulwark of this paper. a survey of the poet and his ancestors in selected african poems among the poets of african descent who have shown tremendous lineage on the ancestors in their thematic consideration is kofi awoonor. the poet, who was born as george awoonor, abandoned his english name in the tradition of most african writers of his generation like: ngugi wathiong’o and chinua achebe to assert his african-ness. at the time of his death in nairobi, kenya in 2013, he had churned out a sizeable quantum of poetry collections. in some of these poems he affirms that the relationship that exists between the ancestor and the living in africa is without cessation. in his poem “songs of sorrow i and ii,” the poet using several images and symbols, show cases his emotion and frustration at the abandonment of the persona by the ancestors. the persona in this poem represents all africans who hold firmly to the view that the ancestors are alive in their graves. due to his pessimism, the tone of the poem is one of continuous sadness and melancholy. in the tradition of the ewe dirge, the poet through the persona expresses desolation and helplessness as a result of the difficulties the living are experiencing because the ‘omnipresent’ ancestors have abandoned them. this poem is believed by scholars to be a translation of one of the practitioners of the anlo-ewe folklore called akpalu. in my opinion, the narrator cum persona while addressing dzogbasa lisa (one of the gods of the ewe people of ghana) uses various images of lament to describe the difficult moments of his life journey. these are images of hardship that are permanent and dehumanizing “like the chameleon feaces” (nwoga,73). in his lamentation of the abandonment of the ancestors, he bemoans his status of mediocrity and hopelessly believes that such will end in death. using the image of firewood to capture wealth and success, he is of the opinion that those of his lineage with him as a representative cannot be endowed because he is not “in the row with the eminent” (nwoga, 73). also, the acquisition of wealth is not for the lilly hearted people but for men who have the outstanding courage to surmount risks. in consolation, his desire is that everyman should be “happy with (his) fate” (nwoga, 73). to worsen his predicament, his relations who sojourned abroad have come back worse than himself, for they “are back all covered with debt”. even those who have gone abroad in search of greener pastures have been abandoned by the ancestors, thus they come back with liabilities rather than assets. in “song of sorrow ii”, the narrator goes beyond caring for material possessions. he suddenly realizes that death is imminent for all mortals. at his transition from mortality to immortality he has no living kin that would ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 nwagbara 91 perform the rituals that would facilitate his admittance into the class of the ancestors. this is the lamentation of one man left behind to mend the broken fences left behind by his fore bearers. the rituals that include wailing and firing of gun shots will be performed by the living relations of the dead, but the persona laments bitterly that: “i have no sons to fire the gun when i die. and no daughters to wail when i close my mouth… i have no kin and no brother, death has made war upon our house”. (nwoga, 74) the lamentation goes beyond personal loss and extends to the calamity that has befallen the entire “kpeti’s great household”. to him, these misfortunes have come about due to their ancestors who had abdicated their responsibilities to their living off springs. he accuses them directly thus: “let those gone before take note they have treated their off spring badly”. (nwoga, 75) he subsequently sends agosu an elder of the clan who departs shortly an ‘errand’ to these progenitors: “tell them their house is falling and the trees in the fence have been eaten by termites; ask them why they idle there while we suffer and eat sand and the crow and the vulture hover always above our broken fences and strangers walk over our portion”. (nwoga, 75) with the use of extremely pathetic images and symbols that areassociated with desolation, destructionand death. the narrator laments the abandonment of the ancestors which has led to serious sufferings for the living relations. kofi awoonor in this poem has used to fullest the ethos of the ewe dirge folklore to lash at the dead who he believes should watch over the living and help them achieve success and prosperity. for mawuli adjei, the poet expresses in this poem his “loneliness, frustration and anguish” which he voices through the poet – persona. like kofi awoonor, biragodiop the senegalese veterinary doctor has had an awe-inspiring engagement with the theme of the ancestors and historical legends in his poems. as a man who was greatly interested in african folklore, the pervading motif in his poetry is “that of the continuous presence of the ancestors” (nwoga, 229). as one of the pioneers of the famous negritude concept of african literature in conjunction with leopold sedar senghor and leon damas, his style of poetry “was inspired by an earnest ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 nwagbara 92 desire to recreate old tales and to write poems which speak not only of the ancestral heritage of the african, but also deal with ordinary human situations” (senanu and vincent, 67). in ‘vanity’ and ‘viaticum’diop brings to the fore his passion for the progenitors in his discourse of african poetry. in his poem titled ‘vanity’, there is an allusion to the biblical narrative as contained in the book of ecclesiastes where all human activities are considered vacuous. the poet uses this allusion to remind all africans that attempts made at distancing themselves from their roots is alter waste of time and will be highly regrettable. in diop’s thematic handing of the celebration of the ancestors as well as the need to show reverence to african cultural values and tradition, he highlights the grave attitude of the educated africans who due to exposure to western education and mannerism have abandoned their roots. for this action, these elites are bound to be punished by their progenitors. therefore, the lamentation of these africans is imminent. when their wailings and agonies begin, they shall not receive any respite from their forefathers. diop who believes in ancestral worship is of the opinion that: “since we have never listened to their cries, if we weep, gently, gently if we cry roughly of our torments what heart will listen to our clamouring what ear to our sobbing hearts?” (nwoga, 106) in consonance with ancestral worship, the living relations of the dead should offer libation and other sacrifices to their ancestors to make them happy in the world beyond. when this is not done, they in turn will deny their living offspring the protective shield they require in moments of difficulties. diop with the use of subtle humour brings out “the misery of those who forsake their ancestors” (senanu and vincent, 69). with the use of the free verse structural technique, the poet also highlights the mood of condemnation and sarcasm. in the poet’s use of sarcasm, he mocks those who have been blinded by western civilization and by so doing ignore the spiritual importance of their dead relations. the occasional repetition of lines in the poem helps reinforce the mocking humour that is contained in it. for instance, the line “what eyes will watch our large mouths?” (nwoga, 106) is repeated twice in the second stanza. his frequent use of rhetorical questions helps exasperate the agony and defenselessness of those africans who have abandoned their african roots and have therefore not benefited from the wisdom of such an association. diop by giving animate attributes to the ancestors, help sustain their important status. they speak in ‘clumsy voices’ to show that they are partly human. for its only humans who alter audible sounds when they speak. the powerful imageries that are linked to ridicule and rebuke are numerous in the poem. these include: voice of beggars, cry roughly, large mouth, plaintive throats, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 nwagbara 93 sobbing hearts etc. in conclusion, the reading audience of this poem will easily decipher in the entire poem the negative mode of sarcasm, condemnation and finally ridicule. the poem “viaticum” is a poem of sacrificial due diligence where a mother offers a sacrifice to the ancestors for the protection of her son. in this poem, biragodiop departs from the lamentation ethos and focuses attention on ancestral worship. ordinarily the title of the poem has a dual interpretation. it connotes the eucharist administered by a catholic priest on a dying person and also refers to the indigenous african ritual tradition of preparing the youths for growth into adulthood. thus, in this poem of ritualistic performance, diop uses the symbolism of the three pots and three fingers to recreate the concept of the trinity as encapsulated in the catholic doctrine. these same symbols are also used in traditional african religious activities for invocation and magical mythological tradition. the sacrificial performance in this poem is an exercise to prepare a young man for the dangers that are imminent in the journey of life. the spiritual fortification that the individual receives after the sacrifices to the ancestors is enough for him to trudge through the world and in life. the choice of the materials used for the sacrifice is deliberate and instructive. why the choice of blood? what informed the choice of animals to be used for the sacrifice? certainly, blood in any form is a necessary ingredient of ritual atonement. for the christians, jesus christ shed his blood on the calvary, died and rose after the third day to redeem man from eternal damnation. amongst the adherents of the traditional african religions, the blood of animals constitutes a major component of the offerings to the gods. it therefore follows that in any worth ancestral worship like the type performed in this poem, the blood of an animal must be part of it. what therefore informs the choice of animals as in this case can be rooted in the mystical belief of the people. the blood of three animals in this worship is significant. it could be for maximum efficacy. rather than the male character, it’s the mother of the young man who is the chief priest in this sacrifice. in african tradition, more so in a polygamous environment, it’s the duty of every mother to shield her children from the evils of the world, while the man who is the head of the family is pre-occupied with providing the essentials for the household. the choice of the time for this event is significant. it is at night that such traditional events take place and in this case the full appearance of the moon confers a positive mystic endorsement of the exercise. diop in this poem demonstrates an in depth combination of “mysticism, religiosity and ritualism in celebrating the importance of spiritual worship in african tradition. kwesi brew, a ghanaian poet also known as osborne henry in this creative expression, deliberates on issues of utmost concern to the african tradition. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 nwagbara 94 the theme of the ancestors is one of such that is close to his heart. for him the lives of the africans are not complete without reference to the ancestral component of their spiritual being. it is in this context that brew in the poem “ancestral faces” discusses the accustomed behaviour of the ancestors to constantly sneak into the lives of living relations to find out if their conducts have deviated from the traditions they left behind. for it is expected of the ancestors in the african cosmology to provide shields from dangers for their off springs. therefore, their supervisory duties over the living include sneaking into their daily lives to be assured that the living have not abandoned the cultural batons the ancestors have handed over to them. in “ancestral faces”, the invisible persona observes the ancestors sneak into a funeral ceremony and watch the traditional rites being performed for the dead. the title of the poem points to more than one ancestor. it is a lineage of ancestors who have come on this journey to observe this rite of passage for the dead. this half human and half spirit of a persona pay close attention to and describe vividly the revered actions of these ancestors. the poet uses the narrative of this eye witness to indict the actions of the living human beings. in the course of this rite of passage, the ancestors begin to take cognizance of the various items of this ritual engagement. these items which include: brass bells, sacrificial sheep and talking drum and the sacrifices offered with them should impress these spirit beings. but they are not. they must however accept the dead into their fold despite the short comings of this ancestral worship. the narrator however shows the frustrations of these ancestors in the negative attributes associated with the items used for this sacrifice. this frustration and disenchantment begins from the inception of the poem where they cannot deaden the sound emanating from “the gay jingling brass bells on the frothy necks of the sacrificial sheep”. the “rust on the ancient stateswords” further demonstrates the disgust associated with the entire process. these living off-springs do not help matters with their foreign dress codes and mannerisms which are alien to the culture of the people. out of extreme disgust the ancestors observed that their living relations “have not changed”. perhaps they expect better conducts from these children of theirs. of note is the poet’s use of the plural forms of the pronouns and traditional images in the poem. the frequent use of the pluralpronominal like: they, their and them, is the poet’s way of showing the numeracy of the ancestors. despite their large number, they hold the same opinion on issues of ancestral worship. the use of traditional imageries shows that this is a typical african experience. the choice of the traditional materials is also deliberate. in the typical akan tradition, a sacrificial sheep, brass bells, drums and cowries perform different roles to achieve the desired effects and acceptance in a process like this. the poet uses the symbolic expression of “white locust through the forest” to show the awesome presence of the ancestors. the “rust ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 nwagbara 95 on the ancient state – sword” is the poet’s show of anger of the dead over the paucity of the rite of passage taking place here. finally, the tone of this poem is that of anger. the language of this poem is past tense to indicate a narrative that supposedly took place in the past. the poet utilizes one stanza and one full stop punctuation mark from the beginning of the poem to the end to create a pace that is racy. the height of the frustration and anger of the ancestors is shown with the exclamation mark that ends the poem. the poet uses the narrative technique of an omnipresence persona who possesses the ability to observe a supernatural event between the dead ancestors and the relations they left behind. this technique however differs from the technique adopted by kofi awoonor in “songs of sorrow i and ii” whose persona cum narrator is an off-spring of the dead who is lamenting the abandonment of their fore bearers. conclusion in conclusion therefore, these poets have confirmed the opinions of the western, african and oriental religious adherents that there is the influence the ancestors exert in the lives of the living that cannot be wished away. also, the poets through the personas in these poems have ascribed a larger than life status on these spirit beings. the opinions of the religious people therefore tally with that of the characters in the poems. of note is that these poets have used these poems to discuss the fundamental spiritual ethos of the africansregardless of their nationalities, religion creeds or western education. they have shown the universality of theeminent position the ancestors occupy in the african cosmic reality. theancestors as shown in these poems display characteristics that are not confined to only one tribe or nation. works cited abanuka, bartholomew. a new essay on african philosophy. enugu: snaap press (nig) ltd, 2012. adjei, mawuli. “looking death in the eye: the human condition, morbidity and mortality in kofi awoonor’s poetry” in politics and social justice, africa literature today, vol. 32, hebn published plc, ibadan: 2015. awoonor, kofi. “songs of sorrow i and ii” in donatusnwoga ed. west african verse: an anthology. essex: longman, 2000. brew, kwesi. “ancestral faces” in wole soyinka ed. poems of black africa. heinemann, 1988. chanady, a.b. magical realism and the fantastic: resolved versus unresolved antinomy. london: garland publishing, 1985. durkeim david emile. the elementary forms of religions life. oxford: oxford university press, 2008. diop, birago. “vanity” in donatusnwoga, ed. west african verse: an anthology. essex: longman, 2000. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 nwagbara 96 …. “viaticum” in donatusnwoga, ed. west african verse: an anthology. essex: longman, 2000. gehman, richard. african traditional religion in the light of the bible.bukuru, plateau state: african christian textbooks 2001. ninian, smart.the religious experience of mankind. new york: charles scribner and sons, 1969. njoku, francis. essays in african philosophy, thought and theology. enugu: snaap press ltd, 2002. nwoga, donatusibe. west african verse: an anthology. essex: longman, 2000. onwuliri, joshua okechukwu. classical african indigenous religious thought.owerri: tonyben publishers, 2011. quarcoopome, t.n.o. west african tradition religion. ibadan: african university press, 1987. senanu. k.e. and vincent .t. (ed). a selection of african poetry. essex: longman, 2005. turaki, yusufu. christianity and african gods: a method in theology.narobi: ibs africa, 1999. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 110 the wretched of the earth: investigating the lethal consequences of environmental abuse and exploitation in ifeoma okoye’s the fourth world chike okoye, phd department of english language & literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: okpilimbem@gmail.com & chisom loretta asika department of english language & literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: chisomasika18@gmail.com abstract environment refers to the totality surrounding a substance or a person's existence and the way they relate to the world. it is no longer news that our environment is under pillage and constant abuse, a situation that has not only become worrisome but threatening too. this has also made ecological issue one of the most discussed issues in recent times as man sits on a ticking bomb due to constant exploitation and abuse of the environment. as expected, writers, both african writers and writers elsewhere have all taken turn to explore, capture and treat the problems of exploitation as it affects society. this paper investigates the lethal consequences of environmental abuse and exploitation not just on the environment but on individuals as fictitiously but conscientiously explored in ifeoma okoye’s the fourth world. the crux of the argument in this study is that the problems of environment transcend from physical ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 111 pollution to other social problems that pollute the lives of individuals, thwart their desired lives and dreams and at the long run contribute to an unhealthy society. with eco-criticism as theoretical anchor, the study concludes on how these occurrences proved pivotal in altering the lives of the citizens, with society at the receiving end of it all. keywords: environment, exploitation, degradation, pollution, abuse, poverty introduction it is no longer news that the earth and its treasure base is experiencing a siege from all aspects of human endeavours ranging from misuses, and degradation of environment, which have become so easily spotted and there are disruptions every day, and almost everywhere. other instances abound making environmental concern one of the most discussed global issues around the world today. environmental degradation has been recognized by many critics, scholars, individuals, international organizations as one of the major threats facing the planet, as man’s activities continue to compromise and bastardize his environment in such as alarming rate that it has not only become disheartening and dehumanizing but unhealthy and threatening too. exploitation on the other hand, is the action or fact of treating someone unfairly in order to benefit from their works. it can also mean the use of natural resources for economic growth, sometimes with a negative connotation accompanied by environmental degradation. writers, both of the african writer and others from elsewhere have all taken turn to explore, capture and treat the problems of exploitation as it affects society. as opines by william slaymaker: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 112 black african critics and writers have traditionally embraced nature writing, land issues and landscape themes that are pertinent to national and local cultural claims and that also functions as pastoral reminiscences or even projections of a golden age when many of the environmental evils resulting from colonialism and the exploitation of indigenous resources have been remediated. a review of any number of bibliographies, literary histories, and anthologies of black african literature and criticism in the past several decades will bear out this intense interest in the local recapture of a violated nature. (echoing others, 683) to paraphrase ikechukwu asika, man’s exploitation of his environment for economic and political gain is to these writers one of man’s effort to undermine the value and quality of better life and to destroy it by its greed and excess ambition. just like man is free, nature ought to be free in other for both to achieve the complimentarity and symbiotic relationship expected for each survival and comfortable existence (poetry and social activism, 43) thus, environmental literature has been in the increase overtime as writers and scholars have continued to see the need to use the medium of writing and literature to project the cause of man and his environment. it is the glaring fact that stems the interest of this study to investigate the other shades, and human side of the environmental abuse and exploitation as situated in ifeoma okoye’s the fourth world. ecocriticism as theoretical anchor ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 113 by analogy, as anne dobie reveals, ecocriticism is concerned with the relationship between literature and environment or how man’s relationship with his physical environment is reflected in literature. it is credited to william rueckert who used it in his 1978 essay, literature and ecology: an experiment in ecocriticism in which he showed the pertinent relationship between ecological ideas and the study of literature. (238) ann dobie draws out the conceptual underpinnings around ecocriticism as a theoretical anchor as outlined by glotfelty. the three analogous patterns of glotfelty reveal the underlying basis which ecocritics have found useful in their engagement, which is also part of what informed the choice of the theory as the theoretical anchor for this study. one of these, according to her, is an examination of how nature is represented in literature, thereby raising public awareness of attitudes toward the natural world. among the questions to be considered in this first pattern that formed the core of ecocritical discourse are: how is nature affected by human beings in the text, and how are human beings affected by nature? guided by this theory, this study hopes to provide answers to such questions in ifeoma okoye’s the fourth world as core aspects of ecocriticism as theoretical anchor. environmental abuse and its aftermaths in ifeoma okoye’s the fourth world ifeoma okoye is one of the environmental friendly writers in nigeria whose literary work has continued to beam the light and form the matrix of environmental discourse from a literary viewpoint. her novel, the fourth world is a masterpiece. the novel narrates the tales of greed, injustice, incompetence, corruption, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 114 insecurity, exploitation, discrimination, bad government and lots of myriads of issues affecting the nation. a journey through the wellpaved path of the fourth world is as interesting as it is thought provoking. as ernest emenyonu supports: the fourth world is peopled by the true ‘wretched of the earth,’ who squat in shanties, slums, and unsightly make shift abodes under the bridges day and night in both developed and developing worlds. they are the homeless who have no place to lay their heads in both the most affluent and not –so-affluent nations of the modern world. if full view of the billionaires in the advanced world, they feed off discarded left-overs in garbage containers. the inhabitants of the fourth world wear a badge of common identitypoverty which is their common denominator. they cross all racial boundaries and are not restricted by gender, tongue or clime… (vi) the kasanga avenue, is a main street of kasanga settlement otherwise known as the fourth world or urban jungle and captures a vivid picture of hardship and continuous suffering, an environment of flooding, darkness, where there is no direct access to public transport and there is also no electricity because the residents were poor and could not bribe the electricity officials (odinye, 2018). the narrator explains that the residents had to walk for forty minutes on average to get to the four o’ clock market, from where they could take a transport to any other part of the town. the market was the residents’ only link to the rest of the enugu and civilization (okoye 103). one of the characters worthy of focus in our study of the impact of the environment on characters in the novel is chira. chira is the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 115 protagonist in ifeoma okoye’s the fourth world. through chira and the lenses of other characters, the full impact and effect of environmental abuse, not just on the environment but on the characters comes to full glare. in the novel, through the depiction of the writer, we learn that chira is an intelligent, hardworking and softhearted young woman whose ambition is to rise above her deprived background by acquiring a good education. this was her dream and she struggles to acquire it until the death of her father truncates her education even before she finishes secondary school and places on her young shoulders the heavy burden of having to look after her ailing mother who will no longer do anything for herself. the loss of chira’s father is fingered as the chief cause of the several problems the character faced and encountered in the course of the novel. like earlier stated, it cost her education and exposed her to the challenges of taking care of her sick mother and siblings at a very tender age. this is not devoid of external factors and consequences as many men willingly wished to exploit the situation to their often selfish interest. the death of chira’s father proves pivotal in navigating the ship of chira’s destiny to an opposite direction. one would wonder what the environment got to do with the death of chira’s father which invariably affected her. the answer is not farfetched. the environmental abuse and degradation is seen in the novel as a contributing factor that catalyzed the death of chira’s father. the main hospital, the government owned hospital where akalaka, chira’s father was admitted clearly depicts environmental degradation. the environment of the main hospital is strictly dirty. the drainages are blocked and thus breed mosquitoes which declare war on patients and people who take care of them. the writer captures this thus: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 116 the mosquitoes hiding in the blocked drains in the hospital premises resurfaced in their hundreds in search of human blood. they declared war on chira. she hated them, their bites made her skin itch and if she dared scratch the spots, she ended up with tiny blisters that left black scars when they healed. she had been nicknamed ‘patch leg’ at primary school because of the hundred of mosquitoes’ bites scars on her leg. (fourth world, 34) it is sad to realize on paper that the government of kasanga claims to spend billions of naira in providing healthcare facilities and drugs, yet the masses have no access to them. the hospital is poorly managed to a point that you go outside the hospital to get some things needed for your treatment. this situation is not only an aberration but a crime against the collective wellbeing of individuals in society. despite the taxes, revenues and allocations received by the government, the people have nothing to show for it except a forsaken environment where a death trap is erected in the name of a government hospital. hence, the nonchalant attitude of the health care givers and government, the negligence and abuse of the hospital environment led to the death of many patients, including akalaka, chira’s father who later becomes a victim of the vicious circle of decay and hypocrisy. the situation in the hospital is so bad that even the mortuary is not functional, so chira is asked to transfer her father's corpse to another mortuary as the one in the hospital is not "working properly'. if she does not comply, the corpse "...will turn to rotten meat in twenty four hours..." if left in their own mortuary (fourth world, 63). in the novel, fourth world, the author exposes us to a very troubling situation as we are meant to see how the problems of environment, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 117 in several ways contribute to the plight of the teeming population as is the clear case of the inhabitants of kasanga in the novel. the citizens only depend on their hard work to survive the various shades of hardship posed by fate, government, nature and the environment. chira lives with her parents in a ''tiny room with its minimal ventilation and perpetually leaking roof... no conveniences" (fourth world, 29) in kasanga avenue located in the most neglected and filthiest part of town, the flood rampage has created deep gutters that have merged with the road in a way that it is difficult to differentiate the road from the gutters. consequently, residents wade through dangerous expanse of surging muddy water which causes many deaths as they are continuously being carried away by flood. during the rainy seasons, residents stay in their precarious houses to avoid being drowned like those who died in one of the floods named the 'great floods'. it was a tragedy that would have been averted if, according to a journalist, the "government was alive to its responsibilities" (fourth world, 147). indeed, the novel presents vividly the various forms of environment abuses and exploitation and how it affects characters, mostly the female folks. in the novel, we see how chira and her mother, kodili resort to doing menial jobs to survive. they plait women’s hair under a tree near the market since they could not afford to rent a shop at the four o’clock market. in depicting the above experiences, okoye raises a growing concern for the poor who find comfort and shield under a tree to eke out a living; but yet the same environment that tries at some point to give shelter to the down trodden and lower classes in society is destroyed by the government in a deliberate deforestation with no plan to replant new trees and arrest the ecological menace taking over the world (odinye, 2018). the concerns of the government and the owners of the means of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 118 production is to erect new building and business centers that will ensure steady economic boom with no concern about the women whose source of livelihood is temporary cut short and the environment they destroy. the trees are cut down and by so doing, these women’s temporary place of trade is destroyed and the business badly affected. they have to find new shades and new places to set up which takes time and limit business. all these are problems the women have to endure. in mama egodi’s words to chira, she says: they razed everything to the ground. that tree under which you set to plait women’s hair, the mechanic shops, nearby the stalls, the kiosks, all were razed to the ground kpatakpata… a rich man that bought the place is going to build a big hotel or something there. (fourth world, 144) the above act depicts landscape pollution which is viewed in this novel as one of the damaging problems of the society. the rich disregard, exploit and manipulate the poor who are defenseless because they are wealthy. even when the environment begins to fight back, these rich men are well protected from it all in their airconditioned mansions and solid buildings. this action only worsens the already unstable life of the residents, as the affected people are sent back to homelessness and a market of unemployment. more so, the federal government tends to neglect such areas like kasanga avenue abandoning them to perish in such slums and abandoned areas. if those areas were strictly planned and developed by the government, there won’t be a problem when it rains. whenever it rains in these areas, it was very unwise to come out and even after the rain; kasanga avenue becomes a dirt dump for anyone who cares to see. these are dirt and refuge gathered from various parts of the town and emptied in the kasanga avenue since ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 119 it is the way the avenue was planned and the flood cannot help it but to frustrate the inhabitants further. this is as the writer depicts: only a few of the residents were able to find standing or sitting space on the narrow strip of land between the shanty and the wide gutter in from of it. the rest stood on the street across the gutter. it had rained earlier in the day and as usual the gutters, overwhelmed by the flood water, had distributed their filth contents all over the area, leaving the much behind as the water returned to its normal level (fourth world, 59). the above extract is to show the height of environmental decay that was seen in kasanga avenue. looking at the effect of such environment to kids and the people living in kasanga avenue, it could cause a deadly ailment or untimely death because of the kind of environment that they were exposed to. chira many times wonders if the avenue is a cursed place for those who committed some serious crime against their nature, if not she wonders what fate confines her to the dungeon of a place that seem to be the very replica of hell on earth. chira once laments thus: …as a small girl, she had played with her friends around the deep gutters, often retrieving form them discarded items like empty plastic bottles and cans and selling these treasures to dealers. these days the mere sight of the slimy, greenish scum that floated on the surface of the gutters made her cringe as if someone had emptied a can of mucky and wriggly worms all over her… she had come to see kasanga avenue as a cursed place, as a place where people had been deprived of good education, good health, good jobs and basic amenities; where they were ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 120 deprived of dignity and honour. a place where people’s toil would never bring any improvement to their lives. (fourth world, 84) the above excerpt shows the level of poverty and decay in the fourth world. the dirty environment of kasanga avenue takes toll in their lives. the environmental decay did not just end with their environment but also their lives because the living condition of the people is nothing to write home about. people suffer from hunger and need. begging was a normal thing in the ‘the fourth world’ of kassaga avenue. mana egodi’s children, egodi, and donatus, who lived in the kasanga avenue and was greatly loved be chira, are killed by a racing lorry as they tried to cross obiagu street. they were coming back from hawking bananas. their death shocked the entire kasanga community. though some blamed mama egodi for such evil that befell her, the truth still remains that poverty made that possible. if they do not hawk, they will not eat or even go to school and it is the business that claimed the lives of these children. this is the kind of miserable life that was obtainable in that avenue and mama egodi is in no way meant to be blamed for the fate of her children. the government should rather be blamed for not providing a good living condition for the poor. the negligence of these children is capable of triggering some negative actions from these children which is unhealthy to any growing and developing society. another good example of the effect of environment degradation is death resulting from the excess flooding and rain. the inhabitants of kasanga has not only their poverty and desolate environment long abandoned by the government to contend with, they have nature to combat with in the form of rainfall that flood the entire avenue, carrying away roofs and windows and at some occasions, human beings which is common in kasanga avenue whenever it rains. this is possible because the government has failed to provide the needed ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 121 drainage system and canals that could channel and have taken care of the menacing effect of the rain. it is sad and heart wrenching for one to try to picture the fate of these citizens trapped in a ghetto with no visible escape route. the writer depicts chira in one of the occasions it rained heavily thus: she watched the flood cascade down kasanga avenue like a mountain river. the deep gutters and the road had fused into a dangerous expanse of surging muddy water, not a soul was in sight. all had taken refuge in their precarious shacks. the year before, a small girl and an elderly woman, both residents of the avenue, had perished in the great floods of kasanga avenue, as the press had named the annual deluge. (fourth world, 146) it is excruciating to realize that people from ‘the fourth world’ of kasanga avenue perish yearly from the unplanned building and over flooding which actually can be avoided if necessary measures are taken by the government. the journalist indicts the government and attributes the deplorable living condition in kasanga avenue to bad and insensitive leadership. in the end, chira is dispossessed of the family land that could have funded her education, and her request for a loan from her best friend’s father is turned down, with her ambition temporarily tucked away. chira later finds a job. her salary is meager but she must somehow manage it to support the household and pay for her mother’s medical treatment and inconsiderate demands. as chira and her mother are about to be thrown out of their shanty for nonpayment of rent, a possible savior arrives in the shape of maks, a wealthy but shadowy businessman. he covers the family debts and proposes marriage to chira. chira is torn between marrying this ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 122 strange, possessive man and holding on to her dreamto continue her education and make something of herself, a pursuit she is sure this marriage will deny her. chira’s eternal desire to be educated and self-reliant, her humiliating encounters with the wealthy people that cross her path, the disturbing traits she discovers in maks, and his inexplicable behavior the first time she visits him-all combine to make her seriously question the wisdom of marrying him. she finally makes a decision which is not to marry him but at the same time lost her mother to the cold hands of death because chira could not afford her medical bills and of course maks was no longer willing to help because of chira’s decision not to marry him. we see how the ebbs and tides of time continue to toss chira towards an ‘undesired’ and ‘undeserving’ end all consequences of environmental abuse that does not only shatter characters dreams and ambitions but thwart their collective destinies towards an anti climax. this is a situation that could upturn the much desired harmony and decorum desired for a prosperous and harmonious society. this is in tandem with onyeka iwuchukwu’s conclusion thus: generally, developing societies of the world like asia, africa, and sometimes, south america are referred to as third world countries. ifeoma okoye insists in the fourth world… this fourth world is not located in a specific region or continent, so it has no specific name. it is “…a world whose citizenship is not defined by race, color, geographical location, tongue or creed…the universal world of the poor found everywhere on earth… a world of voiceless humanity, the ignored and despised found in rich as in poor countries….poverty is their unmistakable identity. (fourth world, 266) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 123 ifeoma okoye elaborates fully the impact of environment on characters in various guises which forms the crux of our discourse in this paper. the writer does well to explain the symbolic meaning of ‘the fourth world’, the psychological trauma and mindset of those living in kasanga avenue thus: kasanga avenue was a destroyer of people’s bodies and mind. living there meant not being able to see a doctor because there is no money. it means not having a good job or not having a job at all because of lack of education skill. it meant losing children to illness because of death of clean water, a filth environment and insufficient proper food. kasanga avenue was a maximum security prison for people who had committed the crime of allowing themselves to be born into poverty. (fourth world, 95) the above excerpt shows not just the environmental pollution of the kasanga avenue but also the living condition of the people living there. kasanga avenue presents only misfortunes like akalaka's sickness and death; the death of egodi and donatus who are run down by a truck while hawking banana for their mother; the death of two youths killed by police during a protest march for the death of a girl and a woman in a dreadful flood that ravaged the avenue and others. the residents also contend with police brutality just like the black people did during the now defunct apartheid south africa. kasanga avenue represents the slums and the ghettos of this world where countless residents like akalaka and his wife die because they cannot afford medication. ifeoma okoye presents vivid experiences of people in this world as they suffer gross social injustice in form of segregation, oppression, and exploitation as a result of the political system that empowers the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 124 affluent few and dis-empowers the majority poor (odinye, 2018). the inhabitants of this fourth world struggle for survival in penury and misery amidst overwhelming obstacles to their continued existence. in kasanga avenue, sickness, and preventable deaths are daily occurrences so people hardly experience joy or laughter, only misfortunes, sadness and sorrows. kasanga avenue destroys people so much that they are deprived of "dignity and honour" (fourth world, 104). conclusion the fourth world is a novel that lays bare the difficulties of the masses living in abject poverty. the author made use of a fictitious shanty slum of kasanga avenue in enugu to expose the negligence of environment by the government. kasanga avenue in the novel is a representative of this ‘fourth world’ found in nigeria. the characters in several of their actions and experiences manifest the hazard of poor environment. the novel reveals to us how environmental concerns could change our lives from what we planned to what we may never have bargained for. the crux of the discourse is that poor environment does not only involve health issues, it also causes loss of loved ones, loss of dreams and aspirations, decline in morality among other myriad of losses. environmental issues are rich sources of discomfort which not only thwart people’s lives but affect their destinies and inhibit harmonious social cohesion. to this end, one realizes that the members of this 'fourth world' belong to it not because they are lazy or unintelligent, but because of the type of politics that is practiced which produces bad leaders who places them in that condition. however, the writer condemns their complacency and insists that injustice should be challenged so the neglected residents should not see their ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 125 pitiable situation as their destinies but rather a call to revolt for the better. the characters should not grow content but instead they should, like chira, rebel against oppression and injustice and strive to improve their lives which to okoye, is the only viable way forward. it is to the writer, an inevitable and long overdue struggle, a struggle from the confinements of wretchedness and desolation to a meaningful, progressive and palatable life all geared towards a healthy and progressive society that is bold enough to break away from the limitations and encumbrances of environmental degradation and exploitation. works cited asika, ikechukwu. literary appreciation: a practical demonstration. awka: scoa heritage nig. ltd 2015. print. ---“poetry and social activism: eco-criticism and environmental degradation in tanure ojaide’s delta blues and home songs and peter onwudinjo’s camp fire songs.” madonna journal of english and literary studies (majels) volume 2, number 3, 2012. print. asika, ikechukwu and madu, bridget. “eurocentrism and the african flora and fauna: an eco-critical discourse of obinkaram echewa’s the land’s lord.” european journal of english language, linguistics and literature. volume 2 number 1, 2015. print. bagu, philip. “literature and enviromental degradation in nigeria: lessons from isidore okpewho’s tides” journal of nigerian english and literature. vol 8, june, 2010. print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 126 dobie, anne. theory into practice: an introduction to literary criticism. usa: wadsworth, 2012. iwuchukwu, onyeka. “the other face of apartheid: ifeoma okoye’s the fourth world and festus iyayi’s violence” africology: the journal o pan african studies. vol ii, no. 4. noun, 2018. odinye, ifeoma. “discrimination and class oppression: an example of ifeoma okoye’s the fourth world.” ujah volume 19 no.1, 2018. print. okoye, ifeoma. the fourth world. enugu: the rising people’s press, 2013. print. slaymaker william. “ecoing the other(s): the call of global green and slack african responses,” african literature: an anthology of criticism and theory. ed. ato quayson and olaniyan tejumola. usa: blackwell publishing ltd, 2007. print. uchechukwu, joseph. “poverty as a thematic concern in ifeoma okoye’s the fourth world and festus iyayi’s violence. an unpublished seminar paper presented to the department of english, coou, igbariam, in partial fulfillment for the award of masters of arts degree in english. april, 2019. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okunrobo 116 challenging gender stereotypes and patriarchy: a womanistreading of akachi adimora-ezeigbo’s trilogy bridget dahunsi okunrobo, phd student affairs division, university of benin, benin city email: bridgetdahunsi@gmail.com abstract the need to correct the misrepresentation and distortion of the image of women gave impetus to women’s writing. however, with the emergence of women’s writings arises a major challenge of finding an acceptable theory for analysing these writings. there are many epistemological positions in which these women’s writings may be situated, these include, feminism, african feminism, black feminism, stiwanism, motherism, africana womanism and so on. while the application of feminism makes these african women works far removed from their socio-cultural milieu, others like black feminism has failed to adequately address the need for an african-centred framework for these works. africana womanism appears to be a more appropriate paradigm from which these works may be theorized. the womanist theory as expounded by clenora hudson-weems showcases the unique african qualities of the african woman. this paper explores the relevance and suitability of the africana womanist theory to akachi adimora-ezeigbo’s the last of the strong ones, house of symbols and children of the eagle. it argues that the projection and exaltation of these womanist ethics through her female characters enables the author to reconstruct the image of the african women. it is also a strategy for challenging and subverting those stereotypical perceptions about the african woman that had held sway in male authored works. keywords: gender stereotypes, patriarchy, womanism, feminism introduction gender stereotype is the attribution of character traits, behaviours and social roles to men and women in society. women suffer most as a result of gender stereotypes, because often time positive characteristics are attributed to men whereas negative ones are attributed to women and this implies subtle gender inequality, sexism, and discrimination against women. defining gender stereotypes, the advisory committee on equal opportunities for women and men: opinion on “breaking gender stereotypes in the media” states: it is important to address the fact that gender stereotypes not only contribute to the status quo in terms of women’s and men’s roles, but also promote an asymmetrical vision of women and men in society. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okunrobo 117 furthermore, they are one of the most persistent causes of inequality between women and men in all spheres and at all stages of life, influencing their choices in education, professional and private life. (6) gender stereotyping is the frame on which patriarchal ideas are perpetuated and for long it has informed the portrayal of male and female characters in literary works. writers, especially male authors, portray the african society from a patriarchal perspective where women are in subordination. by so doing, these male writers try to conform to patriarchal ideologies as well as the old and stale traditional gender roles which perceive men as superior and women inferior. chinyere grace okafor succinctly notes, “when malecentred views of society are projected on to literature, and imbibed by the readership, the ideas become endemic…” (83). these ideas become internalized by even women. o. ogede rightly points out, “some women have come to accept the male stereotypical assumptions about themselves”(107). in the same vein shamaila haleem argues: “the way characters are portrayed in a story matters a lot in the sense that the traits associated with these characters become generalizations afterwards and these characters are then always seen from that specified angle” (56). such depiction of men and women often results in continual denigration and discrimination against women. haleem argues further: “the portrayal of a male character as a brave, courageous, bold, reserve, confident and rational being, and whereas of a female character as a weak, expressive, shy, submissive, emotional, and irrational beings, sets mind for gender discrimination and division of human characteristics into two separate categories” (56). the need to correct and negate the misrepresentation and distortion of the female personality gave impetus to female writers to produce literary narratives. they have in their concerted efforts challenged stereotypical assumptions about females in a patriarchal society through writing. chikwenye okonjo ogunyemi avers, the women writers address those areas male counterparts left out in pursuing their version of nation and the fight for its realization; remarkably they present their female characters as daughters with inalienable rights to participate in reconstructing the nation as partners, not mere dependents. (4) these women writers place african women experiences at the centre of their narratives. moreover, they realize the need to tell their own story themselves and to establish dignity for womanhood which is very important if the tarnished image of the woman must be restored. modupe kolawole explains this point with a yoruba proverb: “owo l’afi ntun iwa ara enise (meaning, you have to establish your dignity yourself and not leave it to others)” (26). to these female writers, writing becomes a tool for self-liberation, selfajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okunrobo 118 preservation, self-expression, self-assertion, self-naming and for presenting their feminist’s/womanist’s ideologies. through their writings they disprove the negative perception of the women folk. akachi adimora-ezeigbo is one of the female writers who have picked up the challenge to reconstruct the image of the african woman through writing. the emergence of these female writings brought about the need for an appropriate and acceptable theoretical framework for their analysis. there are many varying epistemological positions in which these writings maybe situated. feminism, a western paradigm is one of the pioneering paradigm to which these works have been subjected. but this feminist criticism with its varying strands (liberal feminism, radical feminism, social feminism and so on) tends to be too aggressive, confrontational and antagonistic. for these reasons most african women in general do not identify with the concept in its entirety nor accept the tag, ‘feminist’. it appears to have been formed by white women for their specific needs and desires. africa has her own peculiar norms and traditions which are entirely different from the western culture. the need for african-centred paradigm and theoretical framework led to the emergence of different faces of feminism. terms like womanism, motherism, stiwanism, and so on were coined by those who dissociated themselves from the feminist tag. amongst these conceptual frameworks africana womanism as expounded by clenora hudson-weems seems to be an appropriate theory for the analysis of the nigerian women writings. this paper attempts to explore the relevance and suitability of africana womanist theory to akachi adimora-ezeigbo’s the last of the strong ones, house of symbols and children of the eagle. it argues that consciously or unconsciously, adimoraezeigbo has projected africana womanist qualities through her female characters as strategy for challenging patriarchal notions, gender stereotypes, and stereotypical perceptions about the african woman. africana womanism womanism is an afro centric concept and ideology which focuses on the experiences and the emancipation of, not just black women, but all people from all forms of oppression. womanism shares with feminism the feature of emancipation of the woman from oppression but it centres on seeking identity for the african woman’s consciousness. it is a platform from which black women and other women of colour, who dissociate themselves from western feminism, are able to express themselves and create their own movement. from its platform, womanist writers call attention to the multiple layer of oppression experienced by black women and women of colour. modupe kolawole enunciates that womanism is the totality of feminine selfexpression, self-retrieval, and self-assertion in positive cultural ways (24). in ogunyemi okonjo’s view, “womanism is a global ideology for african women which embraces and celebrates racial, gender, class and cultural ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okunrobo 119 consciousness” (qtd in kolawole, 24). womanism is therefore a new paradigm which offers an alternative model to all forms of feminism. according to clenora hudson-weems “africana womanism is an ideology created and designed for all women of african descent. it is grounded in african culture, and therefore, it necessarily focuses on the unique experiences, struggles, needs, and desires of africana women” (24). she aptly summarises this brand of womanism thus: critical to understanding and appreciating the africana woman is recognizing her common 18 features: (1) a self-namer (2) a selfdefiner, (3) family-centered, (4) genuine in sisterhood, (5) strong, (6) in concert with male in struggle, (7) whole, (8) authentic, (9) a flexible role player, (10) respected, (11) recognized, (12) spiritual, (13) male compatible, (14) respectful of elders, (15) adaptable, (16) ambitious, (17) mothering and (18) nurturing. (143) hudson-weems by these tenets demonstrates a valid portrait of the african woman. the theory challenges the preconceived ideas about african women and their lives. adimora-ezeigbo, in her novels, dismantles stereotypes and rewrites women into relevant and prominent positions in society. she does not reject the feminist tag per se rather she accepts it with reluctance. she does not agree with the confrontational nature of the radical western brand of feminism. in a conversation with henry akubuiro she states, “i don’t believe in confrontation and unnecessary aggression or one being opinionated about everything”. she explains further that feminism in the africa sense, is not aggressive, quarrelling or fighting for superiority – it just wants women to rise and be empowered. in another discussion with isiguzo destiny, she notes, “my kind of feminism is nigeria centred. it is different from feminism as it operates in the west and therefore our own brand of feminism is inclusive.” all these add up to reveal that although she does not reject the ‘feminist’ tag, because feminism is a theoretical and methodological legitimacy in the academy, and also because it is the starting point for theorizing the female discourse, but she rejects most of its tenets as they do not appeal to the african culture. she proposes her own brand of feminism which she calls “snail-sense feminism”. this brand of feminism she argues, “is not the sluggishness that is being emphasized in this theory, but the snail’s sense (intelligence) to live with its environment with negotiation; it is another way of saying complementarity.” it is clear that this brand of feminism echoes male compatibility, one of the eighteen descriptors, hudson-weems presents in her explication of africana womanism. adimora-ezeigbo sees womanism as a more embracive theory than feminism. according to her, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okunrobo 120 that’s a more popular brand of feminism because womanism is all embracive. it includes both men and women and children. it advocates for the wellbeing of men, women and children. it is not exclusive. you see nigerian women believe that we need our men just as they need us. (an interview with isiguzo destiny, march 27, 2015) the novels, the last of the strong ones (lso), house of symbols (hos) and children of the eagle (coe) are interrelated. a survey of the characters reveals that the author gives much space to female characters’ experiences. contrary to the stereotypical portrayal of women as docile, inactive, passive and mute, she re-writes the stories of women by exhibiting and exalting those distinctive features of the african woman through her female characters. africana womanism in adimora-ezeigbo’s trilogy the tenets that africana womanist is a self-namer and self-definer are demonstrated by adimora-ezeigbo through the naming of her central character. names are very significant in the african society because they confer on individuals distinct identities. kolawole observes, “self-naming is very central to african world-view. in many african cultures, naming almost assumes a sacred status… a stranger cannot be allowed to name the child” (26). the central character in house of symbols and children of the eagle is “eaglewoman” or “eagle” as her husband fondly calls her. by ascribing such significant name to her female character adimora-ezeigbo equates her with the eagle bird notable for strength, wisdom, and sharp sightedness. james tsaaior rightly observes: “eaglewoman has the strength and courage of the eagle that enables her to confront the retrogressive, oppressive and repressive traditional practices of male-dominated umuga society that is exploitative and discriminatory against women” (170). she names and defines her african woman who she presents as a model in the novels. right from the onset, this character exhibits the qualities of the eagle which are in tandem with the africana womanist unique characteristics. again tsaaior argues, “in the novel, the eagle iconology writes woman into prominence within social structures and appropriates the agency of eagle which is exclusively associated with men” (171). thus to be named “eaglewoman”, which accords females with dignity, courage and greatness within a patriarchal system, adimora-ezeigbo deliberately transfers these male attributes, to her female and shows that these traits are not gender-specific. she confirms hudsonweems’ tenet that the african woman is a self-namer. in the course of characterisation she uses affirmative and attributive adjectives to project the womanist characteristics of her heroine. she also employs stylistic techniques, such as apposition and figurative language, to reconstruct the image and identity of the african woman and to dismantle chauvinistic ideology which has held sway in some male authors’ writing in the past. for ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okunrobo 121 instance in the novels she uses igbo appositives or praise names to eulogise her heroines. below are examples: ejimnaka, you are the graceful palm tree of umuga. (lso, 77) ejimnaka, … lioness that leads the pack. (lso, 7) daughter of ezeukwu – the wise one, the thundering tigress of umuga. (lso, 7) enyiwayi elephantwoman (hos, 103) “agunwayi-leopardess” (coe, 45) eaglewoman is a solid rock that gathers moss. (hos, 99) she chooses avian metaphors to name her heroines. the terms ‘lioness’, ‘leopardess’, ‘tigress’, ‘eagle’, and ‘elephantwoman’ as used in these narratives are avian metaphors. with these, she metaphorically equates the strength of her heroines with that of these animals that are of great significance in the igbo society. as mentioned above, adimora-ezeigbos’s complementarity echoes hudsonweems’ tenet that the africana womanist is male compatible. whereas feminism advocates separation of man and woman, if marriage is not working out, complementarity and compatibility are committed to the survival and unity of man and woman. the depiction of stable relationships like that of obiatu and ejimnaka, josaih (osai) and eaglewoman, afam and nnenne are examples. adimora-ezeigbo expresses the need for men and women to work toward an interdependent relationship. she acknowledges the fact that there are difficulties and challenges inherent in marriages but maintains that through negotiation, compromise and reconciliation in marital relationships the union can be kept stable. in african society lesbianism, homosexuality, and divorce are never options as obtained in western feminism. marriage is an important institution that is highly esteemed. men are not regarded as problems that must be outsmart rather it is believed that a woman needs a man to be complete and vice versa. ngozi ezenwa-ohaeto notes that in igbo land “it (marriage) is an avenue instituted by culture for self-fulfilment and actualization for women. it is the only source of prestige and honour for them” (24). she argues further that some igbo proverbs “makes it explicitly clear that the woman cannot be appreciated in isolation from her husband, her achievement in the society notwithstanding” (25). adimora-ezeigbo depicts an example of a typical african woman in the character, ogonna in children of the eagle. she rejects the suggestion of a divorce in the face of serious challenges in her marriage rather she chooses to stay and make the marriage work for the sake of the children. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okunrobo 122 mothering and nurturing are other ethics that africana womanist is committed to. safoura salami-boukari notes that in african society in general having a child is so significant that it determines a married woman’s real womanhood as a child bearer and the degree of her social status (120). in contrast to western feminist paradigm that views motherhood as enslavement, the african woman does not dread the responsibility of mothering and nurturing children. she sees herself as a mother to her children and to all humanity. this is why she accommodates, mothers, and nurtures not only her biological children but other children kept in her care. in the african context, mothering is dissociated from purely biological connotation. it extends to include anyone, whether female or male, old or young, with or without children who can act as or engage in mothering of a child. adimora-ezeigbo demonstrates this cherished responsibility through her female characters. for instance in the last of the strong ones, aziagba, a woman of great courage, defies the tradition of umuga, in the face of much condemnations and abuses, to save, shelter and raise her twin children. in house of symbols, eaglewoman sacrifices her time and resources to bring up her children. her mothering extends to other children kept in her care. she brings up lois like her own daughter. the narrator tells: “lois occupies a special place in her heart… eaglewoman loves her as if she were her flesh and blood” (121). as a mother, she exudes genuine love to all her children such that obioma refuses to go on with an abortion plan when she was impregnated by an unknown soldier. instead she shares the burden with her mother and as expected, abortion is never contemplated; rather eaglewoman becomes surrogate mother to the baby. the african society sees the loss of motherhood as loss of womanhood because of the value it places on mothering/motherhood. if a married woman is unfortunate to be childless or has only female children she faces a lot of criticism, trouble and trauma both in her home and in the society as if she is the maker of children. ezenwa-ohaeto observes that the case of such woman is worse and that she “stands to lose her prestige, because she has failed in her all-important obligations: reproduction” (25). in the words of charles fouchingong “a barren woman is stigmatized, considered a social misfit and invites the wrath of her family and society” (135). barrenness and its untold consequences are common themes in nigerian female writers’ narratives. adimora-ezeigbo narrates how eaglewoman’s marriage comes closely to a collapse because of delay in childbearing. she is referred to as an ‘okenkwu’, meaning ‘a male palm tree which is sterile.’ in the last of the strong ones, iwuchukwu, chieme’s husband blatantly tells her “you are not a woman”, because she could not bear children. similarly, in chimamanda adichie’s half of a yellow sun, olanna’s mother-in-law tells her, “he (odenigbo) will not marry an abnormal woman, unless you kill me first.” (124). olanna here is ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okunrobo 123 referred to as an ‘abnormal woman’ because she could not bear a child for odenigbo. in emecheta’s the joy of motherhood, nnu ego suffers in her first marriage which eventually collapses because she could not bear any child for amatokwu while she remains married to nnaife and puts up with ‘his crude ways and ugly appearance’ for just one reason she could bear him children. family centeredness is another quality of africana womanist. one of the characteristics of family centeredness in african society is mutual sharing in the joy and pain of one another. contrary to western belief in individuality, the african woman believes in oneness in the family both nuclear and extended. adimora-ezeigbo exemplifies this centrality of the family as the bedrock for societal survival in the african culture. for instance, when eaglewoman had her son, members of the extended family were around to celebrate and share their joy. when she loses the child and mourns her mother and other members of the extended family mourn with her. another instance is when obioma reports that she has been impregnated. every member of the family shares the problem with her. the narrator notes that the sound of eaglewoman’s cry when she heard the news reverberated in the whole house, drawing almost the entire family to the room. she tells further: “soon everyone was infected with weeping”. eaglewoman is intelligent enough to come up with a secret plan which the family adopts and “were all of one mind” (house of symbols, 241-242). adimora-ezeigbo also reveals eaglewoman’s commitment to the survival of her family even in the face of many challenges. the triumph of the okwara family over patriarchy hinges on the oneness they share. the narrative in the last of the strong ones clearly illustrates the tenet that african women are in concert with male in their struggle. in this narrative adimora-ezeigbo depicts the centrality of women in the core of umuga traditional existence before the coming of kosiri (the white man). the narrator tells how four daughters of umuga – ejimnaka, onyekaozuru, chieme and chibuka – through their activism become members of “obuofo” (custodians of the ancestral staff, ofo), which is largely a male prerogative. these women fully participate in the struggle against kosiri and later share in the pains and sufferings of their men as both men and women are forced into exile after the war. the narrator reveals the various challenges these women have to confront in their struggle against patriarchal system before the coming of kosiri. when strangers invade their land they are not passive observers; rather they actively join forces with men in the struggle. ejimnaka supports her husband, obiatu, when he is indebted. she sacrifices her business capital to save him from embarrassment. eaglewoman also supports the husband, osai, to acquire wealth. the african woman is ambitious as hudson-weems notes in her tenets. adimora-ezeigbo buttresses this fact by the depiction of female characters ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okunrobo 124 that are hard-working, self-confident, and industrious. they play active roles that contribute to the shaping of social processes. through their industriousness these characters set themselves free from patriarchal domination. they are socially and economically empowered such that they assist the less privileged in their communities. for instance, eaglewoman pays hospital bills for diribe to have his scrotum disease removed. she also helps a woman, akuchukwu, with a loan to start a trade. in efuru, the author depicts a similar act of benevolence as efuru pays hospital bill for ogea’s father and an old woman in her community. the character, chieme is another example of an ambitious african woman. she suffers rejection from her husband because she is childless. when she realizes that her childlessness is no fault of hers she puts the challenge behind her and forges ahead with her life. the narrator tells us of her ambition thus: “my desire was to be the best chanter not only in umuga but also in the towns far and near” (the last of the strong ones, 82). she accumulates much wealth and makes a name in her profession. she is also conferred with the title, omesarannaya – the one who brought fame to her father. the african woman is of a great strength. carrying pregnancy and birthing children are few situations where she showcases her strength. contrary to the western ideas of avoidance of childbirth, she prides herself on her ability to birth children with little or no assistance. for instance, eaglewoman, in labour pains dashes to a nearby maternity without a hint to her husband. she is delivered of a baby boy and few minutes afterwards she tells the midwife: “i feel strong enough to go home tomorrow” (191). buchi emecheta in the joy of motherhood gives similar accounts of nnu ego birthing children with the assistance of a friend or a neighbour in her house. the vivid depiction of these scenes illustrates the fact that the african woman possesses an inherent strength which helps her go through childbearing over and over again. her strength is also exhibited in her ability to cater for the family, does the household chores, and goes to farm or market with baby strapped on her back. adimora-ezeigbo narrates how eaglewoman rises up early to attend to her businesses as well as the household chores daily. unfortunately these responsibilities are usually invisible or considered insignificant. the actions of the daughters of eaglewoman, in children of the eagle, disprove the notion that only men are courageous or strong to defend the family. ogunano ezeala commends the action of these women and notes that “they acted like men.” their action being compared to that of “men” stems from the belief that only men are courageous. but it is a known fact that they actually act as women because these women use their sense to negotiate for peace, which according ezeala: “is much better than strive.” men would have resorted to exchange of blows. before now pa joel tells eaglewoman: “you should rejoice, for your daughters are men. everyone in umuga ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okunrobo 125 knows this. they are cutting-edge children and pillars in the family.” (50) such metaphorical description of these women reveals that they are really brave. they defy fear, the popular female stereotype, and bravely confront headlong the strange creature that visits their house at night. they soon discover that the creature is a bull from a shrine in another village and not the spirit of their father as alleged by the community. the relationship between eaglewoman and titi odeyemi exemplifies the belief that africana womanist is genuine in sisterhood. titi did not only teach eaglewoman how to bake bread and run a business outfit but she is always there to help her in her difficult times. the bond among the daughters of eaglewoman also attests to the fact that the african woman is genuine in sisterhood. adimora-ezeigbo also demonstrates that the africa woman is spiritual as claimed by hudson-weems. this idea is evident in the character of chieme who seeks help from idemmiri in her predicament. she only becomes satisfied and accepts her fate after she heard from the priest of idemmiri. the depiction of the characters obioma, a church leader, pastor and an evangelist and ezenwayi, a spiritualist and a prophetess also exemplifies this tenet. ezenwayi plays a significant role in the family of eaglewoman. it is her summons, guidance and counsel to osai and eaglewoman that lead to nnenne walking at the age of two. at another time eaglewoman seeks her help when osai is seriously ill. through these characters adimora-ezeigbo reveals the spirituality of the modern african woman. however, she warns against extremity as observed in osai’s encounter with a man who calls himself jesus of ikot abasi, an encounter that almost broke his marriage. conclusion this paper has examined the theory of africana womanism in relation to akachi adimora-ezeigbo’s trilogy the last of the strong ones, house of symbols and children of the eagle. it has proved that most of the tenets of the theory apply to the female characters in the novels. the female characters exude such qualities as family centeredness, male compatibility, in concert with males in their struggle, spirituality, ambitious, genuine in sisterhood, mothering and nurturing. this shows that the theory of africana womanism is highly suitable to the study of most nigerian female writings in general and these novels in particular. this paper has also revealed that adimora-ezeigbo reconstructed the image of the african woman by exalting the qualities of the africana womanist in her female characters. this is a strategy for subverting stereotypes and patriarchal notions that had held sway in male authored works and in society. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okunrobo 126 works cited adichie, chimamanda ngozi. half of a yellow sun. lagos: farafina, 2006. print. adimora-ezeigbo, akachi. children of the eagle. lagos: vista books, 2002. print. -.house of symbols. lagos: lantern books, 2005. print. -. the last of the strong ones. lagos: vista books, 1996. print. advisory committee on equal opportunities for women and men opinion on “breaking gender stereotypes in the media” european commission employment, social affairs and equal opportunities. (2010). akubuiro, henry. feminism is about empowerment not aggression – akachi ezeigbo. the sun news, voice of the nation, august 5, 2012 emecheta, buchi. the joys of motherhood. ibadan: heinemann, 2004. print. ezenwa-ohaeto, ngozi. “linguistic predetermination of conjugal status of igbo women” unizik journal of arts and humanities (ujah) awka: faculty of arts, nnamdi azikiwe university. 14. 1 (2013). print. fonchingong, charles c. “unbending narratives in african literature.” journal of international women’s studies, 8.1 (2006) 135-147 print. haleem, shamaila. “challenging gender stereotypes: a text analysis of qaisra shehraz’s novel the holy woman.” international proceedings of economics development and research (ipedr) 74 ( 2014): 56-61 print. hudson-weems, clenora. africana womanism: reclaiming ourselves. 3rd ed. troy, mi: bedford publishers, 1993. print. isiguzo, destiny. “my kind of feminism is nigerian centred – akachi ezeigbo”. http://nationalonline/net/new. march 27, 2015. assessed 20th september 2016. kolawole, mary e. modupe. womanism and africa consciousness. trenton: africa world press, inc. 1997. print ogede, o. o. “counters to male domination: images of pain in igbo women’s songs”. research in african literature: special issue – women as oral artists 25 (4), (1994): 105-120. ogunyemi, chikwenye okonjo and tuzyline jita allan. twelve best books by african women: critical readings. ohio university research in international study. african series no. 88. (2009). print. okafor, chinyere grace. “rewriting popular myths of female subordination: selected stories by theodora adimora-ezeigbo and may ideoma nwoye.” writing african women: gender, popular culture and literature in west africa. ed stephanie newell. london: zed books. 1997. print. salami-boukari, safoura. african literature: gender discourse, religious values, and the african worldview. african heritage press (2012). print. http://nationalonline/net/new ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okunrobo 127 tsaaior, james tar. “the significance of avian metaphors in akachi adimora-ezeigbo’s children of the eagle”, kunapipi, 29(2),2007. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 1 aberration of norm: a psychoanalytical perspective of homosexuality in ouologuem’s bound to violence prof. ify ogbazi department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: ify.starlady@gmail.com & dr. ifeoma odinye department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: ie.odinye@unizik.edu.ng & maryann raluchukwu mbonu department of english language & literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. email: maryann.mbonu@gmail.com abstract this study investigates the aberration of norm: a psychoanalytical perspective of homosexuality in ouologuem’s bound to violence. this research fills the scholarly gap of exposing the possible causes of homosexuality using freud's psychoanalysis in examining the mental health of the homosexual characters in the selected work. hence, it highlights the psychological defects that pushed them into becoming homosexuals. using freud's theory, it is evident in this study that the homosexual character has undergone a psychological trauma of some sort from his earlier childhood till his adulthood. forced by circumstances, he chooses to indulge in same-sex relationship. he is possessed by the ‘id’ that he completely silences the ‘ego’ and ‘superego’. he activates his survival instincts regardless of what it entails thereby becoming selfcentered ignoring the acceptable norms in the society. keywords: homosexuality, trauma, psychoanalysis, aberration of norm introduction homosexuality is rather a very delicate concept which is handled and spoken of with caution in different african countries today. although this subject is not so new nor unheard of, but it has been found to be suppressed or rather overlooked by majority of our african writers because this supposed 'trending concept' is still given the ‘raised brows' whenever it is mentioned, or written. majority of the people frown with disgust and contempt and regard it as immoral. but, does not discussing it or suppressing it really makes it nonajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 2 existent? the answer is a capital no! for the more people feared or dreaded the subject, the more our people get entangled with it not minding the general view of homosexuality being termed "un-african" because they are not well informed of this idea. but does one's choice of sexuality really have something to do with being an african or not? are people born that way or is it a habit formed or an act learned? what do african writers have to say about this subject? how have they mirrored it? and what does the life of a homosexual character look like in their texts before and after indulging in the act? is it a behaviour one can easily pick and drop at will or is it innate? this study is carried out to reveal the possible causes as well as cure of homosexual lifestyle as represented by an african writer in his work. this helps to give insight on the perception of this concept and its treatment. saidou in his novel, chains as reviewed by dunton (2007). mentions that: he treated homosexuality as pejoratively in his novel as in most african writing: it is singled out as the worst possible course, adopted by kanaan when he has rejected all other forms of human contact…. homosexuality in this text is treated as an aspect of the degenerate transformation wrought on african through its contact with the west. (723) this subject of homosexuality is broad and cuts across different fields of study: psychology, sociology, genetics, bioethics, scripture, moral theology, history, anthropology, human science, philosophy, medical science, anatomy and the likes (orji, 2010). but here, it is treated as “a concept" or "a theme" be it minor or major in some selected literary works. since writers are regarded as revelators and works of art as the mirror through which one views his or her society, therefore, looking at homosexuality from the african writers’ point of view will not be a crime. an african writer is a writer who is from africa, and writes in african language about issues bothering africans and its’ society at large with an attempt to resolving such issues. therefore, can one confidently say that homosexuality has been given the attention it truly deserves by our writers or is the issue not important or bothering africans for it has been kind of sidelined and neglected? this concept is rarely discussed nor welcomed for discussion with open minds with a "twitch" of disgust or abomination earpain subject. daniel vignal comments in an article published in peuples noirs, peuples africains in 1983, as quoted by chris dunton in “wheyting be dat?”: the treatment of homosexuality in african literature” dunton (2007) is of the opinion that: for the majority of (african writers), hemophilia is exclusively a deviation introduced by colonialists or their descendants; by outsiders of all kinds: arabs, french, english, metis, and so on. it is difficult for ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 3 them to conceive that hemophilia might be the act of a black african. (74-75) could the above statement be the major reason why homosexuality is rarely mentioned or even gains two pages in african writings? dunton (2007 qtd. in "wheyting be dat?": the treatment of homosexuality in african literature”) states that: “it is true that the treatment of such relationship between african women would involve more than the transference of the category "homosexual" which is, as has been seen, highly marked term to an african context…”(733). he further states that: a non-schematic treatment of the subject in that context moved, after all, have no need to acknowledge western modes of self-representation. nonetheless, the practice of homosexuality within african society remains an area of experience that has not been granted a history by african writers, but has been greeted; rather with a sustained outburst of silence….an 'official' history has concealed the reluctance of african writers to admit homosexuality into the bonds of a different kind of discussion. (733) from all indications, it is clear that homosexuality is a concept that may never receive full attention because of the stigma it attracts. writers barely give it a line or two in their works and to those that tried discussing it; it is just a monothematic discussion which is never extended and details often being left out and it serves mostly as a sub theme to help in expanding the main subject matter of their works. to africans, as represented by their writers, homosexuality is a concept frowned at, abhorred and stigmatized like in ba's scarlet song, it is clear that being effeminate is a crime. ba (1986) opines thus: in their new neighborhood the couple opposite had a son, a very queer youngster! this fifteen-year-old obstinately refused the company and games of boys of his own age and sought the company and games of little girls! a funny sort of boy this was, who modeled his bearing, drawing speech and activities on those of girls! (69) the mere thought of a boy who is effeminate give the people a chill that they regard him as a waste and useless child whose mother should be considered childless. he is categorized with drunks, criminals and as a disgrace to the mother as well as the society at large, one of the characters yaye khady thought out loud. (ba, 70) the writer presents a pitiable character that attracts the attention and pity of another character in the novel. “yaye khady was sincerely sorry for the mother of this specimen” (ba, 70) more so, in edia apolo (1982) lagos na waa i swear, a short story collection, he explores the erotic possibilities of a homosexual relationship and stigmatizes it as "grossly repulsive, un-african and most unlikely" (44). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 4 in a number of different contexts the colonial situation, the non-colonial state ruled through collision with western advisers; the prison system under apartheid; the situation of some of the african students living in the west; homosexual activities are identified with exploitation, being enabled by money or power relations, and understood to be all the more disturbing because it is alien to african society. like in j. p clark's play, three plays, for example kengide during his communication with ibobo comments; “didn’t you know one white man will go to bed with anothereven in preference to a woman?.... how do you think they keep sane in their great barracks and boarding schools? why, ado’s and holy fathers do it on their boys” (clark, 127). in response to these assumptions ibobo is repulsed and feels contempt. clark further suggests; “that’s beastly. even the goat that does it with its mother will not take another he-goat from behind” (clark, 127). from the above statement, one can clearly say that such act is not even considered in africa that even a goat is well behaved than people indulging in such beastly act. culturally, it is considered “animalistic or beastly”. it is more than evident that homosexuality is regarded as one of the colonial predicament on africans. this subject is treated as alien and to some extent suppressed and sidelined. this study therefore, concentrates on the fictional african homosexual character created by ouologuem in his work bound to violence elaborating on the psychological, physical and emotional factors that exposed the character to homosexuality and with huge consequences. this research adopts freud’s psychoanalysis in interpreting the character’s psychological abnormalities leading to unacceptable lifestyle. psychoanalysis (freud’s personality theory) as theoretical anchor there are many theories which may be applied to this study, but this research uses psychoanalytical literary theory of sigmund freud. it is one of the theories from which gay, lesbian and queer theory is derived. in line with this, american psychoanalytic association believed that psychoanalysis is based on the concept that individuals are unaware of the many factors that cause their behaviour and emotions. these unconscious factors have the potential to produce unhappiness, which in turn is expressed through a score of distinguishable symptoms, including disturbing personality traits, difficulty in relating to others, or disturbances in self-esteem or general disposition. psychological criticism explores the work of literature basically as “manifestation of the fictional world or indirectly, the state of mind and the structure of personality of the individual author” (abrams and harphan qtd. in odinye, 2018). therefore, psychoanalytical literary theory examines mental processes and is especially suitable for conducting studies of this nature as it can be used in exploring the minds of the characters in order to ascertain the reasons they behave the way they do. this is to say that psychoanalysis is a ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 5 method of understanding mental functioning and the stages of growth and development. it is a general theory of individual human behaviour and experience, and it has both contributed to and been enriched by many other disciplines. in an outline of psychoanalysis, freud (1949) explains the principal tenets on which psychoanalytic theory is based. he begins with an explanation of the three forces of the psychical apparatus the id, the ego, and the superego (1419). “the id has the quality of being unconscious and contains everything that is inherited, everything that is present at birth, and the instincts" (freud, 14). the ego has the quality of being conscious and is responsible for controlling the demands of the id and of the instincts, becoming aware of stimuli, and serving as a link between the id and the external world. in addition, "the ego responds to stimulation by either adaptation or flight, regulates activity, and strives to achieve pleasure and avoid unpleasure" (freud, 14-15). finally, the superego, whose demands are managed by the id, "is responsible for the limitation of satisfactions and represents the influence of others, such as parents, teachers, and role models, as well as the impact of racial, societal, and cultural traditions" (freud, 15). freud states that the instincts are the ultimate cause of all behaviour. the two basic instincts are eros (love/desire for life) and thanatos (the destructive or death instinct). the purpose of eros is "to establish and preserve unity through relationships. on the other hand, the purpose of the death instinct is to undo connections and unity via destruction" (freud, 18). the two instincts can either "operate against each other through repulsion or combine with each other through attraction" (freud, 19). freud relied heavily on observations and case studies of his patients when he formed his theory of personality development. kendra cherry in the conscious and the structure of the mind observes that “psychoanalyst sigmund freud believed that behaviour and personality derive from the constant and unique interaction of conflicting psychological forces that operate at three different levels of awareness: the preconscious, the conscious, and the unconscious” (9). freud (1949) in an outline of psychoanalysis further contends that sexual life begins with manifestations that present themselves soon after birth (23). the four main phases in sexual development are the oral phase, the sadistic-anal phase, the phallic phase, and the genital phase, and each phase is characterized by specific occurrences. in the genital phase which is the final stage, the sexual function is completely organized and the coordination of sexual urge towards pleasure is completed. errors occurring in the development of the sexual function result in homosexuality and sexual perversions, according to (freud, 27). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 6 on the other hand, some studies indicate that environmental factors can be involved in persons becoming homosexuals. stanton l. jones and, mark a. yarhouse state in homosexuality: usrcmd, the origins of homosexuality are not clearly understood by scientists, and the topic is a subject of hot debate. theories and empirical studies, which often contrast sharply, abound. the theories about the etiology of homosexuality fall into two very large categories: theories that point to nature that is, biological variables and theories that point to nurture that is, the influence of experience, of psychological variables. (52) despite many psychological studies which indicate that the parent-child relationship, early childhood development, early homosexual experiences, and childhood abuse foster homosexuality, liberals tend to reject the environmental aspect, and favour a biological influence. this is then used to render homosexuals to be slaves to genes, and justified in acting it out. that homosexuality is affected by environment and nurture has been the historical secular position. in 1980 work, overcoming homosexuality, robert kronemeyer stressed that with rare exceptions, homosexuality is neither inherited nor the result of some glandular disturbance or the scrambling of genes or chromosomes. homosexuals are made, not born that way. he firmly believes that homosexuality is a learned response to early painful experiences and that it can be unlearned. for those homosexuals who are unhappy with their life and find effective therapy, it is curable. psychoanalytical perspective of the homosexual character in ouologuem’s bound to violence this novel resembles a historical account of a fictional african empire nakem. this is the account of the sufferings of the negros before and during colonization. this african empire, nakem suffers in the hands of its noble chiefs that are supposed to protect their interests; then in the hands of arab slavers before the european/french colonists. the writer establishes the opinion that the empire suffers simply because its’ supposed protectors, the noble chiefs are greedy and self-centered that they only look out for themselves and their families to the detriment of the empire they are to protect. if the chiefs do not give away their people, then the arab slavers as well as the colonists will fail in their mission to enslave the negros. the children of these lowly servants are to be used to please the french masters instead of sending the children of the nobles to french schools, they send the children of the servants in place of their children; “after that saif decided that only the sons of the servant class would be constrained to undergo french education, the masses of the missionaries, and the baptism of the white fathers, to adopt french dress and shave their heads, while their parents would be ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 7 obliged to make amends and swear secrecy” (bound to violence, 46). this is the community raymond spartacus kassoumi is born in. tambira gives birth to quintuplets and they are baptized christianly: raymond spartacus kassoumi the eldest of the quintuplets, jean sans-terre kassoumi, anna-kadidia kassoumi, rene-descartes kassoumi, and rene-caille kassoumi-at saif’s instigation. lots of violence goes on in this community and these children grow in the midst of violence, deaths and danger just like spartacus who is traumatized with the experience of an explosion (bound to violence, 71). torture, sex, and killing are as raw as they could be and such community is not suitable for bringing up children. spartacus is the only one that succeeds academically amongst his siblings. his childhood is rough and sad (bound to violence, 125). he often feels alone, unloved and rejected because other servants spare nothing in teasing him and making mockery of his slow nature and academic success but in reality, they were envious of him and the possible greater future that awaits him (bound to violence, 132-134). tambira in an attempt to secure her children’s future went to dougouli to perform prayers and meets her tragic end. after her death, her children even face more hard time from the co-servants as well as schoolmates. spartacus is mocked by his classmates as motherless. he is the most affected of this misfortune. raymond’s life is not so easy because of mockery but then his academic success impresses the saif so much that he considers him his property. he orders for him to be engaged to tata the only girl that comes close to him when everyone is against him just to ensure he will return from paris after studies (bound to violence, 135-136).while in france, raymond spartacus kassoumi is fascinated and he fails to perform well in his last year in school. this makes him feel humiliated. he finally succeeds after retaking his exam for the third time; drunk with success, he arranges with a few classmates to go out somewhere for a good time after dinner that same evening. his attempt to celebrate his victory with his friends ruined his life forever. kassoumi and his friends went to a place dripping with the smell of women’s flesh. all six of them went for an all-out orgy swallowing their four months savings. raymond after much sex and drink gets to talk with one of the girls who inquired if he knows raymond spartacus kassoumi. only for him to discover the lady he has been having sex with is his own blood sister one of the quintuplets kadidia. she tells him about the death of his fiancée, who is accused by the saif of knowing too much, his father has been sold to slavery and is shipped south to dalbard where the workers are constantly drugged with dabali and women so they work without pay but his father is constantly flogged for refusing women but goes missing probably killed or resold, his two brothers jean and rené are drugged by the saif for disobeying the notables and they run mad later. all these happen in three ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 8 months of his departure; kadidia is impregnated but lost the child to hunger and whoring. the writer tells us: she was sitting there beside him, he had possessed her, he had been drunk with her body as she with his, brother and sister. and very softly, for fear one of his friends should overhear him, kassoumi moaned: “oh god! oh god! oh god! . . .” for a moment her eyes were clouded with remorse, and she stammered: “it’s my fault, isn’t it?”… but kassoumi said brusquely: “so she’s dead, they’ve been drugged, and he’s been sold!” “yes.” “my fiancée, our brothers, our father!” all four in three months; during the rainy season….then suddenly he stiffened, jumped to his feet, and started to bellow and to knock his head against the wall, smashing the mirror to bits. then he took two steps and collapsed with his face to the floor. he writhed and cursed, pounded the floor with his body, his head, his teeth, and whimpered so pitifully that he seemed to be dying…. (bound to violence, 145, 146-147) raymond’s life changes forever but that is not the worst. after a week, he returns and discovers that his only sister has been killed! he feels more alone and loses interest in his studies; this makes him lose his scholarship but he minds not as he feels no need to be successful. all has been lost and his inspirations to be successful are all gone now. the writer tells us: a week later raymond, taking advantage of sunday to visit his sister, was told that a sadistic customer had concealed a razor blade in the soap on kadidia’s bidet and that in washing herself she had cut herself so deeply that the hemorrhage had drained her blood and killed her before help could come. kadidia’s brother lived alone, all alone. he had little heart for study and barely scraped through his second baccalaureate examination…. after several setbacks he had lost his scholarship, but he was so fascinated by his new life that he didn’t worry very much. (bound to violence, 147) sparctacus raymond kassoumi has lost it all. his life has drastically taken a new turn in so little time that he returns to his old tillaberi bentia habits, rising early, taking long walks, eating when he feels if and trying his hands at odd jobs to sustained his life. these incidents of the past rainy season completely altered his life. he develops new habits. having refused to be repatriated, he lives by odd jobs, addressing hundreds of envelopes, trying his hand at bookkeeping, or working at night in the central food market. but at the thought of his failure, of the dead or enslaved members of his family, or of henry, who is still in nakem, his heart begins to pound. when his pipe dream has evaporated, he arises from his wicker chair, sits down on his bed, and spends hours and days thinking about his misery. it is not so much anxiety as a nervous, physical need to nibble at him-self; to kneel down to his narcissism, to glut and intoxicate himself with his despair (bound to violence, 147-148). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 9 but still being a well-trained child, freud’s superego comes in play judging his actions and decisions; he is in awe of doing anything that is morally unjust. he fears immoral earnings and trusts hard work but his situation soon becomes more miserable; “the idea of immoral earnings frightened him, he didn’t dwell on it. to work in a factory as a day laborer was equally impossible. and in less than a month now his situation would be desperate” (bound to violence, 150). his new habit exposes him to a lifestyle he never imagined he will start living in order to survive. raymond meets lambert, a white man at the bar glaring at him; raymond is frightened. again, freud’s personality theory of the presence of ‘ego’ in every individual manifests. the ego being the center person always in check of the ‘id’ to bring balance; it checkmates his desires (eros) and what is just (superego). he does not want scandal and being an african he fears being associated with homosexuality. he abhors what is to come, the superego constantly judging his conscience as a reminder of societal acceptability and the “reality principle” of the egocombats with his eros. he perceives his current reality as a horrible abomination and unethical. the writer tells us: he didn’t take the man’s behaviour amiss, but was afraid of the waitress (who hadn’t noticed the man’s maneuvers) and dreaded the possible consequences. a moment’s misunderstanding could bring disaster: vicious shrieks about homosexuality, insults flying between them like bullets and ricocheting through the room, cruel words that would make their hearts pound, parch their tongues and leave them as weak as water…. the man had touched him, looked at him with such intensity, such assurance, such unabashed emotion that he could have no doubt, but persisted in doubting his own perspicacity, obstinately searching for those five seconds of complicity between them, trying, his memory sharpened by fear, to recapture each and every gesture. and each new discovery pierced his heart like the sting of a wasp. something strange and terrible was going on inside him, a cold pang, the memory of his misery, of his dead mother amidst the serfs’ feces, a shudder in his limbs and his whole body, as though his bones had suddenly turned to ice….his thoughts wandered as he were going mad…. (bound to violence, 151-152) like freud observed a possible conflict between the three persons in his personality theory, his observation in visible in this character. there is an obvious conflict of choice between his ‘id’, ‘ego’, and ‘superego’. this activates his repression defense mechanism as freud emphasized that the ego has several defense mechanisms that can be activated at the slighted feeling of conflict. he represses his ego (reality principle) and superego (morality and societal acceptance) allowing his ‘eros’ (desire to survive) to take charge. his pleasure principle takes over and his desire to live propels and pushes him into making a life changing decision to embrace the only visible means of surviving. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 10 his human survival instinct is triggered making his resistance to this new dreaded life calling unto him weak therefore he fails to resist. his instinctual desire overtakes him making him to succumb without much resistance-will as the man draws closer. he makes the ultimate choice of living. the writer says: kassoumi withheld his prayers. he had no choice. the man desired him. he had to live…. the student stood up: he had consented to sell himself. his head was bursting, a desperate seed of virginal hope, a shattering of the world order. leaning humbly on his shadow, victorious after many deaths, kassoumi recognized in this tired portrait not so much a secret resemblance to himself as a silent meaning, an ineffable brotherhood of his being with the world’s unhappiness in the face of its gigantic hunger for self-destruction. (bound to violence, 152) the white man continues to pressure raymond kassoumi to completely give into his desire by saying sweet words to him and all. he poses as a bridge between raymond kassoumi and his desires. he represents at that moment, the hope and future raymond kassoumi wishes to have. despite knowing the life he is about to embrace, he appears defenseless for his need to survive is greater than his need to be righteous. to him, it is only but a survival instinct. the writer says: “come,” murmured the white man. “don’t be afraid. i know what it is to be without a woman, what it is to believe in a woman, to belong to a woman and not possess her, to suffer long silences, not to be a man with a woman, and then, instead of love, to know the silent cry of a thirst together….they were under the hypnotic spell of a happiness which savors itself and discovers its uniqueness. (bound to violence, 152-153) raymond kassoumi has his first test of loving another man (as a lover/homosexual) he cannot comprehend it nor explain it. at this point, he is living only his erroneous desires. he is made a new man from that moment on; a rebirth by fire of poverty, loneliness, hunger, lack and need to feel again. he is completely possessed by his desire to survive and keep living. the writer tells us: and soon they went to bed…. in his intoxication he smelled the warm vapors rising from kassoumi’s neck, his body, his loins. …timidly he kissed his partner, whose mouth came to life and returned the kiss. they move closer together…. kassoumi moved, and little by little found himself pressed against the whole length of the smooth body. trembling with impatience, their bodies joined in a mute embrace; languid, feeble, and somehow cool, their hearts hovered in a dream as the minutes died away…. soft moans, sighs of endearment rose to their throats; drunk with the scent mossy softness of their hair, they forgot their sense…. they were no longer man and man, lover and partner, but a creature apart, issued from some strange power of life, apogee of the natural ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 11 order of love, … at this moment a diffident tenderness aroused a surge of gratitude in both of them….they took each other’s hands and kissed each other at length. in slow sips kassoumi, with the wretched look of a beaten dog, drank their fitfully whispered confessions of love, drank them with a gentle pressure of his tongue against his palate as he might have eaten flowers, airy fingered roses. he loved this taste of rose petals when he kissed the man, relishing even the insipid taste of the air in his nostrils…. kassoumi, the son of a slave, the cornered, alienated nigger engaged in being reborn well-born. at the height of his effervescence he rose up to inhabit the long silence of this birth. (bound to violence, 154-155) sparctacus raymond cannot stop himself from coming back over and over again. it becomes his new life and way of living. he even begins to miss his lover when he feels cold and forgets all his anxiety.he no longer cares about his ego; he has completely silenced his superego of differentiating right from wrong as freud’s theory suggests. the writer tells us: . . . he came back the next evening and the next; he came a week, three weeks, six months. and each time after their pairing he knew that once alone in his bath he would sit for long minutes immobile and bolt upright, horror-stricken, his eyes rigid under his half-closed lids…. the next day his feet led him back to his own identity: …finally, on another afternoon of his despair, as he lay motionless, having closed his inner shutters to foil his consuming desire to see too much, he was invaded by a soft, buzzing dizziness and in that moment he knew how much he needed this white man, his warmth, his loneliness, how necessary it was for him to lose himself in his lover. (bound to violence, 157) lambert becomes his support and strength. this man who has only but desired a woman he never had. lambert, who supports him from then on, is a man of ample independent means, the natural son of a strasbourg, the only woman, he had ever desired is troubled, fascinated, attracted, frightened, yet she arouses him but to him she is a one-time courtesan and virgin (bound to violence, 157). with lambert’s support, kossoumi restarts his life again. now he has a house to live in and go back to studying and his success gives him back his scholarship (bound to violence, 157-158). kassoumi becomes comfortable in his new life which is short lived for about eighteen months. their affair lasted eighteen months only before lambert wishes to fulfill his dying mother’s last wish of getting married. this shattered kassoumi; he feels abandoned again and he is unable to contain his fear of being homeless and lonely again. this fear activates his displacement defense mechanism forcing him to takeout his anger and frustration on lambert in a socially unacceptable way. he tries to escape his current reality by running out to an unknown destination. the writer tells us: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 12 “my boy, i’ve decided to get married. my mother’s arranged the whole thing. even the announcements. here they are.” they were sitting face to face, hanging on each other’s eyes. for few seconds kassoumi remained motionless, as though reluctant to penetrate the meaning of the other’s words. then a tremor ran through his whole body. his face contracted from his chin to his forehead, his ears went purple, and he roared: “you hypocrite!”… he dashed down the stairs to the desk, in his hurry paid more than he owed, ran out into the street with the desperate haste of a man drowning himself in a river, and under the bewildered eyes of lambert, vanished into a cab. (bound to violence, 158-159) this traumatic experience of being abandoned again, the feeling of betrayal brings raymond sparctacus kassoumi back to reality principle. his ego and superego become fully functional and in control propelling him to achieve greatness by doing things right.after three years of hard work and dedication, he becomes a very successful architecture and brings honour to his people. this new development conforms to the earlier theory of kronemeyer (1980) stating that homosexuality is learned and can be unlearned with the right therapy. trauma becomes raymond’s therapy helping him to unlearn the unhealthy habit picked up in desperate desire to survive. his success story spreads like wildfire amongst his people. the son of kassoumi, raymond restarts a new life; at the same time, in defiance of all saif’s calculations married a french woman. then suddenly, in 1933, the news that the thesis submitted by the “black pearl of french culture” has been accepted burst like a bombshell., for six years kassoumi lives in strasbourg, working in various architects’ offices, keeping up his payment on a house he has built for his mother-in-law and supporting his wife and three children, for suzanne his wife does not work. he experiences war but later returns to his country where he is received and honoured but he never stops living in fear of the tyrant saif. the writer tells us: for three years kassoumi worked. completing a competitive project each month, obtaining ten marks of distinction in each subject for a total of fifty “credits” (not to mention his outside work for architects), he became an “honor” student, a distinction never before attained by an african. …his compatriots came to revere him as a genius of science, culture, and intelligence. at the end of this period he presented his thesis. (bound to violence, 159) conclusion from the psycho-analytical reading done, it is evident that raymond has a difficult upbringing witnessing lots of tragic incidents; an experience which inwardly affects him and stripes him off the desire to fight off everything. he is not born homosexual but his erroneous desire to survive in a wicked world turned him into a homosexual for a period of eighteen months. in spite of his ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 13 superego perception of homosexuality as an abomination and disgusting; his detest for the dreaded lifestyle being un-african, still, his human survival instinct overpowers him and pushes him to making a life sustaining decision; he knows he has to survive somehow and lambert represents survival and gives him sense of belonging again. one may say that his ‘id’ overpowers his ‘superego’, but it is important to recognize that every human has “survival instinct’’ which becomes overpowering at the face of danger or possibility of dying. he fears the society and their criticism but he cannot help but keeps surviving and he lives with his man lover till he is forced into living on his own again. raymond kasoumi once lost to homosexuality is found as he stops being homosexual the moment he feels unwanted and alone because of lambert’s decision to get married in order to honour his dying mother’s last wish. feeling hurt and betrayed he walks out, taking the chance to rebuild his life again and achieves carrier success and later marries a french woman this analysis summarizes the earlier findings of this research which reveals that homosexuality is not a condition that people are born with; rather homosexuality is only a sexual orientation or a habit learned (by some persons) as an instinctive ‘eros’ desire of pleasure principle to combat a traumatic or difficult situation and can be unlearned with therapy. therefore, it is time to stop silencing the subject; instead it should be given the full attention it deserves to curb the waste of lives through homophobia practices. it is time for writers to tell the public the truth about homosexuality not being a disease of some sort or keep dwelling on its’ un-africanism but, a deviation from the norm which some people are forced into. significantly, is we should understand that with lots of love, care, and attention, homosexuals can still be saved and converted to heterosexual lifestyle as they were not born homosexuals but exposed to it at some point knowingly as a desperate measure to resolve desperate situation. homosexuality is a sexual orientation and not a death sentence; therefore should not be treated as such. works cited apolo, edia. lagos na waa i swear. lagos: heritage books, 1982. print. ba, mariama. scarlet song. translated by dorothy s. blair. usa, longman, (1986): pp. 69-70. print. clark-bekederemo, j.p. three plays. ibadan, university press, (2001): p.127. print. cherry kendra the conscious and unconscious mind (the structure of the mind according to freud http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/consciousunco n.htm (accessed 20th september, 2019) dunton, chris. "whetying be dat? the treatment of homosexuality in african literature."“african literatures” the feud, sarifeasmon (1989). london: longman. 1981. print. http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/consciousuncon.htm http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/consciousuncon.htm ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogbazi, odinye & mbonu 14 ….“whetying be dat?”: the treatment of homosexuality in african literature.” african literature: an anthology of criticism and theory.eds.tejumola olaniya and ato quayson. usa: blackwell publishing, (2007): pp.727–733. print. freud, sigmund. “the ego and the id,”in a general selection from the works of sigmund freud. edited by john rickman. garden city, (1957): 38-45. freud, sigmund. an outline of psychoanalysis. new york: norton, 1949. kronemeyer, robert. overcoming homosexuality. new york: macmillan publishing co, (1980): p.7. odinye, ifeoma ezinne. “violence and the girl-child in selected novels of buchi emecheta, yvonne vera, nuruddin farah and ikechukwu asika.” a dissertation presented to the department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university awka, october, 2019. orji, celestine nestor chukwukelue op. “john paul ii’s theology of the body: a framework for insight and refutation of sexual aberrations in our contemporary society.” an essay submitted to the department of theology, dominican institute, ibadan, june, 2010. ouologuem, yambo. bound to violence. translated by manheim ralph. usa: heinemann educational publishers, 1986. print. stanton l. joans. and yarhouse, a. mark. homosexuality: the use of scientific research in the church's moral debate, the rainbow history project. time capsule: mike wallace tells truth about homosexuality in 1967 documentary. cbs, (1967): pp.52-92. vignal, daniel. "l‘homophilie dans le roman negro-africain d‘expression.” peuples noirs, peuples africains. eds.in anglaise and francaise.vol.33, http://mongobeti.arts.uwa.edu.au/issues/ pnpa33_08.html(1983,may-june). accessed in may 21, 2019 http://mongobeti.arts.uwa.edu.au/issues/%20pnpa33_08.html ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 30 maduike & asigbo social awareness and disillusionment in joe ushie’s hillsongs and areign of locust ndidiamaka ndukauba maduike department of english language and literature, school of languages, alvan ikoku federal college of education maktoneps@yahoo.com & prof. alex asigbo department of theatre and film studies nnamdi azikiwe university, awka abstract this paper examines the social awareness created by the poet personae in hill songs and reign of locust. the collections condemn the ills in society such as failure of leadership, bribery and corruption. through the use of imagery and some satirical devices, the reader is reawakened into looking deeper at some of the negative issues taken for granted which hinder the progress of a given society. this study examines the influence of poetry in satirizing vices visible in societies using a sociological approach. keywords: poetry, social awareness, corruption, disillusionment, sociological approach introduction in the poem “pendulum”, the poet looks at a democratic state without democrats whereby the electorates which was used by the image ‘sheep' are courted by the leopard and the hyena’ an imagery for the ruling class, makes frivolous promises that can never be fulfilled. this is what is obtainable in the society we find ourselves. during campaign, the ruling class makes promises, promising heaven on earth for the poor masses but when they ascend into power, they pushed down the ladder from which they have climbed to the top. the next poem, “first october”, is a significant date in the history of nigeria getting their independence. this freedom is seen to be in the hands of the strong. however, before independence, nigerians believed that they can rule themselves without any prejudice and anchor without knowing that the corruption they are fighting against is within the ruling class. they saw the colonial masters as the perpetrators of evil through indirect rule system, when they finally got their independence with the hope that their freedom is at hand, it was then done on them that “we are the killers of ourselves” which is what is happening in the post-colonial era of recess, tyranny, social disorder and disillusionment. the peasants work to bring up the country’s glory with their blood and are paid back by death. they die only for the rich to ride in pleasant and flamboyant cars. the poor, lonely and lofty are sent to war while the rich travel and tour different continents of the world seeking where to dump whatever they have looted from the society in foreign banks. moreover, with the look of things happening in the society, the poor masses are in search of food to live while the president, senators, governors and high placed individuals tour different countries with stolen money. according to the poet, it is their day of boom. while on the side of the poor masses, it is their day of doom, their day of birth (rejoicing) and the masses day of death (pain and anguish) respectively. “the african mosquito” by joe ushie is divided into eight stanzas that concern the niger delta area where the oil explorers drill oil from their land, leaving every night with wells of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 31 maduike & asigbo their oil without minding the underdeveloped state of these areas, thus: every night you drill on my land you pike in my peasant’s earth and you leave with wells of my peasants blood indifferent to the wails and weals you plant every night you sound your horn in the hollow of my ear demanding a graft well or weary, pay i must (ushie, 12) the poet persona continues to lament on the way the oil explorers came at night disturbing the sleep of the citizens. even at their expense, they must pay, the oil companies have to drill the oil with or without their consent but most times without their consent thereby showing the rate of dictatorship we have in our country. these oil companies came initially in a friendly and subtle manner but evil is locked in their minds. the poet calls them ‘african mosquito’, ‘african tyrant of the dark’, though they oppress them now, there is that optimistic believe in the poet’s faith that his sun will beam again. in yet another poem, “the lion” which is a poem of lamentation on the freedom of the masses, their green grass turn yellow due to lack of maintenance or the right nutrients. as the adage goes that where two elephants fight, the grasses suffer. the lion is an image representing the ruling class of the colonial masters that have trampled upon the innocent masses, making their lives miserable and sickly: ... your eyeballs are glowing coal staring at the green grass yellowed by your imperial breath. hunters-surrounded at dawn, dusk meets you unsurrendering (ushie, 17) the poet analyses how a warrior’s dread has been used for food in a coward’s (cripple) pot thereby making mockery of the warrior. those warriors that fought for the war are used to build the nation while those that have nothing about the war have taken the glory. in an optimistic mood, it is only time that will tell. “encounter” is concerned with law enforcement agencies in the society and how bribery and corruption have eaten up the society in which we live in: in fright, i breathed deep into my left pocket and then breathed out and he left taking the law from my hands into his right pocket (ushie, 19) “the spiv’s recipe” also deals on corruption. it looks at how to build up your status with the training into falsehood and theft in order to rule the people. if you are honest, you cannot be a politician because there are sweet coated words that you need to master before addressing the public for you to win. the poet writes thus: remove the still small voice construct a scheme drop in a flame a drop of thought ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 32 maduike & asigbo add a measure of double – talk blend with a dose of bravado garnish with a radiant garment spice it all with thieftaincy titles season with mercedes benz and you have arrived! serve hot in public office sound sweet to every ear ah, we are ready for export! (ushie, 20) moreover, in the poem “hill song”, ushie uses the modal “must” four times. it recurs in the last four stanzas of the poem, one of such instances can be seen in: if i must sing let my song not be on those gourmands whose gourd has dried up the springs of my blood. (ushie, 9) for ushie, poetry is a potent form of rebuke and purification. he therefore, draws a distinction between those who use poetry to support the excesses of government and those who use poetry to reflect and refract the ills in society. unlike other poets, the poet rejects supporting visionless ruler, and he will not be blind to their excesses. the poet sees hope only when his fellow poets, whom he regards as embodying the conscience of the society squarely face their task of reprimanding bad governance in order to confront the screaming metaphor of pain experienced by nigerians. the recurrence of “must” in the poem, supported by the “if’ conditional adverbial clause brings to light the poet’s collectivist orientation. the strategic position given to the adverbial in the subjective shows the link between cause and effect: that the poet’s creation cannot be severed from the on-goings of his society. invariably, the poet activates the deontic modal system and makes a clarion call (a duty, it expresses the poet’s attitude to the degree of obligation that he attaches to the performance of the required action) to nigerians to rise to the occasion of rescuing the dying nation from corruption, sycophancy, hypocrisy and bad leadership. the call, which has an obligatory undertone, urges the masses to rise against the gourmands whose gourd/ has dried up/ the springs of my bloom. in the poem “the hills will rise again”, “will” appears four times. as used here, will in the first instance can be equated with “must”. it carries the tone of certainty and surety as in: the hills will rise again the hills will march again the hills will howl again (ushie, 50) besides its assertive undertone, “will” reveals a humanist, who has a strong conviction as well as fate in mankind. this is also evident in ogbonnaya’s ‘...and pigs shall be house cleaners’ where the modal of certainty and surety (will) occurs four times. unlike ushie, who deploys “will” to assure the masses of better days ahead, ogbonnaya uses his to predict doom for nigerians. most probably, the poet is of the view that since the masses have failed to revolt against the morally decadent rulers, pigs, a metaphor that describes the filth of nigeria politics will certainly hold sway. ogbonnaya seems to believe that social change could come if the marginalized resists the domineering group. moreover, ushie’s use of “shall” in: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 33 maduike & asigbo if i must sing today let my song be on these hills of my birth these silent hills whose sun shall rise again. (ushie, 50) performs similar pragmatic function with “will”. it carries the illocutionary force of assurance and possibility. the poet assures his people of good things to come. it appears the poet believes that in spite of the odds one encounters in one's daily endeavour, one can get better. shall your fall to the hunter’s sling shut the mouth of the forest forever? but “shall” in the above lines works up a different meaning entirely of which ushie invokes epistemically, as it depicts uncertainty, bewilderment and alienation. there is a general reluctance to interpret events and actions. this poem that captures the political tension that enveloped the nigerian nation owing to the annulment of june 1993 presidential election, and the subsequent imprisonment of mko abiola and the assassination of his wife, kudiratabiola, seems too atrophied a situation for the poet to explicate. it explains a person lost in the socio-political quagmire of his country. it describes a citizen, who is unsure of what will happen next, owing to the political disturbance in his country. moreover, the consistent repetition of “will” critically echoes the poet’s consistent effort to make things better and also fulfils the pragmatic function of establishing an implicit comparison and builds a contrast between two apparently conflicting decisions. furthermore, the use of “will” does not refer to a type of modal auxiliary verb; rather it refers to the “will” of the people. the deontic modal employed here functions to reveal the people’s desire to lead a meaningful life, just as the way other people do. apparently, ushie’shill songs is sandwiched between the eclipse of military rule and the emergence of democratic rule. this is seen in “pendulum”: sandwiched between the blood -sucking boots and the sugar -tongued chameleons we know not where to go (ushie, 14) the blood-sucking boots metaphorically refers to the military and the sugar-tongued chameleon a linguistic innovation with associative as well as evaluative connotations that describes the antics of the political class. he uses a narrative procedure that illustrates his humility, warmth and compassion for fellow nigerians, to depict a period that uncalculated socio-political and socio-economic policies and programmes threatened the unity of the nigerian nation. the poet describes an era where “boots” (a metaphor for military tyranny) menacingly “crushed” nigerians. in a similar way, (betebesong, 13) in weka stresses: the power of the writer is not always strong enough to change the political and social situation of his time but his art can become a fighting literature. he can write works that are artistically profound and politically correct: he can write works of indictment and works that show how his world is and could be. (13-18) in ushie’s poem, he directs his contempt at the military forces, their collaborators and agents ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 34 maduike & asigbo of destruction. the poet does this by implying the agent less passive those gods. this has an impersonal and indefinite characteristic, as the poet does not specify who had threatened nigerians to death (dust). the agent -the military forces is recoverable by exophoric reference from the historical context of military dictatorship in nigeria, which lasted for over thirty years. so the poet hinges hope on the emerging democracy. ironically, the politicians like their military counterpart are failing. the recurrent strategizing of “will” creates an argumentative texture, which is achieved by associative moves and the situation of the nigerian people is reinforced by means of reflecting the struggle of the entire nation as can be seen in: from north to south and east to west the hills will rise again each waving a tree as spear each hurling rocks like sling each tracing the streak of stench. (ushie, 50) the poet activates his ideological position by activating linguistic items such as the -ing verbs in waving, hurling and tracing, showing a society that is progressing from passivity to the tendentious questioning of the rulers' excesses. the poet’s extensive and recurrent allusion to the metaphor of “hill” and intonation derived from the use of “will” succeeds in creating a discourse that is effusive and emotional. a reign of locusts by joe ushie is divided into four uneven parts containing fifty-two poems as a whole. unlike his previous books, which stridently make their name and boldly confirmed ushie’s growing reputation based on his eco poetry and nature-dominated concerns, the present collection seeks to explore and explain the recent happenings in nigerian polity through ceaseless allusions and references to such happenings using the overriding metaphor of the locust. but this is not to suggest that the usual obsessive metaphor of a place of origin, of attachment to geography, of the symbolism of the earth, or of the imagery of the homeland is absent in a reign of locusts. most of the time these metaphors and references to nigerian political scene are powerfully substituted with that of vulture, hyena, hawk, tiger, lion, fox, or dragon in order to capture the precise, pervasive image (and indeed the reality) of injustice, extra judicial murder, corruption and all other vices associated with the long reign of military dictatorship in nigeria, and to some extent with the present crop of “civilian dictators”. in the light of this, then, the first part of the collection, “toward canaan” is the most successful. and the first poem in that section, the political “beauty” titled “the african bermuda” represents all these concerns in a miniature way. for it does seek to compare, even contrast, the real bermuda triangle with an imaginary, yet real nigerian/african bermuda. the similarity between the two bermudas is that whatever crosses them banishes without a trace. yet while the real bermuda (in the caribbean) is a geographic/natural phenomenon, that of nigeria is man made because it came into existence through the evil conspiracies, (what ushie calls “triangle”) of the soldier, the politician and the technocrat. the next poem, “night, still” uses the quasi-surreal imagery of night and time (with capital n) to sustain the exploration of nigeria's recent political happenings. here, the poet looks at the ruling class as dogs, crocodiles that feast on human (hewrnan), ushie’s fresh neologisms coining come through with such words as “hewrnan” (human), he like jonathan swift’s “modest proposal” call these ruling class the vultures feasting on their child’s carrion, seeking “softstitutes” (substitutes), which means the substitutes are weak in opinion ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 35 maduike & asigbo and decision making of their society. they must be subtle and humble to any call. the hyena, hawk, tiger, lion, fox and dragon are afraid of their prisoners’ freedom which will amount to their emptiness of their praises. see also the term “compagriots” (compatriots), who are there to take from the masses rather than working for the nation. the nation does not care about the masses, though the masses complain bitterly with wounds on their body and pains in their heart. this is a nation where the blind leads the sighted and the bondsman celebrates his bond age. the ruling class do not care about the decomposing streets meant for the low lives and poor masses while they (politicians and technocrats) ply the highways leaving the streets to decompose. despite the gloom occasioned by the unnatural night of “eight-long tyrants”, the poet sees hope only when his fellow poets, whom he regards as embodying the conscience of the society, squarely face their task of “growing a flower of phrases” with their “swords of words” in order to confront the screaming “metaphors of pain”. the next poem, the historical/allusive “musa’s legacy” traces the root causes of the phenomenon of “african dictatorship” precisely in the supposedly dictatorial reign of mansa musa, the king of the former empire of mali (in the present republic of mali in west africa). while the title poem's inclination is to foreground the plethora of troubles and turmoil, there is still no respite even when we turn to the proverbial prayer as the last resort, for, as the poet says: our spade filled with curses we laid to rest last dusk … darkens the infant rays of our rising sun. now is a rain of locusts in a chewing race, an endless eclipse for the wingless blister your knees at your faith’s prayer ground or they munch down our fences these locusts. (ushie, 13) the poem “ladder” portrays the stairs at which the ruling class used to climb. the masses are the ladder the ruling class use to climb on top but when they climb to the utmost top, they forgot the ladder that helped them to the top. they look down on these masses even when everything is going wrong, “erosion breaks away a universe of the toiling ants below” (human labourers): you look down, oblivious as into a previous incarnation, at the dis-laddered clamberers whose bare backs of skeleton bore the ladder of your ascent you leisure, still, even if the erosion breaks away a universe of the toiling ants below, if the floods steal away the earth. if the eskers raid off the clan, if epidemics swallow the homesteads, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 36 maduike & asigbo if the blades of famine mince the race. (ushie, 18) that is not their business of the day but they should remember as the poet states that it is the same earth that habours the rich and the poor man: but the entrails of the earthworm bear the dung-mix of tallest trees and shortest ones, says silent ant. (ushie, 18) “a reign of locust” typifies the devastating state of destruction of those that believe that they are meant to rule the society but they end up being “a rain of locust”: now is a rain of locust/ in a chewing race/ an endless eclipse for the wingless. the powerless masses are nothing in their hands destroying their houses and fences as what is happening in most states of the federation where houses are demolished in the bid of reconstructing roads. though we need to sacrifice a little today to enjoy more tomorrow but not when jealousy and greed become the order of the day and overrides the government. in another poem in this section titled “the termitarium” which talks about the workers that build empires, palace, shields the majesty but get nothing in return for their labour. their tale (stories) stains the ears and their labourers song saddens the termites, hills, winds, seas and as much saddens itself. the poor citizens (labourers) labour for democracy which is supposed to be a government of the people, for the people and by the people but what did these democrats, politicians and technocrats do nothing, while the electorates (the labourers) fight for the good of the society, forming groups like abn (association for a better nigeria) to bring in “termitarium” (democracy) from the hands of the military regime, the bourgeoisies on the other hand, gain a lot from the military rule through the mamser (mass mobilization for social and economic reconstruction) programme of general ibrahim babangida’s military regime. notwithstanding that these labourerslabour to build empires, sow seed, the military regime are the ones reaping the fruits. the labourers will hunt the game while the military government eats the meal. it is like “monkey dey work, baboo dey chop”. calling the politicians dragon by the poet is not a mistake as he had earlier on stated in his poem “night still”. “homage to the dragon” envisages the hurt and torture the poor masses passed through in the hands of their dictator: now that you feign for us a benign state of your boot prints of your boots’ scars on our brows; now that your bands grope again for the dagger of our yesterdeath; for the dagger of our second death; now i must scream spokesman for the wordless.(ushie, 25) the poet continues to lament on the torture and pain they were undergoing in the hands of the dictators’ reign with their rivers of blood in the school child’s every sleight of hand. moreover, their smiles are more deadly than the pandemic new death. “fixed like love at life’s keyhole’” “and our pillory in every foreign land”. meanwhile, dele giwa is linked to this dragon without the slightest idea nor thought that he will fall in their hands, bringing the battered soldiers, anguished civilians, famished farmers, starving traders, castrated ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 37 maduike & asigbo politicians and others of their kind into prison (ant’s chambers). the poet’s use of oxymoron depicts the frustration and depression that engulf the entire society. in this, the poet creates awareness to the society of what will befall them if they should continue to support the dictators. though they pretend to be innocent of their crimes, their names will never be remembered for good. and though you seek to rhyme your steps with the lambs your name will hang upside down on tongues of tomorrow. (ushie, 23) the poem “homo sappers” is haters of human beings, it is a society devoid of love where human hate fellow human instead of living in harmony with one another, and bestiality becomes the order of the day. the poet uses rhetorical questions in this poem to converge and drive home his meaning. he calls for hewmanity (humanity) fending for the good of the society analyzing that bestiality is inhuman while unbestiality is human. “the exchange” bemoans the less privileged in the society, the pains they have to go through in their lives. the torture from the bonesmith’s hands to mend the shattered leg bone, collapsed shoulder joint and twisted ankle rings a bell of pain in the mind of the wounded. the groaning and cries of the wounded are even heard and felt by nature itself. there is the old and young, fair and dark complexioned, tall and short, male and female waiting in line for mending hands of the bonesmith. while they await their turn, their purse get lean making the bonesmith’s purse to fatten up, while the scrapyard doctor’s purse swell in foreign land far away in europe, the bone mechanic’s patients swell, all these caused by one accident or the other. the same tenor and terse words mark another of the short poems, which takes its title from a cannibal called clifford orji (who was arrested for cannibalism in lagos in 1999). the poem is not a celebration of what orji did or indeed of cannibalism. it is, rather, an indictment of all those who are at the forefront of condemning vices like that of orji while being guilty of even more heinous crimes. another poem in this section, which is similar in tone and style with the previous one, is the aptly titled “the uniform”. it captures the tragedy of nigeria with brevity as it is with absolute certainty about who the real culprits are: they are the devils in whatever kind of uniform, whether bluish or darkish; and they seem to be united by one aim, despite the different colours of their uniform. for all have: the cowed pregnant palms delivering into wolfish trays cobwebbing the land’s path.(ushie, 37) the poems in section two, “back to the hill and vales, are no more than transmutations linguistic and lyrical adaptation/adoption -of popular songs by singers from the obudu region of cross river state, such as the late umali alikpong, (popularly known as angbebishang, of bebuagbong, obudu), atsuakpegah of okambi, obudu, and other poems (at least going by their titles) are derived from oral literature of the region. section three, “voices and moods of the silent wild and other deep matters...” contain the inevitable rain song, “rain season”, the nature-dominated “particle” which highlights the human domestication of nature. there is also the semi-concrete/graphological poem, “tongues”, and the beautifully wrought “sleep” which lyrically foregrounds not only the inevitability of sleep, but its varied, disparate manifestations in our lives; a superb, but brief treatise on the congo music of the same name; and the romantic “season of flower”. section three, “returns” ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 38 maduike & asigbo contains mostly tributes poems. in the end, a reign of locusts establishes further the place of joe ushie in the new nigerian poetry. with varied voices and style the book shows that even when there is a central theme with which a poet like ushie is usually identified, that theme could be realized without an explicit recourse to it. like in his previous collections, joe ushie has demonstrated that a concern for the degradation of the environment is closely linked with the assumption that poets, like all other creative artists, are physically, culturally and metaphorically rooted in specific geographies, and that they strive towards the well-being of those physical and cultural geographies. in this remarkable collection, ushie has shown that when it comes to what (bodunde, 202) calls “the appropriation of the physical environment” -as both subject and object, ushie is a master in portraying the decay in the people’s lives. conclusion the poet examined in this paper is unapologetic about his dealings with the political class and the situation of their society. therefore, these situations and the political class need to be addressed with no measure of indirectness. these are easy poems to read, the poet presents historical facts about the eleven years of democracy in our country, which have been used by the political class to widen the gap between the ruled and the rulers and between the rich and the poor. evidently, in terms of thematic exploration, there is no clearcut dichotomy among the three generations of nigerian poets, but with the new nigerian poet, there is a crystal difference in stylistic rendition and an artistic presentation that resonates with the socio-political complications and difficult situations of their time. this paper stresses the need for more studies on the awareness that the poet tries to create as well as the dislocation and disillusionment faced by the ruled. this is achieved through the use of language and imagery used in nigerian poetry given the fact that language remains an indispensable instrument which individuals depend upon for the expression of their thoughts. the fact is that every writer engages themselves in the act of furthering the cause of the society through their creative utilization of the resource of language. ifejirika notesas ezenwa ohaeto rightly declares that it is the duty of the poet to enlighten the society without fear or favour through their writings. meanwhile, okon states that ushie in the same vogue motivates poets from all nations to rise and save the ruled and poor masses from the hands of their dictators. works cited aboh, romanus. “socio-linguistic innovation in modern poetry”. african journal of new poetry 6. 2009.87-108. achebe, chinua."the novelist as a teacher”. morning yet on creation day. london:heineman, 1975. aja, akpuru. basic conflict, issues and strategies of peace and conflict resolution: nigerian african conflict case studies. enugu: kenya and brother ent. (nig), 2007. besong, bete. literature in the season of the diaspora: notes to the anglophone cameroon writer. weka. bayreuth: african studies, 1993.13-18. dasylva, ademola. songs of odamulugbe.ibadan: kraft books, 2006. dasylva, ademola, and jegedeolantoyin. studies in poetry. ibadan: stirlinhorden publishers, 2006. dobie, b. ann. theory into practice: an introduction to literary criticism. boston: wadsworth, 2012. egya, sule. “art and outrage: a critical survey of recent nigerian poetry in english”. researches in african literature, 2011.49-67. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 39 maduike & asigbo gilbert, helen; tompkins, joanne. (1996)post-colonial drama: theory, practice, politics.routledge,1996. ifejirika, e.e. poetry for social consciousness, criticism and change – a study of selected poems of ezenwa – ohaeto. https://www.ajolinfo/index.php/laligens/article/view/108040., 2014. leavis, f.r. literary criticism, culture and the subject of ‘english: f.rleavis and t.s. eliot. routledge, 2020. mcgregor, sue. critical discourse analysis—a premier. texas web 13 august, 2007. mowarin, macaulay. “pidgin rhetoric in nigerian poetry”. african journal of new poetry 6, 2009.121-140. nengi-ilagha, bina. condolences ibadan: treasure books, 2022. nwachukwu-agbada, j.o.j. “oil, soil and foil: isidoreokpewho’s tidal victim in his niger novel of environment” in madonna journal of english and literary studies[majels] volume 1 ed. obika, nnamdialoy. anambra: abbot books ltd, 2009.1-13. nwizu, chinwendu.a. “exploitation and resistance: the instance of tess onwueme’s then she said it” in the niger delta crisis” in madonna journal of english and literary studies [majels7 volume 1 ed. obika, nnamdialoy. anambra: abbot books ltd, 2009.139151. ogbonnaya, ifeanyi. (2009)...and pigs shall become house cleaners. ibadan: kraft books, 2009. onukaogu, allwell and onyerionwu, ezechi. 21st-century nigerian literature:anintroductory text. ibadan: kraft books, 2009. okon, friday a. politics and the development of modern african poetry. canada: canadian center of science and education, 2013. okpanchi, musa. the eaters of the living. ibadan: kraft book, 2009. okpewho, isidore. tides. london: longman publishers group ltd, 1993. osundare, niyi. (1983) moon songs. ibadan: spectrum books, 1983. scotts, john. (1999-2021) the structure of sociological theory and knowledge. john wiley & sons, inc. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5914.1979.tb00432.x on july 3, 2021. simpson, paul. (1993)language, ideology and point of view. new york: routledge, 1993. tsaaior, james. (2006) “negotiating ‘modern’ african poetry through the kinesis of history”. ibadan journal of english studies 2pp.115-133. ushie, joe. hill songs. ibadan: kraft books limited, 2002. ushie, joe. (2005) “phases in nigerian poetry in english”. the journal of new poetry. 2005.11-25. ushie, joe. (ed) tsunami blues and other poems: nigerians’ tears in verse. morrisville, nc:handel books, 2007. ushie, joe. a reign of locusts. ibadan: kraft books limited, 2010. https://www.ajolinfo/index.php/laligens/article/view/108040 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5914.1979.tb00432.x ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 anyakorah 68 exploring the portrayal of religious extremism in unigwe’s on black sisters’ street nneka miriam anyakorah anambra state internal revenue service, onitsha, anambra civil service commission, anambra state email: anyanne2006@yahoo.co.uk abstract there is hardly any shortage of studies on the problem of religious extremism. however, what most studies on religiously motivated terrorism and armed conflict lack is a balanced view, a perspective which recognizes that islamic religion is not the only religion susceptible to extremism. this is the lacuna which this paper seeks to fill, the exploration of extremism in the context of christianity, a religion which all too often claims to distinguish itself from the acts of extremism often pointed out in islam. using the christian religious setting of chika unigwe’s second novel, on black sisters’ street, the researcher through the lens of postcolonial theory studies the way in which the novel, through the family of brother cyril–ama’s supposed father – represents religious extremism as a menace strangulating the peace and unity of families in post-colonial (post-independence) africa. in detecting and discussing brother cyril’s extremist actions, the paper further employs alex p. schmid’s emi-20, an instrument developed for the detection of extremism using twentyindicators for monitoring extremism. keywords: extremism, rape, emi-20, christianity, fanaticism introduction whereas christian religious extremism is assuredly evident in the writings of african literary writers whose works are set in the colonial african times (for example, ferdinandoyono’s old man and the medal and mongo beti’s poor christ of bomba), these writers’ portrayals of this issue are nothing compared to what is seen in post-colonial literature, a very typical example being that of chikaunigwe’son black sisters’ street. reading the text, a reader can’t help but see the colonial portrayal of religious extremism as a mere herald of things to come in post-colonial africa. what is most worrisome about this situation is that in these post-colonial texts, the white man is no longer the one perpetuating these acts. rather africans themselves are the ones who, in the name of promoting christianity, have become the extremist adherents of creeds and practices which do not actually align with biblical teachings. this sordid fact can only point to one thing: that the christian religious practices and doctrines instituted in africa by the white men could be nothing but a mailto:anyanne2006@yahoo.co.uk ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 anyakorah 69 colonial tool which has the goal of subduing the identity of africans while serving the interest of enriching european economy and identity. it is worthy of note that the representation of “family” is one of the core discursive issues in unigwe’s on black sisters’ street. unigwe uses the image of the family as the building block of society to draw attention to the challenges facing african women, girls and children (the weakest elements of society) and thus the challenges facing africans in general. in the text, the role of the father as the protector of the family, the source of strength and courage for the children, and the source of happiness for the wife, is primarily missing, if not challenged. whereas fathers and husbands are generally perceived as the backbone of the family, unigwe’s on black sisters’ street seems to show that due to the perversion of the christian religion, african men – most especially the extremely religious ones – are increasingly failing in this role, becoming instead a source of psychological torment and anguish for their children and wives. ama’s father who is known as brother cyril in ungiwe’s novel is a good example of such men who, in their pursuit of so-called religious interests, extremely oppress their family. the man can fittingly be described as a religious extremist. but first of all, it is important to understand the meaning of this word by exploring its various contemporary semantic shades. understanding religious extremism: a review of the term one of the definitive elements of african society is religion. from the subsaharan regions of west, east and southern africa to the desert countries of north africa, the african man – whether of black ascendency or of fairskinned arabian descent – is typically a religious man, holding firmly to his belief in, and respect for, god (or, in some cases, a multitude of gods and goddesses). john mbiti puts it this way: “africans are notoriously religious so much so that religion permeates all departments of life so fully that it is not easy or possible always to isolate it” (1). “the individual’s immersion in religious participation,” obaji m. agbiji and ignatius swartassert, “starts before birth and continues after death” (3), such that for the typical african man, “to live is to be caught up in a religious drama” (mbiti, 1). this religious drama extends to all facets of african traditional life; both the universe and practically all human activities in it are not only are seen but also experienced from a religious perspective (agbiji and swart, 3). similarly, nokuzola mndende argues in the context of ritual, saying that in africa, “religion is part of the fibre of society; it is deeply ingrained in social life, and it is impossible to isolate and study it as a distinct phenomenon; therefore, when members of a family clan gather together in a sacrificial ritual for the ancestors, that too is a religious activity”(161). for mbiti, as the religious worldview informs the philosophical understanding of african myths, customs, traditions, beliefs, morals, actions and social relationships, it is almost unthinkable for an african to live without religion (15).in fact, the religious consciousness is so deeply ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 anyakorah 70 ingrained in the typical african person to such an extent that the resort to religion comes automatically in an unconscious process whether they are in danger, in pain, in the moment of ecstasy, joy, or sorrowing at home or in the diaspora (ezra chitando, afe adogame and bolaji bateye 5-7). however, as with every other cultural commodity which is easily abused when in abundance, the preponderance of religious practices in africa has resulted in various forms of abuse, otherwise seen as religious extremism. however, even though islamic religious extremism has been so loud in recent years following the 9/11 new york bombing, it's extremely violent nature does not becloud the extreme tendencies perceivable in most christian religious groups. in the second to sixth chapters of his book when religion becomes evil: five warning signs, charles kimball points out five warning signs of religious extremism as: absolute truth claims, blind obedience, establishing the “ideal” time, the end justifies any means, and declaring holy war. although these do not all apply to every form of extremism seen in christian religious bodies, there is no gainsaying the fact that today’s christianity is itself a religion built on the dogma of absolute truth and blind obedience, with many contemporary pastors and self-ordained bishops always declaring holy spiritual wars against perceived enemies (neighbours and competitors) and expecting their followers to follow without questioning their moves. christian religious extremism, which constitutes the focus of this research, can be clearly detected using emi-20, that is, the twenty indicators for monitoring extremism, which is an instrument which schmid developed from – most importantly – the works of manus i. midlarsky, origins of political extremism: mass violence in the twentieth century and beyond, and astrid bötticher & miroslav mares and others. according to schmid’s emi-20, extremists tend to do most of these twenty things: (i) “situate themselves outside the mainstream and reject the existing social, political or world order.” they even (ii) “seek to overthrow, with the help of a revolutionary vanguard, the political system in order to (re-) establish what they consider the natural order in society – whether this envisaged order be based on race, class, faith, ethnic superiority, or alleged tradition.” similarly, they usually (iii) “are in possession of an ideological programme or action plan aimed at taking and holding communal or state power.” hence, they generally (iv) “reject or, when in power, subvert the liberal-democratic conception of the rule of law; use the political space provided by it to advance their cause in efforts to take state power.” also, they not only (v) “reject universal human rights and show a lack of empathy and disregard for the rights of others” but also (vi) “reject democratic principles based on popular sovereignty.” extremists as well (vii) “reject equal rights for all, especially those of women and minorities;” just as they (viii) “reject diversity and pluralism in favour of their preferred monoajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 anyakorah 71 cultural society, [for example] a worldwide islamic state,” or a colonially christianized africa which is subject to the british empire. furthermore, in order to achieve their goals, extremists (ix) adhere to an endsjustify-the-means philosophy. thus they (x) either actively or inactively “endorse and glorify the use of violence to fight what they consider “evil” and to reach their political objectives (e.g. in the form of jihad)”. corresponding with their endorsement of violent approaches, they (xi) “show a propensity to engage in mass violence against actual and potential enemies when in power or when enjoying impunity.” this propensity speaks of their being (xii) “single-minded (black-or-white) thinkers who want to purify the world and demonise, debase and dehumanise their enemies in hate speech, characterising them as ‘inferior’ and earmarking them, implicitly or explicitly, as expendable.” therefore, as extremists tend to (xiii) “subordinate individual freedoms to collective goals,” they (xiv) “refuse to engage in genuine (as opposed to tactical and temporal) compromises with the other side and ultimately seek to subdue or eliminate the enemy.” they are, as such, (xv) “intolerant to all views other than their own dogma which is expressed in anger, aggressive behaviour and hate speech.” their dogma leads them to (xvi) “exhibit fanaticism, portray themselves as threatened and embrace conspiracy theories without necessarily being irrational in their strategic choices.” more so, they not only (xvii) “exhibit authoritarian, dictatorial or totalitarian traits,” but are equally (xviii) “unwilling to accept criticism, and intimidate and threaten dissenters, heretics and critics with death.” this set of people (xix) “expect obedience to their demands and commands rather than subject[ing] their views and policies to discussion even within their own group.” this is simply because they have (xx) “fixed ideas and closed minds and believe there is only one truth – theirs. in its pursuit, they are often willing to face punishment or even death and sometimes actively seek martyrdom” (schmid, 21-22). in africa, for example, religious extremism has rapidly been on the increase over the past few years. there are said to be many factors that are responsible for the present crisis in africa (somali, nigeria, cameroon, etc.), such as: “poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, discrimination and political/economic marginalization” (muhsin hassan 18). consequently, the adverse effects of colonialism, poverty, unemployment, illiteracy and marginalization have forced many people to join violent and non-violent extremist groups. this is so typically portrayed in chika unigwe’s novel, on black sisters’ street, where we see religious extremism thrive within the family of an assistant pastor whose extremist and unjust positions the wife cannot resist because of her poverty and other socioeconomic circumstances. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 anyakorah 72 brother cyril as an embodiment of religious extremism in on black sisters’ street in on black sisters’ street, ama’s father is the main embodiment and perpetrator of religious extremism. ama’s father—“whom everybody called brother cyril because he was a christian and belonged to a church where everyone was sister and brother” (unigwe, 265) —is not just a member of a church but a member of the echelon, particularly an assistant pastor, in the church. describing him, the omniscient narrator says: “he was an assistant pastor of the church of the twelve apostles of the almighty yahweh, jehovah el shaddai, jehovahjireh, one of the biggest churches in the city. the devil did not belong anywhere near the house of which he was the head” (obss,266). to safeguard this house from what he calls the influence of the devil, he keeps his daughter ama isolated from her friends: her father did not encourage her friends to visit because he said friends sometimes led one astray. when they did come, he told them ama had to study. from the window of her room, ama would watch young girls from the neighbourhood shouting out to one another as they played oga, their feet raising dust as they stamped on the ground. (obss, 255-6) for this, ama resents her father. in her heart, she truly “wished she could crumple up her father and hurl him off the balcony. fling him so far that his face would smash into the hills” (obss256). not only does her father prevent ama from the normal process of socialization (with friends and peers) which a girl needs at her young age, he also prevents her from having an enjoyable life and from experiencing the zest of living by stopping her from listening to the kind of music she enjoys. practically locked up in her father’s house, ama will get so bored that the only friend she can talk to is the pink wall. in the height of her boredom, she has learnt to keep herself entertained by listening to the loud music which, from the record store across the street, blares into the house, “loud, happy voices that trembled the house, making her want to tap and dance” (obss266). sadly for her though, her father would have none of those. ‘they are the devil’s music,’ he said. ‘they do not edify the things of our lord. they are the devil’s music [he insists]. the devil shakes his waist and sways his horns when he hears music like that. he claps his hands and stokes his fire for the many souls that he’s winning. . . . so instead of the kind of music she heard from across the street, ama’s house was infused with music from voices of the cross, the calvary sisters, jesus is savior band, ndiumuazijesu. voices that grated on her nerves. she never thought of telling her father that the voices ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 anyakorah 73 irritated her. she knew what would happen if she did. (obss, 266). but while her father, as the narrator reveals, seems – at least on the surface level –like a man who believes in the maintenance of holiness in their house, seeing everything religious as something to be treasured above human feelings and emotions, it is worthy of note that he is not really an honest, sincere, caring and loving husband and father. bro cyril’s religious strictness and austerity are, in actuality, mere masks that shield what he truly is: an extremist who uses his position as a pastor to commit and cover up his acts of paedophilia, worse still, the rape of his own daughter. although he preaches that “the things of the lord were not to be abused, nor slighted, nor ridiculed,” a man who believes dictates the laws of his house in firm accord with his religious teachings, he is equally a man who is debased, a rapist who continuous to have carnal knowledge of his daughter for many years (from the age of 8 to 11), and who uses harsh and angry words to shut up and control his daughter and wife. describing some of the indicators of extremism, and thus the features of religious extremism, schmid clearly points out thatextremists tend to “subordinate individual freedoms to collective goals” (no. 14 of schmid’s emi-20), they “refuse to engage in genuine (as opposed to tactical and temporal) compromises with the other side and ultimately seek to subdue or eliminate the enemy” (no. 14 of schmid’semi-20). they are, as such, “intolerant to all views other than their own dogma which is expressed in anger, aggressive behaviour and hate speech” (no. 15 of schmid’s emi-20). these are seen clearly in the life of brother cyril who uses aggressive speech and actions against his family in order to perpetually keep ama silent about his raping her. right from ama’s girlhood, his father has devised a means of harshly punishing her in the name of “disciplining” her when she contradicts even his little directives that do not go against moral principles: “her father would put her across his knees and, with her mother watching in a corner, tear into her with a treated koboko, the cow-hide cane that he nicknamed discipline” (obss267). with his cowhide, he is able to keep ama in constant fear and reverence of her, so that – being in acute fear of him – she easily gives whenever she comes to her room at night. speaking about the strategies used by terrorists, in other words, extremists, in the pursuit of their goal, andrew h. kydd and barbara f. walter observe that “terrorism works not simply because it instils fear in target populations, but because it causes governments and individuals to respond in ways that aid the terrorists’ cause” (50). they further make the core argument that since extremists are too weak to impose their will directly by force of arms, “they are sometimes strong enough to persuade audiences to do as they wish by altering the audience’s ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 anyakorah 74 beliefs about such matters as the terrorist’s ability to impose costs (punishments) and their degree of commitment to their cause” (50). similar to the violent extremists, al-qaida and the irish republican army (ira), discussed by kydd and walter, in ama’s case, her father brother cyril uses his constant acts of terror that come in the form of moral discipline to instil fear in his daughter, to make her remain in constant dread of him. as the narrator points out, sometimes when ama thinks of going against her father’s wish, she remembers what the punishment will be, the cow-hide which he will use to flog her to his satisfaction. says the narrator: there was nothing ama feared more than discipline cutting a rawness into her skin that hurt for many days after. discipline also always showed its face when ama disobeyed her parents, because her father was a great believer in “sparing the rod spoils the child.” he even had a wooden tablet with the bible passages alluding to that inscribed in a flourish on it and hung up on the door of ama’s room. “so that you’ll never forget.” (obss,268) while there’s nothing wrong with instilling discipline in a child who errs, brother cyril does not usehis so-called disciplinary measures to correct ama’s delinquency (ama is actually not a delinquent child) but to subdue her spirit into submission to rape. just as kydd and walter have pointed out earlier, the extremists often combine violence with persuasiveness in order to push the government and individuals to give in to their demands. the same is true with ama’s father, during ama’s girlhood, he has devised the means of keeping her subdued using force as well as the citing of biblical passages. whenever he sneaks into ama’s room at night to have sex with her, ama tries to put up a resistance: she would hold her body stiff, muscles tense, as if that would make her wish come true. when she did this, her father would demand, ‘what’s the fifth commandment?’ ‘honor thy father and thy mother,’ she would reply, her voice muffled by the collar of her nightgown in her mouth. and then she would relax her muscles, let him in, and imagine that she was flying high above the room. sometimes she saw herself on the ceiling, looking down at a man who looked like her father and a girl who looked like her. when the pain made this difficult, she bit on her lower lip until it became numb. (obss,275) thus brother cyril is not just a religious extremist who uses several antics to maintain a positive public image but also a core hypocrite who uses the deceitful application of scriptural passages to guilt-trap, and thus force, his daughter ama to allow him rape her. ama remembers that this history of raping and defying her has lasted for several years, starting from her eight birthday up until her first experience of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 anyakorah 75 menstrual flow at the age of eleven (obss,301). relating the first occurrence of this filthy incident, the narrator explains that it has started the night after a big birthday party has been held for the little girl: for ama’s big party, her father, predictably, wore one of his white safari suits... after the guests had gone and ama had been sent to bed certain that this was the happiest day of her entire life, her father floated into her dark room in his white safari suit. ama thought he was a ghost and would have screamed if he had not pre-empted her by covering her mouth with one broad palm and smothering the scream in her throat. with the other hand, he fumbled under her nightdress, a cotton lavender gown with the print of a huge grinning bear. that was the first time it happened. (obss,273-4) it is not just ironical but also symbolical that brother cyril wears white as a symbol of his holiness, and yet wearing this same colour he goes to rape his daughter. his unleashing sexual violence against ama while wearing his white safari suit not only suggests that he does not really have regard for the holiness he claims to represent but also that this seeming holiness is but a garb meant to conceal the fact that he is a wolf in sheep’s clothing. this indeed is a typical feature of extremists: they pretend to be what they are not and using their persuasiveness, they confuse others in order to gain their sympathy (schmid, 12). what makes ama’s situation worse is the fact that she is all alone in her woes and only has the walls of their house to confide in. in desperately in need of someone to cry to, ama narrates to the walls how her father has held her nipple between his fingers and squeezed; she tells the walls of the pain of the squeezing and the coldness of her father’s hands. as the rape continues night after night, the wall not only heard of how he ignored her when she said that he was hurting her inside, but also of “how she tried to push him away when he lay on top of her, but he was a mountain and she did not have the strength in her to move a mountain. she told of the grunting and the sticky whiteness like pap that gushed out of him. ‘it’s warm and yucky,’ she complained to her walls. ‘i’ll never eat pap again!’” (obss, 276). one can't help but wonder why ama cries to the walls instead of to her mother. why has her mother neither noticed her daughter’s dejection nor try to find out what ails the little girl? as the narrator reveals, ama’s mother is a totally subdued woman who is living in fear in her husband’s house and who will do everything to prevent being sacked by the husband, brother cyril. ama even suspects that she is not unaware of the fact that her father has been raping her. when ama got older and wiser, she would think that her mother walked around in a deliberate state of blindness. otherwise she ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 anyakorah 76 would have seen into her heart and asked her, “nwa m, my daughter, what is the matter?” she wished her mother would ask her so that she could tell her, but she never asked, choosing instead to complain about ama’s hair being as tough as sisal. (obss,277-8) ama’s mother is, pure and simple, a subjugated woman who has totally resigned her life to whatever fate her husband dictates. ama sometimes feels sorry for her “the way she had to boilthe clothes the assistant pastor on his way to becoming pastor had to wear so that his purity glowed, the way she walked with her back hunched when the clothes did not come out clean enough and brother cyril, who did not tolerate shortcomings and wanted them all ‘to make it to heaven,’ expiated her sin with a beating” (obss,300). even when, in her adulthood, ama eventually finds the words to tell her mother what her father has done to her for over three years, she has hushed her up and pretended not to believe it. in fact, she has “lifted a hand and slapped [ama] on her mouth,” asking her, “how dare you talk about your father like that? what has taken possession of you? have you gone mad?” (obss,305). it is not that ama’s mother needs any convincing to believe what ama is saying. while she already knows what has been going on behind her back, she wants to be kept in the dark about it so as to maintain her plausible deniability. in fact, ama herself wishes there was a way she could free her mother and herself from the house in enugu with the thirty-two steps leading up to heaven (obss 300). following ama’s revelation of brother cyril’s history of incestuous sexual relation with her, not only does her mother slap her but she also immediately and resolutely takes her husband’s side and does nothing to verify what her daughter has just said. the father brother cyril himself waves the allegation away as false and unfounded, the rant of a liar. furthermore, he uses the opportunity to announce his disowning of ama as his daughter, and to inform the young girl that he is not his biological father: ‘i am not your father. you hear that? i took in your mother, and this is all the thanks i get. all the thanks i get for saving you from being a bastard. all the years i raised you, fed you, this is all the thanks i get. you know what happens to children without fathers? children who are born at home? father unknown. imemkpuke. i want you out of my house. i want you out. tata. today! as god is my witness, you shall leave my house today!’ (obss,306-7) in the wake of this revelation, ama feels happy that this extremist she has called father all through her life isn’t really her father. she is delighted at the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 anyakorah 77 thought that she has another father who must be a better man than brother cyril—“he had to be. she willed it” (obss,308). back to the question raised earlier: why has ama’s mother done nothing to question her husband or to even complain about the beatings, harsh words and unfair treatment she and ama get from her husband? the reason is that she is a woman who has become a slave to her misguided sense of loyalty and gratefulness for what brother cyril has done for her in the past. being a woman who, in her early adulthood, has been laden with an unwanted pregnancy, with nowhere to live and no one to help her, she has been surprised that brother cyril has then not only taken pity on her but has equally asked to marry her despite the fact that she has been pregnant for another man, an unknown man. for this seemingly benevolent act of brother cyril, she has become heavily indebted to him and, in the course of their marriage, resigned to live with whatever form of brutality, emotional exploitation and inhumane treatment she might get from him. as such, she has sold all her right to brother cyril and is ready to take his own perspective in every matter, even if he says that yellow is green and that red is white. “i made a mistake. one mistake that could have destroyed me completely,” she opens up to ama: yet brother cyril took me in and married me. he saved me from a terrible life. how many men would marry a woman who was carrying a child for another man? tell me, ama, tell me. and you throw all that in his face. what have i done to deserve this? tell me, ama, what have i ever done to deserve this? he could have sent both of us out tonight. many men would. you know that. yet, out of the goodness of his heart, he didn’t. (obss,310) notice in her statement above that her concern is not about whatever brother cyril has done to ama, but about his not throwing her out of the house for her past mistake of underage, unwanted, out-of-wedlock, pregnancy. despite knowing deep in her heart that her husband is an extremist, she still sees him – this religious extremist and rapist – as a man who abounds in the “goodness of [the] heart” (310). what she does not know is that the reason why brother cyril has not asked her out of the house is not because he is a kind man who has a good heart but because he simply cannot afford to lose her. he cannot afford to lose this wife of his, who he has craftily been able to tame and subjugate into becoming an ever-working washing machine, a machine ready to do his bidding at all times, ready to boil, soak and bleach the white clothes he wears every day without as much as a grumble let alone a complaint. he, moreover, cannot afford to lose her and risk having his secrets in the public. unfortunately, ama’s mother does not know her worth, her ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 anyakorah 78 rights as a wife and mother, and thus lives as a slave under the roof of a man who treats her as the lowliest of servants rather than as a wife and companion. her husband’s religious extremism has totally subdued her through and through such that she no longer has any identity or knowledge of herself left apart from the one he confers on her. conclusion the foregoing underscores non-violent religious extremism to be immanent in fanatical christianity, the kind of christianity championed by brother cyril in chika unigwe’s on black sisters’ street. studying the novel using the twenty different indicators for monitoring extremism (emi-20), which was developed by schmid, this research found out that acts of extremism could be seen in different religions, not just in islam. it is also found that extremism does not constitute in armed violence alone, but involves any form of aggressive, inhumane and cruel action taken either against fellow adherents of the religion or against non-adherents with the claim or pretence of fostering the will of god. as such, cyril’s continual rape of ama for about three yearsis an act of religious extremism, for not only does cyril claim to be defiling her with moral authority, but he also wants her to believe that god has sanctioned this abhorrent act. similarly, his continual beating and verbal assault of his wife both constitute acts of religious extremism. hence, since religious extremism—both violent and non-violent—permeates all kinds of religion, it is imperative that the popular view of extremism, mostly portrayed in western media, as having an islamic-only colouration be changed and replaced with a balanced view which accepts and seeks to condemn the existence of religious and secular extremism in all its forms. works cited adichie, chimamandangozi. purple hibiscus.farafina, 2006. agbiji, obaji m. and ignatius swart. “religion and social transformation in africa: a critical and appreciative perspective.” scriptura, vol. 114, no. 1, 2015, pp. 1-20. beti, mongo. the poor christ of bomba.heinemann, 1971. bötticher, astrid and miroslav mares.extremismus.walter de gruyter, 2012. chitando, ezra, afeadogame, and bolajibateye. “introduction: african traditions in the study of religion in africa: contending with gender, the vitality of indigenous religions, and diaspora.” african traditions in the study of religion, diaspora and gendered societies, edited by afe adogame, ezra chitando and bolaji bateye, pp. 1-12, ashgate, 2013. coleman, peter t. and andrea bartoli.“addressing extremism.”white paper.the international center for cooperation and conflict resolution.colombiauniversity, 2015.http://www.tc.columbia.edu/i/a /document/9386_whitepaper_2_extremism_030809.pdf http://www.tc.columbia.edu/i/a%20/document/9386_whitepaper_2_extremism_030809.pdf http://www.tc.columbia.edu/i/a%20/document/9386_whitepaper_2_extremism_030809.pdf ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 anyakorah 79 hassan, muhsin. “understanding drivers of violent extremism: the case of al-shabab and somali youth.” ctc sentinel, vol. 5, no. 8, august 2012, pp. 18-20. https://ctc.usma.edu/understanding-drivers-of-violentextremism-the-case-of-al-shabab-and-somali-youth/ kazarian, nicolas. “religious extremism in africa: a conversation between rehmahkasule and nurudeenlemu.” observatory on geopolitics and religions by institute for international and strategic affairs. april 2017. https://www.iris-france.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/obs-religieuxextremism-africa-april-2017.pdf. kimball, charles. when religion becomes evil: five warning signs.harper, 2002. liebman, charles s. “extremism as a norm”. journal for the scientific study of religion, vol. 83, no. 22, 1988, pp. 75-86. mbiti, john. african religions and philosophy, 2nd ed. heinemann, 1999. midlarsky, manus i. origins of political extremism: mass violence in the twentieth century and beyond. cambridge up, 2011. mignolo, walter. “decoloniality and phenomenology: the geopolitics of knowing and epistemic/ontological colonial differences.” the journal of speculative philosophy, vol. 32, no. 3, 2018, pp. 360-387. mndende, nokuzola. “spiritual reality in south africa.”secular spirituality as a contextual critique of religion, edited by c. du toit and c. mayson, 2006, pp. 153-173. mudimbe, v. y.the invention of africa.indiana university press, 1988. oyono, ferdinand. the old man and the medal.heinemann, 1975. schmid, alex p. “violent and non-violent extremism: two sides of the same coin?” icct research paper. may 2014. www.icct.nl wibisono, susilo, winnifred r. louis and jolandajetten.“a multidimensional analysis of religious extremism.”frontiers in psychology, vol. 10, nov 2019, pp. 1-12. https://ctc.usma.edu/understanding-drivers-of-violent-extremism-the-case-of-al-shabab-and-somali-youth/ https://ctc.usma.edu/understanding-drivers-of-violent-extremism-the-case-of-al-shabab-and-somali-youth/ https://www.iris-france.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/obs-religieux-extremism-africa-april-2017.pdf https://www.iris-france.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/obs-religieux-extremism-africa-april-2017.pdf http://www.icct.nl/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 67 a genre analysis of facebook conversation on students politics ojonugwa sunday joseph department of arts education kogi state university email: ugwa4christ70@yahoo.com abstract this study examines the communicative terms of facebook conservation among students of kogi state university, anyigba. these terms constitute the social function, the schematic structure and linguistic features. the theoretical framework for this study stems from the generic structure potential (gsp) by halliday and hasan (1989). purposive or deliberate sampling was used in selecting the data. the data selected were analysed using descriptive and analytical method after segmenting the data into clauses. twelve (12) clauses were found. the analysis of the clauses found showed that the social function of facebook conversation focuses on certain topics of interest. the analysis further revealed that the schematic structure of facebook conversation deals with greeting (g) – opening conversation (oc), bringing the topic (bt), discussion (d), pre-closing (pc) and farewell (f). lastly, the study revealed 14 linguistic features, which are commonly used by facebook users. the work therefore concludes that facebook conversation is a representation of a socio-cultural event embedded in a context of situation. keywords: facebook conversations, students politics, situational variable, genre and systemic functional linguistic (sfl). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 68 introduction the beauty of language is in its inner characteristics. language never exists apart from the social fact, for it is a semiological phenomenon. its social nature is one of its inner characteristics (saussure, 77). the primary function of language has gone beyond “communication” to “purposeful communication with social significance”. taiwo observes that language is the most vital tool in the hands of a man and a conveyer belt of social power that he uses to create a meaningful environment for himself. nowadays, everyone can witness how man has used internet to create a beautiful and educative environment for himself, which has reduced the stress in the means of communication. one of the top social networking websites these days is the facebook which is also called technologically mediated communication. an information technology – aided conveyance or processing of messages, is a pragmatic/digital domain with multi-faceted layers of interpretability, which contrasts face-to-face communication. conventional communication according to coates is usually done face to face between two or more people. however, the internet has provided a bridge for everyone around the world to communicate. the online media communications, which one of them is facebook, facilitates her users to have instant messaging or so-called online chatting, like a real faceto-face communication (134). in communicating, coates (169), following labov, asserts that language change occurs “when a new linguistic form, used by some sub-group within a speech community is adopted by other members of that community and accepted as the norm”. this is where the internet takes an important role as a media liaison for ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 69 its users who are facilitated to communicate with people from all over the world in making a new linguistic form. when a means of communication is established between two people, particularly via online conversation, certain result is usually produced, which is a discourse that has various topics whenever a communication is begun in another time or even in the same time, similar stages of how to open a communication, to sustain the communication, and also to close the communication. in addition, it can be found that this discourse has many unique features of language. one of the reasons is because online conversation is basically in the form of written text, but seen through the language used, it appears to be a type of spoken discourse. fairclough qtd. in yohana (2) opines that genre analysis is ‘a socially ratified way of using language in connection with a particular type of social activity’. this obviously explains that facebook conversation is also a type of social activity, because it involves two or more people interacting with each other using language. motivated by eggin and slade’s theory, yohana (3), stated that chat cannot be characterized in generic terms, the researcher was challenged to take a study on chatting. however, online chatting was taken as the subject of the study. furthermore, martin states that ‘a genre is a stage, goal oriented, purposeful activity in which speakers engage as members of our culture’(43). this means that online conversation has a goal to achieve, it has a platform or stage and also a certain language use. therefore, this study aims at discovering the social function (goal), the schematic structure (stages) and the linguistic features of the language used in facebook conservations. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 70 digital discourse digital discourse offers a distinctly sociolinguistic perspective on the nature of language in digital technologies. it starts by simply bringing new media sociolinguistics up to date, addressing current technologies like instant messaging, text messaging, blogging, photo-sharing, mobile phones, gaming, social network sites, and video sharing. according to pilar and patricia, digital discourse lies at the intersection of (none) language resources, society and technology (6). this helps digital researchers draw on a range of diverse socially – oriented language disciplines, whose methods and research tools may need to be critically assessed and reflectively adapted, and perhaps also expanded and even combined with others to suitably account for the communicative practices that occur in the digital world and embeddedness within the social world at large. discourse, in our view, is concerned with “social practice” (fairclough, 28). rather than language in use, as it was originally – and more narrowly – conceived, as it concerns itself with how multimodal, multisemiotic resources are employed to enact identifies, activities and ideologies in the digital world, as part of a larger society world (gee, 20). according to thulow (23), a key objective of digital discourse is to show how it studies attends to both micro-level linguistic practices and more macro – level social processes; by the same token, scholars in the field are increasingly interested in understanding how language intersects with other modes of communication. putting ‘language’ in its place – and following the lead of those scholars already mentioned – it is essential to recognise that discourse is interested in language only in so far as it illuminates social and cultural processes (bucholtz and hall, 8). in other ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 71 words, the primary concern is not with the abstract, grammatical language of linguistics, but rather the everyday functions and uses of language. it is for the above reasons that we tend to use the term discourse (cuplan, 18). in linguistically – oriented discourse analysis there is typically a shared commitment to the following; the social functions of language, the interactional accomplishment of meaning, the significance of communicator intent, and the relevance of context. facebook technology facebook is a type of technology that is commonly used on specific mobile phones and computers. since the smart phones became popular, many messaging services were launched, facebook remains the most popular of all (abosede, 395). this application is highly addictive and can create a great impact on regular users. facebook messenger’s functionality has recently been improved upon. it is available on blackberry, nokia phones, windows phone and phones. for users to get started, send a friend request or accept a friend request of an intended person. facebook uses a variety of services, tools, and programming languages to make up its core infrastructure. as far as customization is concerned, facebook has developed a custom partitioning scheme in which a global id is assigned to all data. they have also a got of custom archiving scheme that is based on how frequent and recent data is one a per user basis. most data is distributed randomly (zuckerberg, 40). people often press their phones while walking, in buses, on their beds; to mention but a few, to converse on facebook. it is one of the most popular chat applications in the world today. people have thousands of chatting messages, photos, videos and audio ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 72 attachments on their facebook account, birthday wishes, marriage wishes, naming ceremonies are all celebrated on the facebook. the development of digital technology has facilitated easier communication between people and organizations. facebook is used for various purposes like commercial, teaching of students, friendship interactions among others. it allows direct interactions. social media social media can be defined as forms of electronic communication through which users interact among people in which they create, freely share, exchange and discuss information, ideas, personal messages and other content about each other and their lives using a multimedia mix of personal words, pictures, videos and audio, utilizing online platforms while they are connected to the internet. social media, according to kuppuswamy (10) is a virtual platform for interactivity and information exchange…where issues are shared, debated and defined. according to adebola, social media users collaborate in content creation (72). it is proactive in media participation. social media includes facebook, whatsapp, linkedin, twitter, myspace, youtube among others and all these are available to as many that want it. linguistic genre genre studies according to richard (40), is an academic subject which studies genre theory in several different fields. linguistic genre studies is best described by two schools of literary genre; the systemic functional linguistics or “sfl”, scholars of this school believe that language structure is an integral part of a text’s social context and function. english for specific purposes or “esp” is another. the scholars for this school believe that genre studies help the non-native english speakers on how to use ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 73 the language and its conventions through the application of genre analysis, the identification of discourse elements such as register, formation of conceptual and genre structures, modes of thought and action that exist in the specific discourse community. genre, according to eggins qtd. in ezeifeka is “the staged, structured way in which people go about achieving goals using language” (42). it is a culturally recognised form of discourse that follows socially agreed structures with distinct communicative purposes. genres are very important in our everyday life and we do not realize how much we use them, how much they affect us, how much they determine the way we act and understand the others. martin confirms this when he states that ‘a genre is a staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activity in which speakers engage as members of our culture’ and ‘genres’ are how things get done, when language is used to accomplish them (248). theoretical framework this work adopts generic structure potential theory. the theory was propounded by halliday and hassan in 1989. the theory states that language structure is an integral part of a text’s social context and function. fairclough (14) once stated that genre analysis is ‘a socially ratified way of using language in connection with a particular type of social activity’. this obviously explains that facebook conversation is also type of social activity, because it involves two or more people interacting with each other using language. according to ezeifeka, every text is supposed to have a “generic structure” or “schematic structure” which delineates its discourse community (42). from the above, it is obvious that two different discourse communities may likely not to have the same generic or ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 74 schematic structure. this tradition influence how language is used in diverse situations, with that of facebook conservation not an exception. methodology the researcher made a deal with the students of kogi state university, anyigba particularly, students from the department of arts education, in communication in order to get permission to use their facebook conversations. the researcher searched several conversations between two persons to be used as the data, each taken from the researcher’s students’ facebook account. from the accounts collected, four facebook conversations were chosen for analysis. the data collected were analysed within the purview of halliday and hassan (1989) generic structure potential theory (gsp). the data were segmented into clauses, identifying each conversation using sfl’s metafunctions to find the social function, the schematic structure and the linguistic features. data presentation, analysis and results grace: i want to ask if you have picked the interest and nomination forms. eleojo: that’s a good decision grace i was told it’s now available with the eleco chair… eleojo: hope you have picked? you’re not serious. grace: yeahhh....hehehehe. i met your guy yesterday but he failed to recognize me. what department is that guy self? ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 75 hmmm--questionnaire grace, have you eleojo: shuu! management nan. grace: i am hanging out for a while.. in the conversation above, grace recalled her experience with her friend’s guy, whom she has met the previous day. they discussed with each other and played into each other’s private life. grace opened the conversation by telling eleojo her experience with her guy until they all ventured into each other’s private life. fave: hi... grace you chose to go and hide since after graduation. grace: i know, updating status is your hubby..... since last week, you have updated more than 10 times. if had gone hiding, how will i have known that you update your status regularly. fave: tnks, talk much later – stay cool in the conversation above, grace conversed with her mate, eleojo. they both have known each other for a long period of time. they conversed about the departmental elections. a critical look at the conversations, revealed again that grace conversed with her close friend. they talked about situation after their graduation. summary the social function of facebook conversation is to discuss something under one or more certain topics. it is the contextual feature that relates to the subject matter of the conversation, that ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 76 is, what the text is all about as well as the topics referred to. this refers to the social activities in which language plays a part. this development agrees with the view of odebunmi (54) which views field of discourse as referring to the ongoing activity, and the particular purpose that the use of language is serving within the context of that activity. accordingly, in the study of facebook conversation, several activities and topics that have concern with the conversants are discussed. the first conversation has the following schematic symbols oc ^ bt ^ d ^ pc ^ f key to symbols: oc: opening conversation bt: bringing the topic d: discussion pc: pre-closing f: farewell. this conversation is started with grace asking his friend eleojo whether or not she has picked her interest and nomination forms for the departmental election announced to be happening weeks ahead. grace brought the topic stage when she opened the conversation. at the discussion stage, grace was given to questioning while eleojo was just answering. after the discussion, grace talked about the attitude of eleojo’s guy which signals pre-closing stage. the farewell stage was observed in grace’s farewell expression” i am hanging out” which shows the social ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 77 relationship or affiliation that exists between the two conservants. the second conversation has the following schematic structure: g ^ oc ^ bt ^ d ^ pc ^ f key to symbol g: greeting oc: opening conversation bt: bringing the topic d: discussion f: farewell in the second conversation, the greeting stage was begun by fave. she said ‘hi’ that is followed by the first name of her friend, grace which she engaged with some greeting words. in this conversation it is clear that the opening conversation did not start immediately because opening conversation is usually marked by asking of each other’s conditions. bringing the topic is marked by grace’s desire to know the department of her friend’s guy. in discussion stages, grace and eleojo interacted on the academic background of eleojo’s guy. the pre-closing and farewell were observed simultaneously. the third conversation has the following schematic structure. g ^ oc ^ bt ^ d ^ pc ^ f key to symbol g: greeting ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 78 oc: opening conversation bt: bringing topic. d: discussion pc: pre-closing f: farewell in the conversation, greeting stage came first with the exchange of pleasantries. the opening conversation came with “hiding” after graduation. bringing topic stages. occurred when fave mentioned” graduation which also formed the discussion. the pre-closing occurred when fave relaxed the discussion and this was followed immediately by farewell stage as fave thanked grace and advising her to stay cool. summary: the schematic structure of facebook conversation observes the following: greeting stand for “g” opening conversation stands for “oc” bringing the topic stands for “bt” discussion stands for “o” pre-closing stands for “pc” farewell stands for “f” from the above, it is obvious that greeting and pre-closing are optional while bringing the topic and discussion are recursive. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 79 there were 14 linguistic features found in the facebook conservation of students who discussed on their forthcoming elections. those linguistic features commonly used among students during the facebook conversation were as follows: 1. material and relational linguistic features are mostly used processes. while material feature addresses the process of “doing” and “happening”, actor (the doer of the action), goal (one to which the process is extended), scope (typically occurs in intransitive clauses) relational process deals with “being and having”. 2. declarative is the mostly used mode. this has to do with the nub of the argument, the border of the clause which cannot be ignored by the succeeding speaker. 3. ideational theme is mostly theme. this means that, in facebook conversation, certain lexical elements are made to carry high prominence over and above other features and which the speaker at this end wants the listener at that end to focus on. 4. while other tenses are also used in facebook conversation, present tense is most used. 5. short sentences are mostly used and lowercase instead of uppercase. 6. pronouns are most times omitted and punctuations are considered in consequential. 7. morphological processes such as clipping, contraction, abbreviation, alteration of word forms are used in ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 80 facebook conversation for convenience and easy communication. 8. facebook users use parenthesis and exclamation marks. 9. facebook users also use smileys, emoticons and stickers. 10. they use repetition of letter or punctuation and capitalization for emphasis. 11. they use onomatopoeia – this means using a word that represents the sound it describes. 12. words are usually linked. 13. sometimes descriptive language is used. 14. sometimes repairs typo or wrong words are usually used. discussion of findings facebook users adopt purposive role that has to do with the focus of the activity in which they are engaged i.e. show what their language is all about, what experience they are verbalizing and what is ‘going on’ through language. this finding supports the view of odebunmi (54) what asserts to the ongoing activity, and the particular purpose that the use of language is serving within the context of that activity. from the data presented above, it is evident that the observation of schematic structure by facebook users is very strong as most of the conversations are made up of constituent stages – constituent structure, structure by which the whole, complete interaction is made up of parts: a beginning, middle and an end. the finding is in consonance with the view of swales (3) which asserts that schematic structure is a socially recognised ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 81 recurrent, culturally defined speech event with its own formal characteristics, cognitive – move structures and communicative purposes. similarly, linguistic features commonly used among facebook users during conversation are found in sfl approach, particularly its metafunctions which are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and textual metafunction. conclusion much, if not all, of what is covered by the researcher in this work is contextual and falls within the scope of systemic functional linguistics ‘sfl’ of definable notion of the domain of discourse (facebook conversation). the work is believed to have partly broadened the scope systemic functional linguistic ‘sfl’ and the analysis of text linguistics. the social function of facebook conversation discusses something under one or more certain topics. the schematic structure of facebook conversation deals with greeting – opening conversation – bringing the topic – discussion pre-closing and farewell, while the linguistic features commonly used by facebook users are material and relational processes, declarative, ideational theme, present tense, lowercase, parenthesis, contraction, similes, onomatopoeia, etc. the researcher therefore concludes that facebook conversation is a representation of a socio-cultural event embedded in a context of situation--context of situation is the semio-sociocultural environment in which the conservation unfolds, and that is why it is called “social semiotic”. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 82 works cited adebola, h. “a simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for conversation”. language. 696-735 (1974). print. abosode bisi. “social discourse among students”. journal of arts. 47-60 (2013). print. bucholtz, y and hall, m. discussion and reaction among people: theory and method. london & new york: routledge. 2014. print. chinwe, ezeifeka. discourse analysis: concepts and approaches. awka: patrobas nigeria ltd, 2018. print. coates jennifer. “women, men and language: a sociolinguistic account of gender differences in language”. longman. 1993. print. eggins, suzanne. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: continuum. 1994. print. ferdinand de saussure. “language and society. the proceedings of icphsxvi”. saarbriucken. 2007. print. gee, j.p. an introduction to discourse analysis: theory and method. london & new york: routledge. 2014. print. haliday, m.a.k. and hassan, r. an introduction to functional grammar. london: edward arnold. 1995. print. kuppuswamy, s. the impact of social networking websites on the education of youth. international journal of virtual communities and social networking. 20-31 (2010). print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 83 mark zuckerberg. facebook and me event of social. usa. 2018. print. odebunmi, adeje. “stylistics of religious. electronic media advertisement in nigeria”. muenchen: lincom gmb. 2006(1-26). print. pillar, g. and patricia, b. introduction to analyzing digital discourse: new insight and future directions. macmillan. 2014. print. richard mark. a handbook of discourse analysis. malden: blackwell. 2014. print. statista.com global social networks ranked by number of users. http://www.statista.com/statistics/272014/globalsocailnetworks-ranked-by-number-of-user-/ (retrieved on may 7, 2019, 2014). print. thulow, j. social science and text analysis. cambridge: polity. 2011. print. thurlow, mroczek. digital discourse in the new media. london: oxford university press. 2011. print. wales, k. a dictionary of stylistics. london: longman. 1989. print. yohanna m. language and power. london: longman. 1989. print. yohana putri. “a genre analysis of facebook chatting text”. journal of english study program. udiwus: semarang. 2015. print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 164 nnamdi-eruchalu & onwuzuruike a critical discourse analysis of 2019 political posters of three gubernatorial candidates in imostate of nigeria dr. geraldine i. nnamdi-eruchalu department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra, nigeria email: g.nnamdieruchalu@unizik.edu.ng; geraus@gmail.com & tobechi maria onwuzuruike email: tochy4great@yahoo.com; tochklasstobechi@gmail.com abstract this paper uses critical discourse analysis to unpackthe posters used in the 2019 gubernatorial electioneering campaigns in imo state with a view to discovering the ideologies used to control the minds of the electorate towards giving the candidates a favourable support. using purposive sampling technique, data were collected from the political posters of three gubernatorial candidates' posters in the election. van dijk’s ideological square is the theoretical framework that drives the study.theanalysis reveals that some words, expressions and images which have ideological colouration are used by politicians in these posters to demonstrate political will and commitment so as to garner support for their political ambition. significantly, this paper provides critical insights to the peculiar choices of words in political campaigns and affirms that lexical items and images are not just linguistic elements, but most importantly, ideological tools. key words: ideological square, ideologies, electorate, posters, imo state introduction languages exist only to be used, and our use of language distinguishes us from all other animals. it is language use that makes us uniquely human. this means that by putting language to use, we do things, we accomplish things and we can achieve social and intellectual satisfaction. (finegan, 267) the forms of language one uses to communicate what one intends to communicate reflect ones’ social identity and mirrors the situation in which one is communicating. it is an intrinsic part of life.languageand human activities are, therefore, regulated by social factors. these social factors vary from country to country, state to state, and community to community. it follows, then, that the way in which language is used in different societies to portray similar events also varies. in the political settings, especially during election periods, political parties compete to secure political control. as a result, the electorate is often bombarded with several barrages of campaign posters. in nigeria, electionsat all levels areoften perceived as warfare, and violence has become their common attribute. consequently, election periods often present a typical tug-of-war situation between candidates of different political parties as they battlefor the political control of state resources. to this end, posters are often ingenuously designed and intelligently crafted to sway the people and gain their support. language, therefore,is absolutely an indispensable tool in the hands of politicians. language use in electioneering campaigns in nigeria has attracted the attention of scholars from different disciplines. omozuwa and ezejideaku (2008) analyzed the language of political campaigns in nigeria from a stylistic point of view, highlighting and analyzing the special features of the language. omilusi (2020) investigated into the unfulfilled campaign promises made by the candidates and their parties especially in the 2019 general elections and how to make them live up to their promises and stop them from merely deceiving the electorates with such promises. ikeke (2021) carried out a research on language use in political campaigns using critical analytical and hermeneutic and noted that there is need for politicians to behave morally in their use of language duringcampaigns in order to build a better society. mailto:g.nnamdieruchalu@unizik.edu.ng mailto:geraus@gmail.com mailto:tochy4great@yahoo.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 165 nnamdi-eruchalu & onwuzuruike this study, examines the use of language as an instrument of mind control in the posters of three gubernatorial candidates in imo state in the 2019 electioneering campaigns from the perspective of critical discourse analysis. as far as this researcher knows the posters used during the election has not yet caught the attention of scholars and need to be unpacked for the people to understand them better for what they are. to this end, it will provide answers to these two research questions: 1. what strategy was deployed in the posters to grab the attention of the electorates? 2. in what ways were ideologies used as a tool for mind control in the posters? 2.0 literature review 2.1 critical discourse analysis critical discourse analysis (cda) is an offshoot of critical linguistics and has its roots in rhetoric, text linguistics, anthropology, philosophy,socio-psychology, cognitive science, literary studies, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics and pragmatics (wodak and meyer 1). according to van dijk, cda is a type of discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way social power, abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context (135). broadly put, it is concerned with how social and political inequalities are manifested in and reproduced through discourse (robin, 137). nnamdi-eruchalu observes that “cda draws attention to power imbalance, non-democratic practices, social inequality, and other injustices with a view to promoting social justice, fairness and social equality”, (114). cda is associated with and originated from the works of researchers like norman fairclough, teun a. van dijk and ruth wodak,gunther kress, theo van leeuwen (wodak and meyer 3). today, a host of other researchers have followed and expanded and amplified this research perspective. it is a qualitative research approach or research perspective or agenda to the study of texts and talks in socio-political settings with the aim of unpacking them for evidence of power imbalance, ideological manipulation, dominance, in the construction of the texts and talks and the ways they can be resisted. such strategies of social inequality, discursive manipulations, dominance enacted discursively in “social relationships of class, gender, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, language, religion, age, nationality, or world region” are often reproduced and perpetuated by those in position of power, and accepted as naturalized commonsense by the dominated group (van dijk, 18). cda analyses the linguistic and semiotic aspects of the text in social and political contexts. it looks at why speakers or writers make use of certain words among other words available to them. the term "critical" in cda refers to a search for deeper understanding in texts and talks with a view to unpacking, and not criticizing them. it means laying bare the true meaning of discourse, such that the cloak of ideologies are stripped off it. cda, therefore, raises consciousness towards ideological workings of language which according to faircloughis the first step towards emancipation (1989, pg1). critical discourse analysts are of theopinion that public communication should not be accepted at its face value, but should be subjected to critical analysis for evidence of ideology (nnamdieruchalu, 112). simply put, cda deals with the saying, doing and the identity a language represents. 2.2 language use in politics politics is one term that carries a lot of connotations. it means different things to different people: the good, the bad, the ugly. the greek philosopher, plato described it as “nothing but corruption”, and george orwell in his politics and the english language notes that politics “is a mass of lies, evasions, folly, hatred and schizophrenia” ((beard, 5). politics is a beehive of activities ranging from political meetings of all kinds, policy making, speeches, to electioneering campaigns, and to elections proper, to declaration of results, and governance. language is uniquely deployed in the profession to address all these. politicians use highly symbolic language, public gestures, unfounded assumptions, and lots of vague or ambiguous words to communicate their content to the electorate. edelman observes that language shapes what the administrators and the public take for granted, whose expectations they accept as legitimate and whose they ignore, how they define their functions, and what meanings they read into the outcomes of their policies (pg.2). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 166 nnamdi-eruchalu & onwuzuruike the use of language in political texts and talks is uniquely different from other discourses. it is by the use of language that ideologies and power are negotiated. bloor and bloor define ideology: “as a set of beliefs or attitudes shared by members of a particular social group. the beliefs or attitudes that stem from ideology may not always be held consciously by individuals. they can be so deeply ingrained in our thought patterns and language that we take them for granted as self-evident,” (10). like other ideologies, language ideologies are influenced by political and moral interests and are shaped in a cultural setting. the immense power of language to control the mind is not a fictional phenomenon, language helps in shaping our thoughts. we think in words, and when we try to conceive an idea for which there are no words, we find ourselves stumbling. therefore, language helps us to think and express our thoughts appropriately. cda believes that social power, not only controls the communicative action of the dominated group, it believes that it indirectly controls the minds of the dominated groups or recipients. mind control is, therefore, a function of texts and talks, and does not always mean manipulation. language, therefore, is discourse or action used by members of society bound together in relationship practices and shaped by struggles for power.linguisticchoices we make are ideologically shaped to reflect such relationships of power. gross,(2013) states that the language people speak has a great influence in their mind, behaviour, even their economic achievements as well as decisions 2.3 the socio-political background of imo state the area now known as imo state was part of the eastcentral state before 1976. imo state was created on february 3, 1976 of the old east central state by the then regime of general murtala muhammed. imo state is located in the south eastern nigeria, it covers an area of five thousand, five hundred and thirty (5,530) square kilometres. it has twenty-seven (27) local government areas and takes its name from imo river. the inhabitants of imo state are igbos and their official language is igbo alongside english. since her creation in 1976, imo state which is known as the eastern heartland has been ruled by both military and civilian governors. commander godwin ndubuisi kanu, nn, was appointed the first military governor of the state. in the just concluded march 23, 2019 election, imo state was always in the news. the reasons being that thestate gradually has become one of the country’s electoral malevolent state in the recent years. the second reason being that imo state paraded seventy gubernatorial candidates which was the highest since the inception of nigeria as a country. prior to the 2019 general election, there was a deep craving from the majority of the “imolites” for a change of government. the majority of imo citizens were yearning for a new government since it was understood they were fed up with the supposed irregularities and corrupt practices of the then present government. imo needed a governor who has the interest of the masses at heart, therefore, the citizen could not afford to be distracted in selecting their governor. the 2019 gubernatorial election in imo state politics became very tough and competitive. this research work therefore, was prompted as a result of recent happenings in the political life of the state. the political situation in imo state in the recent time has been very tense, and interesting too, the once peaceful state suddenly became a violent one as a result of political ambitions of the political gladiators in the state. there has been a lot of political intrigues and power tussle over which political party dominates the most powerful seat in the state. the number of candidates vying for governorship position was alarming. the competition became so high and interesting as each of the political parties desperately wanted its candidate to win. therefore, they sought for the best ways to convince the electorate and to win their votes; however, language became one of the veritable tools to use. they used language through the choice of words they made and images in the posters to promote their candidates as well as their parties, and at the same time condemn their opponents. a lot of promises were made through the individual posters in order to gain the support of the electorate. political rhetoric was used by these politicians as persuasion techniques to win the voters to their sides and to have their votes. among the seventy gubernatorial candidates that contested for the 2019 election, there were the most prominent ones. these candidates were five in number, and i call them the “top ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 167 nnamdi-eruchalu & onwuzuruike five”. these top five gubernatorial candidates made the election in imo more captivating and interesting. these frontline contestants were: emeka ihedioha of people democratic party (pdp), hope uzodinma of all progressives congress (apc), ikediohakim of accord party (ac), ifeanyi ararume of all progressive grand alliance (apga), and uche nwosu of action alliance (aa). emeka ihediohaof pdp was the deputy and acting speaker of house of representatives. hope uzodinma of apc was a senator representing imo west senatorial zone. ifeanyi ararume of apga was a senator representing okigwe zone. ikediohakim of the accord party was once a governor of imo state. uche nwosu of action alliance was imo state chief of staff and the son-in-law to governor owelle rochas okorocha. all these five gubernatorial candidates have their antecedents and are well known to the imo electorate. while we had other sixtyfive candidates contesting for the governorship post, the battle was for these top five contestants. this implies that, while the battle might be tough and chaotic, the selection of the right candidate could be easy for the electorates given that they have only five gubernatorial candidates contesting and they knew their backgrounds and pedigree. however, as a matter of time and space, only three gubernatorial candidates’ posters; aa, apc and pdp are analysed in order to explicate the ideological underpinnings in them and to aid in the emancipation of the poor electorate. 2.4 theoretical frameworks this research study uses van dijk’s ideological square, and kress and van leeuwen visuals and multimodality as the theoretical frameworks. in van dijk's ideological square, he encapsulates the twin strategies of positive “in group” description and negative “out group” description. the double strategy of this binary opposition is often manifested in discourse by lexical choices and other linguistic features, (hakam, 37). van dijk maintains that many group ideologies involve the representation of “self” and “others”, “us” and “them”. many therefore seem to be polarized – “we” are “good” and “they” are “bad”, and the “ideological square” functions to polarize inand out-groups in order to present the “we” group in a favourable light and the “they” group unfavourably. visual structures in the form of images also convey ideological meanings. multimodal critical discourse analysis (mcda), therefore, shows how images, photographs, diagrams and graphics also create meaning communicated by a text, which are often more implicit or indirect than language. with inspiration from halliday, kress and van leeuwen, (2006) explain how the visual mode can create meaning through the ideational, interpersonal and textual meta functions. 3. methodology the data for this study were collected from three gubernatorial candidates’ posters of people democratic party (pdp), all progressives congress (apc) and action alliance (aa), in the just concluded 2019 election in imo state by snapping the posters of the candidates on the walls of the streets in the area. the sample for this study is three gubernatorial candidates’ posters, (emeka ihedioha of pdp, uche nwosu of aa, and hope uzodimma of apc) out of the seventy gubernatorial candidates that contested the 2019 election in imo state. this sampling was done through purposive sampling technique, and the posters were chosen out of the seventy because of the time and space available to the researchers. 4. data analysis three gubernatorial candidates' posters in imo and the analysis of each poster: figure 1. political poster of the 2019 aa gubernatorial candidate, uche nwosu. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 168 nnamdi-eruchalu & onwuzuruike this poster is one to be read from top to the bottom since uche nwosu appears in the centre top to the part of the left hand side of the poster, which contributes to highlighting that he is the main social actor represented and therefore the most prominent element of the composition. the point of light in the poster is on his face. he appears serious and looks deeply with rapt attention somewhere outside the poster, which can be interpreted as a symbolic way of looking forward to being the governor of imo state, and looking forward to making it a better state in the near future. the fact that he touches his jaw with his left hand makes it clear that he is currently reflecting on something important that needs complete concentration. what could be more important to him than the interest of the people he wants to be their governor. there are different colours in the poster and they all have their different symbolisms. the dark background suggests that imo state is in semi-darkness and it could be understood as a big challenge for uche, whose main aim is to win the elections and improve the state’s situation. the dark colours of the background contrast with the white, blue, red and black letters of the written text. the yellow colour in the poster is the easiest to see and the most visible colour from a distance which symbolises cheerfulness, friendliness, joy and energy. he used the yellow in his poster to get the attention of the voters as a sign of friendship and to show that he is youthful and energetic, therefore will give them life (who doesn’t need more yellow in his life). another colour that is prominent in the poster is red. red represents physical energy, passion and desire. no wonder in the text, “work” is written in red. it symbolises action, confidence and courage. on the top right hand, the text “i have come to work! to make imo state greater and prosperous” appears in capital letters graphology and the word “work” is written in red and in a bigger font than the rest of the written text to help highlight the importance of his mission. it shows that while the previous government or his opponents might have played or come to play or come to embezzle, his sole aim is to work to make his people greater and more prosperous. this a positive self-presentation of himself and at the same time, indirectly projecting his predecessors and opponents in negative way. 2. political poster of the 2019 pdp gubernatorial candidate, emeka ihedioha. the information value of this poster is read from top to bottom, this is because, the election year (2019), and four hands with colours red, white, green and black, holding one another as a symbol of togetherness appear at the top of the poster, which makes the reader to start reading this multimodal text from the top. the hands are important in the composition because their joining together shows team spirit. this means that the candidate is not going to work alone. he needs his party members and his supporters to rebuild imo state as we can see in the text beside it “together we can rebuild imo”. the name of the party and logo is written very close to the left ear of the candidate, showing the candidate’s dedication to his party, close to it are some texts which read; “he thinks”, “he listens” and “he delivers”. the texts portray the candidate in a positive way. he is described as a good leader who would be able to think, listen to his people before he does anything and he must have something to deliver. his name appears at the end of the poster and his chieftaincy title, “ome nkeahuruanya” for governor” directly under his name which is written in igbo significantly means a person who has done remarkable things. next to it is the text; “my word” my bond” which is a clear indication that he is a ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 169 nnamdi-eruchalu & onwuzuruike man of his word unlike his opponents who might promise and fail. the word “imo” is written in red which symbolises danger. this means that all is not well with imo. thus, it becomes necessary that there should be a change for better, and to save the future of imo citizens and this can only be achieved with their vote for him. in addition, the photograph is the most striking element of the composition due to its size and to the message it conveys: the politician appears foregrounded, the background is white and clearer than the one in the previous poster. emeka looks cheerfully and directly to the electorate, which is a clear way of interacting with them and requesting an answer or rather an action from them: their vote for pdp. this can be considered a demand image (kress & van leeuwen, 2006), which contrasts with the one presented in the previous poster. emeka looks less serious as he smiles, and he is more relaxed and sure, than in the last poster. moreover, his smile shows that he is confident as a leader and is willing to bring the change that his people are yearning for. in other words, he is assuring his people to rest assured that everything would be fine as long as they give him their vote. his attire and facial expression thus portray his image as a grass root politician that is more approachable. green is the most prominent colour in the poster and not chosen at random because it is one of the three colours that appear on the umbrella which is the pdp’s logo. the colours of the logo are green, white and red. in this way we observe a cohesive use of colours. as stated in the previous poster, all the colours in the poster have their symbolisms. the analyses above project the candidate and his party positively, and his opponent negatively. figure 3. political poster of the apc candidate for 2019 gubernatorial election, hopeuzodimma. this poster is different from the previous two because the candidate, hope uzodimma appears in full photograph in the poster, dressed in a white shirt and trousers with a red hat which is in coherence with the party colours. he appears boldly on the right, where the most important information is placed. the background colour of the poster is green with blue attached at the top left hand side of the poster. the texts on the poster were written with white and red which also blend with the colour of the party. the colour green represents nature, fertility, vitality, prestige and wealth. this means that the candidate is presented as being full of life and has come to give hope to the people by making the land fruitful again. the white colour represents purity and the red colour represents energy, passion and desire to return “hope” to imolites. the predominant use of colours green and white which are nigerian colours in his poster also shows a cohesive use of colours and goes a long way to explain who the candidate is, a true “nigerian man”. hope also is connected through a vector with the slogan “hope returns to owerri” placed at the beginning of the text. the colours of the slogan, which are white and red matches with hope’s clothe and hat, which adds cohesion to the composition and significantly matches the colours of his attire. he appears serious and he looks deeply somewhere outside the poster just like the photograph in the first poster. this can be interpreted as a symbolic way of looking forward to something more serious and deep, and what can be more serious and deep than being the governor of imo state in the near future and returning hope to them. the use of colour blue which is a universally accepted colour as one of the background colours, is used to portray his message of trustworthiness and calmness to ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 170 nnamdi-eruchalu & onwuzuruike his audience. the text, “hope returns to imo” shows that imo state before now may have been in a state of despondency, and therefore, needs a “saviour” andredeemer. he also uses the text under the slogan which reads, “building the imo state our people hoped for” to portray himself positively and as the more acceptable one. 5. conclusion this paper has carried out a critical discourse analysis of three gubernatorial candidates’ posters. it has discovered that linguistic items and visuals are generally used by the politicians in the electioneering campaign in their different political parties to indicate political commitment and promises, pledges and persuasion, 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(ed.) critical discourse analysis: history, agenda, theory, and methodology in methods for critical discourse analysis. london: sage (2nd revised edition), 2009. p. 1-33. https://www.eisa.org/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 obodo 97 functional shift and directionality comfort adaobi obodo, phd department of english and literary studies. paul university, awka email: obodocomfor@yahoo.com abstract functional shift is characterized by a changeless form, new function, new word-class and a new meaning. this changeless form of a word being converted poses a lot of problems to language users since one may be faced with a situation to determine which word is derived from the other. in other words, which of the pair is a derivative and which is the root or base? this paper sets out to investigate the directionality of functional shift pairs with the intention of finding out the best criterion one can use to determine the directionality of the functional shift pairs. the study adopts diachronic and synchronic approach for the investigation. keywords: functional shift, directionality, diachronic & synchronic approach introduction functional shift according to crystal is “a term used in the study of wordformation to refer to the derivational process whereby an item comes to belong to a new word-class without the addition of an affix” (114). according to finegan, the term functional shift is viewed as when a word belonging to one category is converted to another category without any changes to the formof the word (57). here, one’s attention is drawn to the changeless form of the word so converted.one of the questions that may arise is: “since both the roots and the derivatives have the same forms in functional shift, how then can one determine which word is the root and which word is the derivative? consequently, the issue of directionality comes up. what then is directionality? “directionality according to crystal describes the relationship between two senses of a lexical item, when one can be shown to be derived from the other, as in the case of violin (the instrument) and violin (the player – as in she is first violin) [147]. simply put, directionality has to do with discovering which functional shift pair is the original form (base form) and which one is the derivative. according to bram, there are six approaches to directionality: 1. formal characteristic-based 2. intuition-based 3. date-based 4. level order-based ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 obodo 98 5. non significant directionbased 6. mixture-based (74) marchand similarly outlined his criteria as follow: i. the semantic dependence ii. the range of usage iii. the semantic range iv. phonetic shape (242-252) plag further suggests four strategies for determining directionality and they include: i. historical ii. semantic iii. formal iv. frequential (108-111) several studies prove that these approaches to greater extent attempt to discover directionality of functional shift pairs. however, this present study tries to use different lexical data to test the validity of these approaches. the data are purposefully selected from the works of three european writers: dickens, wilde and shakespeare and two african writers: soyinka and chukwu. the findings thereof will help us realise the approach with the greatest validity rate. formal characteristic-based this approach is based on using formal criterion to determine directionality as there are features that distinguish words from one part of speech from the other. for instance, when we pick a word ‘slap’ (verb), and try to convert it to a noun, as in: ‘i gave her a slap’; the phrase – ‘a slap’ is therefore a noun phrase and not a verb phrase because the word ‘slap’ is preceded by the formword attributed to noun; that is the indefinite article ‘a’. it is obvious that nouns are preceded by the definite article ‘the’ or indefinite article ‘a’ and pluralized by the suffix ‘-s'. this implies that other word-classes also have their own formal characteristics peculiar to their own word-classes. so, formal criterion is one of the ways of determining directionality. intuition – based this approach advocates that directionality of functional shift pairs can be decided through intuition which is similar to reflection. for instance, in a word like ‘head’ used in expressions like: ‘our heads are heavy’, and ‘he heads the department’; one’s intuition or knowledge of the english language should enable them decipher which word is derived from which. although this ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 obodo 99 may work perfectly for native speakers of english and advanced users of english, it might be difficult for average users of english because many rarely used words or even widely used ones may prove difficult for them to trace the directionality of functional shift pairs. date-based date-based approach uses the date of attestation to discover directionality. the word with the earliest date of attestation is seen as the base form and the ones with later dates are seen as the derivatives. this would have been the best method of determining directionality but sometimes, historical facts behind the etymology of some words may be lost or not properly documented. consequently, some dates of attestation may not be clear or exact. some other times, the functional shift pairs tend to have the same year of attestation. our data analysis on directionality in chapter four will either prove us wrong in this issue or uphold our hypothesis. level order-based this approach involves the interaction or interface between morphology and phonology. here, stress patterns are used to show directionality of functional shift pairs. in determining directionality of noun to verb conversion and verb to noun conversion, it is believed that in level 1 or stratum 1 which is verb to noun functional shift, the pair has stress shift (non-neutral). for instance, we have the following: verb noun functional shift to con’vert the ‘convert to re’cord the ‘record to trans’fer the ‘transfer we also have level 2 or stratum 2 which is noun to verb functional shift, the pair has no stress shift (neutral). for instance, we have the following: noun verb functional shift the ‘advocate to ‘advocate the ‘patent to ‘patent the ‘pattern to ‘pattern kiparsky’s 1982 generalization that verb to noun functional shift which is zero-derivation accompanied by stress shift and takes place at level 1 is not unproblematic because myers noted counter examples as thus: acc'ord v n acc’ount v n appr’oach v n ass’ent v n adv’ance v n att’ack v n att’ent v n dec’ay v n cem’ent v n conc’ern v n am’ount v n def’eat v n disp’ute v n pres’erve v n disg’uise v n ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 obodo 100 rel’ease v n patr’ol v n supp’ort v n (myers 59) similarly, bram gave other instances to counter kiparsky’s generalization as thus: adv’ance, comm’and, des’ign, disc’ard, dis’play, em’brace, la’ment, re’ject, re’main, stam’pede, su’pply and sur’round (86). non-significant direction based this approach regards directionality as less important and focuses on identifying stress and/or sound pattern, and investigates the phonological differences. therefore, this criterion will not be useful for this study and will be discarded. mixture – based this approach involves combining two or more operations of valid approaches together and uses them to measure directionality. for instance, we can combine date-based approach with level order-based approach etc. the truth is that all these criteria attempt to answer the question of directionality of functional shift pairs in english. we can now test some of these criteria to ascertain their levels of validity in determining the directionality of the functional shift pairs in english. analysis to discover directionality of functional shift pairs we should remember that directionality of functional shift pairs is simply discovering which of the word, is the base form and which is the derivative? for this analysis, four (4) criteria will be used: i. attestation date ii. semantic range iii. semantic dependence iv. the mixture of the above criteria the data for this analysis are selected randomly from the works of five authors earlier mentioned in the work. the data therefore, include words that underwent the process of functional shift as used in those texts. the words are clearly slated in the data table below and they serve as the data for analysis: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 obodo 101 data table better blind carpet cement chance chase chronicle dirty doctor dumb eye fail fancy father feast ferret husband make paper panic(k) queen safe salary shame slap smoke treasure wet womb the above words on the data table were chosen as: s/ n functional shift pattern word noun verb intrasitive trasitive adje ctiv e sequenc e accordi ng to date of attesta tion 1 adjective to verb better 1300 1384 883 a-vi-vt 2 adjective to verb blind 1305 1300 1000 a-vt-vi 3 noun to verb carpet 1345 1626 n=vt 4 noun to verb cement 1300 1677 1340 n-vt-vi 5 noun to verb chance 1297 1393 1859 n-vi-vt 6 noun to verb chase 1297 1375 1314 n-vt-vi 7 noun to verb chronicle 1303 1414 n-vt 8 adjective to verb dirty 1864 1591 1530 a-vt-vi 9 noun to verb doctor 1400 1865 1737 n-vt-vi 10 adjective to verb dumb 1300 1608 1000 a-vi-vt 11 noun to verb eye 700 1606 1566 n-vt-vi 12 verb to noun fail 1297 1225 1325 vi-n-vt 13 noun to verb fancy 1471 1646 n-vt 14 noun to verb father 825 1400 n-vt 15 noun to verb feast 1200 1300 1340 n-vi-vt 16 noun to verb ferret 1398 1450 1483 n-vi-vt 17 noun to verb husband 1290 1565 n-vt 18 verb to noun make 1325 1387 700 vt-n-vi 19 noun to verb paper 1341 1594 n-vt 20 noun to verb panic(k) 1640 1910 1827 n-vt-vi 21 adjective to verb safe 1602 1297 a-vt 22 noun to verb salary 1377 1477 n-vt 23 noun to shame 725 897 897 n-vi/vt ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 obodo 102 1. from the work of dickens doctor, paper, fancy and carpet (3545). 2. from the work of soyinka wet, dirty, feast, fail, father, husband, slap, chance and smoke (1-52). 3. from the work of wilde – chronicle (1146-1161), 4. from the work of shakespeare safe, eye and dumb (1.v.50-i.iii 97). 5. from the work of chukwu treasure, cement, chase, blind, panic(k), ferret, salary, make and better (63-119). now, to measure directionality, the date of attestation is used as the first criterion. date of attestation in measuring directionality (oxford english dictionary) in the above table, attestation dates for the functional shift pairs and the sequence of the functional shifts are listed, showing evidences of directionality. the criterion is highly valid for determining directionality. however, in one or two instances, we noted that some functional shift pairs have the same attestation date such as words like smoke and shame. theword smoke has its noun, intransitive verb and transitive verb attestation date as the year 1000. although the word shame recorded a difference in the year of attestation as noun and verb, the date for its intransitive and transitive attestation is the same. apart from these minor challenges, attestation date criterion proved a near perfect approach. semantic range in measuring directionality for this criterion, the researcher made use of oxford english dictionary. after the analysis, the findings reveal that: 1. some converted words tend to have more semantic range than the source, like the word smoke. 2. some other times, the bases will have an equal semantic range with their derivatives, like the words: panic(k), slap and chronicle 3. words like blind, cement, chronicle, dirty, doctor, dumb, eye, fail, father, paper, shame, treasure wet, etc, actually prove that the base verb 24 verb to noun slap 1648 1796 1632 vt-n-vi 25 noun to verb smoke 1000 1000 1000 n-vi/vt 26 noun to verb treasure 1154 1382 n-vt 27 adjective to verb wet 1310 950 888 a-vt-vi ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 obodo 103 forms of words suppose to have more semantic range than the derivatives. sometimes, functional shift items can be completely independent of their bases for them to become obsolete. marchand notes that the word stimulant became independent of its adjective base and had now become a full-fledged noun to the extent that some speakers do not even realise that it was converted from an adjective (marchand, 361). from these observations, semantic range criterion tried to some extent in discovering directionality. though it is less in validity compared to the date of attestation. semantic dependence in measuring directionality the contexts where the words in the data table appear in the selected texts chosen for the study reveal that there exists an extension of meaning from the roots to the derivatives; and this depicts the inherent characteristic of a functional shift process. the study therefore shows that the semantic dependence criterion proved 100% accurate and has a high level of validity rate. the reason behind it remains that the functional shift pairs share a semantic relationship. in this, the derivative adopts at least one range of meanings from its base or root where it is derived from. based on this, the semantic dependence criterion proves a hundred percent excellence in validity. therefore, all the words in the data table have semantic relations with their bases or roots. apart from the words wet and safe that has no entry for verb, all others show evidence of semantic dependence. therefore, there is the possibility of the word wet as a verb (derivative) to have semantic relationship with the base or root (adjective) it is derived from; same applies to the word safe. this assertion is made based on the fact that there is an evidence of semantic relation where the words, wet and safe, are used. the extract: “will guru morin wet my throat?” (soyinka,16). “and that which most with you should safe my going/is fulvia’s death” (shakespeare, i.iii.55). the verb use of the words, wet and safe, from the excerpts show that they have semantic relationship with their adjective bases. the mixture – based the mixture-based approach as noted earlier, involves the combination of two or more operations of valid approaches together and uses them in measuring directionality. in this study, to arrive at a more valid generalization of all the results, we have to compare all the criteria used in the study in order to discover words and functional shift patterns that pass the test of all the criteria used. we have seen that these criteria taken individually, actually measure directionality to some extent. however, we must arrive at a concrete generalization by combining all the criteria together to see if our analytical tools for this study are justifiable. so, we can now combine the following: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 obodo 104 i. date of attestation ii. semantic range iii. semantic dependence iv. mixture criterion comparison of all the criteria used s/n word functiona l shift pattern test for attestation date test for semantic range test for semantic dependence mixture criterion grade (3/3) 1 better a > v pass fail pass 2/3 2 blind a > v pass pass pass 3/3 3 carpet n > v pass pass pass 3/3 4 cement n > v pass pass pass 3/3 5 chance n > v pass fail pass 2/3 6 chase n > v pass equal pass 2.5/3 7 chronicle n > v pass equal pass 2.5/3 8 dirty a > v pass pass pass 3/3 9 doctor n > v pass pass pass 3/3 10 dumb a > v pass pass pass 3/3 11 eye n > v pass pass pass 3/3 12 fail v > n pass pass pass 3/3 13 fancy n > v pass pass pass 3/3 14 father n > v pass pass pass 3/3 15 feast n > v pass equal pass 2.5/3 16 ferret n > v pass pass pass 2.5/3 17 husband n > v pass pass pass 3/3 18 make v > n pass pass pass 3/3 19 paper n > v pass pass pass 3/3 20 panic(k) n > v pass pass pass 3/3 21 safe a > v pass no verb entry no verb entry ? 22 salary n > v pass equal pass 2.5/3 23 shame n > v pass pass pass 3/3 24 slap v > n pass equal pass 2.5/3 25 smoke n > v fail fail pass 1/3 26 treasure n > v pass pass pass 3/3 27 wet a > v pass pass pass 3/3 from above table, the following words and their functional shift patterns pass the test of all the criteria. the words include: blind, carpet, cement, dirty, doctor, dumb, eye, fail, fancy, father, husband, make, paper, panic (k), shame, treasure and wet conclusion in all the analytical tools employed in determining directionality of functional shift pairs, it is worthy to note that they all address the issue of directionality of functional shift pairs though with varied validity rate. however, the semantic dependence tops all other criteria, followed by the date of attestation. therefore, directionality of functional shift pairs can actually be measured. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 obodo 105 works cited bram, barli. total conversion in english: the question of directionality.victioria university of wellington 2011. chukwu, ephraim. the vermins&fate-full tomorrow. awka: ask me resources, 2011. crystal, david. adictionary of linguistics and phonetics6th ed. oxford: blackwell, 2008. darrell, raymond. ed. oxford english dictionary. 2nd ed. oxford: oxford up 1989. dickens, charles. hard times. canada: broad view press, 1996. finegan, edward. language: its structureand use6th ed. california: wadsworth, 2012. kiparsky, paul. ‘remarks on denominal verbs’ in alex alsina, joan bresnan and peter sells (eds.) complex predicates standford: csli publications, 1997. marchand, hans. 2nd& revised ed. the categories and types of present-day englishword-formation. a synchronic-diachronic approach.wiesbaden: otto harrassowitz, 1969. myers, scott. zero-derivation and inflection mit working paper in linguistics, 7, 5369, 1964. plag, ingo. morphological productivity: structural constraints in english derivation. berlin: mouton de gruyter, 1999. shakespeare, william. anthony and cleopatra. in: the complete works of william shakespeare. hertfordshire: wordsworth editions. 1996. wilde, oscar. the importance of being earnestin: frank kermode and john hollander. eds. the oxford anthology of english literature (vol. ii) new york: oxford up, 1973. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 chinweuba 139 fidelity erosion: back-translation analysis of some selected verses of the bible nso version rainbow emeka chinweuba eden life bible church, life crescent okoti-odekpe, ogbaru l.g.a, anambra state email: emmyrainbow6@gmail.com abstract this study investigates the washing away of meanings during translation process and the cause of this erosion. the research makes use of back translation technique to show how culture and some linguistic tendencies such as ambiguity, limited vocabulary lexical mismatch, word order or structural mismatch affected the translation of english bible (king james version) to the igbo bible (bible nso version translated by thomas j dennis). to achieve this, the research adopts the theory of sense translation also known as descriptive theory. some verses of the bible nso were randomly selected and back translated to contemporary english for analysis through content analysis method. this research reveals that there are some loss of meanings or erosion of meanings during translation process of the igbo bible, of which when back translated to english does not produce the same effect as the original source, whereas, the ultimate goal of a translation is to give same sense effect to the target language as the source language. random sampling method was used to select some verses in the bible cutting across the old testaments and the new testament. the findings of this work shows that cultural factors as well as linguistic factors such as ambiguity, limited vocabulary or lexical mismatch, word order or structural mismatch, figurative expressions are the major cause of the washing away of meanings. keywords: fidelity erosion, back translation, lexical mismatch introduction translation has been part of communication system in the world and inevitable because of the multi lingual structure of the world. the ultimate goal of a translator is to transfer meaning from one language to another, and to efficiently do this, there are linguistic and cultural nuances to be put into consideration. when the correct meaning is transferred the translation is said to be fidelity. fidelity or faithfulness according to munday is ‘‘the extent to which a translation accurately renders the meaning of the source text without distortion’’ (12). therefore, when there is inaccuracy or distortion of meaning in the translation which may be as a result of cultural or linguistic tendencies, then, the situation is termed fidelity erosion which was first coined by prof. enoch ajunwa. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 chinweuba 140 the holy bible in igbo (union version)also called “bible nso” translated by rev. thomas j. dennis with his committee including some igbo indigenes. this was translated by having recourse to different dialects which include: onitsha, owerri, unwana, arochukwu and bony keeping idoms and proverbs common to all, intended to be a sort of “central” or “compromise” igbo, playing the role of a literary medium to the igbo people (oraka, 17). however, many igbo speakers faulted the combination of various dialects in this translation.but whether there are faults in the combination of dialects in the translation is not the concern of the research, but the language in general. ajunwa posits: translation can be viewed at one or more levels. in the first level, the translation is done directly from the source language (sl1) into a target language (tl1). then the second level, the tl1 now becomes the source language (tl2). the english translation of the bible is tl1 to the original source languages which are hebrew and greek respectively. (30) there are many translations of the bible. the bible first existed in the hebrew language andgreek before any other lanugage. the igbo translation was directly from english and not from the original hebrew translation. so, thispaper concentrates on the two languages, which are the english language (source language) and igbo language (target language). although back translation is employed to back translate the igbo bible text to english language to determine the extent of fidelity erosion in the igbo bible translation. the cause of this fidelity erosion which in other words is the problem of translation forms the bases of this paper. backtranslation is a technique used to evaluate errors or extent of fidelity erosion in any translated document. fidelity erosion the theory of fidelity erosion was propounded by professor enoch ajunwa in his book, a textbook of translation: theory and practice published in 2014. he uses the word erosion which he said is ‘‘the gradual wearing away of rock or soil by physical break down, chemical solution, and transportation of material, as caused by water, wind or ice’’(22). he then applies this to translation by saying that: erosion takes place if the level of fidelity is reduced during a translation process by such factors as the translator’s shallow knowledge of one or both languages, his shallow knowledge of the subject-matter being translated, faulty translation tools being used, lack of professional training and exposure, as well as intellectual, cultural and linguistic factors. (22) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 chinweuba 141 in the words of ajunwa, ‘‘fidelity means the extent to which a translator accurately transfers meaning of a source language text into a target language text without distorting, violating or betraying the message as well as the style of the source language’’(17). the question is if absolute fidelity is achievable in translation. on this nida has this to say: if we insist on a translation without any loss of information, therefore, not only translation, but also all communication will be effectively be impossible, because no communication whatsoever…may take place without some loss or gain of information. the loss or gain of information is an integral part of the process of communication. (47) attempting to review a translated work will definitely be in order since many scholars such as newmark have posit that translated work can ‘‘usually be improved’’ and to him ‘‘there is no such thing as perfect, ideal or correct translation’’ (6). concept of back translation according to language scientific, “backtranslation” is the practice of taking a translated document and translating it back into the original language as a means of checking the accuracy of the translation (par, 4) comparison of backtranslation with the original text is used as a check on the accuracy of the original translation, as carried out in this paper. theoretical framework to properly articulate the dynamics of the cultural and linguistic problems of translation in the igbo translation of the bible (bible nso version) from the english version, this study engages the theoretical expositions of the theory of sense also known as interpretive theory of translation. the concept of fidelity in translation is within this framework with different studies applying it in different aspects. faithfulness to word-order and linguistic styles of the source language are almost against this theory of sense translation. given to this, this research is not in any way trying to advocate for exactitude of word-order and other linguistic style between the source language and the target language, but upholds the concept of equivalence where meaning and sense is the ultimate goal of a translation. the interpretive theory of translation or theory of sense as we may call it, was developed by danica seleskovitch and mariana lederer (researchers at the ecole superieure d’interpretes et de traducteurs (esit) at the university of paris iii). according to the theory, the ultimate goal of a translator is to translate text and not the languages. hence, interpretation as the name of the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 chinweuba 142 theory implies, is the understanding speech and rewording that understanding in a different language. however, jungwha chon explains that ‘interpretative theory is built upon four pillers: command of the native language, command of the source language, command of relevant world and background knowledge and command of interpretive methodology’’(par,7). he further elaborate on interpretive process to state that it is inaccurate to say that a paper is “french” or “english”, that the graphic signs the paper carries are not meanings but rather symbols and that the meaning of the symbols are in the reader’s or listener’s mind. if it is so, comprehension of linguistic and non linguistic (such as culture) knowledge of the source language is required to understand the speaker’s intention. therefore, fidelity or faithfulness is to the speaker’s intention and not to the source language. in other words, the concept of fidelity in translation is when the speaker’s or writer’s intention is rendered in a target language irrespective of the graphic symbols. fidelity erosion then means when the speaker’s intention is not well represented in the target language. based on this theory, this research tends to expose how culture and linguistic tendencies caused fidelity erosion in the bible nso version of the igbo translation. since some of the selected verses could not tally in meaning with the source language, or not clearly understandable in the target language or unambiguous statements in the source language becomes ambiguous in the target language, therefore there is need for this research, as to determine the cause and suggest possible solutions. cultural problems there is no difference between culture and language, they are like indivisible twin compass, even if one stretches them; they are still welded together at their joint. in psalm chapter 23:5,let us review the role of culture. king james version: thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies... igbo translation: i nedo table n’usoro n’irum n’anya ndi nakpabum... back translation: you arrange a table in order before me in the presence of my oppressors... pragmatically, the two sentences in the different versions are not the same because the sentence “prepare a table before me...” is a figurative way of saying ‘he provides food for me’ or ‘he makes a feast for me’. because “table” is a mytonomy of food in the western and palestine culture.looking at this verse of the bible, one will find out that the word “table” which existed in english also finds its way to the igbo translation. the question is why is it so? according to chinwuba culturally, the palestine kingdom of which bible has ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 chinweuba 143 its background from has this culture of serving their food on the table and the sentence “preparing a table before me” is a popular saying in jewish culture which means ‘serving food for someone’. the english culture has similar culture of serving food on the table. and whenever one hears “prepare a table” it means ‘providing food’ or ‘serving’ foodin jewish culture.contrary to the culture of the palestine and english (westerns),igbo culture does not have ‘table’, and so, doesn’t associate with serving food or making a feast. because of this, the translation was very wrong in the sense that the translator used wordforword (metaphrase) and thereby meaning another thing, which is ‘arranging in order a table in front of me’. schonpenhauer quoted by ajunwa, observed that: not every word in one language has an exact equivalent in another. thus, not all concepts that are expressed through the words of one language are exactly the same as the ones that are expressed through the words of another. (72) king james version: for ye have not received the spirit of bondage again to fear; but ye have received the spirit of adoption, whereby we cry, abba, father. igbo translation: n’ihi na unu anatagh mo nke ibu-oru ilaghachi n’egwu ozo; kama unu natara mo nke ido-ka-nwa-nwoke, nke ayi neti nkpu nime ya, si aba, nna back translation: because you did not receive the spirit of slaves to fear again; but you have received the spirit of sons by whom we cry aba father. in romans 18:15, where “abba father” was unable to be translated rather it was translated as “abba nna” in the bible nso version. the meaning of “abba” still remain a mystry to igbo speakers. but according to bible dictionary , “abba” is aramaic word for father. only used by jews where both parents of a real son were jews, or of a proselyte of the convenant. not used when the mother was a slave.also according to new concise bible dictionary , “abba” means aramaic word for ‘father’ conveying both warm intimacy and respect; never used by jews for god. but jesus applied it to god (mark. 14:36); paul saw it as a symbol of a christian’s adoption as a child of god (romans 8:15, galatians 4:6) (‘complete christian dictionary’’) from the above definitions one will understand that “abba” means ‘real father’, or intimacy which can be represented in igbo as ‘mu’.so in igbo translation the word “abba father” supposes to be ‘nna m’ or ‘nna murum’. again, one may argue that the reason for lifting the ‘abba’ is to avoid fidelity erosion, but nevertheless, the target language audience now views the word as a proper name for god, whereas, the word is a determiner to the word ‘father’ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 chinweuba 144 which the jews use for their biological father. but jesus christ used it for god to show the world that god is his biological father. then in adoption, according to paul, we see god as our real father. linguistic problems culture will not be entirely left out in analysing this linguistic problem, as it has roles to play in shaping the language of the people. under this linguistic problem, the selected verses will be categorized and analyzed to answer the research question. the categories include; ambiguity, limited vocabulary, word orderand figurative expressions. 1. limited vocabulary/ lexical mismatch understandably, there are languages that are richer in vocabulary than other. the igbo language comprises far fewer words than english. according to steve frank, the author of the pen commandments claims that english has 500,000 words with german having about 135, 000 and french having fewer than 100,000. although, if it is counted by the number of words in dictionary, korean will be the highest with about 1,100,373 words. now looking at how limited vocabularies affect translation, it is obvious that when a source language is richer than the target language, it is always difficult to translate, sometimes the translator ends up loaning words or use a whole lot of sentence in translating one word. many times it results to fidelity erosion. ingalatians 5:21, “revelling” and “ite-egwu” are two words to be considered. the bible nso version translated ‘revelling’ as ‘ite-egwu’ which can be back translated as just ‘dance’. “revelling” or orgies in another word is a type of dance which can be called “seductive dance” and can be likened to “partying”. the dictionary meaning of “revelling” is a wild drunken festivity, especially one at which indiscriminate sexual activity takes place which also involves dancing. so if ‘revelling’ is a type of dance the igbo translation for it should not be “ite-egwu”(dance), but there is no vocabulary in igbo language that will be equivalent to the english word. so it becomes a problem. in the igbo translation. while the english translation is talking about a particular type of dance,the igbo version generalised it. the cause of this mistranlation is limited vocabulary. the igbo language does not have a word for “revelling” as type of dance, and to an igbo speaker the bible says “do not dance”. this fidelity erosion has formed a doctrine among igbo rural communities where english bible is rarely read, of which the only translation they use is igbo translation.though one may not blame dennis who had already justified himself by saying that the “poverty” of the language is one of the difficulties they encountered during the translation, (christian missionary review, 1983). the poverty he meant was poverty of vocabularies. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 chinweuba 145 2. ambiguity john chapter 3:16 shows the ambiguity of the word ‘so’. the word ‘so’ can mean more than one thing in english language, it can be (a) “such an extent” (adverb) as in “why are you so angry”, and can also mean (b) ‘as previously mentioned or described’ as in “i think so”. in the context of the bible passage the word “so” means “a great degree”, which can also means “ very much”.there is a probable washing away of meaning in the back translation, caused by ambiguity of the word ‘so’. looking at the sentences in the igbo version which says thus: “n ihi na chineke huru uwa n’ anya otua...”, one will find “so” being translated as “otua”, of which if translated back to english will mean “like this” while the right translation should be “nke ukwu” which means “very much” or “so much” in english. though some may argue that the ‘so’ in the verse is not an adverb of manner but a pointer or demonstrative word to ‘that he gave his only begotten son...’ but whichever way the ambiguity of the word has posed a problem to the translator.the right translation should be “nihi an chineke huru uwa n’ anya ke ukwu” instead of “nihi na chineke huru uwa n’anya otua”. but nevertheless, ambiguity gives room for argument. 3. word order/ structural mismatch according to ajunwa (159), word order is the arrangement of words in a sentence in terms of their lexical and structural interrelations. he further opines that no two languages are so close as to be lexically and syntactically identical. in the other hand, structural mismatch occurs where two languages use the same construction for different purpose, or use different construction for the same purpose. since every language has its unique way of constructing sentence, the problem is whether the target language will be faithful to the source and still retain its uniqueness or lose some meanings in the process of trying to be unique in its construction psalm chapter 23:1 king james version: the lord is my shepherd; i shall not want igbo translation: jehovah bu onye nazum dika aturu; o dighi ihe korom back translation: jehovah is the one that feeds me like sheep; i lack nothing. in psalm 23:1, ‘the lord is my shepherd, i shall not want’ is translated as ‘jehovah bu onye nazum dika aturu’ o dighi ihe korom’. the two languages do not have same construction of sentence but they term to serve the same purpose. the only likely problem is that during back translation to english ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 chinweuba 146 there will be fidelity of erosion as we have here. the back translation of the igbo version now read thus; ‘jehovah is the one who feeds me like sheep, there is nothing i lack’. the two notable things in this back translation are that firstly, the word ‘shepherd’ was not translated in one word. the clause ‘the lord is my shepherd’ is not entirely the same with ‘jehovah is the one that feeds me like sheep’ because the original version is metaphor while the back translation is simile. dennis in his unique way presented the verse in simile and in the process filtered the meaning. the argument may arise that someone may feed you like sheep but not your shepherd. now, in the igbo translation as reflected on the back translation, the attention has been shifted from ‘the lord as the shepherd’ to the manner in which he is being fed. in other words; it changes from apposition to adverb. the closest option in igbo to this translation should be ‘onye nwem bu onye ozuzu aturu m’. secondly, the latter clause ‘i shall not want’ actually changes tense in the igbo translation which is back translated as ‘i lack nothing’. on a careful observation, one will understand that the original text is futuristic while the back translation is present situation. one may not actually be lacking now, but may lack in future. the writer has assurance that as god is his shepherd he will not lack anything. again, romans 12:10 presents us with yet another situation where by the underlined clause ‘preferring one another’ is translated as ‘nacharanu ibe-unu uzo’, which when back translated it will be; ‘make way for another’ has to with structural mismatch. the reason for this erosion may be given to the fact that the word ‘preferring’ is context bound and unique to the language. in the context, according concise bible dictionary means ‘to go before or show the way’. in other words, the verse interpretation is to point that ‘you should be the first to show respect or honour’. the igbo translation tries to go with the same word order as the english version and on the process produced another thing all together. ‘nacharanu ibe-unu uzo,’ as translated in bible nso, means to make way for another as in when someone wants to pass through a direction you are. trying to transliterate exactly the word order of the source language may do the meaning a lot of damage or produce what the target language audience may find difficult to comprehend as seen in this verse. figurative expressions figurative expressions and metaphorical expressions are strictly culturebound. absolute understanding of both languages will help the translator to know the equivalent expression to be used. for instance, the igbo culture sees tortoise as the ‘trickster’ while ghanian culture sees anansi the spider and in north american coyote and the raven are seen as the trickster. also in ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 chinweuba 147 europe and south and central america the trickster can be fox or wolf. therefore, to tell an igbo person that ‘obi is a tortoise’ will bring to his sense that obi is a trickster and will not have same effect to a ghanian or an american. (wikipedia, par 7) in mark 10:25, ‘camel’ wasn’t translated and the phrase ‘eye of a needle’ was a merely transliterated as ‘anya agiga’. also the whole expression is figurative and so culturally sensitive. firstly we should know that camel is an animal that carries loads and mostly found in asia, especially in palestine desert area. secondly, eye of a needle according to history from manners and customs of the palestine, the ‘eye of a needle’ was a narrow gateway into jerusalem. since camels were heavily loaded with goods and riders, they would need to be un-loaded in order to pass through. therefore, the analogy is that a rich man would have to similarly unload his material possessions in order to enter heaven. remember that jesus said this after he told a rich man who came to visit him to sell all he has and share to the poor. the ‘eye of a needle’ is metaphorical expression common among the palestine area. most theologians are made to study the manners and custom of the palestine where the bible culture is set for proper interpretation. same goes to translators. if eye of a needle is not literary the needle in which we use to pass thread through cloths, then transliterating it as seen in the bible nso will affect the meaning and thus wash out some meaning. a translator will be said to have failed if his translation could not have same effect as in the source language culture. conclusion the study has shown that some words and phrases could not make sense to the target community because the translators may have wanted to stay faithful to the word-order and some linguistic uniqueness of the source language. some fidelity erosions that occured in the translation of the igbo bible(bible nso) were as a result of little knowledge and mastery of igbo culture and its language by the translator(dennis john thomas). most of the fidelity erosions caused by different translation problems such as cultural differences, ambiguity, limited vocabularies, figurative expressions and unique structure of the source language are technically avoidable. for instance, the ambiguity of ‘jehovah bu onye n’azum dika aturu’ (jehovah is the one that feeds me like sheep) would have been avoidable, had the translator used the right word for ‘shepherd’ which is ‘onye ozuzu aturu’, then it will be ‘chineke bu onye ozuzu aturu m’ (the lord is my shepherd). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 chinweuba 148 the causes of fidelity of erosion shouldn’t be taken lightly in the process of translating because most of them have the capacity to destroy the sense of a given work of source language. ajunwa (25) submits that it is dangerous to toy with translation operations because it could result into embarrassing and, at time, fatal consequences. the main focus of this research as previously mentioned, is to show that there are some fidelity of erosions in the translation of the igbo bible through applying back translation to english language which is the source language. the research also highlighted the causes of these erosions which formed the topic of this research: cultural and linguistic problems of translation. works cited ajunwa, e.a. textbook of translation: theory and practice enovic limited, 2014. print. a-z: new concise bible dictionary, leicester: inter-versity press 1989. print. baker, m. in other words: a course book on translation: london/new york: rout ledge, 1997. print. baker, m. the routledge encyclopaedia of translation studies london/new york: rout ledge, 1997. print. basssnet, s. & trivedi, h. (eds.) post-colonial translation: theory and practice, london and new york: web bible nso: the holy bible in igbo, union version. glasgow: omma books limited, 2001. print brrch, d. languages, literature, and critical practices: ways of analysing text, london and new york: poutledge 1989. print chapman, s. thinking about languages, theories of english: palgrave macruillian, new york, 2006. web chima, a. tomorrow is uncertain: today is commentator and critic. http://www.columtia.edu/../speech.intml.2017.web catford. j.c.a. linguistics theory of translation, london: oxford university, 1965. web dimitrui, r. theories and practice of translation, iasi: institutional european. 1984. web enrique. b. a. cognitive view on the role of culture in translation, matrid: complutense university publication. 2013. web halliday, m.a.k. ‘’linguistics and machine translation’’, in mcintosh, a. & m.a.k halliday (eds), patterns of language: papers in general, descriptive and applied linguistics, london: longmans. 1960. print kesparek. the translators endless toil, london foreman and company. 1988. web komissarou, v.n. language and culture in translation: competitors or collaborators? vol.4, eds association canadiennede traductologie. canada numero. 1991. web http://www.columtia.edu/speech.intml.2017.web ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 chinweuba 149 munday, j. introducing translation studies, london: routledge, 2001. print. oraka, l.n. the foundation of igbo studies; university publishing co.1983. print spring translation: metaphrase and paraphrase: glenvien illinois london, canbudge university publication. 2013. web the complete christian dictionary for home and school califonia. international bible society. 1990. print jungwha.c. the interpretive theory of translation and its current application: interpretation studies, japan association of interpretation studies,2003. web ‘christian missionary review’’. wikipedia 18 july 2019 <http://en.wikipedia.or/wiki/christian_missinary_review> ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 84 the entrapped females of nawal el saadawi’s god dies by the nile onyekachi georgeline oge-chimezie department of english language & literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: georgelionyi@yahoo.com abstract fictional texts have gone far beyond the portrayal of authors’ concerns. they are viable sites for academic research. an aspect of these concerns worth being researched into focuses on increasing number of issues about the female members of society: the young and the old, the educated and the uneducated. growing up in a society rooted in patriarchal norms, some female characters in nawal el saadawi’s god dies by the nile go through devastating experiences. employing the psychoanalytic theory, this study examines the nature of the struggles of these female characters, their various forms of entrapment as portrayed in the selected text and what informs their behavior in relation to their social, cultural, political and economic contexts. the study finds out the devastating traumatic effects of these experiences on the minds of the female characters, the emergence of various personalities and the aftermath behavioural output. the female characters’ emotional and mental disconnections with themselves and with society as a result of their traumatic experiences are equally highlighted thereby creating awareness about the complex nature of life. keywords: trauma, patriarchy, psychoanalytical theory mailto:georgelionyi@yahoo.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 85 introduction the history of the african female who has gone through patriarchy, colonization and racism is that of the subjugated; pushed into a certain class and position. she is therefore entrapped, faced with fragmentation, alienation, filled with despair and these adversely affect her personality.as such, entrapment as a result of patriarchal oppression and gender discrimination produce unhealthy environment which leads to psychological and emotional trauma for the female. these are evident in the novel under study. trauma is as a wound upon the mind caused by a painful experience like loss of a loved one, rejection, and racial discrimination. therefore, this paper focuses on the sufferings of the black female as portrayed in the selected novel and theadverse effects on her psyche. the novelselected portrays what laura brown calls the “private, secret, insidious traumas” (102) “that are often experienced by women, girls, and people of color and which result from ongoing humiliation and degradation in interpersonal relationships rather than from a single extraordinary event” (kennedy 89). in this study some characters and socio-cultural factors are examined to see their responses to traumatic experiences. some of the traumatic experiences portrayed in the selected novel take place in childhood. according to judith herman “repeated trauma in adult life erodes the structure of personality already formed, but repeated trauma in childhood forms and deforms personality . . .” (96) as such there is the need to examine the nature of the trauma the victims go through in other to evaluate the impact on their personality. this paper discusses patriarchy as a relevant concept and trauma as resultant effect of patriarchal entrapment. patriarchy ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 86 patriarchy literally means the role of the father and it is derived from the greek word “patriarkhes” meaning “father of a race.” patriarchy therefore refers to rulership by the male head of the family. it is male dominance by any means necessary. hooks bell defines patriarchy as a “political – social system that insists that males are inherently dominating, superior to everything and everyone deemed weak, especially females and endowed with the right to dominate and rule over the weak and to maintain that dominance through various forms of psychological terrorism and violence” (1). similarly, rubaya and gonye are of the view that patriarchy “is the manner in which men as a social group exploit, dominate and oppress women as a social group (61).” in things fall apart which is considered the beginning of african literature, achebe portrays this patriarchal society. okonkwo rules like a god in his home and no one dares to talk or express personal feelings.a patriarchal society is “malecentred and – controlled; organised and conducted in such a way as to subordinate women to men in all cultural domains . . .” (abrahams and harpharm 125). the entrenchment of patriarchal norms into the fabrics of some african communities creates the impression of patriarchy as a religion. over the years, patriarchy has become a system in which males hold primary power in political leadership, social, cultural and religious spheres; where fathers exercise authority over women and children. any society that upholds the rule or governance of males alone is patriarchal. in african setting, fathers and brothers are the custodians of the females’ personality and sexuality. this male-dominated sociocultural life entraps the protagonistand some other female characters in the novel under study leading to psychological trauma and some behavioural problems. psychoanalytic theory ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 87 prior to the 19th century, aristotle evolved a theoretical stand that art, especially tragedy, has the ability to affect the emotion of the reader. he argues that the action to be imitated should be such that can elicit the feelings of pity and fear which lead to catharsis – the purgation of the emotion (1449). aristotle’s theory can be considered a psychological one because it indicates an effect on the emotion. however in 19th century, sigmund freud proposed his psychoanalytic theory which increased the understanding of human personality. in two of his books: studies in hysteria coauthored with joseph breuer (1895) and interpretation of dreams (1899), freud put forth his theories about the working of the human psyche, causes of hysteria, the effect of traumatic experiences and the concept of psychoanalysis. psychoanalysis was coined in 1896 by freud and it refers to a body of ideas he developed in the 1890s in the course of treating his patients. it is a branch of psychology which deals with the investigation and treatment of emotional and behavioural problems through interviews that bring to light events in the patient’s early life. he believes that many of his patients’ problems like anxiety, depression and sexual dysfunction are the results of painful experiences they had gone through, especially as children. he uses psychoanalysis as a therapeutic method for treating mental disorders. this he does by looking into the relationship between conscious and unconscious elements in the patient’s mind thereby bringing into consciousness repressed fears and conflicts through the method of free association and dream interpretation (freud 57). psychoanalytic theory is the theory of personality development and its dynamics. in literature, psychoanalytic criticism is “. . . the study of the psychological types and principles present within works of literature . . .” (wellek and warren 81). it is a ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 88 theory that brings to light hidden aspects of human life and behaviour which writers explore in the characters they create.psychoanalytic theory is used to study characters and societies in a work of art. the critic applying this theory is “interested in the psychological drives of a character and what makes a character to act in certain ways he/she does” (asika 308). thus, psychoanalytic theory is used in the study of the selected novel to examine the subconscious and unconscious elements that motivate some of the female characters. also the repressed memories which psychologically affect some of the female characters are equally examined. patriarchal entrapment in saadawi’s god dies by the nile saadawi portrays the difficult life of the female in a typical patriarchal african society. patriarchy in this novel is consolidated by the cultural, political and religious forces represented by some male characters in the novel. kafr el teen is a village where the majority of the people are peasants exploited by the mayor. the people labor tirelessly to meet the demands of the mayor and in addition to this the women are oppressed by the men in the family and society. the females in god dies by the nile are entrapped by patriarchal laws. they have no voice of their own but only do what the men require willingly or by force: “don’t you know that girls and women never do what they’re told unless you beat them?”(saadawi 27) the patriarchal system constitutes identity crisis for the females who are turned from being individuals who have a mind of their own to robots who do as they are told without reasoning or questioning: “so kafrawi called unto her in a firm voice, ‘you, nefissa, come down here at once’ but nefissa showed no signs of doing what he told her, so he clambered to the top of the oven, struck her several times and tugged at her hair until she was obliged to come down. he handed her over to ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 89 sheikh zahran in silence” (saadawi 28). the fear of the mayor has traumatised twelve year old nefissa right from childhood such that the mere mention of his name sends a shiver through her body and on sighting him in the village, she runs away and hides. when her father tells her she will be taken to the mayor’s house “that night, she could not sleep a wink” (saadawi 26). she is forced into the mayor’s house where she is raped and gets pregnant. trauma here is depicted as a forceful invasion into the personal and emotional life of young nefissa who becomes devastated and in reaction abandons her baby and runs away. such an action is expected because according to psychoanalytic theory certain devastating experiences which are repressed can influence a bizarre action. one imagines what the life of a young girl without a sense of belonging, a family to run to, a means of livelihood, a shattered identity and in a strange land will look like. nefissa’s younger sister zeinab is also caught in this wave of patriarchal entrapment fortified by religion and politics. initially, she keeps her shoulders high and fights against oppression by the mayor but later comes to a zero point when her husband is unjustly sent to prison. the trauma of her sister’s disappearance, her father’s imprisonment and aunt’s failing health render her a prey to religious deception. haj ismail, one of the mayor’s oppressive tools convinces zeinab through an arranged prophecy with a holy man at “sayeda zeinab” (a mosque) that working in the mayor’s house is god’s requirement for her aunt’s cure and she agrees to this. adrienne rich as quoted by shihada isam states that “patriarchy is the power of ideological, political system in which men by force, direct pressure, or through ritual, tradition, law, and language, customs, etiquette, education, and the division of labor, determine what part women shall or shall not play, and in which the female is everywhere subsumed under ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 90 the male” ( 167). the outcome for zeinab is that she is raped and repeatedly exploited sexually by the mayor. she like her sister goes through distorted identity; torn between being herself and being the mayor’s plaything and sexual object. like her sister, she runs away from kafr el teen to bab el hadeed where she frantically searches for permission to visit her husband. when she exhausts all possibilities, she goes into prostitution. her identity changes from that of a well mannered hardworking girl with a sense of good judgment to a cheap prostitute. the decisions and actions of these two sisters are the resultant effects of their gruesome experiences. all this while, zakeya keenly observes the trend of events as a little girl growing up in her father’s house. she watches as her mother was maltreated and mourns from the time “her father struck her mother on the head because she had not borne him the son he expected” (saadawi 95) to the time “she developed two breasts which the menfolk would pinch when there was nobody around to prevent them” (saadawi 95). as a married woman she has gone through the trauma of patriarchal oppression at the family and social levels. she is physically and emotionally battered by her husband and experienced the trauma of losing fifteen children: “. . . for it was like that. every time a son of hers died he would strike out at her blindly, and beat her up with anything he could lay his hands on. and the same thing would happen whenever she gave birth to a daughter. she had given birth to ten sons and six daughters – but the only child who had lived to grow up is galal” (saadawi 89). she further says that “. . . her husband abdel moneim would beat her with a stick, then climb on her and bear down on her chest with all his weight (saadawi 95). zakeya watches as her son and only hope is abducted into the army. she endures as her niece nefissa, is forcefully taken by ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 91 the mayor. she is helpless when the mayor takes zienab, her remaining niece and again she could do nothing to stop him. zakeya is one female with too many troubles and traumas in the novel. the effects of trauma and pain reflect in her strides and physical outlook. saadawi describes her thus: “a tall upright shadow slipped through and advanced on two legs with a powerful steady stride …. the lips were tightly closed, resolute, as though no word could pass through them. the large, wide-open eyes fixed on the horizon expressed an angry defiance” (1). almost consumed by anger which is an effect of trauma zakeya pours her strength into her farm work: and the blows of her hoe seemed to echo with an anger buried deep down as she lifted it high up in the air and swung it down with all her might into the soil …. they went on with a steady thud, thud, thud, echoing in the neighbouring fields throughout the day almost inhuman, relentless, and frightening in the fury of their power. even at midday, when the men broke off for a meal and an hour of rest, they went on without a stop (saadawi 3). she works furiously from dawn to dusk yet the pain and anger in her do not go away. according to sigmund freud “symptoms of hysteria are the result of unresolved but forgotten traumas from childhood” (quoted in dobbie 51). the traumatic experiences of the past which are stored in her unconscious return to haunt her in form of nightmares. in the novel are dreams that expressed her childhood memories of the iron gate (a symbol of oppression), her marital experiences and the memories of her son. according to psychoanalytic theory, nightmarish dreams are expected in the life of a traumatized person: “the traumatic moment becomes ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 92 encoded in an abnormal form of memory, which breaks spontaneously into consciousness, both as flashbacks during waking states and as traumatic nightmares during sleep” (herman 37). furthermore, her repressed memories bounce back and affect her behaviour. zakeya’s behaviour becomes strange. she “still squatted on the ground, in the same place. she would close her eyes, then open them, then close them again . . . she would open her eyes in terror, and look at faces gathered around her” (saadawi 90). her niece frantically calls for exorcism through religious rituals and prayers “but the devil refused to leave zakeya’s body” (saadawi 97) because it is not the devil after all. it is what psychoanalytic theory call dissociation, an altered state of consciousness induced by trauma. zakeya has witnessed a lot of violence and “in each instance, the salient characteristic of the traumatic event is its power to inspire helplessness and terror” (herman 34). these are evident in zakeya’s behavior: “her eyes kept turning this way and that with a frightened look. ‘zeinab, my child, do not leave me alone. i am frightened. the devils are looking at me from behind the bars of the window’. zakeya would catch the hold of zeinab’s galabeya. ‘no, zeinab, don’t leave me alone” (saadawi 98). this behavior is recognized in trauma as hyperarousal, a symptom of post traumatic stress disorder (ptsd). sometimes when an individual goes through a traumatic experience “the human system of self preservation seems to go onto permanent alert, as if the danger might return at any moment . . . . the traumatized person startles easily, reacts irritably to smell, provocations, and sleeps poorly” (herman 35). zakeya is therefore in a state of constant vigilance for the return of danger. later, zakeya is forced into constriction by religion. constriction is a consequence of trauma; a state of surrender, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 93 complete powerlessness where “the system of self-defense shuts down entirely. [it is] paradoxically a state of detached calm, in which terror, rage and pain dissolve” (herman 42). zeinab and zakeya are forced by religion to believe that zakeya’s healing will only come by their surrender to the oppressive demands of the mayor. as such, zeinab is raped by the mayor and is sexually exploited repeatedly yet she and zakeya, her aunt accept it as the only way by which zakeya will be healed. herman further explains that in the state of constriction, “events continue to register in awareness, but it is as though these events have been disconnected from their ordinary meanings” (42-43). the meaning of what would have otherwise been a grievous crime changes to a saving/healing tool. in this state, there is a “feeling of indifference, emotional detachment, and profound passivity in which the person relinquishes all initiative and struggle” (herman 43). one could say that zakeya and zeinab were more or less hypnotized. on the surface they appear calm and detached from the oppressive environment and activities but underlying in them are the unforgotten traumatic experiences and hurts. when galal, zakeya’s son returns from the army zakeya seems to springs back to life and in a short while narrates all the ordeals to her son. according to psychoanalytic theory, bringing into consciousness certain repressed fears, conflicts and experiences through talking about them is a big tool for healing the hurt. the power of healing lies in speaking the unspeakable. galal, the “healing balm” marries zainab and brings back love and security for his wife and mother. however, this is shortlived as the mayor’s ruthless and oppressive hand falls on galal. like kafrawi, his uncle he is framed-up for theft and sent to prison. according to sigmund freud “symptoms of hysteria are the result of unresolved but forgotten traumas from childhood” ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 94 (quoted in dobbie 51). this means that certain painful and threatening experiences can be repressed in the unconscious but not forgiven and sooner or later they inform an action. at this point all the traumatic experiences and hurts which were repressed into the unconscious memories of zakeya during the constriction period bounce back. she waits for the emergence of the mayor through the iron gate. when he does, she murders him in a rage. he who destroyed her entire family does not deserve to live. the word “god” in the title of the novel symbolizes owner of all; the one who decides if you will live or die: “. . . the mayor is a god and no one could punish him” (saadawi vii) so zakeya ensures she dethrones the god of kafr el teen. conclusion the analysis above establishes that memory and the way we account for our experiences go a long way to influence our behaviour. although at early childhood the child may seem to be untouched by the grief and pains of negative experiences, as time goes on their effects begin to emerge through the behaviour of the child. bearing this in mind the question is: who decides what is befitting for the girl-child who eventually becomes the mother tomorrow? in explaining the dynamics of her protagonist’s psyche head portrays domestic violence in the novels which eventually leads to psychological trauma. the psychological and behavioural problems as a result of the oppression of the female examined in this paper should alert society, parents and care-givers to give room for equal opportunities, self expression and peaceful coexistence of male and female children. this will enhance the journey towards discovering one’s authentic self (personality) and when this is achieved, one becomes confident and bold enough to face life. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 95 works cited abrahams, m. h. and harpham georffrey galt. a glossary of literary terms. 11th ed., cengage learning, 2015. asika, ikechukwu e. literary appreciation. scoa heritage, 2015. brown, laura s. “not outside the range: one feminist perspective on psychic trauma.” trauma: explorations in memory. edited by cathy caruth, johns hopkins up, 1995. dobbie, ann b. theory into practice. 2nd ed., wadsworth cengage learning, 2009. freud, sigmund. a general introduction to psychoanalysis. translated by stanley hall g., boni and liveright, 1920. herman, judith lewis. trauma and recovery. harper collins, 1992. hooks, bell. “understanding patriarchy.” no borders: louisville’s radical lending library. accessed 12 september, 2017. kennedy, rosanne. “mortgaged futures: trauma, subjectivity, and legacies of colonialism in tsitsi dangarembga’s the book of not”. studies in the novel, vol. 40, no. 1&2, 2008, pp. 86-107. accessed 16 march 2018. rubaya, clemence and gonye jairos. “the thrid sex: a paradox of patriarchal oppression of the weaker man.” journal of english and literature, vol. 2, no. 3, 2011, pp. 60-67. saadawi, nalwa el. god dies by the nile. zed books, 1985. wallek, rene and warren, austin. theory of literature. hacort brace jovanovich, 1975. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 56 ogbazi & amah sexual assault and the female experience: a feminist reading of jude dibia’s unbridled prof. ifeyinwa ogbazi department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: ij.ogbazi@unizik.edu.ng & uche chinwe amah department of general studies anambra state polytechnic, mgbakwu. email: amahuche92@gmail.com abstract this paper is a critical reading of jude dibia’s unbridled from feminist ideological perspective. dibia deals with the issue of sexual assault and its attendant consequences on the female character. a systematic and critical approach adopted in this study unraveled the different causes, forms and consequences of sexual assault and violation of female character in literary works. the theoretical framework adopted for this study is african feminist theory. the paper established that the female folks have suffered sexual assault and violation from the male folks in african society and that some men derive pleasure in abusing women. besides, family background, poverty, and quest for survival expose these women to violation because men take advantage of them in such a helpless situation. the researcher did a critical analysis of the source text. keywords: sexual assault, violence, exploitation, african feminism introduction sexual assault and violation of women is a devastating social problem in the world today. it is a problem that still exists in present day society. the fact that we live in a modern world with monumental technological advancement has not changed the grim reality that women are discriminated against and suppressed because of the patriarchal moulded structures. the cultural beliefs, traditions and religions of most societies give more attention to patriarchy, thereby ensuring the continuation of the domination and repression of women. sexual assault is intimidation, bullying or coercion of a sexual nature. it may also be defined as the unwelcome or inappropriate promise of rewards in exchange for sexual favours. the legal and social definition of what constitutes sexual harassment differs widely by culture. it includes a wide range of behaviour from seemingly mild transgressions to serious forms of abuse. some forms of sexual harassment overlap with sexual assault. women are traditionally regarded as mere tools of necessity; housewives, child bearers, home tenders and gratifiers of men’s sexual passions. they are left out of decision-making processes in their communities. there are even certain things women are not supposed to do, which are reserved exclusively for men. in the society, women were consistently bruised and brutalized. this was mostly imposed on them by their male counterparts. women are regarded as the weaker vessels and also as sex objects and political pawns in the games played by men. according to odinye, the above views “violate their rights as humans and encourage domination and oppressive control which could result to physical injuries, psychological or mental problems” (2). to showcase their commitment to the feminist cause, many writers/activists use their works as platforms to critique patriarchal and sexist values in society that propagate issues such as “… female subjugation, psychological brutality, individual inferiorisation and exclusion on gender lines” (uko, 2006, p. 82). to ezenweke (2011) in her book a hindrance to women potentials "women have suffered tremendous marginalization and show of superiority complex in the past, a traditional orientation of many cultures of the world testifies to this assertion" (2). in this regard, she indicates that women's problems vary in the impact of negative cultural practices. women’s potentials have unfortunately mailto:amahuche92@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 57 ogbazi & amah been limited and have not fully been tapped because of socio-cultural prejudices and practices. jude dibia’s unbriddled is aimed at examining aspects of sexual assault and violation which have eaten up the conscience of certain individuals in the country. african feminist theory as a theoretical tool theoretical framework consists of concepts, definitions, approaches or theories that are employed for different studies. for the issue of sexual assault and the female experience in dibia’s unbridled, african feminism has been adopted as an appropriate theoretical framework. feminism in the african context, according to ogundipe-leslie (2007), “is not calling for a reversal of gender roles, and it is not a call for a particular sexual orientation; neither is it in opposition to men and african culture.”(7). african feminism recognizes the existence of other forms of feminism such as liberal feminism, radical feminism, marxist feminism, cultural feminism and islamic feminism. african feminism, according to ogundipe-leslie (2007) is “a kind of red flag to the bull of african men” (8). african feminism, therefore, calls for the overhauling and amelioration of the conditions of women in which women will be economically, politically and socially empowered to enable them to be involved in the societal transformation without compromising their motherhood and recognizing their biological and reproductive rights. although this view is also shared by other forms of feminism, african feminism lays more emphasis on the complementary roles of both genders in enhancing societal growth and development in addition to the welfare of women. mekegwe (2008) defines african feminism, while acknowledging the complexities that surround the linguistic and socio-cultural realities of african women, as “a discourse that takes care to delineate those concerns peculiar to the african situation. it also questions features of traditional african values without denigrating them, understanding that these might be viewed differently to the different classes of women” (10). that is the concern of olomojobi (2013) when he says that african feminism is concerned with african nuances without disparaging them in view of the various socio-economic classes and socio-cultural backgrounds that define the identities of the african women. he says that: african feminism rests on the notion that women in africa are socially constructed by different cultural components. . . . the theory attempts to shift away from misleading notions of equating western values with non-western societies. the point to bear in mind is that african women have different identities and primordial attachment to region and cultural determinants than women from western societies (11). one of the main objectives of african feminism, according to omolojobi, is to dismantle the current atmosphere of domination and then transform the concept of gender roles in african societies in order to improve the conditions of african women. in his conceptualization of african feminism, badeji shows that “womanness” is the center of african feminism. in addition, he describes the relationship between power and femininity as mutual. he also captures other features of african feminism thus: african feminism embraces femininity, beauty, power, serenity, inner harmony, and a complex matrix of power. it is always poised and centered in womanness. it demonstrates that power and femininity are intertwined rather than antithetical. african femininity complements african masculinity, and defends both with the ferocity of the lioness while simultaneously seeking male defense of both as critical, demonstrable, and mutually obligatory. (13) african feminism critically interrogates gender discrimination from the african perspective with a view to elevating the roles of african women who are seen traditionally as the carriers of societal encumbrances and whose roles must be made complementary to the roles of the men. it is only in this context that african women can be liberated from the socio-cultural, patriarchal and phallo-centric shackles that have tied them down for long, without which the entire african continent will remain in bondage. this theory is apposite for this paper because it condemns and opposes all forms of gender discrimination and prejudices experienced by african women. it also recognizes the biological and motherly roles of women which do not inhibit them from participating in societal transformation as men do. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 58 ogbazi & amah sexual assault and violation of the female character in jude dibia’s unbridled the novelist, through his work aptly illustrates the typical african female experiences mediated by patriarchal practices. one of such practices is sexual assault; a practice so ancient yet essentially fuelled and driven by male desire. rape is also a crime of violence and control against the female gender. ebony explains that “rape is an expression of sexual aggression rather than an expression of sexuality. rape is rooted in non-sexual motivation in the psychology of the offender; it is tied to hostility and anger and the need to exert power and control” (16). ngozi the fictional character is a victim of sexual assault and violation through rape. as a daughter born to mr. and mrs. akachi from ezi village in former bendel state, her birth was heralded by the heavy rain that fateful night in the entire village and got children running outside in anticipation of dancing in the rain, the entire village and elders believed her birth is tied to the rain, hence they summoned and warned her father thus: ‘’… be careful of that daughter of yours. the gods must have been angry when she was conceived, hence the catastrophic rain” (unbridled, 147). this accusation and superstitious belief, makes her live a life filled with guilt. she is looked at as evil. the parents also see her as different too, especially her father. ngozi was a victim or incest and sexual molestation. she was raped by a man she called father at a very tender age. as she narrated her experience with such innocence thus: i felt i was being watched. i could sense an eerie presence that felt like invincible weight on me. my inner spirit stirred disturbed. i opened my eyes and immediately noticed my father by the doorway starring at me. not long after, mother departed. i was about to drift off again (sleep off). his eyes were like i had never seen them before. they looked hungry. not hungry for food, hungry for something else. i quickly noticed that his loincloth stood unnaturally at attention. was that a staff he did beneath his cloth? i dare not ask. i sat up as he entered the room. he just kept starring at me like i was some ripe fruit or sumptuous meal waiting to be devoured (unbridled, 148). child rape is particularly horrifying and cruel because the very people who should be nurturing and protecting the best interest of the child such as relatives, members of the household, family friends, neighbours and others into whose care they are entrusted, are the ones who abuse them. in ngozi’s case, it was her father, a man who was supposed to protect her. she screamed: “papa can i help you with anything?” he barked at her: “mechie onu i-shut your mouth. i’m not your father. you are a spirit child. you are not my daughter” (unbridled, 148). he pounced on ngozi, ripped off her wrapper, pinned her to the raffia mat on the floor, and sucked her breasts, biting hard on the nipples, parting her tiny legs and stinging his way inside her. he deflowered his own daughter at the age of thirteen, the very night the wife left to assist the younger sister who was to be wedded. ngozi’s traumatic experience can be summed up by matlin's observation that, although the reactions of victims are many and diverse depending on the nature of the attack they are subjected to, “almost all women who have been raped report that they were terrified, repulsed, confused, overwhelmed, and anxious during the time they were being raped… (and) some also feel detachment from their own body (matlin 2004). ngozi was so terrified and confused getting deflowered at the age of thirteen by her own father. on the other way round, the mother sees her as special and while plaiting her hair whispers into her ear: “no one is as fair as you in this family. you can see that we are all very dark – i, your father, even your brother and sister” (unbridled, 144). ngozi’s mother who was supposed to be her closest friend was too busy to notice that her daughter was being violated by her husband. and when she noticed, she couldn’t confront her husband for the fear of being seen as confrontational. deflowering her was not the last of her evil visitations. whenever her mother was away and she is home alone, he molests her and he also made sure she is home as often as is possible. the brother also knew but mentions it not. she decides to confront nnamdi concerning her father’s visits: “nnamdi, i have to talk to you about papa… papa hurts me.” and the reply he got from ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 59 ogbazi & amah nnamdi is: “shut up, it is not a woman’s place to complain about her father” (unbridled, 151). his brother’s reply clearly reveals the typical chauvinism of the dominant african male who believes the woman's place is beneath him; as such she dares not question his decisions or actions irrespective of how vile they are. the negative reaction ngozi is subjected to, especially by her own brother, is particularly damaging. she has no say and this makes her lose her respect for her brother and all men. it dawned on her that nnamdi was like his father; he was a man. she still wondered if he was protecting her father or if he was just too much a coward to challenge him, and this is the genesis of the movement to lagos. ngozi’s new friends do not fail to narrate their ordeals which are somewhat similar to ngozi’s. princess narrates how she was raped, beaten and made to participate in a fetish ritual, where she, along with several other young ladies, took blood oaths not to ever betray their madam who is involved in human trafficking to the police or anyone else. princess also cried bitterly when: “… she had clients to service and after the clients complain about her unwillingness to perform certain sexual acts to her pimp, she would get a violent beating that left her bruised and swollen for days”(unbridled, 32). these rapes and defilements take center stage in dibia’s rendition. many of the ladies are forced to indulge in sex though unwillingly. many are intimidated into it; while a few, willingly gave in for fear of violence or hardship, and are regarded by the people as “greedy” or “sabo” meaning saboteur. however, many of the victims involved in the human trafficking tried consoling her, telling her that she was lucky to be just servicing clients, because the ugly girls who were brought over, and whom no one wanted sexually, always disappeared. these girls ended up being organ donors. right from the train station, ngozi akachi, whom james, her internet partner, refers to as “erika” is being violated. in narrator’s, “he was pressed against me with his free hand squeezing my buttocks and i was sure more than one passenger observed us. i was not used to this kind of public display and i wasn’t okay with it. his hand was squeezing my buttocks and i wanted to push him away” (unbridled, 11). on arrival to james’ home in belham close, she receives another portion of sexual violation thus: “james pulled me further in as he shut the door behind him. he dropped my luggage by the side of the stairs that led up to rooms, i tired saying something, but he grabbed me and began kissing me. i was shocked” (unbridled, 17). now called erika, ngozi akachi’s welcome is filled with activities she never envisaged. all her expectations from her internet british husband are falsehood. he never received a cheque of over $20, 000 from his father as part of his trust fund. he lied all the while. he is much younger than he claims. she was further embarrassed by james’ roommates who move about naked in the room: “in front of me was a naked man like a sponge soaking up water; i took in all his nakedness, the almost hairless body of this full-grown adult man. it was thomas” (unbridled, 59). thomas and providence are james’ roommates and they sometimes act same as jamessociopath. instead of showing remorse, thomas rather winks at erika and flaunts his nakedness in her face. she couldn’t help but: “think that he was trying to convey a message to me. and then she saw his very action pointed like his penis to the fact that he was a man and he believed he was the superior being. how arrogant men are! how vulnerable i was! he may have been nude but i was the naked one” (unbridled, 65). matlin (2004) posits: “sexual assault, includes sexual touching and other forms of unwanted sexual contact, which may be accompanied by psychological pressure and coercion or by physical threats” (17). unfortunately, providence did not condemn thomas; rather he applauds him for his precariousness. as the novelist says, erica was violated, both legally and illegally severally by james: in no time, he was by my side kissing me and fiddling with my bra. i was soon naked before him; the only noise he made was grunting and ejaculating expletives while he jabbed at my insides with his withering prick…. and when he was done, he rolled over and slept, leaving me forgotten, naked and alone (unbriddled, 35). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 60 ogbazi & amah after this shocking experience, it dawned on her that: “women surrender to men; they lose all forms of their individual identity and become powerless, stripped of every vestige of their womanhood and left feeling naked” (unbridled, 35). jude dibia uses his main character, ngozi, to expose the predicaments of women in our society; a society where women are relegated to the background and made to undergo difficulties. women are seen as objects of sexual gratification. the ladies that took ngozi in when her aunt sent her out had their share of men’s unfair attitude; hence, uloma’s worries for her age-long relationship with pius to end in marriage. she spats, “all i want from him is to marry him and have his child.” pius cheats on uloma with his time; he prefers spending it with union buddies than with her (unbridled, 72). yet, she fights and receives strokes of cane from the police to protect him. bessie, erika’s ghanaian neighbour in london, also got her own share of violation by her husband. and advises: “the problem isn’t marrying a white man…..it isn’t even the motivation for marrying one.” bessie said, “the problem is men” (unbridled, 88). she continues: “we (women) are the chameleons. men don’t change, especially not for women, but women are always making adjustments and change to suit men” (unbriddled, 88). bessie tries as much as she could to inculcate independence from men into erika but she never concurred because her voice is still missing. bessie represents that voice which speaks and struggles for the rights of her sex to express themselves as artists and intellectuals, and to make a career of this. erika’s mother even when she knows that her husband defiles their daughter, remains silent in order to protect her marriage, home and husband. she never exposed or cautioned him. she remains silent just like every other property in the house that is witnesses to this evil. this is based on the belief that it is not in the place of women to question men. they are meant to be seen and not heard. this nigerian, providence, ngozi meets at london gives her the assurance that some men still respect women. however, ngozi resolves: “i have finally found my voice”. the email from princess and messages from home concerning her father’s death motivated her to leave london for home, ezi village, and at last speak her truths with everyone. she opened up-her real living conditions with james in london to uloma and how her father raped her severally to her mother. her mother and nnamdi knew all this while and said or did nothing. she speaks out fearlessly for once, unbridled. conclusion the researcher has been able to use the text to develop some common assumptions about sexual assault in women: for example, it is clear that this author do not view sexual violence against women as a natural phenomenon nor as one which should be tolerated in deference to “african tradition”. it became clear that the novel rarely showed sexual abuse against women in contexts where men were strangers to the women. as might be expected, where female characters were physically beaten was located in marital and marital-like relationships. however, this was also the case with rape, perhaps less likely to be thought of as located here. one of the common rape myths is seeing women as being in the “wrong” place, dressing inappropriately, or indulging in provocative behaviour. however, female characters in the text were usually raped by known men – employers, relatives, husbands/boyfriends or aspiring husbands/boyfriends. thus, the male characters who perpetrate this act are not represented by the authors as abnormal individuals who randomly attack women. this implies their belief that sexual molestation exists in the very structures of society as part of men’s social and structural power over women. works cited campbell, j.c. forced sex and intimate partner violence: “effects on women’s health, violence against women”, 5:1017–1035.1999. cambridge international dictionary of english. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1995. print. dibia, j. unbridled. lagos: blacksands books, 2007. print. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 61 ogbazi & amah ebony, p. “the truth about date rape” wikipedia.com.15 may 1997. web.18 april 2015 emeka, n. “woman being in the african society,” in african female playwriting: a study of matter and manner, ed. emeka nwabueze (enugu, nigeria: abic books,):82.2016. mekegwe, p. “theorizing african feminism (s): the colonial question.” journal for african culture and society. 3: 167. 11 (2008) obioma, n. bringing african women into the classroom: rethinking pedagogy and epistemology (eds). 2007. odinye, i.e. “human rights abuse: a narrative representation of traumatic experiences in yvonne vera’s under the tongue”. journal of african studies and sustainable development. vol.2 no. 1-18( 2019). ogundipe-leslie,o. “feminism in an african context,” african literature: an anthology of criticism and theory, ed. tejumola olaniyan and ato quayson (oxford: blackwell publishing,), 545-547.(2007). olomojobi, y. human rights on gender, sex and the law in nigeria lagos: princeton.(2013). “tackling rape crisis” (2020). vanguard editorial, p.15 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 1 eburuaja & udoh nigerianisms and nigerian socio-cultural identities: a sociolinguistic analysis of contemporary expressions in computermediated communication dr. chiagozie eburuaja department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: cu.eburuaja@unizik.edu.ng & dr. chinwe udoh nnamdi azikiwe university, awka department of english language and literature email: vc.udoh@unizik.edu.ng abstract there is an emerging but popular trend of communication among educated nigerians, which serve their communicative needs, on social media platforms/networks, called nigerianisms. the concept of nigerianisms support the variety of english called nigerian english. previous studies on nigerian english have focused mainly on instances of nigerianisms as used in nigerian literary works, the print media and religious discourse. despite the significance of the electronic media in terms of communication, relevance and population, relatively few studies have been dedicated to study english usage in that virtual speech community. social media is currently the largest gathering of humans from around the world, so it is pertinent to study english as it is used on social media platforms. this study, therefore, examines the use of a variant form of english by nigerians across different social media platforms with regards to culture and identity. hymes’ ethnography of communication and herring’s computer mediated communication were employed as the theoretical framework. the corpus for the study comprises 25 nigerianised expressions that were purposively collected from comment sections/threads of @instablog and @tiwasavage on facebook, instagram and twitter. the study revealed how the emerging and popular expressions which are culture-bound have reconstructed nigerian socio-cultural realities, experiences and identities. keywords: nigerianisms, nigerian english, social media platforms, culture, identity introduction communication is the primary purpose of language. humans have always sought ways to communicate; to reach out to one another. since time immemorial, human beings have always sought mediums of communication in order to strengthen human interaction and relationships. in the past, certain means of communication like town crying, letter writing, postal services, telegraphs and ravens were used. but in this twenty first century, computer-mediated communication has become the trend. computer-mediated communication avails humans the opportunity to connect and communicate with people across long distances. when face-to-face interactions are not feasible, creative ways of communication have been made available by computer-mediated communication. one of the forms of computer-mediated communication is the social media. social media platforms have created an entirely new way for people to communicate and share information including pictures and videos – with each other, without distance becoming a barrier. people are also able to have virtual face-to-face conversations through video calls and face timing. the very popular social media platforms are facebook, twitter and instagram. these social media platforms have users from all over the world. due to its status as a global and prestigious language, english is the commonest language on social media platforms. nigerian users of these social media platforms have domesticated english to suit their socio-cultural experiences, realities and nigerianness, thereby producing new english “that is still in communion with its ancestral home, but altered to suit its new environment” (achebe 62) called nigerian english. nigerian english is a variety of world englishes. in the process of reconciling english, which is not their native language, with their socio-cultural realities and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 2 eburuaja & udoh experiences as a people, nigerians have been able to create contemporary expressions that are mutually intelligible on social media platforms. these expressions have gone viral. chiluwa concurs: language as a fundamental part of a people’s culture expresses that culture. even a second or foreign language, as in the case of english in nigeria, soon becomes indigenised to the point that a native variety emerges which inherently connects people’s thoughts with that variety. discursive practices peculiar to that society and people soon become interwoven with the language both in spoken and written forms. as nigerian users of english acquire internet literacy, they communicate freely in nige. in fact, nige is so strong in its features and manifestations that in the modern digital age the internet provides simply another resource for its use and dissemination. (59) this paper seeks to examine the degree to which this popular trend of communication among educated nigerians, which serve their communicative needs, on social media platforms/networks, depict the experiences, realities and nigerianness of nigerians. it also analyses certain discursive practices on social media. also, it seeks to ascertain the extent to which this popular trend exhibits features of nigerian english that portray the socio-cultural context of nigeria. this paper also further popularises new trends in social media discourse. as growing numbers of nigerians interact daily on social media platforms and keep churning out contemporary expressions, it has become pertinent to analyse these expressions. language, culture and society human beings come together for various reasons which are facilitated through language. the primary purpose of language is communication, so language is very indispensable and inevitable in the existence of the human race, because it serves as a means through which human beings communicate. sapir defines language as “a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols” (1). bernard bloch and george trager believe that it is “a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates” (10). the common factor in these definitions is that a language fulfils the communicative needs of its speakers. language is a social and cultural phenomenon. it cannot be studied outside the social context in which it is being used. human beings are predestined to speak, we have the ability to learn a language but it takes social contact for that to take place. noam chomsky believes that every human being is wired with language acquisition device (lad), a hypothetical module of the brain that accounts for a child’s innate predisposition to acquire a language. this cannot take place outside society. language does not exist outside society. if a newborn is isolated in a solitary place where there is no language in existence, s/he will not be able to learn a language. according to josiane hamers and michel blanc, “language does not exist in itself but has a use for the overall behaviour which is meaningful in a given culture.... to some extent language is one of the variables that define culture” (8). languages function in social settings. they express group identity. people in their small groups (families, places of work, friends) develop little changes in their languages to suit their interest. but when a larger group does the same, it becomes a sociolect (social dialect) with differences in pronunciation and use based on social factors. the reality of nigerian english the english language in nigeria belongs to the outer circle of kachru’s concentric circles where english is used as a second language. many debates and writings have been dedicated to finding out if there is anything like nigerian english. many scholars and linguists belong to the school of thought that believes that it does not exist while some linguists like ayo bamgbose and his disciples strongly believe that it exists. according to bamgbose, the question whether there is a “nigerian english” should, at this point, have become a non-issue. for one thing, it is generally known that in a language ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 3 eburuaja & udoh contact situation, particularly a close one where an exoglossic language becomes a second language with an official role in a country, the second language is bound to be influenced by its linguistic and cultural environment. (99) he reiterates: in a language contact situation such as exists in nigeria, it is to be expected that there will be an interaction between the vernaculars and english ... the influence of the vernaculars on english is more relevant here, especially in view of the earlier discussion of local variants in nigerian english. basically, what happens is that patterns of the local languages phonological, grammatical and lexicaltend to be transferred into english. (47) this variety of english has been termed a debased form of english, a make-shift language, language of illiterates, mutually unintelligible language and others. some educated nigerians have denied the existence and use of nigerian english but farooq kperogi has this to say: by nigerian english --i mean the variety of english that is broadly spoken and written by our literary, intellectual, political, and media elite across the regional and ethnic spectrum of nigeria ---. but this is true of all ‘standard’ varieties of all ‘modern’ languages in the world. what is called british standard english, for instance, is no more than the idiosyncratic usage of the language by the english royalty and by the political, intellectual, literary, and media elite of the country. (37) language is fashioned to meet the communicative needs of the people that use it whilst serving as a source of group identity. it is indispensable in the expression of culture. this is the ultimate test of the effectiveness of a variety of language. so, should a region develop its own standard of an international language? will it result in mutual unintelligibility? according to rosarri mbisike, do we then as nigerians share a common cultural experience with the british people? if yes, then we would be justified to use an imitation of the british standard. but if no, which is the case, we definitely should have a ‘standard’ that should depict our cultural experience. every language and even age has social, economic, political and cultural factors. (31) nigerian english is a “conglomeration of legitimate variants of english in nigeria, which retain intelligibility, reflects a common nigerian culture or perception of the world has a mother tongue influence and a common socio-political environment” (2). nigerian english emerged and evolved due to the nativisation of english language in nigeria, so it can be defined as the type of english spoken and used by nigerians. according to awonusi: the domestication of the english language in nigeria for over four centuries, particularly its use in the educational system and colonial administration over a century ago has resulted in the use of the language in the country in domains different from those of nativespeaker of communities like usa, the uk and australia. (67) many speakers of english in nigeria believe that nigerian english is a bastardised form of the standard british english. but the truth of the matter is that english, having left its original abode to migrate to nigeria, has been affected by society, culture and indigenous languages in nigeria. nigerians can now lay claim to english as their own language owing to its nativisation. “the irony, however, is that no nigerian who was educated at home, including those who deride nigerian english can avoid speaking or writing it either consciously or unconsciously” (kperogi 37). the globalisation of english, on the other hand, is responsible for the various emerging varieties of world englishes which nigerian english is one of them. the concept of nigerianisms support the variety of english called nigerian english. “nigerianisms are the transfer of characteristics of nigerian indigenous languages (nil), the source languages, to target language (tl), english” (sonde 1439). according to chiluwa, “in the history of the english language certain developments have left significant linguistic marks on the language. as new developments and cultural forms occur, new words and styles of expression evolve with them and spread” (39). he further says: ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 4 eburuaja & udoh the concept of nigerianness in english language use (chiluwa 2008a) recognizes the fact that language is sensitive to its context (halliday 1978). the english language in nigeria, though still in the process of domestication/nativisation, has developed local varieties as well as register differences with some cultural and institutional distinctions. these varieties are marked by new words and expressions that reflect new ways of perceiving and constructing the environment. (44) theoretical framework the theories for this work are ethnography of communication by dell hymes and computermediated discourse by susan herring. ethnography of communication studies communication within social and cultural practices and beliefs. “scholars pursuing ec view language as an important and integral part of social life and cultural activity... moreover, ec holds that the tight reciprocal interrelations between language and sociocultural domains of life rest on the fact that language appears as an activity”. (noy 2) hymes believes that language cannot be studied in isolation, that is, outside its social and cultural contexts. it has to be studied in relation to its wider context of cultural and social facets. language should not be limited to certain rules. in fact, languages have specific contexts that can be traced to individual and cultural norms and beliefs. language and its cultural context should not be disbanded. hymes further develops two components of eoc as means of speech and speech economy. carbaugh concurs: the ethnography of communication (ec) is an approach to language and social interaction. ec seeks to discover the cultural particularities and general principles of communication. the particularities are demonstrated through cultural analyses of communication practices; in addition to the particularities, the generalities are established typically through comparative study. the approach foregrounds locally situated means and meanings of communication as its primary analytical concern. there are four philosophical assumptions in ec about communication, language, and social interaction: (1) communication is what people have made of it; (2) communication exhibits systemic social organization; (3) communication, language and social interaction are deeply and radically cultural; (4) and communication is formative of social and cultural lives. (par. 1) means of speech refers to “the features that enter into styles, as well as the styles themselves”, while speech economy refers to “the relationships within a speech community where the people use their means of speech”. furthermore, hymes develops the speaking model. this model analyses speech in cultural contexts. it comprises sixteen parts that are further divided into eight categories namely; s – setting and scene – the physical location where the speech takes place p – participants –the people who take part in the speech e – ends – the purpose and the outcome of the speech a – act sequence – the speech acts and the sequence in which they are carried out k – key – the tone and manner in which the speech is carried out i – instrumentalities – the medium of communication that is used n – norms of interaction – the rules of speech, interaction and interpretation g – genres – the ‘type’ of speech and its cultural contexts the second theory for this research is computer-mediated discourse by susan herring. according to herring, computer-mediated discourse is the communication produced when human beings interact with one another by transmitting messages via networked computers. the study of computer-mediated discourse (henceforth cmd) is a specialization within the broader interdisciplinary study of computer-mediated communication (cmc), distinguished by its focus on language and language use in computer networked environments, and by its use of methods of discourse analysis to address that focus. (1) “cmda is a framework that describes properties of online discourse, including the social and contextual factors that shape it” (chiluwa 44). computer-mediated discourse focuses on orthography, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 5 eburuaja & udoh words, utterances and threads like online threads and trolling. “what defines cmda at its core is the analysis of logs of verbal interaction (characters, words, utterances, messages, exchanges, threads, archives, etc.). in the broadest sense, any analysis of online behavior that is grounded in empirical, textual observations is computer-mediated discourse analysis” (herring par.3). cmd can be applied to four domains of language use namely; structure, meaning, interaction and social behaviour. data and methodology this research is a qualitative research. the corpus comprises 25 nigerianised expressions that were purposively collectedthrough screenshotsfrom comment sections/threads of @instablog and @tiwasavage. these are social media pages on facebook, twitter and instagram. these social media pages have an avalanche of young people that follow them on social media, for example, on instagram, @instablog has 3.6m followers and @tiwasavage has 12.5m followers as at 8 july 2021. these social media users are perceived to be in their 20s and 30s.the data that were purposively collected from the comment sections of these social media accounts through screenshots include: 1) ment 2) cruise 3) zaddy 4)fam 5) sub 6) church mind 7) village people 8) wife material 9) yoruba demon 10) full chest 11) table shaking 12) side chic 13) broke shaming 14) the baby girl life 15) oga at the top 16) small girl; big god 17) shoot your shot 18) shift goal post 19) we die here. 20) make i blow powder? 21) don’t air me. 22) e choke. 23) i can’t kill myself. 24) i am in my house, come and beat me. 25) where una dey see this money? make una cut soap for me na. analysis of data 1. ment ment is the short form of mental, as in, mental health. in nigeria, mental health problems are equated with madness. on social media, ment is a form of insult which is usually used when one’s opinion does not resonate with that of another. it is used to berate another person’s stand on issues in order to show that the person is crazy. the popular sentence ‘no be ment’ is used to question people’s sanity. 2. cruise on social media, cruise represents an unserious situation; a situation where people do not take life seriously. present day nigeria is also referred to as a cruise country. 3. zaddy a zaddy is a rich influential older man; especially one that bankrolls younger women. 4. fam fam is the short form of family. on social media, fam(ily) represents the followers and friends of a social media user. 5. sub a sub is a social media post that is targeted at vilifying another person. it is used to attack the opinions of another user, and it is done in such a way that the owner of the sub is not categorically stated, although inferences are bound to be made. 6. church mind this expression is rooted in religion. church mind is a pure mind that is filled with love. when a social media user asks another user to apply ‘church mind’ in a situation, s/he is being asked to be loving, considerate, kind and merciful. 7. village people in the nigerian society, everyone has a village/hometown. educated nigerians live in the cities and visit their villages occasionally especially during festive periods. the people that settle in the villages are referred to as village people; literally. it is believed that these village people are jealous of their relatives that live in cities, so they use diabolical means in to attack their relatives. on social media, the definition of village people is broader. detractors are generally called village people on social media. 8) wife material a wife material is an unmarried lady that is diligent, resourceful, hardworking and, most importantly, frugal. she possesses all the qualities that nigerian men look out for in potential wives. 9) yoruba demon ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 6 eburuaja & udoh a yoruba demon is a yoruba man that is rich and always looks dapper. he is the delight of unmarried ladies. but he is also known for being sweet tongued and deceitful. the demonization of a yoruba man has nothing to do with the concept of demon in the christian religion. 10) full chest to support something with a full chest means to give an unwavering support towards that thing. to say something with (your) full chest means to speak with a high level of confidence not minding whose ox is gored. 11) table shaking table shaking means to be controversial; to tread paths less travelled without fear of backlash. 12) side chic a side chic is a female love interest of an unfaithful partner especially a partner that is married. it is synonymous with edible catering and small chops. 13) broke shaming to broke shame means to shame someone for his or her lack of financial ability. men are usually at the receiving end. 14) the baby girl life the baby girl life is the stress free life. any lady that lives the baby girl life lives life to the fullest; unapologetically. it is the opposite of wife material. this type of lifestyle is exclusive to ladies. it is the opposite of the ‘be seen and not heard’ societal expectations of women. 15) small girl; big god a small girl that has a big ‘god’ is a lady that has all her needs met by a man. the big god is usually a very rich (married) man. 16) shoot your shot to shoot your shot means to woo someone. it is usually used when ladies get to woo men, although this is not the norm. on social media, this is usually done by sending the male love interest a private message. 17) shift goal position to shift goal post means to speak from two sides of the mouth. the speaker tends to change opinions at will to suit the situation at hand. 18) we die here. this sentence was popularized by the multi-choice reality show called big brother nigeria. it was a popular statement by the 2018 winner of the reality show, miracle, whilst the show was still on. it represents the persistence and doggedness that nigerians are known for. 19) make i blow powder? this sentence is rooted in traditional religion, but social media users from different religions use it. it is believed, in traditional religion, that a traditionalist can, by blowing a powdery substance into air, make someone do his or her bidding. social media users also use it for advert, e.g., you no go buy from me abi make i blow powder? 21) don’t air me. don’t air me means don’t expose me. do not say on social media what i told you in private. 22) e choke. e choke originated from davido, a nigerian musician. it is used when someone is held up in a tight situation. it can also be used by someone to express shock or surprise. 24) i can’t kill myself. this sentence originates from timaya’s song i can’t kill myself. considering the living conditions in nigeria, the expression is used when people want to flex, that is, enjoy themselves. it can also be used when one has done one’s best in a situation, yet results are not forthcoming. all that avails, in such a situation, is to give up. 25) where una dey see this money? make una cut soap for me na. this is rooted in finances/religion. most nigerians believe in money rituals. nollywood, on the other hand, keeps churning out movies with themes of money ritual, thereby making nigerians believe it exists. allegedly, one of the methods of money ritual is by bathing with a special soap in a river. so, when people flaunt their rich lifestyles on social media, some people believe that the wealth was acquired through money rituals. on a lighter note, whenever someone ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 7 eburuaja & udoh makes a finance related post, commenters ask him/her to cut soap for them. this means that the person should be a financial mentor to them. conclusion the researcher discovered that certain expressions, which are rooted in socio-cultural experiences of nigerians, have achieved ubiquity on social media platforms. social media, on the other hand, has created a virtual speech community where these expressions thrive. language and culture are inseparable. english has existed in nigeria, for decades, and has interacted with the people’s culture and traditions. it has also existed alongside other indigenous languages. this co-habitation and linguistic interaction has produced nigerianisms. this variety is being popularised by computermediated communication. computer-mediated communication has provided a platform for the popularisation and dissemination of nigerianisms through certain contemporary expressions. these expressions are definitely rooted in the socio-cultural experiences of nigerians, so that is why they are termed nigerianisms. they help nigerians locate and explore their nigerianness without apologies. the fact that some of the expressions are written in nigerian pidgin also shows their nigerianness, because nigerian pidgin is the unofficial lingua franca in nigeria used by the educated and uneducated depending on the social situations they find themselves in. considering the fact that social media is the largest gathering of humans all over the world, nigerians avail themselves of the opportunity to showcase their country in a positive light. this study also shows that nigerianisms/nigerian english is not an example of bad english. nigerian english is an innovation; an example of a creative language. works cited achebe, chinua. “the african writer and the english language” morning yet on creation day: a collection of essays. london: heinemann, 1975. pp 55-62. print awonusi, v.o. “the functions of nigerian english in relation to other nigerian languages.” nigerian english: influences and characteristics. eds. dadzie, a.b.k and segun awonusi. yaba: sam iroanusi, 2009. 67-84. print bamgbose, ayo. “english in the nigerian environment”. new englishes: a west african perspective. eds. bamgbose, ayo, ayo banjo and thomas andrew. ibadan: mosuro, 1995. 9-26. print bloch, bernard and george trager. outline of linguistic analysis. baltimore: linguistic society of america, 1942. print carbaugh, donald. ethnography of communication. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/33675167_ethnography_of_ communication accessed sep 19 2018]. web chiluwa, innocent. “assessing the nigerianness of sms text-messages in english”. english today 93. vol. 24, no. 1. (2008), pp 39-44. print ---. nigerian english in informal email messages. english world-wide. vol 31, no. 1(2010) pp 40-61.print hamers, josiane and michel blanc. bilinguality and bilingualism. cambridge: cambridge u.p, 2000. print herring, susan. “computer – mediated discourse”. the handbook of discourse analysis. deborah tannen, deborah schiffrin, and heidi hamilton. eds. oxford: blackwell, 2015. print ---. computer-mediated discourse analysis: an approach to researching onlinen communities. www.researchgate.net/publication/285786435_computer_mediated_discourse_analysis_an_a pproach_to_researching_online_communities. accessed sep 19 2018. web kperogi, farooq. glocal english: the changing face and forms of nigerian english in a global world. new york: peter lang, 2015. print mbisike, rosarri. “on standardizing nigerian english: an argument.” sociolinguistics in the nigerian context. adeyanju, dele (ed). ile-ife: obafemi awolowo u. p, 2007. 29-37. print https://www.researchgate.net/publication/33675167_ethnography_of_%20%20communication%20%20accessed%20sep%2019%202018 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/33675167_ethnography_of_%20%20communication%20%20accessed%20sep%2019%202018 http://www.researchgate.net/publication/285786435_computer_mediated_discourse_analysis_an_approach_to_researching_online_communities http://www.researchgate.net/publication/285786435_computer_mediated_discourse_analysis_an_approach_to_researching_online_communities ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 8 eburuaja & udoh noy, chaim. “ethnography of communication”. in the international encyclopedia of communication research methods. malden, ma: wiley-blackwell & sons & the international communication association sapir, edward. language: an introduction to the study of speech. new york: harcourt brace and company, 1921. print sonde, simeon. aspects of nigerianisms in news items of a selelcted internet mediated forum: naij.com. proceedings of the 2nd interdisciplinary conference of tasued-ucc 2016. 22nd august, 2016 – 25th august, 2016 at tai solarin university of education, nigeria. pp 14391451. print ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 9 ogene & nwakaego war trauma and other sides of pain and violence in adaokereagbasimalo’stheforest dames and alexander madiebo’sthe nigerian revolution and the biafran war prof. mbanefo stephen ogene department of english language and literature nnamdiazikiwe university, awka sm.ogene@unizik.edu.ng & obi gladys nwakaego department of english chukwuemekaodumegwuojukwu university igbariam campus, anambra state nwakaegoobi@yahoo.com abstract most of the nigerian fiction and non-fiction writings on war have depicted the violence and pains of war from various perspectives which are in consonance with the recurring tragic experiences the war goes with. during the bloody civil war of 1967–1970, individuals were forced to experience different sorts of violence and pains which include sickness, death and killings to mention but a few and this defining historical moment has remained the most topical issue in nigerian literature both from the fictional and non-fictional perspectives. this study investigates how both fiction and non-fictional works of adaokereagbasimalo’sthe forest dames and alexander madiebo’sthe nigerian revolution and the biafran war portrayed the war trauma and other agonizing shades of the war. the aim is to portray the pains and violence as regards to fact and fiction of the war. the study adopted psychoanalytic theoretical framework as a suitable theory to query and investigate the trauma and psychological imbalances in the characters capable of triggering depression and neurosis with loss of life at the very peak of its repressive effect. the study adopted a textual analysis of the two texts from a fictional and non-fictional perspective. the study discovered that from adaokere’s perspectives, individuals suffered terribly during the war. madiebo, in his own account, presented a real life narrative of the war while tracing its remote and immediate causes. the study concluded on the overall impact of the violence, pains and traumatic situations of the war gleaned from the selected works which have continued to serve as great materials for writers on both historical and fictional sides of the war literatures and narratives. keywords: violence, pains, war, trauma, psychology introduction there is no other experience in life or dreadful event which depicted violence and pains in nigeria citizens than the nigerian civil war. the nigerian civil war which took place between 1967 – 1970 left several indelible marks on the annals of the nation and raised several questions on the citizens viability as one sovereign entity. this thirty months gruesome experience, fought between what many scholars and war analysts refer to as “the aggressor and the aggrieved” or “the rebels and vanders”, brought untold hardship and tragedies in8 the lives of the teeming population of the country especially on the side of the igbo people who identify on the side of the “rebels”. during this bitter struggle there were a lot of violence and pains meted against humanity. olusegunobasanjo (1980) while quoting von clausewitz in my command writes that: “war is an act of violence intended to impel our opponent to fulfill our will” (52). from the account of this war narrator, it is obvious that any attempt of violence intended to make one’s opponent mailto:sm.ogene@unizik.edu.ng ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 10 ogene & nwakaego to fulfill one’s will brings pains upon the oppressed opponent. with this, one can see that war is all about violence and pains which leave behind, long lasting traumatic experiences even years after the real war experience must have been over. this goes with madu and dozie’s (2015) ideas that: “the lives of many are torn apart by the civil war that broke out between nigeria and biafra” (56). during this bloody war, people passed through pains, meeting series of painful experiences like: sickness, hunger, death, killing, betrayal, hiding, etc. and these tore so many lives and families apart. looking at these traumatic events, goodluck jonathan quoted in emefienaezeani’s in biafra africa died (2013) attests to the disheartening violence and pains of war thus: “these act of mayhem are sad reminders of the events which plunged our country into 30 months of unfortunate civil war, referring to biafran war in which more than one million people died” and the 1966 pogrom in the north”(50). this was a war which no one expected as it came as a surprise to the entire nation. chinua achebe in there was a country (2012)confirms that: “the war came as a surprise to the vast majority of artists and intellectuals on both sides of the conflict. we had not realized just how fragile, even weak, nigeria was as a nation. only a few nigerians, such as the poet christopher okigbo, had early and privileged insights into the nigerian-biafran crisis. we the intellectuals, were deeply disillusioned by the ineptitude of nigeria’s ruling elite and by what we saw taking place in our young nation”. (108) these violence and pains which the entire nation faced during the war triggered akachiadimora – ezeigbo to opine in fact and fiction in literature of the nigerian civil war (2019) that: “the nigeria-biafra conflict proved to be one of the most serious and devastating crisis that africa had ever experienced” (39). the words of sophie obiajuluogunde (2008) in politics and human rights in non-fiction prison literature, an article, supports the above view, that: “the period of the nigerian civil war is yet our darkest in history and even 30 years on the socio-political super structure still resonates with some of the ugliest vibrations of the war” (78). what makes the nigerian civil war look ugliest than other wars fought in africa are those enshrined in the enormity of violence and pains people suffered during the war and this still vibrates in our memories as chukwuemekaodumegwuojukwu, one of the key players of the dreadful war confirms in his book, because i am involved (1989) that: “the memories of the war are still in the minds of people. a lot of nigerians harbor sad memories of that period, so do i, yet, it is a period we just can’t abolish or erase because it has become part of our history, something we have to live with” (176). following the war lord’s opinion about war, it is clear that the injured party, which is biafra, can never forget the violence and pains they passed through. inibonguko affirms this vociferously that“…the igbo, who directly suffered and still bear the pains of war, reveals that the war was avoidable” (49). it is this violence and the manner it was unleashed on the injured and oppressed groups, especially the side of the rebels, the pains and trauma it left behind that prompted chukwuemeka ike (2014) to conclude in sunset at dawn that “war is evil…it is terrible” (147). yes, war is evil, due to the violence and pains it goes with. war is neither glamorous nor attractive; it generally affects people socially, economically, physically and psychologically. psychoanalysis as a theoretical anchor: a justification sigmund freud, an austrian physician (1876-1931), through his investigations brought up the idea of psychoanalytical theory through which human psyche is investigated. psychoanalysis, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 11 ogene & nwakaego as ikechukwuasika affirms, “is a branch of study that is interested in the study of the human mind and how the activities of the mind both in the conscious and the sub conscious functions in the buildup of a healthy personality. it is a method of analyzing psychic phenomena and treating emotional and mental disorders that involves treatment sessions during which the patient is encouraged to talk freely about personal experiences and especially about early childhood and dreams (202). this tells that from freud’s observation, every action of man comes from his mind. stephen ogenembanefo and ezeonyi n. onyinye(2020), while quoting freud state that “in examining freud’s psychoanalysis, freud explores the three persons “id”, “ego”, and “superego”. freud believes that his structured model of mind (id, ego, superego) could be in conflict at anytime since they perform different functions”(180). they further opine that “a person’s ego adopts one or more defence mechanisms to protect him or her when he or she could not cope with the stress of conflict”(180). psychoanalysis has become an interesting theory in the study and analyses of a work of art. supporting this view, nebeife and kanu in “trauma of migration: a psychoanalytic study of chimamandaadichie’samericanah” (2017) assert that: “freud repeatedly talked about the role of the mind. he believes that the mind is responsible for both conscious and unconscious decision based on drives and forces … he believes that people are simply actors in the drama of their own minds pushed by desire and pulled by coincidence”. (93) in driving home the above point, and concomitantly justifying the choice of psychoanalytic theory as the theoretical anchor for this research, it is pertinent to explain that the actions and attitudes of characters in literary works (both from fictional and non-fictional dimensions) in many ways are reflective of their experiences, inner struggles and conflicts with forces largely against their control. events come and go leaving behind, it’s indelible marks and shades of experiences on characters and individuals which however way it goes, are capable of affecting the characters in the positive and most cases, in the negative ways. sometimes, bizarre experiences “may result to feelings of inadequacy and dependency for survival as the characters become entangled in finding a solution to his or her inner conflicts” (odinye 43). asika (2013), while dissecting freud, supports that: human minds are driven by several intrinsic and extrinsic forces often beyond our controls. how people react and respond to issues, events and situations, our actions and inactions are always dependent on the psychological composition of our minds. our desires and wishes are always in a cross-road with that of others because the mind is channeled and propelled on a pedestal geared towards fulfilling a certain desire and awakening. (134) the civil war, as gleaned from the perspectives of the writers under study, fell on an unexpected and unprepared generation and the violence, pains, torture and agonies that came with it was unprecedented and novel too. the war fell on an innocent individual whose lives, joys, aspirations and sanities were altered in the thirty months of civil strife, chaos and violent brutal exchange for power and territorial control. the war, more than anything ever, altered the lives of the people and it is only natural that their psyches, emotions and behaviours will be deeply thwarted and affected by the pains and violence that ensued during the war and it is from this perspective that the postulations of freud becomes apt in questioning and investigating the effects of these experiences on characters and the psychological and neurotic sides of these effects. sigmund freud’s psychoanalytic theory becomes the most interesting psychological construct through which this study will delve and investigate, espcially the feelings and emotions of individuals made possible by the trauma and pains of the war. the writers no doubt represented the traumas and experiences of the war on individuals in different ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 12 ogene & nwakaego perspectives. according to nebeife and kanu (2017), “the word trauma” is used to describe experiences that are emotionally painful and distressing and which therefore overwhelm people’s ability to cope, leaving them powerless. trauma has sometimes been defined in reference to experiences that are not normal for humans (92). through such psychological quest aided by freud’s postulations, the unseen pains and hidden agonies of the war, its lasting effect on generation will be holistically articulated in the effort to condemn war in its entirety and add to the bulk of what is already known regarding the psychological and traumatic shades of the inevitable civil war that exerted and still exerting lots of influences on our oneness as a nation after over fifty years of the dreadful experience. it is, therefore, on this fact that this paper focused on looking at the excessive repression and lingering traumas of the war which are capable of devastating individuals and groups and also degenerating to unabated bitterness, rancor, lingering acrimony, loneliness, alienation, violence, chaos, killing, ethnic rivalries, segregation, oppression and suppression witnessed and still been witnessed in the polity of the nation. analysis of trauma, violence and pains in adaokereagbasimalo’sthe forest damesa psychoanalytic approach the forest dames is a novel that talks about the bitter experience of the nigerian civil war. the account of the dreadful war novel focuses on peoples’ life especially women as the major victims of war. some men were also captured and conscripted against their wishes; children were not left out of the suffering. they all have been starving as there is nothing to eat. it is of course the violence and pains that these women saw during the war that made them take their daughters to the forest and this is as what made them the forest dames. the story being carved out from female perspectives tells that all female characters in the novel met violence and pains which war meted against them. the writer carves out two brave mothers and four courageous girls named gonma, deze, sofuru and lele who were hidden in the forest in avoidance of the violence of war as the novelist writes: the brooding darkness simmered with the sound of the wild. the dames had learnt to live with the sound. they had resigned themselves to the belief that both life and death were in the hands of their maker. beside, at the rate people were dying, one thanked the almighty if one saw the next day. ‘after all’, they asked themselves, ‘between being devoured by beasts and being shattered into pieces by mortar bombs, which is preferable? either way the result is death’, they consoled themselves, ‘and, it is inevitable’. brave stance! but the dames were still scared stiff, never failing to imagine the likelihood of a famished beast leaping towards them, and the muffled last prayers that would follow. (20) gripped by fear none of them was in her right sense because the outcome of their act of hiding is unknown to them. we should not forget that the novelist made use of an irony here where she depicted it clearly, that despite that these dames were taken out from home into the forest yet; they still meet the pains and violence they were avoiding. even the stories which their mothers told them about home also brought pains in their heart as the narrator writes about gonma saying: her mother was not there. she had gone to the distant market and had not returned. so gonma simply listened to the conversation of the others. her two brothers and only sister were home alone, finding it hard even to feed. their middle-aged father had been forcibly taken away from home by some aggressors… dennis’ daughter was captured yesterday… “she was. they came when she had returned from her hiding place and took her unawares. (21) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 13 ogene & nwakaego such stories bring pains to those who are still surviving the war. there is no how that gonma would be free from the pains of losing her mother who had gone to market and had not returned, her two brothers who are suffering from hunger and her father who had being captured by the aggressors. dennis himself is not free from the pain of losing her daughter, wakego who has been captured. all these bitter experiences traumatise them and plant pain in the lives of these characters that have lost their lovely ones. other stories told in the novel which tells the pains which people experienced during the war is also told by sofuru’s mother on how ogechi was forced to leave her food and follow the soldiers right at her husband’s presence as the narrator says: one of the aggressors had ordered the women to stop eating and follow them. trembling she picked up her baby and got up to go with them but was rebuked and ordered to leave the baby there. ogechi left her baby in obedience. as she was led away, her five-month-old baby who was still on breast milk cried as if she knew what was going on. her husband, obed looked on speechless. his wife was gone with the invading soldiers and he now had to take over the care of their baby. (22) with this situation it is obvious that any woman that experiences such must be affected psychologically. it also shows that children also suffer terribly during the war. most of them lost their mothers or fathers or even both. the lucky ones lost only one, either father or mother. but those that met the bitter pains of war are those who lost their mothers and were left in the hands of their fathers as seen in the life of ogechi’s five-month-old child. from the life of obed, ogechi’s husband, the narrator did not fail to tell her readers that men also experience violence and pains of war. she says: “you know okedu, the fisherman? they stopped him as he strolled into his compound from the village stream and told him he must go with them. okedu called out to one of his children and tried to hand over a hooked fish to him but was not allowed to do so. they abducted the fish as well as okedu found himself in their military camp”.(23) from the novel, it is a clear fact that not only okedu met such violence, joseph has his own pains of war. this was a man who was beaten to death for refusing to let his bicycle go to some uniformed men who forcefully took it out from him. this stands as symbol of pains people undergone at the time of war. the narrator says: deze’s mother told the girls about an elderly men, joseph, who(sic) was beaten to death because he tried to stop the uniformed intruders from forcibly taking his bicycle. after they beat the man to death, they still took his bicycle away. they also took bicycles belonging to other villagers for no known reason. yams, other food crops and livestock were loaded into a big truck with the bicycles and taken away. it did not bother them if we all starved to death (23). it is indeed an act of violence and pains that the innocent citizens during the war were exposed to so many atrocities, beating, killing and taking away from them their foods with which they survived the war without considering the pains of starvation they would pass through. here, the narrator applies satire, ridiculing the lives and violent behaviour of the soldiers against the innocent citizens whom they were called to protect. such violence is what these citizens saw even after the war from the enemy force. the narrator writes that: the soldier wondered what was in the sack. “wetin be this?” he demanded, peeping inside. “okwe, game”, udunna answered, allowing the shells to clatter ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 14 ogene & nwakaego in the sack.“wetin?” the soldier did not understand. “mgbo, bullets”, udunna said, confusing him further. the soldier hissed loudly and planted a dirty slap on his cheek. the boy fell down but got up quickly. his grandfather walked up to the soldier in mild protest. the boy’s father had been in one of the battle fields and was expected to return soon. oho o, na you be the papa, baa, i see, you are the father”, the soldier said, furious. bikonwa m, spare him, he’s just a boy”, the old man begged but the soldier picked up his koboko instead and began to flog him in the presence of the helpless group. (232) this violent act meted against udunna and his grandfather made both to pass through pains in the hands of the soldier. another violence and pains which children saw during the war is what the narrator gives account of, in chuka as the mother says: i had a small bag on my head as i ran and chuka’s hand in mine while okezie and nneoma were running along. suddenly, it felt like chuka had become lighter to pull along but i continued running”. “mummy chuka, chuka” okezie and nneoma were crying. “i stopped and saw chuka’s mutilated arm in my hand. i screamed and ran back. my son was on the ground. i picked him up and we continued running, load still on my head. the shelling was too much and we needed to move faster, at least, a place of shelter. i dropped the dead boy and his hand and we continued the race. (65 – 66) people met their death by the shelling and bombers. the novel records: “it became a daily affair. sometimes bombers came twice in one day, leaving behind mangled corpses and wrecked lives. in the communities, they became used to burying the victims… (67). at a time people became accustomed to death. weeping and pains which come with death were also what they became accustomed to. the narrator writes: “they became accustomed to the air-raids but hunger became another challenge” (68). as it is said, hunger is the greatest weapon for war. this statement meant nothing but violence as was believed to be the reason why the federal government blockade biafrans from getting assistance or aids from other countries and this brought severe pains of hunger in the lives of the biafrans. the novelist writes: hunger and starvation still ruled, dealing with people treacherously. death in the community, especially of children, the elderly and those who depended on others for their livelihood became a daily affair. men were hardly seen on the roads. women worked hard to sustain the family but their children dropped dead under their very noses. starvation after a period of extreme emaciation or bloating was the major cause. (86) as a result of hunger, people met another pains stronger than the air-raids, taking cover in the bunker and death. children could not bear this pain and in order to survive the violence they began to hunt rat and picked bush fruits. the narrator confirms, thus: “those who had no reserves went hungry. their children hunted for rats, rabbits and big insects; picked bush fruits, nuts, roots and tubers for dinner” (76). the violence and pains which the war brought upon lives never made mothers keep their motherhood or affections towards their children aside despite the horrors of war. they found remedies to make their children survive the war, taking risks, going distant markets, just to get food for their families and with this, they were exposed to violence. the novelist comments: the soldiers sometimes waylaid the women returning from the distant market and dispossessed them of their goods. every woman who passed by that way had to part with some of the items she was carrying. when the military vehicle ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 15 ogene & nwakaego was filled up, the soldiers drove off. the women on this day had walked up to the waiting soldiers and dropped a food item each. dora dropped one tuber of yam but the soldier rejected it and insisted on collecting the only stockfish she was able to buy, hoping to resell it at a good price or barter it for a more needed commodity at home. (73) this is how these women met another side of violence on their return from attack trade, a market which exposed lives to violence during war time. after escaping bullets, air-raids and shells from these open markets, the soldiers would take away from these women what they had laboured to keep their families living. most of them went back homes with pains watching their children dying due to starvation. the narrator tells of how deze interpreted to dr. carol harrison about a plight of julie ejema’s child who becomes sick as the cause of starvation saying: “dr. harrison, this woman named julie ejema…” dr. harrison began to scribble down particulars pertaining the woman”. …said that her son, sunday, has been emaciating for the past one month. they all have been starving as there is nothing to eat. the boy has been vomiting and stooling frequently. she pleads with you to assist and not allow her child to die” (147). from the writer’s idea, the little sunday is passing through pains as a result of sickness which made him vomit and stool. even the mother also had her own pains for the fear of losing her child. the fact the writer wants to elaborate here is that the violence of war mostly made mothers and children suffer pains. these pains and violence still go even at the end of war. the narrator writes: unfortunately, not every girl who saw the end of the war was so lucky. deze learnt that sofuru, after suffering as a forest dame, fell into the hands of the abductors on her way home with her folks. deze’s group could be said to have been lucky since they suffered minimal molestation compared with the tales of others. some told of vandals who, knowing that they would soon be leaving seized the opportunity to temporarily abduct girls hitherto in hiding. members of one of the returning groups narrated how on passing an enemy camp, they were halted, the girls picked out and taken to their camp. all other members of the group, including parents and relations of the girls, waited on the grass around the area outside. after what seemed like an hour or more the girls began emerging, some frowning, others expressionless. there was no need to ask what had transpired. (235) girls after the war met pains of molestation, violence of abduction and raping. some of them after these acts were put into family way. the novel presents ojiugo as one of the dames who meets such violence as she says that: i was not comfortable with the name his father called him at the camp. there is no way my son can come into our community answering that name so i renamed him after his father’s rank the moment i came home. the man knows that he has a son here. he knows this village from where he forcibly took me… have you forgotten that the abduction was like a death sentence?…what a horror! she wrapped her arms across her chest as if she was feeling cold. she was frowning. “that violation is worse than death; i don’t know what i am still living for. (258) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 16 ogene & nwakaego ojiugo’s heart was filled with pains after been violated by an enemy soldier, a major who forcibly raped her. she passed through trauma and depression and when she could not bear the pains, she killed herself. a violent act which deze witnessed as the novelist says : deze stood on tip-toe but could see nothing. “please, what is happening”? she asked again yet received no answer. at last she found a space and peeped. ojiugo’s body was dangling from the roof of her mother’s kitchen; her eyeballs popping out, her tongue jutting slightly, her wrapper and the floor soiled. a mild stench oozed. “oh god, did she have to do that? why?” “she survived the war and should have put everything behind her. this is too much. “ha, ojiugo. she hinted at it – o. ever since she came back with the baby, she has not been herself… “may god accept her soul.rest in peace, jugo!” (260). ojugo’s death, which ironically meant to her a means of easing off her pains against the violation she had experienced, put her family members and friends into pains of losing her. this is a violent act, an abomination that made her hang herself. following the analysis of this novel, in the forest dames, adaokekeagbasimalo presents her perspective of war telling that war is traumatizing, violent and evil, those who experienced it met severe pains of their lives. a psychoanalytic approach to violence and pains in alexander madiebo’sthe nigeria revolution and the biafran war madiebo was one of the biafran majors who led and piloted the affairs of the nigeria civil war. being a soldier, he has firsthand information about war. his work is non-fiction; it is a real account of war where he elaborated on all the violence and pains that went with the nigerian/biafran war. his historical account of the war is traced from the origin, the cause of the revolution which finally led nigeria into war. this revolution came as violence as, the historian says: “over the telephone gowon passionately described how he had come back from britain on the night of 14 january 1966, a day before the coup started. gowon narrated the story of his narrow escapes from death in the hands of the revolutionaries who, he said, were after him the whole night and throughout the following day” (25). from gowon’s experience, the revolution was indeed a violence even nzeogwu and other revolutionaries experience the same. the narrator writes: “when we arrived, nzeogwu was sitting in the brigade commander’s office, with a heavily bandaged neck, surrounded by soldiers of northern nigeria origin. there was no doubt he was in pain but appeared calm and very serious” (19). the coup which took place on 15 january 1966 was indeed a bloody act which install pains in the hearts of the northerners as the narrator reveals their anger: the real turning point came at the beginning of march when one morning, the governor of the north called a conference of all army officers in northern nigeria. addressing the conference in an angry voice, the governor …speaking about the january coup he described it as a well-organized “murder operation” for which the participants ought to have been punished if the lagos authorities were fair and sincere to all. he warned that when the northerners were ready for their own coup, it would be conducted in a broad daylight and would be very “bloody indeed”, unlike the january coup when cowards went around by night murdering people in their sleep. (32 – 33) with this, it is clear that the northerners were nurturing pains over the violence of the coup which took lives of their top northern leaders like; sir ahmadu bellow, the sarduana of sokoto, chief tafawabelewa and other high ranking military officials. in retaliation of this, a riot was carried out by the northerners against the igbos, the narrator writes about shuwa an ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 17 ogene & nwakaego eyewitness to the incident saying: “shuwa said he saw private homes, churches, shops, schools and market stalls belonging to southern nigreians, in flames. he saw crying children, the young and the old, both men and women being chased about and being beaten to death while their homes were looted”. (38 – 39) lives of the southerners were harmed even their properties and their innocent children. as if this violence was not enough, another riot began the following day. the history records that: on the 30th of may, 1966, the riots began again rather early. the rioting was much fiercer than the previous day, and the commanding officer himself with the assistance of his escorts, had to go round the town trying to disperse the mobs by firing in the air. in places where he rescued people who were still alive, he arranged to send them to the military medical centre for treatment. a story was told of a whole family that was locked up inside their house and the house set ablaze. i also listened to the story of an incident at the kano railway station where a large crowed of southerners had gathered waiting to escape by train. they were attacked by a mob which killed or maimed most of them, and their property was looted. (39) as this violence was going on in kano, zaria was not exceptional. the southerners like in kano saw severe pains by the northern rioters. the narrator writes: the brigade major, major sam ogbemudia, said that the expatriate staff at ahmadu bello university were leading the rioters in zaria. according to him, these gentlemen were even using their personal cars to move the rioters quickly from one part of the town to another. the cars also had anti-ironsi slogans pasted on them…there in sokoto, while other towns rioted, the southerners went into their church to pray to their god for the return of peace. while they all gathered there and prayed the church was cordoned off. having poured petrol over the church building, it was set ablaze, and the multitude died while praying for peace (41) the way these people were murdered while they were praying in the church tells that no prayer for peace could withheld the violence and pains meted against the southerners at the time of this crises in nigeria. this went on to an extent that aguiyiironsi the then head of state, met his death on his peace tour. madiebo writes: “however, he was determined to continue his tour. when he came back from northern nigeria, he left for midwestern nigreia on the 27th of july and as expected, never returned” (57). the death of aguiyiironsi which was seen as counter coup was told by captain nwankwo. the narrator writes: according to nwankwo, at 0630 hours on the 29th of july, 1966, ironsi, fajuyi, the governor of western nigeria and himself were arrested at government house, ibadan by northern troops under the command of captain danjuma… the troops used to affect the arrests were those detailed to protect the general during his tour. the captives were driven to an isolated jungle just outside ibadan. by the time they go there, the three prisoners had been so thoroughly beaten that the older two – ironsi and fajuyi – could hardly stand up. shortly after, fajuyi was shot and then, ironsi. (85 – 86) from the history, before aguiyi could be shot to death, he passed through pains of torture by his captors in that isolated jungle outside ibadan. after the death of ironsi, other violent crisis came and this resulted to war. fighting broke out between the two warring forces. the narrator ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 18 ogene & nwakaego reveals that, “fighting began with each enemy battalion poised against two platoons of biafra army. after two hours of intensive exchange of fire, the enemy turned round and broke into a run towards their start line. they were obviously surprised and for that reason suffered heavy casualties…” (126). with this, it is obvious that the two enemies in open confrontation exchanged arms and exposed their lives to violence. the biafran enemy, the northern troops never expected such brevity from the biafran troops after they had suffered heavy casualties and broke into a run. despite the pains of exchanging fire between the two forces, war did not stop. the violence continues as the writer writes: the enemy attacked in garkem at 0530 hours with two main garkem – afikpo road. his preparatory bombardment using artillery and heavy mortars was extremely heavy and sustained. our own troops, even though they had suffered some casualties, were still firmly in their newly dug trenches but with no overhead cover. by 0900 hours the first enemy assault of three ferret and one saladin armoured vehicles came in. a landrover mounted with a 106 rr anti-tank gun moved in with the attacking vehicles which rained bullets in all directions and knocked down the mud huts of the village. (125) people of garkem lost their homes and land as a result of heavy bombardment of the enemy with ferret and armoured vehicles. one can imagine the pains which these people must have passed through when their huts were all knocked down. with this violence, these people become homeless wonderers in their own land. in onitsha, a similar violence took place as madiebo records: “for ten days, there was a non-stop air bombardment of the town beginning at dawn each day and lasting till dusk. the russian war planes strafed and bombed until neither life nor buildings were left in onitsha; thereafter the planes resorted to attacking livestock”. (202) “the enemy” attacks against onitsha was a severe violent operation. there is no doubt that the enemy must have planned this attack over her pains of losing onitsha severally as the biafrans see onitsha and make a mockery song of it as ono nsoelu aka “near, but beyond reach”. with the pains of their several failures of drawing close to onitsha but not reaching it, they commit such violence, destroying lives with livestock roams around. following this attack, the narrator reveals another violence committed by the aggressors on their vengeful desire to enter awka thus: biafra soldier fought desperately to prevent the enemy from entering the town until the afternoon of the 19th of january when the town came under heavy bombardment. the confusion that followed could hardly be described as men, women and children ran about under a rain of shells. many died and the survivors abandoned the town intact. many young men … were caught and executed by the enemy… the complete destruction of awka town which eventually took place was therefore done by the enemy at a later date, in his own chosen time. (219) no one in biafra believes that the enemy will capture awka because of the strong defensive attack the biafran troops often give to them each time they ventured. so when they made a successful entrance, every biafra feared as a popular saying of fear arouse among the biafrans saying “hausa abatagoawka” (hausa has entered awka). this proved biafran disbelief that the enemy troops would ever venture into awka. unfortunate to them, they ventured and bombarded the town. the biafran troops could not withstand them due to shortage of ammunition and lives of men and women were violated with pains of death and destructions ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 19 ogene & nwakaego of properties. meanwhile, the falling of awka into enemy hand gave the enemy a greater courage of installing violence in the hearts of biafrans with hope that they would capture all biafrans. but on reaching to abagana, they met a counter attack from biafra troops which caused violence to them. the narrator tells of the violent attack of biafran troops against enemy troops in abagana. thus: this is how the battle was fought. when the convoy approached our troops around ifite-ukpo junction, major uchendu very wisely allowed the advance party of armoured vehicles to pass. he then attacked the main convey from the front, middle and rear. the leading lorry was knocked out and blocked the road, and was quickly set on fire. none of the vehicles, thereafter could move forward, and being very bulky, could not turn about on the narrow road. the enemy was helpless and less than one hour, all the enemy soldiers were either killed or had escaped… (224 – 225). this violent experience which the biafran enemy had in abagana was what all biafrans saw as miracle as they termed the battle, ‘abagana miracle’. one of the most violence biafrans saw during the war was deaths of their lovely ones as they had the painful death of christopher okigbo’. madiebo writes: “the greatest disaster of that operation was that the well-known poet, major christopher okigbo, one of the bravest fighters on that sector, died trying to lob a grenade into a ferret armoured car. the whole army in general and the 53 brigade in particular never completely got over his death for the rest of the war”. (166) the pain of death of christopher okigbo was a heavy blow to biafrans especially the fighting men who knew his brevity in the war front. okigbo was a poet, seer and a soldier, who had firsthand information about this war, which eventually took his life at opi as he prophesied in his poem. other death which caused biafrans severe pain that they could not easily get over was the death of another brave soldier called coporalnwafor. madiebo narrates that: “…attempts were being made to recover the captured armoured vehicles. both vehicles were finally recovered but corporal nwafor himself died during the recovery operation (259)”. corporal nwafor after using the only anti-tank rocket in the entire 54 brigade to destroy the hausa’s saladin which he equally killed the crew, went ahead to recover biafran’sarmoured vehicles, through which he lost his life this became a violent and painful experience both to his fellow fighting men and biafrans at large. nwafor stands as a symbol that narrates how most people lost their lives through violence of war while trying to protect their father land from pains of destructions by the enemy. at the cause of this violence and pains, the brevity and popularity of both chris okigbo and corporal nwafor were captured by some fiction writers like chukwuemeka ike in his sunset at dawn and others where they depicted a lucid picture of their death through which each of these writers according to his or her perceptions and perspectives present the violence and pains that follow war. the pains which children suffered as a result of hunger can never be neglected as violence meted against them. the narrator narrates: immediately ikot-ekpene fell, i went into the prisons there and what i saw still gives me nightmares from time to time. i saw several hundreds of zombie-like creatures – men, women and children, lying, sitting or squatting in the midst of others who were dead. the living ones were completely reduced to skeletons and could not talk. i was seeing for the first time what i later knew to be kwashiorkor. frankly, i took fright, and so did a majority of biafrans at the thought of what would happen the “majorities” in the hands nigerians, if the much-talked-about “minorities” get nothing but slow and painful death by starvation. (263) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 20 ogene & nwakaego the violence which hunger brought to biafrans mostly affected the children with a dangerous sickness called kwashiorkor which destroys their lives and leads them to slow and painful death. with the violence and pains that come through this starvation biafrans lost their faith and became fate to violence. the faith which held and kept them all the three years of struggling. the narrator confirms that: “this faith in our ultimate victory was what kept biafrans slugging on for three years in spite of heart-breaking set-backs, to the astonishment of the whole world. we felt that having been so unjustly treated, humiliated and massacred, god and international opinion could not stand idly by and allow us to be exterminated in our homeland. (377) the violence and pains of war respect no one’s faith in god or international back up. despite that the entire biafrans have faith in god as they believed, he could rescue them from unjust killings meted out against them in their homeland, they also strongly believe that since they are fighting a just fight the international opinion would raise alarm for their rescue but this is not so. upon their faith in god and hope on the international opinion, they still being slaughtered, unjustly oppressed, humiliated and massacred in their own land. this tells the extent of violence and pains war could bring upon a country or nation not withstanding their faith in god. the narrator bemoaned the pains the war has caused to the entire nation saying: “in the end, the whole exercise of splitting and re-uniting nigeria cost us over three million lives. the question is how could anyone ever justify the loss of so many lives in order to gain political control of his country?” (388). from the writer’s opinion the cause of these violence and pains which nigeria as a nation experienced during her three years bloody struggle is caused by selfish decision of the leaders. following the cause of war in nigeria one will understand that the main cause of the war is ‘power tussle’, where leaders of that era struggled for power and leadership. this confirms what chinua achebe (1984) said in his book titled the trouble with nigeria where this author stated it clearly that; “the trouble with nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership” (1). this problem of leadership split the nation apart and marched them into war which cost over three million lives. with this, we can see that alexander madiebo presented every detail and fact of the nigerian civil war. his perceptions, perspectives and experiences about war is what he presented with a real fact and truth rather than fiction. following his narrations and presentations of account of the civil war, one is made to see his work as a historical account of the nigerian civil war where it is believed that every violence and pains of war are recorded. conclusion the history of nigeria will never forget those violence and pains which the bloody war of 1967 – 1970 meted against lives of the people children, young and adults perceived the pains, the pains of hunger, sickness, killing, death, betrayal, hiding, molestation, oppression and victimization. it is clear that every living thing during this war is casualty. adaokereagbasimalo presents lives of four young girls who were hidden in the forest for the cause of war. from the novel, women were molested, intimidated and oppressed by both native soldiers and enemy soldiers. men were killed in the north which made deze’s father with some other men run down to the east. children were starved to death. mothers who went to markets, taking risk on attack trade as a result of hunger often molested and taken away what they have bought by the soldiers. all these ills of war can be traumatizing to humanity no doubt. madiebo as a historian went all round narrating the real events of war. his historical account is all based on violence and pains which individuals and nation(s) nigeria and biafra experienced during the war. from his narrative, lives at the cause of war were destroyed. he presents killing and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 21 ogene & nwakaego death as the most things suffered during the war. the death of a poet christopher okigbo, corporal nwafor and other characters he presented tells of the pains of the war which he also pictured through starvation which led people into death and sickness, especially, to young children who suffered kwashiorkor due to lack of food and blockage. the two works depict terrible pain and trauma as regards to the fact and fiction of the nigerian civil war which nigeria as a nation experienced during the war. in order to avoid pains of life either through crisis, conflict or whatever that might cause shedding of blood, violent act must be avoided. works cited achebe, chinua. there was a country. new york: penguin book,2021. …. the trouble with nigeria.london: heinemann, 1983. agbasimalo, adaokere.the forest dames.lagos: parresia publishers, 2014. asika, ikechukwu. “depression among students in tertiary institutions: a psychoanalytic perspective towards a result oriented measures for educators.” preorc journal of arts and humanities. 5 (1) pp 21-53, may, 2020. ---literary appreciation: a practical demonstration. awka: scoa heritage nig. ltd,2015. --“the novelist as a psychologist: a psycho-sexual study of chimamandangoziadichie’samericanah.”ansu journal of language and literary studies (ajlls) vol.1. no. 4, december, 2017. pp 131-144. asika, ikechukwu and ifechelobi jane. “the writer as a psychiatrist: a psychoanalytical reading of chris abani’sbecoming abigail.” international journal of research on humanities and social sciences.volume 5.no.5. 2015. pp. 199-208. ezeani, emefiena. in biafra africa died. london: varitas lumen publishers, 2014. ezeigbo, akachi.fact and fiction in the literature of the nigerian civil war.ibadan: university press, 2019. ifejirika, echezona.introduction to literary theory criticism and practice.awka: mabcom systems, 2014. ike, chukwuemeka. sunset at dawn.ibadan: university press, 2014. madiebo, alexander. the nigerian revolution and the biafra war. enugu: fourth dimension,1980. madu and dozie.“literature and global reconciliations in the 21st century: exploration of war, bloodshed and ethnic reconciliation in akachiadimora-ezeigbo’s roses and bullets” ansu journal of arts and humanities vol. 2 (eds) jpc nzemiwu and ngozichuma-udeh.agulu: thinkers publishers, 2015: 55 – 61. mbanefo, s. ogene and ezeonyi n. onyinye. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol 7 no 2, 2020. nebeife and kanu.“trauma of migration: a psychoanalytic study of chimamandaadichie’samericanah” ansu journal of language and literary studies.vol. 1 (eds) ifejirika, echezona and chuma-udeh, ngozi. onitsha: new crest publishers 2017. 91101. obasanjo, olusegun. my command.lagos: kachifo, 1980. odinye, ifeoma. “fleshing out memory through feminist consciousness: psychoanalyzing violent girlhood experiences in buchi emecheta’s the bride price”. igwebuike: an african journal of arts and humanities vol. 5 no 3, 2019. odumegwu-ojukwu, emeka.because i am involved.ibadan: spectrum books, 1989. ogwude, sophie. (2008) “politics and human rights in non-fiction prison literature” in war in africa literaturetoday (ed) ernest emenyonu.ibadan: hebn publishers,71 – 86, 2008. uko, iniobong.“of war and madness: a symbolic transmutation of the nigeria-biafra war in selected stories from the insider: stories of war and peace from nigeria” war in africa literature today (ed) ernest emenyonu. ibadan: hebn publishers, 49 – 59, 2008. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 38 aesthetics in modern nigerian poetry: the use of proverbs in akachi adimoraezeigbo’sheart songs lotachukwu loveth amalukwue department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: ll.amalukwue@unizik.edu.ng / loobimartins2013@gmail.com abstract the place of oral tradition or orature in modern nigerian poetry cannot be over emphasized. the prominence and acceptance which the third generation of nigerian poets enjoys are attributed totheir ‘appropriation of oral and traditional linguistic elements grounded in their social cultural milieu (akingbe: 237)’. this paper studied how the poet (akachi adimoraezeigbo) adapted the oral form (proverbs) in some of the poems in her collection of poetryheart songs to create poetry that is perceptibly and aesthetically african. the study showed how she stylistically deployed proverbs as a means through which the ills in her society were criticized. she decried these ills in proverbs. this study is predicated on the formalist critical theory (new criticism) because of its stance on the literary work (poetry) as the sole source of evidence for interpreting it. thus the researcher based the analyses of the collection of poetry studied on the evidence provided by the poems analyzed. the paper analysed only one of the genres of orature (proverbs) incorporated in the work. the research is qualitative as it showed the ingenuity of the poet studied in creatively adapting the oral elements ( proverbs) in the written environment in such a way that it added to the aesthetic quality of the work. this study concluded on the note that the oral forms are varied and could be adapted into the written environment. poets are mailto:ll.amalukwue@unizik.edu.ng%20/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 39 encouraged through this research to employ them (oral forms)more as they device novel ways in which they could be harnessed in their poetry. keywords: aesthetics, nigerian poetry, proverbs, orality. introduction poetry is one of the genres of literature through which comments and criticisms are made in the society. in nigeria, it exists in two modes: the oral and the written mode. oral poetry in nigeria predates western colonization and it is used to perform different functions in the society (preliterate nigerian society). one major characteristics of this poetry is that is performance based. finnegan maintains that it ‘… depends on a performer who formulates it in words on a specific occasion … there is no other way in which it can be realized as a literary product (2)’.thus, there is a correlation between the very existence of oral poetry and its transmission because without oral realization of this poetry, and its direct rendition before an audience, an unwritten literary piece (poetry) cannot be said to have any continued or independence existence at all. oral poetry or orature is very important in nigerian literary canon. chinwizu, et al posit that: … it is the incontestable reservoir of the values , sensibilities, aesthetics and achievements of traditional african thought and imagination outside the plastic arts. thus, it must serve as the ultimate foundation, guide post and point of departure for a must draw sustenance. (2) orature in modern nigerian poetry has helped in creating poetry that is both accessible and acceptable to greater percentage of the people. the inclusion of its genres into written poetry and its manipulation in analysing issues that pertain to the poet’s society is an instance of imaginativeness and experimentation to ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 40 which oral poetry has been put to use in nigerian poetry. prominent poets who explored this in their poetry include niyi osundare, femi fatoba, tanure ojaide, odia ofeimun, ezenwa ohaeto, tess onwueme, akachi adimoraezeigbo, nnimmo bassey, harry garuba, obiora udechukwu and a host of others. they actually bring poetry closer to the people by removing the garb of obscurity associated with the previous poets. this could be seen in osundare’s definitional statement in his poem ‘songs of the marketplace’. he sees poetry not as ‘the esoteric whisper / of an excluding tongue/but as ‘man/ meaning /to man/’ (3-4). according to ushie, their thematic preoccupation remains ‘the desperate situation of africa, the stylistic hallmarks are clarity and directness of expression, formal experimentation and a deliberate incorporation of african literary modes’(19). also, orature helps poets in making abundant use of local settings and imagery which help create poetry that could be accomplished with drums and other musical instrument. as a result, their poetry resonates according to asika ‘with chants and ululations of masquerades and griots alike. we pluck in the lines of poetry ripe fruits of proverbs, riddles, folktales, incantations and praise names of deities and heroes alike which once prided the coastal fringes of africa prior to the coming of the europeans (101)’. this paper studies how the poet (akachi adimora-ezeigbo) adapted the oral form especially the proverb in her poems which makes them distinct and aesthetically african. african aesthetics african critics have made attempts at defining aesthetics from the african point of view (as regards to literature) yet an acceptable definition eludes them. some of them have despaired and concluded that it is not possible to have african aesthetics ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 41 and have resorted to western aesthetics as the only and universal aesthetics. nwankwo citing nwoga agrees with him on the limitations of universal critical criteria because the african mode of aesthetic perception is different from the european mode. in addition chinwizu et al maintain that universal critical criteria tilt towards eurocentrism ‘…with little or no relevance or validity for african people’ (4). african aesthetics (in african literature) brings to mind those ideas that are constant and peculiar to africa that make it unique, beautiful and distinct. one of such ideas is orature. the importance of orature to the development of african aesthetics in africa’s literary canon cannot be overemphasized. in his definition of african aesthetics, nnolim says that it is ‘the way modern african creative writers view and express their universe and the result of what they have viewed and so expressed’ (86). he identifies seven categories in which finished african literary works of african literary writers usually fall. from these categories emerge three issues on which african aesthetics is hinged and one of them is oral tradition/orature. nnolim goes further to say that orature/oral tradition ‘ utilizes its many conventions like songs, song-tales, riddles, beast fables, parables, jokes, proverbs, anecdotes, legends fables, epics, myths, folktales and short stories to instruct, to amuse and to warn each generation on how to handle human situation’(90). these find their way into the literary canon of african writers and feature permanently as african aesthetic in literature. chinwizu et al retaliate their stance over the need for african writers to decolonize african literature through a detailed study of the africa’s orature and an effective implementation of same in literary works. formalism formalism has the distinction of having more names than any other recently developed school of criticism. the two major ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 42 schools that metamorphoses from it are new criticism (the model defined by american and english critics) and the russian formalism (which lays great emphasis on form and techniques and also shares some fundamental characteristics with its western cousin). this paper concerns itself with new criticism, which may be referred to as formalism as the case may be. new criticism is a critical theory that is concerned with how readers understand and value a work for its own inherent worth and not for its metaliterary matters. it insists on close reading of a literary text, particularly poetry, in order to discover how a work of literature functions as a self-contained and selfreferential aesthetic object. ‘the text itself’ is one of the basic principles of new criticism. this is because the new critics focus our attention on the literary work as the sole source of evidence for interpreting it. also, the formal features of a literary text are products of its literary language. literary language depends on connotation: on the implication, association, suggestion and evocation of shades of meaning. literary language also communicates tone, attitude and feeling. it organises linguistic resources into a special arrangement, a complex unity, to create an aesthetic experience. therefore, the literary language of a given text is inseparable from the content and the meaning of that text. this is because the form and meaning of a literary work develop together, like a complex living organism whose parts cannot be separated from the whole. thus the work’s organic unity -the working together of all the parts to make an inseparable whole-is the criterion by which new critics judged the value of a critical work.t his makes it apt for this paper as the researcher analyses the poet akachi adimora-ezeigbo’s use of proverb in her collection of poetry (heart songs) and how it contributes to the aesthetic quality of the poems. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 43 use of proverbs in heart songs proverb has been and has remained the most powerful and effective instrument for the transmission of culture, social morality, manners and ideas of a people from one generation to another. the reason behind the efficacy of the proverb is that it is an aphorism, a wise saying based upon people’s experience as well as a reflection of the social values and sensibility of a people. proverbs at the level of individual units of aphorism (a short phrase that says something true or wise) fits into the syntax of speech as a figurative expression, and a stylistic device with the desired semantic force. when considered collectively, or in a more general sense, proverb can be said to represent a people’s philosophy. they function as literary forms which offer the traditional artist, speaker, and philosopher/priest a veritable medium for the projection and fulfillment of a variety of socially desired goals. according to finnegan, ‘in proverbs, the whole range of human experience can be commented on and analysed, generalizations and principles expressed in a graphic and concise form, and the wider implications of specific situations brought to mind (416)’. whenever there is doubt about an accepted pattern of behaviour, about a stipulated line of action or whenever traditional norms are threatened, there is always proverb to vouch, illuminate and buttress the wisdom of the traditional code of conduct. also, proverbs sum up a situation, pass judgment, recommend a course of action or serve as secular past precedents for present actions. in view of the above, we see the poet (akachi adimoraezeigbo) in heart songs tapping the rich resources contained in african proverbs. being the first poetry collection of the poet who has worked extensively and excelled as a novelist, according to the punch reviews, the work projects the writer as a poet who has a deep mastery of the art of traditional african ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 44 poetry making. her use of proverbs as a literary technique is quite prominent in the poem, ‘ram syndrome’. through it, the poet sums up the abuse of democracy in nigeria and the world at large. she uses the proverb to explore the implications of falling out of favour with the political leaders. the proverb: he who consumes the testicles of a ram owes ibia debt.… (heart songs14) the above proverb brings out the imagery of the victimized. elephantitis of the scrotum or ibi in the poet’s local parlance is an incurable and abominable disease. anyone diagnosed of it is often ostracized. the analogy in the proverb totally sums up this precarious situation faced daily in the poet’s political environment. the same analogy continues throughout the poem as the poet makes allusion to some political victims in the world (represented by russia and nigeria) like alexander litvinenko, anna politkovakaya, dele giwa, ken saro-wiwa, bola ige, moshood abiola and his wife, kudirat abiola and chudi okadigbo. these proverbs do not only create analogy of these victims’ fate but digs deeper into the different situation /environment that led to their demise. for instance the proverb: who does not knowthat jackal does notforgive an affront? (hs 15/16) the proverb above shows that the names of the politicians (moshood abiola, kudirat abiola and chuba okadigbo) mentioned as instances must have died as a result of daring the powers that be. it is a well-known fact that moshood abiola, the undeclared winner of june 12th, 1993 presidential election in nigeria under the platform of sdp (social democratic party) died in detention in 1998, fighting for his mandate. his wife kudirat abiola was equally assassinated for declaring her support for her husband’s struggle while chuba okadigbo was rumored to have been assassinated due to the nature of his death ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 45 (he died of breathing problems caused as a result of tear gas he inhaled and died of before he could get medical attention). also, the case of race victim, amadou diallo in the united states of america (usa) shows the evil of racism. thus the proverb employed by the poet to buttress that is very apt: grasshopper keepssome distancewhen it hearsthe raucous musicof the okpoko bird: (hs 15) through these proverbs, the poet beams her searchlight into the kind of government that prevails in nigeria and the world at large. the much touted democracy breeds insecurity, suppression of freedom of speech and individual liberty. thus, the poet describes it as: …demon-crazyspearheadingrelentless attackson individual liberty on genuine freedom (hs 16) again, the poet in the poem ‘the ‘ism’ of race’ uses proverbs to show the manifestation of racism and xenophobia; the two major challenges faced by immigrants. people usually migrate for different reasons but central to all these is the desire for a good and comfortable standard of living. unknown to migrants, this desire is more or less a utopia for no matter how enticing and promising a host country appears, the tendency to be unaccepted or to feel unaccepted is usually there. for instance, aljazeera news reported cases in 2015 of xenophobic attacks on foreign nationals in south africa. also, the united state of america (usa) and some european countries according to bbc news have institutionalized racial practices that make it difficult for immigrants, especially migrants from africa and other third world countries to be treated fairly and equally with the whites. therefore, the poet’s use of the igbo proverb,“a hen that stands ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 46 on one feet in a strange land (hs 20) ” captures the predicament of nigerians who go ‘abroad’ in search of greener pastures in the poem. the incidence of racism and xenophobia is too concrete to be neglected. these appear in the countenance and body language of the host communities. these immigrants are frowned at and despised for being strangers and as such, fear, uncertainties and rejection assailed them daily. they find it difficult to look at the faces of those who should understand their plight and make them feel welcome. towards the end of the poem, we see that eventually they were able to blend and achieve the purpose of coming to these foreign lands. they actually survived the hardships and rejection to earn the name, ‘…atakata agbuo… (hs 21).’ the poet equally incorporates proverb in the poem ‘fallen tyrant’, to vividly show that tyranny has its own consequences which is often fatal and tragic. it is important to state that most african states and some other countries across the globe has had their share of tyrannical leaders who rule with iron fist without regard to the fundamental human rights of the people. thus, we see the expression of mockery and happiness over the demise of the tyrant by the court guard. a court guard chewed gum and laughedblew bubble and flicked his tongue like a lizardmocking the fallen tyrant with shaky legs…. (hs 22) the tyrant did not just fall (died a normal death) but was toppled in an insurrection against his rule by the people. allusions to this effect were made of dictatorial leaders like adolf hitler, idi amin, mobutu sese seko and pinochet whose tyranny were challenged and their government brought to an end. this goes to show that there cannot be /…a sting without an antidote/ and that /… no tree can populate a forest? / ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 47 in view of the foregoing, the poet deployed the proverb: those who thrive by sword will not escape its sharp-edged justice. (hs 22) the above proverb paints a clear picture of what awaits tyrants at the end. the truth embedded in this proverb extends to the last stanza of the poem where its justification is elucidated. the poet could not help but pray that: would all tyrants be damnedbefore their flood drowns everything in sight? (hs 23) conclusion african proverbs as can be seen from the poems analyzed using formalistic theory has a rich source of imagery from the african environment and they give poets room to express their views on burning issues in their environment. as one of the genres of orature, proverb has survived from its existence in the oral mode into the written mode. its beauty lies in the universality of its meaning in that everyone can relate to it. as a result, the poet couched her criticism of the ills in her society in these proverbs as they can be easily interpreted no matter the ethniclinings of the person reading the poems. in employing them in these poems, the poet has succeeded in creating a work whose aesthetics is truly african. works cited abrams, m.h.a. a glossary of literary terms. united kingdom: thomson, 2005.print. adimora-ezeigbo, akachi. heart songs. ibadan: krafts books ltd, 2009. print. akingbe, n, ‘mapping cavities of despondency: waiting as resistance in niyi osundare’s waiting laughters’. journal of poetry therapy: the interdisciplinary journal ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 48 of practice, theory, research and education, vol 29, issue 4, august 2016, pp 237-246. web. asika, i.e. ‘decolonizing poetry: form, content and linguistic implications of nigerian pidgin poetry’. international journal of research in humanities, arts and literature (impact: ijrhal), vol.2, issue 9, september, 2014, pgs. 97-112. web. azad e. and p. khadija. https://www.aljazeera .com>news. web barrett h.p. https://www.bbc.com>news. web chinwizu, et al. toward the decolonization of african poetry. enugu: fourth dimension pub, 1980. print. dobie, a.b. theory into practice: an introduction to literary criticism. usa: wadsworth, 2002. print. finnegan, ruth. oral literature in africa. london: oxford university press, 1970. print. killiam, g.d. african writers on african writing. ed. everton: worth western university press, 1966. print. nnolim, c.e. morning yet on criticism day: the criticism of african literature in the twentieth century. port harcourt: university of port harcourt, 2009. print. okey umeh, patrick. poetry and social reality: the nigerian experience. onitsha: benamax pub ltd, 1991. print. okoh, nkem. preface to oral literature. onitsha: africana first publishers limited, 2008. print. https://www.aljazeera/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 49 osundare, niyi. songs of the market place. ibadan: new horn press, 1983. print. roscoe, a. uhuru’ fire: african literature east to south. great britain: cambridge `university press, 1977. print. senanu, k.e. and t. vincent. a selection of african poetry. england: longman group ltd, 1976. print. tyson, lois. critical theory today: a user-friendly guide. new york: garland publishing, 1999. print. ushie, joe. ‘phases in nigerian poetry in english’. new nigerian poetry journal, vol 1, pgs 11-26. web. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 79 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu transitivity analysis of the probing eyes by nwachukwuagbada prof. ngozi ezenwa-ohaeto department of english language and literarture, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka & eucharia nkechinyere ugochukwu federal polytechnic nekede, owerri euchay74@gmail.com abstract this study uses halliday’s transitivity system to analyse the processes, participants and circumstances in the probing eyes written by nwachukwu-agbada. transitivity system considers language as representation of human experiences of the world orreality. from the analysis, the study explorescharacters in a text use language to represents the worldinside human beings as well as the world around them. the findings show that material processes has the highest percentage of occurrence with (35.56%), to demonstrate that the actors are active participants acting out their world of experiences of what goes in and out of them. mental process comes second with (31.11%); relational processes (13.33%); behavioral processes (8.89%); verbal processes (8.89%) and lastly is the existential process with (2.22%).. material process expresses actions and reactions of the participants. based on the analysis of the transitivity process, participant and circumstance of the story through the direct method (showing), the result shows that the author does not merely convey the characters based on what appears through the behavior of the characters but also penetrates the thoughts, feelings, turmoil and inner conflict as well as the motivation that underlies the behavior of the characters. keywords: transitivity, processes, participants, circumstance introduction many researches have been carried out in nwachukwu-agbada’s works such as, psychological, psychopathological analyses and relevance of his stories in contemporary times. none has tried to look into his works from transitivity point of view. this informs the basic interest of this study; to look into nwachukwu-agbada’s short story, the probing eyes, from the transitivity aspect using halliday’s transitivity theory as a theoretical framework to analyze the processes, participants and circumstances found in the clauses that will be selected from the story under study. transitivity analysis has been used to understand the language of writers and speakers, examining in depth, the structure of sentences which expresses semantic processes, participant’s involvement and circumstances in which the participants are involved. in his introduction to functional grammar, halliday’s concern is not whether a verb takes or does not take a direct object but his preoccupation is in what he calls “transitivity process” which involves the process itself, participants in the process and circumstances associated with the process (halliday, 1981:172). this he divides into six process types namely: material, mental, relational, behavioral, verbal and existential. these process types align with the metafunctions of language in his clause definition as “the simultaneous realization of ideational, interpersonal and textual meanings. semantically, experiential meaning and the assignment of processes offers a model of the speaker’s experience and serves to represent this experience by construing configuration of a process, participants involved in it and any attendant circumstances” (halliday and matthiessen 2014: 169). these configurations are organized syntactically through the transitivity ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 80 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu system.analyzingmetafunctions in a text may help people understand the information contained in a literary work, especiallyhow the information develops.transitivity theory is applied by scholars to explain the experiential choices an author/ speaker makes to create a certain meaning to express his/ her message. this article therefore, adopts halliday’s model as the theoretical framework to analysethe transitivity processes, participants and circumstances in “the probing eyes” in “love strokes and other stories” by nwachukwu-agbada (1998), to find out if there are clauses in the story that show transitivity processes, participants and circumstances. transitivity system thompson (1996:78) stated that transitivity refers to a system for describing thewhole clause, rather than just the verb and its object. it describes how meaning is carriedacross from subject to predicate through the verb (hancock, 2005:91). it may also help to think about verb phrases as determining kinds of representational processes(hicks, 2007: 20). halliday stated that a clause construes the world of experiences and consisting of nuclear processes, participants, and circumstances (martin, 1992:10). the concepts of process, participant and circumstance are semantic categorieswhich explain in the most general way how phenomena of the real world are represented aslinguistic structures (halliday, 1994:109). processes are expressed by verbal groups,participants by nominal groups, and circumstances by adverbial groups or prepositionalphrases.in halliday’s transitivity model, there are six process types: material, mental, relational, verbal, behavioral, and existential. material, mental and relational are the major categories, while verbal, behavioral and existential are the minor processes group. table showing transitivity processes and their phrase classes. process type category meaning participants material “doing” actor, goal action ‘doing” behavioral “behaving” behaver mental “sensing” senser perception affection “seeing” “feeling” phenomenon verbal “saying” sayer, target relational “being” token, value attribution “attributing” carrier, attribute existential “existing” existent (halliday, 1985:131) processes processes are central to transitivity. the process centers on that part of the clause that is realized by the verbal group, but it can also be regarded as what ‘goings-on’ as represented in the whole clause (bloor and bloor, 1995:110). there are indeed six differentprocess types identified in halliday’s model: material, behavioural, mental, verbal, relational, and existential. material processes (processes of doing and happening) material processes are processes of doing and happening. semantically, material processes indicate activities or events which happen in the outside world of human beings (saragih, 2010:7). there are two varieties of this type of processes; “doing to” or dispositive type and “bringing about” or creative type. material process expresses that an entity “does” something, which may be done “to” an actor, who carries out the action, and some processes, but not all have a second participant called goal, which implies “directed at” or “the one to which the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 81 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu process is extended” (downing, 2006:134). they express the notion that some entity physically does something, undertakes some action.one identification criterion for material processes is that they can be explored by asking: ‘what did x do?’: what did john do? john repaired the car. mental process: (processes of sensing) mental processes are processes of “sensing”. this process of sensing may be construed as flowing from a person’s consciousness (halliday, 1985:170). mental processes differ from material ones and therefore they require a different functional interpretation. mental processes may be of four sub-types; perception, which refers to processes of feelings, seeing and so forth; cognition, which refers to processes of thinking, knowing, etc; emotion or affection, refers to processes of liking, hating etc; desideration which refers to processes of wanting, and so forth. in a mental process, there is always a conscious participant, “the senser”, also called “experiencer”, who perceives, knows and so forth, and a second participant, “the phenomenon”, that which is perceived, known or liked (downing, 2006:133). mental processes express mental reactions and give insight into people’s consciousness and how they sense the experience of the reality (134). it refers to the perception senses like seeing and hearing. perceptive process is marked by verbs such as “see” and “hear”. the second type is cognitive process which refers to the process of thinking. these verbs; like, think, recognize, and “consider” belong to cognitive mental process. affective mental process signals the process of “liking” or “hating”. the verbs in this category are “admire”, “love”, “hate”, or “dislike”. desiderative, which is the last, is also called volition, which shows the senser’s expectation. ‘want’ and “wish” are such verbs that mark this process (halliday, 1970:160). hence, the reason for using mental processes are as spring to take a leap on the transitivity analysis of the main character in the short story is that the narrator uses mental verbs mostly in his narration to depict the mental tortures of love relationship amongst the participants in the texts. the realization of mental verbs is necessarily to observe different intentions on why certain type of mental verb is chosen. by doing so, the comprehension and interpretation of the character can be more objective as it relies on hard data and careful analysis. verbal processes (saying and communicating) verbal processes are processes of saying and communication realized by verbs such as say, talk, asked, etc (downing, 2006:134). eggins (1994:215) states that a verbal process typically contains three participants: sayer, receiver and verbiage. the sayer, the participant responsible for the verbal process, does not have to be a conscious participant (although it typically is), but anything capable of putting out a signal. the receiver is the one to whom the verbal process is directed; the beneficiary of a verbal message, occurring with or without a preposition depending on position in the clause. the verbiage is a nominalized statement of the verbal process; a noun expressing some kind of verbal behavior. many verbal processes occur with a nominal element, and a verbiage(halliday,1985:129). behavioural processes (psychological and physiological behaviour processes) behavioural processes are processes of physiological and psychological behaviours, like breathing, dreaming, snoring, smiling, hiccupping, looking, watching, listening, and pondering (gerrot and wignell, 1994:60). grammatically, they are situated between material and mental processes. the majority of these processes usually hand only one called behaver, who is typically a conscious being, and a range which is often a cognate (halliday, 1985:137). examples according to halliday (1985:136) are: (1). (near mental) processes of consciousness presented as forms of behaviour, look watch, listen, think, dream and so on.(2). (near verbal) verbal processes as forms of behaviour chatter, talk, murmur, and so on.(3). (physiological ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 82 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu processes manifesting states of consciousness, laugh, smile, whine, mood and so on. (4). other physiological processes – breathe, sneeze, bump and so on. (5). (near material) bodily postures and pasteurizing, dance, lie (down) etc relational process (being and having) relational processes are in a wide sense, processes of being. halliday (1985:112) argues that relational processes are those of being; for example, sarah is wise, tom is the leader. the central meaning of clauses of this type is that something is. every language accommodates, in its grammar, a number of distinct ways of being, expressed as different types of relational process in the clause. nevertheless, there are many types of being which will be expressed as different types of relational processes in the clause. those which the author identifies are the following (halliday, 1985:116): (1) intensive “x is a” and (2) circumstantial “x is at a. (3) possessive “x has a”. each of these types comes in two modes: (a). attribute, “a in an attribute of ‘x’. (b). identifying “a is the identity of ‘x’and the identified (halliday, 1976:114). existential processes existential processes are those processes which represent that something happens or exists. they are usually realized by the verb “there + to be or some other verb which expresses existence for example; exist or arise, and they are followed by a nominal group which functions as an existent which is often an event, but can be a phenomenon of any type. oftentimes, an existential process contains a circumstantial element as in, “there was a picture on the wall”. it is frequent in a nonfinite clause, as in “there’s a patient to see you (halliday, 1985:130).these processes represent that something exists or happens. these clauses typically have the verb “be”, or some other verb expressing existence, such as exist, arise, followed by a nominal group functioning as existent (a thing which exists in the process). participants participants are typically realized by nominal groups. each process has special sort of participants. it means, by knowing the participants we can also know the types of processes and circumstances. the type of participant is determined by the process involved. each of these processes has its own participants. participants are discussed according to the various processes and the type of action they perform in the processes. the basic principle is that participants are realized by nominal groups and circumstances are realized by prepositional phrases of adverbial groups. participants are attached to every process (eggins, 1994). however, the basic principle may be departed from under certainconditions: a) participants that are marked theme or late news in the clause are marked by a preposition: agent (in a receptive ['passive'] clause): by (sometimes with). medium (in a receptive clause): by, recipient: to, client: for, range: at, up, over, actor (doer of the action), goal (object of the action) carrier,attribute (goal after the process has been completed), token (participant which is identified) value (something which is given to the identified participant), sayer (refers to speaker or anything that become the source of saying), senser (the one that sense), behaver, existent, verbiage ( signal something that is said), addressee, receiver (indicate addressee to whom the saying is delivery), phenomenon (something which is sensed by the senser) halliday and matthiessen, 2014) and target (show entity or event which is being said or exist. (gerrot and wignell, 1994:86). (b) participants in relational clauses may be adverbial groups as well as prepositional phrases: (identifying:) on the twelfth. (c) participants can serve as subject, but circumstances cannot. (d) participants are interrogated by means of who, what, which; circumstances by means of when, where, why, how (plus prepositional phrases such as withwhom/ who ... with, since when/ since ... when, for whom/ who ... for) (lock, 1996:165). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 83 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu table showing halliday’s transitivity participants in the processes material mental relational verbal behavioral existential actor senser carrier sayer behaver existent goal phenomenon attribute receiver behavior beneficiary/ recipient attributor verbiage beneficiary (client) identifier target scope initiator identified assigner (halliday, 1985:131) lock (1996:165) states that the basic principles of participants are realized by nominal groups. for instance,“we had breakfast with tiffany in the afternoon”. the participant is we (actor), breakfast (range); and the circumstance is with tiffany (accompaniment), in the afternoon (locative-time). the basic differences between participant and circumstance may be departed from under certain conditions: (a) participants that are marked theme or late news in the clause are marked by a preposition: (1) agent (in a receptive (passive) clause): by (sometimes with); (2) medium (in a receptive clause): by (3) recipient: to (4) client: for (5) range: at, up, over. for instance: he jumped the fence: he jumped clumsily over the fence; he baked her cake: he baked cake for her; she gave him the book: she gave the book to him; she played tennis with him: she played him at tennis. participants in relational clauses may be adverbial groups as well as prepositional phrases: (identifying :) on the twelfth (c). participants can serve as subject, but circumstances cannot. for instance, she drove here there by car, he was driven there by car; but not car was driven there by, there was driven by car. the attribute of a relational clause cannot serve as subject (it is not a prototypical participant in any case). participants are interrogated by means of who, what, which; circumstances by means of when, where, why, how (plus prepositional phrases such as with whom/ who ... with, since when/ since ... when, for whom/ who ... for).actor isthe participant which is doer or performer of an action in a material process.goal isthe participant which is affected by the actor in the process. goal is constructed by the process involvement of the actor.scope isthe participant which is unaffected from actor in the process. it is not constructed by the process directly.beneficiary-recipient the participant “to whom” the processtakes place. the participant who gets advantage from the goods and services is known as beneficiary/recipient(halliday & matthiessen, 2014: 224-244). in the clause,“john” and “the car”, john is the actor while the car is the goal(eggins,1994:217). the two participants in the mental process are senser and phenomenon. a senser is the conscious being involved in the process, while a phenomenon is the participant which has felt, thought, or seen by the senser.senser is the central and inherent participant in mental process. it may be one person or human collective. senser is the participant who perceives, thinks, feels or wants in mental process.phenomenon is also inherent participant like senser in mental process. phenomenon is the act, thing or fact which is perceived, felt or wanted.(halliday & matthiessen, 2014:245-258) the carrier is the participant who carries an attribute or the entity which is ascribed or assigned with attribute in the process.attribute is the entity or attribute (quality) which is assigned or ascribed to carrier.attributor is the participant in relational process who assigns the quality (attribute). it is also known as assigner in relational process.identified is the participant in relational process who is indicated by an entity in identification process. it is also known as token in relational process.identifier is the participant which identified the token. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 84 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu it is also known as the value in relational process.(halliday & matthiessen, 2014:259-299). the sayer is the participant who speaks or says in the verbal process. it is also known as the speaker of the process.receiver is the also oblique. receiver is the participant in verbal process to whom saying is directed.target is the participant which is targeted by verbal process. subtypes of clauses in verbal process contains target participant. verbiage is very important participant in verbal process. “what is said by sayer?”(halliday, 1971:115). “the participant who carries out the role of the sayer is the “notice”. the participants of the processes are: sayer (participant who speaks), receiver (the one to whom the verbalization is addressed), verbiage (a name for the verbalization itself). in behavioral process, there is only one participant, namely; behaver (the agent who behaves).behaviour isthe participant which is affected by the process with the involvement of behaver (halliday &matthiessen, 201:301-302).there is only one participant in this process that is existent. it is the entity or event which comes into existence as the process unfolds. circumstances circumstances answer such questions as when, where, why, how, how many, and as what. the principal types of circumstances are time (temporal), place (spatial), manner (means, quality, and comparison), cause (reason, purpose, and behalf), accompaniment, matter, and role (gerrott and wignell, 1994:52-53). in addition, halliday (1985:137) suggests that the principal types of circumstantial element in english are as follows: extent and location in time and space, including abstract space: manner (means, quality, and comparison): cause (reason, purpose, and behalf); accompaniment: matter; role, extent and location. circumstances give extra detail about the physical action and inner world in which the human experiences are constructed. circumstantial elements in transitivitysystemcircumstances (expansion: enhancing), extent: (distance, distance in space), duration: (duration in time), frequency: (how many times?), location:(place-where?), spatial: (time-when? temporal), manner: (means how? by which means?), quality: (how? adverbial group), comparison: (similarity and differences), degree: (prepositional phrase, how much? adverbial group), cause:(reason why? causes, because purpose what for? intention behalf who for? on whose behalf action takes place, contingency: (condition, why? having sense of ‘if ’default having sense of negative condition concession frustrated cause, with prepositions). table showing circumstances in halliday’s transitivity system. category sub-category sub-type probe example extent distance how far? over 10 miles duration how long? for several days frequency how many times? 20 times location place where? in tulsa time when? in may manner means how? by train quality in what way? this way comparison what like? his hair was cut differently degree how much? i like him so much cause reason why? because of (halliday, 1985:138) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 85 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu analysis the method of data analysis employed in this paper is a purposive qualitative method. first and foremost, the clause in the stories were selected and analyzed based on halliday’s systemic processes. the texts were split into sentences and clauses. each of the clauses was expressed in tables and examined to determine the process types of processes , the participants in the processes, and the circumstantial elements in the process. the selected clauses were thoroughly checked to enable the identification of the high occurring process, its participant and circumstance involved manually. clause 1. his heart gave a little lurch of excitement (tpe). his heart gave a little lurch of excitement participant process scope behaver behavioural behaved clause 2. prospero could not have his way yesterday (tpe). prospero could not have his way yesterday participant process carrier circumstance actor material goal time clause 3. he felt like rushing her (tpe). he felt like rushing her participant process scope senser mental phenomenon clause 4. monday would have been away on morning duty (tpe). monday would have been away on morning duty participant process circumstance identified relational location clause 5. she has a penchant for a neat dress (tpe). she has a penchant for a neat dress participant process scope circumstance actor material goal manner clause 6. suddenly monday emerged from underneath the bed (tpe). clause 7. those chadian beggars are sleeping on lagos road (tpe). those chadian beggars are sleeping on lagos road participant process circumstance actor material place clause 8. naomi would have been treating his eyes to such exposure (tpe). naomi would have been treating his eyes to such exposure participant process scope circumstance actor material goal place clause 9. all he knew was that he had arranged with naomi to be at home by 10am (tpe). all he knew was he had arranged with naomi to be home by 10am adjunct process participant process scope circumstance circumstance modal relational identified relational identifier place time suddenly monday emerged from underneath the bed circumstance participant process circumstance manner actor material place ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 86 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu clause 10. prospero’s heart flowed over its brim with the joy of a conqueror (tpe). prospero’s heart flowed over its brim with the joy of a conqueror participant process circumstance circumstance actor material place manner discussions based on the results obtained, the most frequent type of process used in the short story is material process. it shows that the message of the short story is expressed through the actions and physical movements of the characters. the second process in the data is mental processes and relational processes. relational process is applied in expressing the message through the way of being and having something. while, the mental process is applied in expressing the message through the process of feeling, thinking, perceiving. it is continued by verbal processes indicating the theme of love expressed through some utterances said by the participants. material process expresses actions and reactions of the participants. based on the analysis of the transitivity process, participant and circumstance of the stories through the direct method (showing), the result can be seen from above that the author does not merely convey the characters based on what appears through the behavior of the characters but also penetrates the thoughts, feelings, turmoil and inner conflict as well as the motivation that underlies the behavior of the characters. the study examines the experiential meaning analysis using transitivity system in expressing the themes of the data expressed in the short story in detail. focusing on identifying the processes, participants, and circumstances, the study will show the readers the way the narrator develop the themes of the short stories. it can be seen through two ways of transitivity processes, which are material process and mental process. although there are 10 clauses, the analysis shows a total number of 45 transitivity processes that indicate the themes of the stories. the following table illustrates clearly the total amount of findings consisting of the number and percentage of each process type of transitivity system. from the analysis, 11 participants partook in the processes; 9 major participants and 2 minor participants. process types in the probing eyes. process frequency percentage (%) material 16 35.56% mental 14 31.11% behavioural 4 8.89% verbal 4 8.89% relational 6 13.33% existential 1 2.22% total 45 100 from the results obtained, the most frequent type of process used in the short stories is material process (35.56% and 16 processes). it shows that themes of the short stories are expressed through the actions and physical movements of the characters. the second processes used are mental (31.11% and 14 processes) and relational process (13.33% and 6 processes). relational process is applied in expressing the theme through the way of being and having something. while, the mental process is applied in expressing the theme through the process of feeling, thinking, perceiving. it is continued by verbal process which has 4 processes (8.89%) indicating the themes are expressed through some utterances said by the characters. behavioural process has 4 (8.89%) processes expressing the themes of the short stories. lastly, existential has only ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 87 ezenwa-ohaeto & ugochukwu one slot (2.22% and 1 process). from the analysis, 11 participants partook in the processes; 9 major participants and 2 minor participants. it might be argued that the clauses that imply the process of physiological or psychological behavior to express the themes are only 4 processes. meanwhile, the writer found only 1 existential process which expresses the theme of the short stories. in other words, the clause expressing themes stated by the presence of something or some event is only one process. conclusion in the process of representation, clause plays a central role, because it embodies a general principle of modeling experience, namely, the principle that reality is made up of processes. transitivity system, according to halliday, is a set of grammatical system which construes the world of experience into a manageable set of process types (halliday, 1994:106). there are six principle processes types in transitivity system: material, mental, relational, behavioural, verbal, and existential. process types in transitivity system helps human beings recognize and encode their experiences or phenomena of the real world. from the analysis of the processes, the dominant process is material processes with 16clauses (35.56 %) of the total clauses of the text, showing that the participants are active actors in their experiences of the happenings around them. the second place is mental process with 14 clauses (31.11%), the third place is relational processes with 6 clauses (13.33%). next is behavioral processes with4 clauses (8.89%), verbal processes has the same number with behavioural processes clauses (8.89%). while existentialprocesses comes last with only 1 clause (2.22%). analysis of data shows that the text yields 11 participants: 9 major and 2minor. these participants are distributed as 8 actors/goals, 1 existents, 3 carriers of certain attributes, 8 identified possessors of characteristics, 4sayers or verbiages, 6sensers /phenomena, and 11 behaver. specifically, the main participant, prospero in “the probing eyes”, is portrayed in the story as an “opportunist” lover, who wants to grab any opportunity to have a fast sexualrelationship with another man’s wife. through this, the characters act out the world around them. in halliday’s functional grammar system, language has three basic functions:ideational function, interpersonal function, and textual function. each of them can be realizedby one or more sets of grammatical system of language. the ideational function, hallidaymentions, concerns how human beings build a mental picture of reality with language, howthey make sense of what goes on around them and inside them. those goings-on consist ofhappening, doing, meaning, being and becoming. references bloor, t. and bloor, m.(1995). the functional analysis of english: a hallidayan approach. london: arnold. co-published new york: oxford university press. butler, c. 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(1996). critical discourse analysis. new york: continuum international publishing group. martin, j. r.(1992). english text: system and structure. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing company. nwachukwu-agbada,j.o.j.(1998). love strokes and other stories. benin city:barloz. saragih, a. (2010). introducing systemic functional grammar of english. medan: fbs unimed (unpublished) shaddock, j.m.(1974).towards a linguistics theory of speech act. new york: academy press. thompson, g. (2004). introducing functional grammar, 2nd edition. london: edward arnold. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 62 ezeifeka & ogbogu the impact of federal road safety awareness texts on the level of road accidents in nigeria: a semiotic investigation dr. chinwe ezeifeka department of english languaguage and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: cr.ezeifeka@unizik.edu.ng & ngozi florence ogbogu department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka abstract the major focus of this study is to ascertain the impact of federal road safety awareness texts on the level of road accidents in nigeria from a semiotic perspective. the study is motivated by the observation that despite government’s efforts to disseminate information on road safety through road signs embedded in frsc manual the number of people involved in road traffic accidents continue to rise every year. the specific objective of this study is to ascertain how icon, indexical and symbolic sign are interpretable by road users as well as to determine additional or alternative lexical/grammatical features that can be used to complement and substitute the existing road signs for more effective interpretation by road users.the present study employed a qualitative research design. the population of this study comprise 50 motorists in onitsha metropolis. usingpurposive sampling technique 43 road awareness texts selected from the frsc highway code were used as a thematic model to obtain the views of the motorists. this study affirmed that the language of a road traffic code is signs-dependent. these signs are intended to identify and warn road users against specific hazards without the use of words. they may also describe safety precautions, advise users on the actions to take, or provide other directions that can eliminate or reduce hazards. this study discovered that the level of awareness of drivers is a serious impediment to drivers understanding of road signs. this study recommends that road signs should be redesigned in a manner that could be easily understood by all categories of road users. keywords: frsc manual, road safety, multimodality, road sign introduction the study is motivated by the observation that despite government effort to disseminate information on road safety through road signs embedded in federal road safety corp (frsc) manual, numbers of road traffic accidents continue to rise every year. road signs comprise of symbols, indexicals and icons mounted or drawn on the roads or roadsides. road signs are usually the combination of linguistic and non-linguistic elements used to give specific information to road users to prevent incidences of collision. a multimodal analysis is an approach to discourse that focuses on how meaning is realized through the use of multiple modes of communication in addition to written or spoken language. it is noted, however, that despite the road signs that are visible on the roads, accidents still occur due to violation of the traffic rules as represented by the signs. this incessant road mishap calls for serious questions on the effectiveness of the road signs as a vehicle of information dissemination to the road users. this study, therefore, sought to ascertain how road signs which areiconic, indexical and symbolicare interpretedbycommercial drivers as well as to determine additional or alternative lexical/grammatical features that can be used to complement and substitute the existing road signs for more effective interpretation by road users. conceptual clarifications communication humans live a communication-dependent life; hence communication is central to the functioning of the society. akpan, senam, and elijah posit that communication involves the reception and interpretation of stimuli affected by a mutually intelligible concept called language (685). lyorza sees communication as a kind of meaning-dependent interaction, where the interacting agents share a ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 63 ezeifeka & ogbogu common set of signs and semiotic rules (27). meaning and understanding are therefore central to information, be it spoken, written, signs or signal in a given linguistic and cultural community. communication could be verbal or non-verbal, written or unwritten. hence, nigeria has designed a road traffic code as documented in their manual as a guide for road users, motorists and pedestrians. the code includes road signs, road markings, computerized traffic lights, traffic control signals, among others, with communicative symbols where necessary or applicable. multimodal discourse road signs are among the forms of a communication system that belong to what has been described as multimodal discourse. in this area of study, language is seen as a code, a system structured in ways that mean something in an independent medium, either from written text, music or art. the message is the meeting point of different codes. thus, a mode is a means of expression used to convey meaning. each message uses severaliconic, indexical and symbolic modes thus becoming multimodal. language is defined by eggins as contextual, functional, semantic and semiotic (4). she further declares that the most elaborated semiotic system is language as in any interaction; the interlocutors get involved in conveying exactly a message the audience should be aware of as well as the right choice of word. road signs and semiotic modes as defined in the nigeria highway code, the road is a path established overland for the passage of vehicles, people, and animals (1). according to makinde and opeyemi the road signs convey messages in words or symbols and are erected to regulate, warn, or guide road users motorists, and pedestrians, etc (608). human ingenuity has made contacts and links possible among the people at different locations in our society through the creation of connectivity within the vast space that makes up the society. this connectivity comes in form of roads, riverways, airways, etc. the most visible and mostly used by the people, using different types of means of transportation, is the road. the need for interconnectivity makes the road network so complex, as there exist different types, such as the expressways, two-lane highways, dual carriageways, drive pathways, intersections, roundabout, tjunctions, interchanges, intercessions, u-turns, etc., all having their complexities (nigerian highway code). in semiotics, the index is the phenomenon of a sign pointing to (or indexing) some object in the context in which it occurs. therefore, a sign that signifies indexically is called an index. the modern concept originates in the semiotic theory of charles sanders peirce, in which indexicality is one of the three fundamental sign modalities, the others being iconicity and symbolism (32). as captioned by silverstein, these are: • icon: a sign in which "the perceivable properties of the sign vehicle itself have isomorphism to (up to identify with) those of the entity signaled. that is, the entities are 'likenesses' in some sense • index: according to silverstein (1976) is a sign which "the occurrence of a sign vehicle token bears a connection of understood spatio-temporal contiguity to the occurrence of the entity signaled (14). that is, the presence of some entity is perceived to be signaled in the context of communication incorporating the sign vehicle. • symbol: the residual class, a sign which is not related to its object by bearing some qualitative likeness to it, nor by co-occurring with it in some contextual framework. these "form the class of 'arbitrary' signs traditionally spoken of as the fundamental kind of linguistic entity. sign vehicle and entity signaled are related through the bond of a semantico-referential meaning which permits them to be used to refer to any member of a whole class or category of entities. theoretical framework theory of semiotics this work is anchored on semiotics, which is based on the observations of the german psychologist max wertheimer (45). this theory posits that recognizing a sign is made possible as a result of the “cortical networks” that allow an object to be perceived by the brain concerning space and other activities around the object.the first theoretical dimension of this theory is built on the assumption https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/semiotics https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/context_(language_use) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sign https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/semiotic_theory_of_charles_sanders_peirce https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/iconicity https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/symbolic_anthropology https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/course_in_general_linguistics#arbitrariness ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 64 ezeifeka & ogbogu that representation and communication always draw on a multiplicity of modes, to add to the meaning. it pays attention to analyzing and describing the full collection of meaning-making resources that people use (spoken, visual, written, gestural three-dimensional, and others, depending on the domain of representation) in different contexts, and to the development of the means that show how these are organized to make meaning. the second assumption of multimodality is that over some time, resources are socially shaped to become meaning-making resources. these meanings, social, individual or affective are further articulated according to the requirements of the social groups or communities in the environment. the third multimodal assumption of this theory is that people orchestrate meaning through their selection and configuration of modes, foregrounding the significance of the interaction between the road signs and the road users. thus, all communicational acts are shaped by the norms and rules operating at the moment of sign making and influenced by the motivations and interests of people in a specific social context. methodology the present study employed a qualitative approach as it is a method most suited for awareness campaigns in terms of describing and interpreting meaning embedded in road signs. this study paid particular attention to iconic, indexical and symbolic modes as the possible misinterpretation of messages, especially whether the image and graphic choices used in the texts could act as constraints during the decoding process in social contexts.the population of this study comprise 50 commercial drivers upper iweka motor park onitsha. using, purposive sampling technique 43 road awareness texts selected from the frsc highway code were used as a thematic model to obtain the views of the motorists (1). the data generation of this study was based on two specific procedures. the first procedure of this study was aimed at discovering the educational qualification of the drivers while the second procedure is based on ascertaining the views of the drivers on the function of the selected signs as described in frsc highway code published in 2016. data presentation and analysis from the result obtained from this study, it was discovered that the majority of the drivers at upper iweka motor park have the data below: table 1: bio-data of respondents variable no of response percentage% table 1: gender 1 male 90 90 2 female 0 0 total 90 100.0 table 2: age distribution 1 18-25years 5 6 2 26-35 years 10 11 3 36-45 years 32 36 4 46 years and above 43 47 total 90 100 table 3: educational qualification distribution variable no of response percentage 1 wassce/gce/neco 67 73 2 nce/ond 10 11 3 b.sc./hnd 14 15 4 m.sc./mba 0 0 total 90 100 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 65 ezeifeka & ogbogu table 5: accident occurrence ratio (1) (2) 1-2 6 7 (3) (4) 2-4 15 17 (5) (6) 4-5 38 42 (7) (8) 6 and above 31 34 total 90 100.0 table 7: years of experience in driving variable no of response percentage 1 1-5 years 7 8 2 5-10 years 28 31 3 10-15 years 7 8 4 15-20 years 48 53 total 90 100.0 source: field survey, 2020 from the review of road signs contained in the federal road safety awareness manual and in line with the theory of semiotics as propounded by charles sanders peirce (1958), this study found that majority of commercial drivers in upper iweka motor parksee road signs as words, numbers, sounds, photographs, paintings and road signs among and more. that guide road users on the effective use of the roads. following the theory of semiotics, the major principle of effective communication is to insist on cohesion and coherence in the dissemination of messages. however, the majority of the drivers at the study area complained that they find it difficult to understand some of the road sign. this implies that the producers of frsc texts overlooked the importance of coherent framing. in most texts, the idealized information is too abstract to have any relation with the intended theme of the text. this view is supported by kress and van leeuwen (1996) who observe that viewers of spatial compositions are intuitively able to judge the weight of the various elements of composition and the greater the weight of an element, the greater its salience. salience or prominence is the result of a complex interaction of such elements as size, the sharpness of focus, colour contrast, placement in the foreground or background. undoubtedly, frsc texts contain life-saving messages which require a serious mood with which to decode the intended meaning. a mixture of certain colours has the potential to project mixed interpretations and consequently distort the intended meanings. for example, the graphic messages in data 1 and 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 30 are presented in red (depicting danger), while 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 are presented in blurry blue. yet, the themes in the two texts are associated with the dangers and the need to use the road with caution. this assumption is in line with the postulation of kress & van leeuwen (1996) on the effective use of colour in the designing of semiotic modes. the colour schema according to the above author is outlined below: (i) red:is associated with our most physical needs and our will to survive. it exudes a strong and powerful masculine energy. it depicts strong leadership qualities, warmth, passion and excitement. it can also depict anger and danger and hostility. (ii) white: is associated with purity, innocence, completion, chastity and cleanliness. it opens the way for the creation of anything the mind can conceive because its basic feature is impartiality and independence. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 66 ezeifeka & ogbogu (iii) green: is the colour of balance and harmony. it is the colour of growth, the colour of spring and rebirth. it renews and restores depleted energy. it gives humans the ability to love and nurture themselves and others unconditionally. (iv) black: relates to the hidden, the secretive and the unknown, creating an air of mystery. it keeps things bottle up inside, hidden from the world. (v) blue: is associated with trust, honesty, loyalty and integrity. it is also associated with responsibility, inner security and confidence. furthermore, the use of semantically appropriate icons, symbols, and indexical should be strategically pursued by the formulators of road traffic signs. this is crucial because some texts were overloaded with many visual signs which had no explanation will be misleading to the audience. this semantic imbalance affected the coherence between the graphic and visual information in the process of meaning-making. for example, the text in data 4 is overloaded with multiple semiotic modes. the text contained three different symbols joined together. a critical look at the symbol shows that the triple image has different layers of meaning. this might make the text incoherent because it contravenes the regulative principles of textual communication which requires that a symbol should be used with minimum effort. the sematic overload had implications on the interpretation of meaning. only people who had intertextual knowledge about such signs were not able to decipher the intended meanings. thus, if messages in road safety awareness texts are not regulated and coherently packaged, the producer’s risk not fulfilling their objectives. one of the reasons for the incoherence in frsc texts pertains to the use of abstract modes. it was found that either the visual or graphic mode was abstract. in some instances, both modes were ambiguous. data 1 were with a caption ‘drive and drive’ is a clear case of an ambiguous road traffic awareness text. coherent multimodal texts are those that communicate a specific, clear, and straightforward message. this means that the text must make itself easy and accessible to the viewers or readers who, in most cases, have no time to spend reading complicated messages.if the image is abstract deciphering of the message becomes rather difficult. data two which is an index is also a clear case of a straight to the point road sign. due to the ever-increasing numbers of road traffic accidents, one would expect those campaign coordinators would ensure that brochures are designed as simply as possible, making them accessible and comprehensible to the audience. by making images familiar to the audience, it is assumed that they would understand and comprehend such images. in road safety awareness campaigns, the intentions of the producers of brochures are to design texts whose messages can easily be decoded by the target audience driving or walking past. it was found that in many cases, the visual mode alone was not coherent enough to convey a meaningful message, just as the graphic mode was not. the two modes needed to hang together to convey any meaning. in certain instances, even where the two modes were read in collaboration, it still required a great deal of intertextual knowledge and experience to effectively decode the message. this was because there was minimal coherence between the modes. visual and verbal elements should be considered as contributing to an integrated text. they refer to the spatial composition of a text as an overarching code whose rules and meanings provide the multimodal text with the logic of its integration and discuss composition in terms of three interrelated systems: information value, salience, and framing. information value refers to the placement of elements in a composition that endows them with the specific informational values attached to the various zones of the image: left and right, top and bottom, centre and margin. however, the texts in data 1, 5, and 7 have low modality because the audience’s real world is not depicted in the narratives. thus, the texts communicate in a distant and impersonal fashion which does not guarantee representational meaning. the use of colours in a multimodal text involving image and linguistic information represents a particular mood or feeling which, if ignored, can ultimately affect the coherence of the text as is the case with some frsc texts. it is not clear ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 67 ezeifeka & ogbogu whether the presence of linguistic messages in mixed colours was a matter of choice or oversight by the producers of frsc texts. the fact of the matter is that colours in a multimodal text have meanings; thus, a conscious thought should be applied in the choice of colours so that there are no disparities in the projected meaning of the text. it is clear that attaching meaning to colour is a western tradition, and interpreting the symbolic meanings behind the choice of certain colours requires a western schema which may not be there in the target audience. summary of findings the main purpose of the study was to analyse textual and visual messages on road safety awareness in frsc to establish their correlation, and how meaning is conveyed. the majority of the drivers agreed that the essence of road traffic signs is too safely guide road users.the findings of this study also indicate that semiotic modes in frsc texts are generally incoherent to the drivers due to the level of their knowledge. this is due to the use of abstract and ambiguous modes; use of complex and misplacement of compositional elements; and semantic overload. this study is relevant to scholarship becauseit will provide valuable insight into the kinds of texts produced for road safety awareness and how road safety information is perceived by a motorist.also, the findings of the study will be significant to all the regulatory stakeholders in the government such as the policymakers, federal road safety commission, police and the vehicle inspection officers (vio), because it will make their minds to be thorough at redesigning some sign where necessary to ensure that the signs are properly understood by road users. conclusion based on the findings of this study, it has become apparent that meanings in frsc road safety campaign materials are not properly enacted. this is due to the use of incoherently packaged semiotic resources. it has been established that, in most instances, both the graphic and visual modes communicate messages which are unclear and ambiguous. therefore, the likelihood of misinterpreting the intended messages by the drivers who are largely fslc and wassec holders is very high. to construct result-oriented publicity materials, an effective communication model is needed. the model should include properly designed campaign materials in which the semiotic resources coherently project the intended messages to different categories of drivers with different educational background. this will drastically reduce the occurrence of road accidents in the study area. recommendations in line with the findings of the study, the following recommendations were drawn: 1. there is the need for the frsc to employ the services of linguistic and semiotic experts that will repackage the road safety awareness texts effectively. this is based on the fact that most of the road signs contained in the frsc brochure are semiotically incoherent and inefficient. 2. there is an urgent need to deploy the services of experienced semiotic and linguistic experts to explore avenues of crafting all the road signs in the local dialects in nigeria to accommodate drivers who have a low level of awareness and education. 3. the use of pidgin english should also be utilized as a medium of spreading road traffic awareness texts because it is a language that is widely spoken mostly among the middle and lower class of motorist in the nigerian society. 4. there is a need for frsc toembark on efficient advocacy programs to re-educate and reenlighten the numerous road users in the country. they should also ensure that motorist who has thoroughly understood the road signs are allowed to drive on the road. to achieve this, traffic signs should be taught in driving schools, motor parks and markets. 5. the law enforcement agents should carry out their duties and responsibilities with trust and integrity to reduce the carnages and destructions that are recorded daily on nigerian roads. 6. there should be media advocacy that raises the level of consciousness of the road users especially through the use of local language of the people. federal road service commission (frsc) should show commitment and dedication to duties by taking traffic campaigns to motor parks and markets. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 68 ezeifeka & ogbogu works cited akpan, u. et al. the communicativeness of road traffic signs in uyo, akwa ibom state of nigeria. 2015. eggins, s. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. (2nd edition). new york: continuum, 2004. federal road safety commission. nigeria highway code. detail works. nigeria. 2016. iyorza, s. mass media and communication technique. calabar: university of press. 2008. makinde, opeyemi oluyemisi, opeyemi, david. understanding of traffic signs by drivers – a case of akure city, ondo state, nigeria. arpn journal of science and technology, vol. 2, no. 7. 2012. peirce, c. s. collected writings (8 vols.). (ed. charles hartshorne, paul weiss & arthur w burks). cambridge, ma: harvard university press. 1958. silverstein, michael. shifters, linguistic categories and cultural description. albuquerque: university of new mexico press. 1976. wertheimer, m. productive thinking. (enlarged ed.). new york: harper & row. 1959. appendix https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/michael_silverstein ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 177 individual as a victim of the society in ngozi chuma-ude's teachers on strike ozoh, n. j.,1okpala, e. p.,2 and ihueze,a. o.3 1, 2, 3 department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka correponding authors – ozoh, n. j. email: nj.ozoh@unizik.edu.ng abstract this paper analyzes the leadership and social issues in africa and exposes leadership crises in political offices. it argues that bad leadership in political offices is as a result of peoples’ inability to fight back, rapacity, excessive desire, ambitions, injustice and weak ideology. the researcher believes that african political leaders come to power with the intention to exhibit wickedness to their citizens instead of facilitating the exchange of quality ideas with their followers and to be worshipped as demi gods. using content analysis approach of qualitative research method, this paper examines different patterns of exhibitions of corruption using the writer’s creative experiences of her characters under oppressed society. socialtheory is adopted for the analysis.ngozichumaudeh'steachers on strikethe two texts under study. this study observes that the major cause of corruption in africa is manmade and for quality leadership to prevail in africa, those concerned must be punished and must be made to understand their duties, responsibility and obligation as leaders. this paper concludes that the only thing that can bring transformation is justiceand equity done by the masses which will help pave way for sustainable development. keywords: leadership, corruption, oppressed, justice, transformation. mailto:nj.ozoh@cms.unizik.edu.ng ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 178 introduction literature as an integral part of any society has intellectual value. writers try to have an impact by influencing people all over the world. david ker is of the view that writers depict the society they belong as they portray the miasma of human life as it concerns the evil mindset of leaders and others vices. he writes: ‘it is interesting to access the validity of west african novels as social documents, for if literature is relevant at all, it is because we can obtain some picture of society and of life from it’ (26). literature being a store house of human knowledge deals on individual's experience of reality, the general factors, issues that affect the society positively and negatively. writers convey their own knowledge, wisdom and vision through written text. these are drawn from their experiences and relationships in the society where they find themselves. therefore, writers put down their thoughts and experiences in form of fiction and non-fiction. every society has problems but every area has problems that are peculiar to them. achebe in the ‘novelist as teacher’ asked to know the relationship between african writers and their audience (readers). achebe believes that the african writer is part and parcel of the society he writes and so believes that african writers write for africans as his first two novels were mostly sold in nigeria than any other place. a writer is a ‘teacher’ according to achebe, as the writer tries to maintain a responsibility within his society. in ‘the novelist as a teacher’, achebe defines his literacy plan as: here then is an adequate revolution for me to espouse – to help my society regain belief in itself and put away the complexes of the years of denigration and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 179 self-abasement. and it is essentially a question of education, in the best sense of that word. here, i think my aims and the deepest aspirations of my society meet. (44) a social problem according to johnson olawale in his article 'list of social problems in nigeria’,‘is any general behavior or condition that is prevalent among the majority in a particular society and has a negative effect on the society beyond what is seen as moral and just acceptable’. (legit) social problems include problems that ‘reduce the standard of living beyond an acceptable level’. he goes ahead to list social problems in nigeria as national identity, corruption, inequality, poverty, insecurity and insurgencies, tribalism, poor standard of education and illiteracy, high level of unemployment, domestic violence, high morbidity and mortality rate, bad leadership, numeric ethnic groups with lots of differences, high population and rapid population growth. social problems are problems that affect a particular group of people. they are common issues we encounter daily which can tarnish people’s image. social issues ranges from peace and security, gender, race, human right issues, economics, politics to environmental issues. different societies face different social problems. corruption which is one of the social problems is defined by oladipupo as ‘… any conscious action or inaction, process or procedure, perpetuated by an individual or group that unfairly and unduly appropriates rewards, resources, or advantage to some individuals or groups at the expense of others’ (8). he argues that corruption is dangerous because it affects a whole generation not only an individual. oladipupoipadeola in research report: qualitative study on the patterns, experiences ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 180 and manfestations of corruption in nigeria, said that world bank defines corruption as ‘the abuse or misuse of public office for private gains’ (5). according to a cso representative in oladipupo’s report, there are three types of corruption which he defines in the following way: we have three types of corruption in nigeria …we have political corruption that is seen within the government offices, where the head converts public funds to his personal use. economic corruption deals with the business class when they compromise with the government official for example when a contractor connives with government officials, … the social corruption is where you have decay in the spirit of good and moral. you see this also in the family circle …. (13) the researcher will therefore group corruption practices in the text under study according to political, economic and social types of corruption for clearer view. the text under study is chosen because most of the social problems listed above are all glaring in the texts. the stories provide snapshots of living standard in a place where justice and decent way of life have crumbled to give way to corruption, poverty, unemployment, high mortality rate, bad leadership, poor standard of education and man’s inhumanity to man. they showcase characters that survive against insurmountable odds, abuse of power and domestic violence. these entire ethoses are examined in the texts to show the contemporary and social issues facing the characters in the texts. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 181 social theory according to austin harrington, social theory arises from daily life experiences which is as a result of interaction between people and it can lead to formation of ‘political parties trade unions and organized mass action such as strikes and revolutions’ (6). he goes ahead in his book, introduction. what is social theory? to define social theory as …the study of scientific ways of thinking about social life. it encompasses ideas about how societies change and develop, about methods of explaining social behavior, about power and social structure, class, gender and ethnicity, modernity… and numerous other concepts and problems in social life. (1) to george herbert mead who developed a theory of social behaviorism, social experiences develop ones personality. he believes that self is developed out of the experiences one encounters in the society. he is of the view that people help to shape their environment. elliot anthony is of the view that ‘relationship between self and society and possibility of social transformation’ are the major themes in social theory. the touch light is focused on the society and the societal issues that affect lives as according to elliot, social theory has to do with social transformation, gender, class and other social issues. according to devaun in socialtheoryapplied.com, the founders of social theory include jacques derrida, pierre bowdieu, michel foucault and jurgenhabermas. social theory therefore is all about the society, individuals and the environment. it studies human beings and believes that man is unpredictable and can form associations depending on their experiences. social theory made the connection between individuals and the society ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 182 possible because social change depends on individuals in a certain society and people’s will can change social systems. the theory is suitable for the study because the text is all about the vices and social issues in a particular area. it also shows how the society, that is individuals dealt with the problems by transforming the situation at hand. the spate of corruption as depicted in teachers on stike chuma–udeh treats many social vices that characterize injustice in african. she shows how corruption has eaten so deep into the system especially civil service that the masses decide to call a spade a spade rather than dyeing in silence. the issues of wickedness, fight against injustice and strike are illustrated in the text under study. this paper examines injustice, man’s inhumanity to man, corruption, nefarious, villainous and malevolent acts as they are portrayed in teachers on strike through the live of mr. nebe. the text treats the reasons why the citizens suffer poverty, corruption, their experiences in their own home land, how these affect their self-definition and finally, the solution. this paper studies the complexities of strike and corruption, ending in the poor masses (teachers) challenging the government openly seeking for justice unlike stories in other texts where the citizens will always hide whenever the government barks at them.corruption is a common issue in recent african literature, adichie’samericanah,teju cole’s every day is for the thief,armah’s fragments and osiri’s rising treat this predicament well. definitely, their reasons for corruption are not same and the after effects of this deadly act and wickedness are different as well. in teachers on strike (ts), the governor’s decision to embezzle teachers’ salary is propelled by selfish interest as he wants to be re-elected. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 183 why, he had meant to harm after all. he had only wanted to ‘invest’ their salaries into his election campaigns for a second tenure. he had hoped to compensate them later… he had looked at their salaries as insignificant when distributed to so many people but meaningful when used as a whole for a laudable investment. investment as laudable as his election campaigns. (ts 115 – 116) the heartless act of the governor made the teachers to be united the more and they unanimously stand their ground. corruption is one of the myriads of challenges discussed extensively in adichie’samericannah.adichie highlights many features of corruption that have eaten deep into the society (nigeria) and which incidentally have forced many nigerians like ifemelu, emenike,ginika and a host of others into self exile in the name of studying abroad. nigerians embrace migration as the only solution and alternative to solve the socio-political problems in adichie’s novel.adichie’samericannah hinges its societal problems on joblessness, poor educational system, corruption and bad governance which in actual fact are same problems in the text under study. types of corruption as depicted inteachers on stike political corruption teachers on strike depicts the province governor of a particular state in nigeria tormenting his workers – (teachers) who are in real sense civil servants. he converts public money to his and owes the teachers many months salary and never bothers to pay them. mr nebe, the hero is a teacher and the chairman of teachers’ executive body decides not to be bribed. teachers are ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 184 owned for eight months salary yet the governor remains adamant and unperturbed. he siphons the public money because in the text, we are told that he embezzles money that is supposed to be used for infrastructure. the roads have become a death trap. theasphalts are broken in multiple deadlypotholes. some areas sharp as razorblade… walking barefooted would bea near rough suicide venture considering the roughstate of the road. (6) nothing works in this province, no roads, no waters, no electricity and no good life. life actually becomes a battle ground for the masses. young girls who are out of school turn to prostitutes while young boys become armed robbers. mr emeka nebe was flabbergasted when he saw his bosom friend’s(mr dife) daughter, adaora in the night as a prostitute. ‘nebe was numb with shock’( ts 5). he could not believe his eyes and (he) ‘shook his head in disbelief. what type of leadership is this? the action of the people in power is destroying the very fabrics of the society.’(ts 5) the people at the top careless for the masses and the social, economic and political consequences of their actions are enormous. it instills anxiety and weariness on the innocent citizens who find it difficult to take ‘fish and meat these days’(ts 18). mr nebe wanders all over his community trying to ease off his discomfort. the governor’s action is heartless and mean, this ugly situation leads to death of many citizens due to hunger, lack of money to get basic medical attention and other facilities in life. the governor is so selfish that his children study abroad and enjoy comfort with people's money. all the teachers live in agony as they helplessly watch their governor squander money to their own detriment. he insults teachers’ executive members whom he invited to bribe. heartless governor, he is so unconcerned with the people’s ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 185 feelings that he tries to intimidate these teachers. one thing the governor does not know in teachers on strike is that though they embark on strike action at the expense of the life of innocent citizens, they never bordered because their suffering encourages them to do more. teja cole in every day is for the thief portrays different aspects of corruption where government procures overused and obsolete air crafts.‘the aviation authority failed to enforce a recommendation that all planes older than twenty two years be removed from service’( ts 138). one hundred and eight people died in the sosoliso plane crash in 2005 due to poor air craft inspection by the government. parents of the children involved were mad. according to cole ‘there are harrowing scenes of parents contending over the bodies of children burnt beyond recognition’ (ts 137). public officers have made africa a shadow of itself. the rich get richer while the poor get poorer, the masses are exploited. social and economic corruption in the text,mr nebe, mr dife, ms philo and the entire teachers in their district embark on endless strike because government refusestopay them their many months salary. ngozi chuma-ude narrates the decaying system of education in nigeria. she regrettably looks at the nonchalant attitude of our leaders concerning civil servants especially teachers. the governor fails to understand the importance and significance of education and enjoy the privilege of sending their children abroad to school. they no longer pay attention to their workers and pleas of the masses as they believe that their children stand out in the crowd. chuma-ude captures the sorry state of our academic system. ngozi chuma-udeh looks at a country that is in the verge of collapsing with very intensive strike exercise. many people die ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 186 during this strike out of hunger and poverty. government refuses to align with the masses and therefore lost the dedication and commitment of the people who on their own, fight for their emancipation. during the strike, many people were negatively affected, a lot lost their lives. chuma-ude puts it this way: nebe recalled gravely the high mortality rate of the teachers during the period. the obituary notices piled up like a heap in the garbage dump. many more were down with debilitating stroke… the students were not left out. the boys had gone to the streets as touts, political thugs and robbers. the girls had turned to prostitution and some were kept as concubines by some politicians. and the schools have been converted into a habitat for miscreants. (ts 89) the government is evil, villainous and nefarious, teachers were not paid for good five months and they were still teaching. ‘teachers had persevered. it was after the fifth month that this horrible strike action had become imperative’ (ts 88). teachers live in agony, many of them can no longer take care of their families and some become homeless as they can no longer pay their house rents, the government made teachers a laughing stock. ms philo, one of the teachers had it rough with her landlord. the landlord had wanted to sleep with her but she refused. he picks interest in her and disturbs her often, refusing the landlord’s lustful overtures made the landlord mad and he feels insulted and disgraced but waited for the right time to hit philo. the right time came when philo as a teacher can no longer pay her house rent, he starts his lustful advances again, and philo’s refusal this time saw philo homeless. he throws her ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 187 things out of his house '… philo was standing in the road, her hair all over the place like a newly demented woman. all around her were her belongings thrown out on the street… her belongings littered the whole road, causing an obstruction,’( ts 52-53) this shows teachers’ level of suffering due to corruption and bad governance. the executive members of teachers had a meeting with the governor but it did not end well. the governor wants to bribe them but they stood their ground and refused the money, the governor who could not believe it was aghast. he tries helping them by giving them more money to alleviate their problems but their reaction shocked the governor. he gives them a cheque of ten million naira each as bribe to call off the strike but instead of jubilating, 'the teachers wept!!!’.(ts 115) they all refuse to collect the cheques and one of them mr difehad the gut to tear the cheques to the amazement of the governor. they remember the death of many teachers and their families – omena'schildren, irukwe's wife, ireka's boys and philo's predicament and cannot bear their anger, the governor has actually pushed them to the wall, he had debased, degraded and demeaned them. he stood up and handed the teachers representative cheque of ten million naira each… philo was the first to act… walked up to nebe's table and dropped the cheque given to her. the others followed suit… dife looked down at hisexcellency. then with a slow, deliberate motion, he tore the cheques. (ts 116-118) the nation's social life, political life and economy come to a halt as the masses are no longer happy. the girls that no longer go to school become irresponsible and unable to respond to obligation. adaora, dife's sixteen year old daughter becomes pregnant. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 188 people's suffering, distress and pain made the house of assembly members to react and impeach the governor. he is punished for his wickedness, for being unfair and unjust to the masses. the masses troop out en masse to jubilate his downfall believing that justice and equity have prevailed. his excellency, the provincial governor of umma province and his deputy have been impeached by the house of assembly for gross mismanagement of public funds, corrupt practices and unethical behaviours. the province governor has alsobeendisqualified from contesting in the forthcoming elections… the speaker of the house who became the acting governor of the province gave immediate directives for the payment of the teachers’ salaries. (ts 128-129) the acting governor paid teachers their salaries immediately and mr nebe, the chairman of the teachers’ union called off the strike and 'the whole province was agog with happiness’ (ts 130). they are happy because teachers’ strike action has paid off. justice was served because teachers refuse to be bribed as they insisted on the strike until every teacher is paid to the last kobo.the roads are death traps and the contractors who do the shabby works are not queried (ts 6). constructions of schools are really poorly done. impact of corruption impact of corruption according to ganiyu, rasaqomokeji et al in their article, ‘socio-political and economic impact of corruption in nigeria’ are grouped into sociological, economic and political. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 189 corruption causes a lot of damage to human psyche and it makes upright citizens sick. the rate of corruption is alarming and it gives room for wicked act, fraud, moral decadence, selfishness, dishonesty, heartlessness, kidnapping, prostitution, nonchalant attitude towards work especially civil servants, maladministration, lack of integrity, dedication and commitment towards work, armed robbery and cripples one’s talent. in the text under study, people sociologically lost their decency due to the corrupt administration that refuses to pay teachers their salary. young girls and boys go ‘haywire’; girls become prostitutes and give birth to bastards while boys become armed robbers and thugs. those boys (thugs) that threw philo's property out of her house are students. government is so wicked, callous, inhuman, nonchalant, selfish, dishonest and heartless that they charge 'teachers union with sedition’(ts 33) after owing them for eight months. but these teachers never thought of any civil disorder against the authority, what the governor wants is to give them a bad name to crucify them – what a wicked act. how does he expect these teachers to feed, treat themselves and their family members? heartless governor who tells the teachers executive members that he does not care what happens to them because his own children are studying abroad and whatever happens concerns the teachers and their own children (ts 42). as far he is concerned, his fate and that of his children are secured. to him, the masses can go to blazes; all he is interested in is his second tenure which is in actual fact what he wants to use the teachers’salary for. corruption makes people lose their moral decency and this is exactly the problem with the governor and his top management workers. they attend parties with university students often. they have lost their moral standard; they are armed robbers and have no shame. they sleep and party with under graduates who ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 190 are between the ages of eighteen to twenty five years. these girls have already lost interest in studying because they pay in 'cash’ or 'kind’ to get the grades they want. no more commitment, no more seriousness, no more dedication.in love of an angel (la) the author writes: do you know that some institutions are trying to legalize sorting? lecturers, some of them though not all will stand before a class without fear of anybody and be declaring the amount for a, b, c, d, e in alphabetical order. even carryover and incomplete results have different values and prices. …what about sexual harassment on the part of the lecturers?(la 149) in the text again, human and economic development become too low that chaos becomes the order of the day. this badly affects the economy of the said district as their standard of living drops drastically. top government officials exhibit political powers to the detriment of the masses. the governor in owes teachers eight months salary because he feels that he can do it. he had absolute power to do it. absolute power corrupts absolutely. he believes that he can rig the election to bring himself back to power during election. conclusion the issue in our society is that people do not bother to know how one becomes rich and those that embezzle government money are not punished rather you see them in their very expensive cars moving freely and are recognized in the society. corrupt officers are not brought to book and so they see no reason why they should not want to steal more as they are not contented with whatever they have. the major problem of these corrupt officials is greed. they are so greedy that they are blind ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 191 folded by their quest for money and people around them are not bordered because they are equally looking for meansto steal their own money instead of reporting them. these people disregard the cries of the masses because they involvethemselves deeply in corruption. corruption is basically at every nook and cranny. in the text, the governor tries bribing the executive members of teachers union, using their money to campaign and using the masses money to train his children abroad are all corrupt practices. but thank god for the masses in teachers on strike who refuse to be suffocated by half-baked politicians. these politicians cannot kill their intelligence, hope and aspirations, teachers refuse to be intimidated. the masses in the two books under study take the bull by the horn as they revolt and give it back to these corrupt officials. teachers went on strike and refuseto be bribed or resume even in the face of hardship and death. they fought the government until justice is theirs. the house of assembly members impeached the governor. who do we run to for justice? definitely not the police and lawyers therefore the masses believe in handling their cases themselves and that was how justice prevailed in the two texts. strikes last as long as government does not want to satisfy the masses, it is shameful that government tries to bribe the executive members.the society can only be free of corruption if our officials shun bribery and corruption like teachers executive members in teachers on strike did and if the masses can individually deal with corrupt officers. if justice is meted out on corrupt officers by the masses as seen in the text under study, sanity will be brought back to the society. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 192 this work therefore concludes that we create our problems and our solution depends on us as we hold our destinies. the only way to solve corruption in nigeria is justice by the masses for posterity. once the corrupt officers are dealt with by the masses, it will deter others from following their part. works cited achebe, chinua. ‘the novelist as teacher’, hopes and impediments: selected essays, 1965-1987 , heinemann, 1988. adichie, chimamanda ngozi. americanah. farafina, 2013. asika, ikechukwu e. love of an angel, onitsha, first class publishers, 2013 chuma-udeh ngozi. teachers on strike. onitsha: africana first publishers, 2015 elliot anthony, contemporary social theory: an introduction. rouledge, 2008. ganiyu, omokeji and rasak, bamidele and taiwo, felix. ‘socio-political and economic impacts of corruption in nigeria’, international journal for innovation education and research. 2 (1). 2014, pp 35-42 george herbert mead, mind, self and society, chicago: university of chicago, 1934. harrington austin, introduction. what is social theory? oxford university press, england, 2005. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 193 oladipupo ipadeola. research report: qualitative study on the patterns, experiences and manifestations of corruption in nigeria, research and evaluation consultant abuja, nigeria, march 2016. olawale, johnson. ‘list of social problems in nigeria’ https://www.legit.ng/1114696-list-social-prblemsnigeria. ker david. literature and society in africa, ibadan : spectrum books limited 2004.socialtheoryapplied.com/what-issocial-theory; https://m.ranker.com>mikerottschild.www.newworldencyclopedia.org ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ugwuanyi 173 children of the streets: a study of some selected african novels ijeoma eucharia ugwuanyi english department, fce (t), umunze, anambra state email:ijeomaugwuanyi2013@gmail.com abstract this paper investigated street children as presented by amma darko in faceless and bulawayo noviolate in we need new names. the paper examined the nature of the environment where these children operate. it also highlighted various ways the rights of the street children have been abused, and the consequences of different bizarre experiences on their psyche. complete experiences of the children were obtained through qualitative research method. post-colonial theory guided the study to determine the state of african children after the colonial rule since street children were not part of the past. psycho-analytical theory was also adopted to determine the state of the mind of street children as trauma caused by living on the streets could be very difficult to manage. at the end of the study, it was discovered that children living on the streets are not adequately protected from abuse because they lack basic needs of life like, shelter, food and clothing. to minimize the development of street children, natural strategy aimed at promoting, protecting and fulfilling their rights should be promulgated. keywords: children of the street, african literature, psychoanalytical theory introduction around the world, too many children are subjected to abuse. some are forced to work under harmful conditions, while others are forced to flee their homes due to conflict or natural disaster. millions, especially girls are subjected to sexual violence. this paper discusses the independent nature and the abuse of the children of the streets in amma darko’s faceless and noviolet bulawayo’s we need new names. the paper examines the children’s love for family members denied to them which constitutes a major form of deprivation. from investigating the stylistic features employed by the authors such as technique of contrast, some of the contributing factors to this form of deprivation like poverty, absentee parents, and misplaced priorities on the part of government shall be discussed to determine how these situations form the character of the street children. mailto:ijeomaugwuanyi2013@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ugwuanyi 174 in 2000, world health organization grouped children of the street into four categories: a child “of the street”, having no home but the streets. the family may have abandoned him or her and so he or she is left alone. such a child may struggle for survival and might move from friend to friend, or live in an abandoned building. a street child may be a child “on the streets”, visiting his or her family regularly. he or she might even return every night to sleep at home, but spends most days and some nights on the streets because of poverty, overcrowding, sexual or physical abuse at home. a street child may be “a part of a street family”. some live on the city squares with the rest of their families displaced due to poverty, natural disasters, or war which forced them to live on the streets. a street child can also be “in an institutionalized care”, having come from a situation of homelessness and at risk of returning to a homeless existence. they are vulnerable people, and they are abused mentally, sexually, psychologically, and morally on daily basis. many children in africa are being abandoned by their parents and guardians due to the hard economic situation. psychoanalytic and post-colonial theories have been adopted to examine the rules and principles that shape how the novels are written which help to analyze the processes that contribute to children’s neglect. for mary kleges helps us to understand literary theory when she quotes aristotle that: in the world we perceive through our senses, things exist according to ordered principles which can discover aristotle’s ‘truth’, what his philosophy seeks to understand and teach, resides in discovering the rules and principles that govern how things work and take on meaning in our material world. (15) faceless and we need new nameshave recorded stories that are filled with traumatic experiences of which psychoanalysis can serve as a rule guiding their reading. they also recorded events that take place after the official rule of the colonial masters and which post-colonial theory can serve as a rule guiding our understanding of the texts. our major focus on psychoanalysis shall be on street children’s traumatic experiences and their dreams which could not materialize. with reference to sigmund freud, ann dobie explains dreams: “our dreams are languages of the unconscious full of unfilled desires, that the conscious mind is buried there” (55). continuing, she said. “as a window into the unconscious, dreams become valuable tools for psychoanalysts in determining unresolved conflicts in the psyche…” (56) sussan nolen-hoekeing in her book abnormal psychology summarized psychoanalysis, where she said that “extreme cases of unpalatable experiences result to traumas and victims suffer the effects sometimes for a life time” (58). for nolen-hoekseing, further explains that physical abuse, sexual abuse as in rape, incest and child ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ugwuanyi 175 prostitution can contribute to long-term post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd). fofo, baby t, darling, in faceless, chipo, bastard, godknows, sbho and stina in weneed new names witness the abuses. the technique of contrast which offer insight into the exploitation of the street children the art, writes i.a. richard, “is the beautiful ordering of what in most minds is disordered” and alexander pope once defined the subject of art as “what oft’ was thought, but ne’er so well expressed”. these definitions suggest that the artist’s distinction lies in how well he or she can artistically utilize available human experiences to offer vision to a society. amma darko and noviolet bulawayo are synoptic when the theme of their novels is concerned with children of the streets. their novels probe the causes of reckless abandonment of street children in major african cities. in order to achieve this, they adopt the stylistic feature of contrast to compare the ideal family who cares for their children with the other family who abandons theirs to the streets. also, they try to compare the ideal country that has good amenities set apart with other countries that desert her citizens. in ghana, as recounted by j.o.j. nwachukwu-agbada, et al “there is a surge in the number of street children… and these children appear doomed without appropriate intervention” (359). it is against this that amma darko wrote her novel, faceless and noviolate bulawayo recorded post-colonial disillusionment of citizens of zimbabwe. contrast is the device used by darko and bulawaya to strike a difference between compared situations in faceless and we need new names. amma darko employs the technique of contrast in faceless with respect to the representation of two families in the story. the two families are those of maa tsuru and that of kabria. kabria’s family, as a unit, is presented as almost perfect. she is a mother of three and married to adade. she is resourceful, diligent, and combines her role as a wife, a mother and a working class woman. her family is intact and cohesive. the children in her family are wellcared for, educated and happy. the family of maa tsuru is a direct opposite of kabria’s. her family is scattered, and broken with no hope of redemption. her children lack basic needs, drop out of school, and find solace in the street life. for the family of maa tsuru, we find child abuse, child labour, neglect and abandonment of children, rape and sexual abuse, child prostitution and other forms of exploitation. all these violate child’s rights as enshrined in 2015 child rights act. bulawayo in we need new names employs contrast to strike a difference in a policy of discrimination or a policy of separate development by the whites in zimbabwe. by this policy, the whites live in budapest and the blacks live in paradise. paradise here is ironic. it is supposed to be a place of elected bliss which is pleasant to live in but the reverse is the case here. the white people live in the heart of the city with all the amenities ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ugwuanyi 176 of modern life. the zimbabwean shanty town, called paradise, is where life is a daily struggle for sustenance as the regime destroys homes and closes down schools. darling, the protagonist and her friends, three boys and three girls roam the streets to look for the food they would eat. bastard is a boy of eleven years, chipo, a girl of eleven, godknows, a boy of ten, sbho, is a girl of nine, stina, a boy who has no birth certificate and the protagonist, darling is a ten-year old girl. these children wander from one town to the other, looking for something to steal, especially, guava in a fertile land of budapest. they are not being fed by their parents as their parents abandon them to somewhere else. their mothers are busy with hair and idle talks. their fathers do not care. they go for dangerous jobs at nearby countries, especially south africa and contracting diseases such as aids there. street life becomes the order of the day for children in paradise as they are abandoned by their parents unsupervised. they are left at the hands of their grand-parents. chipo, is now raped by her grandfather who impregnated her. darling and her friends roam the streets turning their quest for food into games and making observations of their country’s social ills. there are too many problems in paradise, such as whoring spouses, poverty, joblessness, aids, madness and numerous other problems. darling and her friends wander from paradise black settlement in zimbabwe to budapest, a white neighborhood in zimbabwe in search of guava. life in budapest is better. the white people in budapest were controlling paradise before her independence despite the overwhelming black population. the government was entirely in the hands of the white minority. they subjected the blacks to some of the worst forms of dehumanization, and there has been violent uprising and revolt from paradise. the discriminatory attitude of the white population has been so fierce and rigid on the blacks. the blacks begin to revolt against the whites which leads to their having independence but not without bruises. it results in the removal of the white dominated government and zimbabwe attains political independence. they begin to repossess and redistribute large tracks of land from the minority whites’ community. robbert mugabe, the new president of zimbabwe allocates the fertile lands to himself and infertile lands to his people of paradise that lead to many of them dying of hunger. people of paradise now revolt against themselves: …no, those were evil people who came to steal our own land and make us paupers in our own country. what? aren’t you a pauper now? aren’t these black people evil for building your home and leaving you with nothing now? better a white thief do that to you ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ugwuanyi 177 than your own black brother. better a wretched white thief (75). all these compound the troubles in paradise and lead to hunger, diseases, poverty, and abandonment of children to wander from one place to the other in search of food to eat. they now stop going to school. they suffer deprivation, neglect, sexual abuse and they are exposed to the dangers of street life. their love for family members is denied to them. the nature of the environment children of the streets operate according to britannica: ghana, about 50,000 low income inhabitants have settled into “sodom and gomorrah” from across ghana. many of the villagers find themselves trapped in the vicious cycle of poverty, where the old and the young toil side by side. many of the untold stories happen in “sodom and gomorrah”. it is a home for armed robbers, prostitutes, drug dealers in their market called agbogbloshie which is nicknamed ‘sodom and gomorrah’, the two condemned biblical cities. post-colonial disillusionment and feeling of disappointment are experienced in the country. it is not what the people expected from the african leaders that are happening. as a result of that, people desert their homes in the villages to the urban areas for means of livelihood. “sodom and gomorrah”, a section of accra, ghana is still being populated by criminals even after ghana’s independence. there is still agbogbloshie market, a biblical “sodom and gomorrah” neighborhood where atrocities are committed by adults against children. fofo, the protagonist watches adult films, drinks local gin and she is nearly raped by poison, a street lord. it is here that baby t, fofo’s sister is killed and fofo herself steals there to survive. most people in “sodom and gomorrah” are stricken with poverty. the poverty in the land compels maa tsuru to drive away her children into the street so that they can fend for themselves. poverty, in line with negligence and irresponsibility of parents, ruin the lives of children. men who find themselves incapable of sustaining a family run away from home, leaving the wives to take care of the children. when the burden becomes too much for the women, they relieve themselves by pushing the children into the streets to suffer. this is the case of kwei, maa tsuru’s husband by whom she has four children, two sons and two daughters. kpakpo deceives maa tsuru by sending baby t. into prostitution. unknown to the wife, he manipulates baby t. into co-habitation with them under one roof. he sexually manipulates baby t. in kpakpo, we see an example of child abuse. the post-colonial disillusionment in we need new names begins with paradise voting in their new president to have “a real change” in the country. robert mugabe has once explained on bbc news how their country has been ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ugwuanyi 178 a black man’s home and never a colony. people are happy that they are voting in a new president. they are disappointed to have voted in a very old president that has nothing new to offer just like other african presidents, stina observes: i saw a picture of a president in a magazine. he was also with the president of zambia and malawi and south africa and nigeria and other presidents. they were all old. you have to be like a grandfather first to become a president (16). after “the real change”, the black brothers destroyed all the shacks in paradise. people lost so many things. many people had no place to live again. many died of hunger because of change. this is a terrible period in zimbabwe under their sit-tight leader, robert mugabe. if you are working against the president and clamor for change, you will be killed. many people died young because of bad leadership. people flee paradise in droves. they “move”, “run”, “migrate”, “go”, “desert”, “quit”, “fly”, and “flee” across borders. the only people remaining were very old people. the people of paradise deserted their own land with bleeding wounds on their bodies and shock on their faces, and hunger in their stomachs and footsteps. they were traumatized. they left because it is no longer possible to stay. darling and her friends now wandered from place to place searching for something to eat and steal. they are deserted by their parents. darling’s mother now found another lover with whom she sleeps at night as the husband has left her to south africa. conclusion fofo and baby t. in faceless, darling and her friends in we need new names ended up in the streets because they were products of homes where either of the parents, is quite irresponsible. the effects of parental deprivation are extremely adverse on the children and the society at large. the children experience exploitation and abuse in different ways: sexual, economic, social and physical. they also go through emotional and psychological turmoil. baby t. in faceless has her right of life violated. darling and her friend’s dream of becoming doctors and nurses did not materialize. fofo’s dream of sleeping in a comfortable house is aborted. the trauma faced by chipo lingers through her life. the incest committed by chipo’s grandfather has started the cycle that denies her the most basic rights to learn, develop and be a child. these children of the streets in faceless and we need new names lack basic needs of life. their rights to safe accommodation and alternative care were violated. this paper advocates the protection of all street children in africa. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ugwuanyi 179 works cited amma, darks. faceless. sub-sahara, 2003 bulawayo, noviolate. we need new names. vintage, 2003 kleges, mary. literary theory: a guide to the perplexed. continuum, 2006. nwachukwu-agbada, j.o.j et al. literature in english 2016-2020. ibadanup,2014 nolen-lekseing, sussan. abnormal psychology. oxford up, 2002 republic of the marshal islands. child rights act. republic of the marshal islands, 2015. uwechie, ralph. africa today: ghana britanica books, 1996. wordsworth, william. “the child is the father of the man”. elements of literature: sixth course literature of britain with world classics, edited by mairead stack et al, holt, rineheart and winston, 2000. world health organization. street children: a global concern. un, 2000. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 29 ogbazi & osita magic realism as a converge of postcolonialism and postmodernism: a study of some selected works prof. ifeyinwa j. ogbazi department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka & ijeoma lena osita chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university igbariam campus email: ijeomalena@gmail.com abstract magic realism is a term in literature that combines realism and the fantastic in such a way that magical elements grow organically out of the reality portrayed. unfortunately magic realism has become a debased term. some critics see magic realism as shallow, dangerous, primitive and a term that ought to be done away with. some critics see it with a little positivity; a term arising from unevenly developed society and a brand name for exoticism. therefore these critics and many writers have failed to extend magic realism beyond postcolonialism. they tend to associate magic realism to just postcolonial countries. this paper therefore examines magic realism as a term that constitutes a point of convergence between postcolonialism and postmodernism. this paper argues that magic realism is not shallow but it is a productive, and an innovational fictional mode. most importantly, magic realism has also contributed to the growth of postmodern literary sensibilities. magic realism is a mode of expression worldwide and an aesthetics of necessity which has literary and postmodern currents running through it. in the last harmattan of alusine dunbar, syl cheney coker was able to oscillate between the past and present. he exposes the vanity and uselessness of power, the ultimate failure of colonizers, the futility of war and the power of love; using magic realism. also in the icarus girl oyeyemi helen was able re-invent magic realism. she merges west african cultural beliefs, folklore with european folklore and fairytale. this narrative strategy reveals oyeyemi’s ambition to position herself as a globally recognized magic realist writer. this paper while employing the postcolonial and postmodernist theory examines magical realism as a term that helps in the development of our multicultural and postmodern literary sensibilities. keywords: magic realism, postcolonialism, convergence, postmodernism introduction magic realism can be traced shortly after the first world war in europe. the term was introduced by franz roh (1890-1965). he introduced the term in 1925. for him magical realism was presented as a reaction to expressionism’s more abstract style and to mark a return to realism. expressionism was a movement in literature and other parts of germany which emphasized and supported arts departure from realistic portrayal or depiction of events, incidents and situation in the world by expressing their visionary or powerfully emotionally states of the mind. expressionism which seeks to convey personal inner experience through the distortion of natural images had run its course. several artists began to experiment with this new form, labeled magischer realismus (magic realism). the term was later adopted during the 1940s by latin authors who combined the theories of roh to french surrealist concepts of the marvelous and incorporated indigenous mythologies within traditional mimetic conventions in their quest for the original latin american novel. the international success of such magical realist writers as jorge luis borges and gabriel garci. marquez has only confirmed the association of the genre primarily with literature from the continent. marquez’s fame in the use of magical realism is unprecedented. his magical realism was borne out of the troubled latin american history and during the years of civil strife in columbia. his sustained interest in the novel brought about its translation into thirty seven languages and sold thirty million copies of hundred years of solitude (1967). other writers of magic realism include salman rushdie an indian briton who wrote satanic verses, midnight’s children (1982 ) and isabelle allende’s the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 30 ogbazi & osita house of spirits (1982). in short, magic realism is a global phenomenon found in countries such as brazil, columbia, india, haiti and nigeria. from english canada we have what the crow said by robert kroetch, the invention of the world by jack hodgin and green grass, running water by thomas king. in new zealand, there is janet frame’s the carpathians and from austarlia, david malouf’s remembering babylon. other magic realism writers include gunter grass from germany, italo calvino from italy and jonh fowler from england. from the 1960’s to the present, magic realism exists as a continuous presence in the twentieth century literature. magic realism has become so important as a mode of expression worldwide, especially in postcolonial cultures, because it has provided the literal ground for significant cultural work; within its texts, marginal voices, and submerged traditions and emergent literatures have developed and created masterpieces. according to wendy b. faris “magic realism combines realism and the fantastic so that the marvelous seem to grow organically within the ordinary, blurring the distinction between them”(1). mathew stretcher a winona state university assistant professor of japanese studies, and author, defines magic realism as “…what happens when a highly detailed, realistic setting is invaded by something too strange to believe” (3). for christopher warnes, “magic realism is a mode of narration that neutralizes or normalizes the supernatural; that is to say, a mode in which real and fantastic, natural and supernatural are coherently represented in a state of equivalent” (3). m.h. abrams opines that “these writers weave in an ever shifting pattern, a sharply etched realism in representing ordinary events and details together with fantastic and dreamlike elements as well as materials derived from myths and fairy tales” (257). magic realism is therefore characterized by the mingling and juxtaposition of the realistic and the fantastic, bizarre and skillful time shift, convoluted and even labyrinthine narratives and plots, miscellaneous use of dreams, myths and fairy stories, expressionistic and even surrealistic description, arcane erudition, the elements of surprise or abrupt shock, the horrific and the inexplicable. unfortunately this term has become problematic and debased. scholars new to the field are faced with a lot of contradictory attitudes; critics feel that the term is shallow, dangerous and primitive. more positively homi bhabha calls it “the literary language of the emergent postcolonial world”. the worst is that a critic feels that the term ought to be done away with. the problem with such a suggestion even if it were possible to implement is that this critic forgets that the tenacity of this term is due to its explanatory value. this helps researchers to highlight the characteristics of this term and with the analysis of the texts below, the usefulness of magic realism is well appreciated. five primary characteristics of the mode have been identified, the first is an irreducible element of magic; second, the descriptions in magical realism details a strong presence of the phenomenal world; the reader may experience some unsettling doubts in the effort to reconcile the two contradictory understanding of events; third, the narrative merges different realms; fourth, magic realism disturbs received ideas about time, space and identity and finally, authorial reticence is a major characteristic of magical realism. according to wendy faris the “irreducible element” is something we cannot explain according to the laws of the universe as they have formulated in western empirically based discourse, that is, according to “logic, familiar knowledge, or received beliefs”. therefore, the reader has difficulty marshalling evidence to settle questions of events and characters in such fictions. these irreducible elements are well assimilated into the realistic textual environment, rarely causing any comment by narrators or characters, who model acceptance of their readers. a second characteristic of magic realism is that its description details a strong presence of the “phenomenal world”. this is the realism in magic realism, differentiating it from fantasy and allegory. it appears in several ways. realistic descriptions create a fictional world that resembles the one we live in often by extensive use of detail. on one hand, this attention to sensory details continues and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 31 ogbazi & osita renews the realistic tradition. on the other hand, in addition to including magical events or phenomena, magical realism fiction includes intriguing magical details. because these magical details represent a clear departure from realism, detail is freed from a traditional mimetic role to a greater extent than it has been before. by “unsettling doubts” the researcher means that before categorizing the irreducible element as irreducible, the reader may hesitate between two contradicting understanding of events, and hence experience some unsettling doubts. the question of belief is very vital here, this hesitation frequently stemming from the implicit clash of cultural systems within the narrative, which moves toward belief in extrasensory phenomena but narrates from the post enlightenment perspective and in the realistic mode that traditionally exclude them. and because belief system differs, clearly, some readers in some cultures will hesitate less than others, depending on their beliefs and narrative traditions. in other words, magical realism expands fictional reality to include events we used to call magic in realism. in magic realism we experience the “closeness or near-merging of two realisms”. it involves a confrontation between real world norms and other – worldly, supernatural norms. in terms of cultural history, magic realism often merges ancient or traditional—ometimes indigenous and modern worlds. it merges the world of ordinary people and that of witches, the land of the living and the land of the dead. in addition to merging different worlds, these fictions disturb received ideas about time and space. magic realism not only disrupts time and space but our sense of identity as well. “authorial reticence” refers to author’s lack of explanation for magical events that occur in magical realist’s texts. the author gives no explanation or surprise over these events. this deliberate withholding of explanation for magical events is typical in magic realist texts. this reticence serves the purpose mainly of preventing the reader from questioning the narrated events as no attention is drawn to the strangeness of the world view of reality. it is pertinent to recognize that post modernism and post colonialism find areas of concern where they overlap such as in the “formal thematic and strategic” areas and that magical realism is one of such area where post colonialism and post modernism find point of conjunction. for chute: comics, then, in the realm of the literary place the reader within the space of narrative, amplifying post modernism’s concern with location boundaries, depth and mapping. it returns us in the arena of literature, to a site of cultural production invested in textuality and print that is yet premised on the spatial in its construction and in the act of meaning making on the part of the looker and viewer. (359) chute observes that in recent times the term post modernism has lost its popularity but it has mutated into different forms, reappearing in terms such as time and space, cognitive mapping. although post modernism has outgrown its name it has not outgrown its efficacy. korbut salmans brings this to light: postmodernism is a transitional period in the human search for meaning, astonishing the mind with its sober vision of the inconceivable truth, the notion of which gets completely substituted with limitless, chaotic and free floating signification. this brings one to the verge of schizophrenic madness, with no means to enter the compulsory constructedness of existence, in which we have to be embedded so as to be called human. it is for this reason that instead of fruitless attempts to represent the world-as-it-is, one seeks to represent the world as it is not, willfully filling it with the meaning and addictively constructing its new revised maximum. (188) the construction of alternative realities in magic realist narratives does conform to post modernism ideology. wendy b. faris considers magic realism “an important component of postmodernism” (163). magical realists are replenished postmodern narrators, born out of the death charged atmosphere of high modernist fiction. they somehow have passed beyond it. magical realism has contributed significantly to postmodernism as it is ontological, concerned with questions of being. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 32 ogbazi & osita magic realist fiction, has moved from exhausted to replenished fiction. this is because of the fact that it re-invents. for zamora “magical realism has an important presence in contemporary world literature because they treat texts from many countries and cultures, they create a complex comparative connections, avoiding separation while at the same time respecting cultural diversity” (4). the universal presence of magical realism makes the concept all the more significant and a detailed study of magic realism become imperative to the understanding of postmodern literature. magical realist draw upon cultural system that are less real than those upon which traditional realism draws, often non-western cultural systems that privilege mystery over empiricism, empathy over technology, and tradition over innovation. their primary narrative maybe in myths, legends, and rituals in collective practices that bind communities together. in such cases magical realist works remind the readers that the novel began as a popular form with communal imperative. these cultural and communal imperatives are revitalized in magic realist fiction. mehri and leyri puts it thus “postcolonial literature deals with the cultural identity of the subaltern in colonial rule, these struggles of identity, history and future possibilities are present in magic realist work”…(118). thus the mode becomes particularly useful to writers in postcolonial countries. hallucinating scenes and events, fantastic/phantasmagoric characters are used to indict recent political and cultural pervasions. magic realism therefore helps in the development of our multicultural sensibilities this is because magic realism is a narrative mode that reflects hybrid postcolonial countries. it exposes the reader to different cultures, both indigenous and western. also for one to understand magic realism he or she has to be conversant with the devices of postmodernism because magic realist writers are postcolonialists who avail themselves with the devices of postmodernism. helen oyeyemi’s works are usually characterized by ambivalence. she usually combines the world of fantasy and the real creating two distinct narratives. oyeyemi’s experimentation in her fictions and her style unambiguously sets her in the magic realist genre and without doubt in the field of postmodernism. oyeyemi’s magical realist writings have its leaves and branches in postmodernism. for her, there is always this urge to align her writings to the genre of magic realism. obviously her imitation of this non-european writers like gabriel garcia marquez, ben okri and salman rushdie’s draws ambivalence towards her own britishness. she moves beyond the british writing, this is traceable her appropriation and reinvention of magic realism. african myth, ancient cultural beliefs traditions, european folklore and fairy tale intersect in her writings. this intersection creates a global literary identity and an innovative new fictional space for the 21st century. all her narrative strategies point to the fact that there is yearn to be positioned as an internationally recognized magic realist writer. the icarus girl by oyeyemi helen centers on the life of an eight year old daughter of a british father and a black nigerian mother, jessamy or jessy. jessy lives in england but she is troubled. her trouble is a psychological one, and this usually affects her physical and emotional interactions. this girl finds her hybrid heritage problematic, because she is in between, she cannot identify wholly to her fathers’ culture or her mothers’. she struggles for an identity. the height of the problem comes when she visits her grandparents in nigeria. there she encounters tilly tilly, who may be her dead twin, the novel gets complicated when tilly tilly returns to england with jessy and fights her for the possession of her body. oyeyemi’s the icarus girl shows the determination of a writer to see that her work is categorized as magic realism. oyeyemi in an obvious manner includes most of the defining characteristics of magic realism. in the text ordinary enchantments: magical realism and the demystification of narrative (2004), by wendy faris there are five characteristics of magic realism: an “irreducible element” of magic, second, the descriptions in magic realism detail a strong presence of the phenomenal world; third the reader may experience some unsettling doubts in the effort reconcile two conflicting understanding of events; fourth, the narrative merges different realisms; and finally, magical realism disturbs received ideas about time, space and identity (7) . ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 33 ogbazi & osita oyeyemi’s the icarus girl is in line with faris theory of magic realism. there is an “irreducible element” of magic and the magic is predominant and markedly self conscious. magic events “really do happen”. obviously there is no scientific backing for this magic but the reader has no alternative but to suspend all his disbelief. for example tilly tilly gains access into grandpa’s locked library, she reads and understands all the books on his shelves. also on jessamy’s second visit to lagos she is able to speak the yoruba language. “ko si nkan-nkan” (309) oyeyemi merges the british setting with the imaginary world. this novel oscillates between recognizable world and the mystical world, she brings to light her encounter with tilly tilly who befriend’s her during her stay in nigeria with her grandfather. it was only jessy that could see tilly tilly. “and even when jess was with tilly tilly…., the most noticeable thing was that they couldn’t see tilly tilly” (158). there oyeyemi merges the world of the living and the dead and she distorts perceived ideas of time and identity. this is in line with postmodernism. also oyeyemi brings to light the cultural complexity of the mixed race individual what homi bhabha calls “in-between” which is usually characterized by tension and problem. jessamy on the other hand is culturally and racially hybrid, she has an english father and a nigerian mother. her in-betweenness in seen when she arrived nigeria. she is called “oyibo” at the airport. this means that she is a stranger, during their drive from the airport her mother is able to communicate with the cab driver in yoruba while jess cannot understand them. she only does so when the language is switched to english. obviously being called a stranger in ones place means that there is a recognition of something strange that conflicts within jessy. that is why she is seen very anxious and emotional in the beginning of the novel. tilly tilly’s appearance is worth mentioning. first, tilly tilly appears to be jess’s very good friend and later she becomes a threat to her very existence and even haunts her. this makes jessamy estranged and she even suffers crisis of identity. tilly tilly just like jess’s grandfather gives her friend a new name jessy. on the other hand her grandfather calls her wuraola. this echoes jessamy’s hybrid identity. whether jess / jessamy or wuraola, these names echo her hybrid position in the two worlds. “wuraola” reflects her nigerian identity, then jess reflects her british identity while “jessy” reflects her hybrid identity. also tilly tilly has two names too, titiola is her nigerian name, and tilly tilly a name given to her by her friend because she may not be able to pronounce her yoruba name correctly. in the novel, cultural hybridity is evident in the use of the myth surrounding twins. in africa, precisely in yoruba land twins hold an ambiguous status. they are regarded as unique. they are able to transgress, between the spirit, real life and bush. also when a newborn twin dies the other one is affected because the other one is a part of the other. there are assumptions that the living one might join the dead one, to avert this, a wooden figure called “ibeji” is carved as a substitute for the dead twin. this figure possesses the dead twin’s soul and maintains a connection between the dead and living for the living twin. in the novel, jess turns out to be a twin. her twin sister ferm had died at birth and tilly tilly herself is a dead twin. this is what tilly tilly capitalizes on. “you have been so empty, jessy, without your twin; you have had no one to walk your three worlds with you. i know – i am the same. i have been just like you for a long time! but now i am fern, i am your sister and you are my twin….” (176). also the relationship between jess and her mother call’s ones attention to the cultural hybridity in the novel. hybridity create a sense of loss and even pain; nowonder, jess’s mother wants her to be nigerian: “[jess] just didn’t know; if she could decide which one to be [english or nigerian], maybe she would be able to get rid of tilly tilly, who was angry with her for worrying about it. ashes and witnesses, home lands chopped into little pieces – she’d be english. no – she couldn’t though. she’d be nigerian. no-” (268). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 34 ogbazi & osita obviously, jess is not a nigerian neither is she english. there is difficulty in marshalling out what she is and this leads to cultural dislocation and loss of identity. it is worth mentioning that oyeyemi explore the limits and possibilities of language. during the first meeting between tilly tilly and jessamy; tilly tilly appears to have a heavy nigerian accent and is repetitious. as time goes on she begins to use the language well, she even uses idioms. it is important to know that the beginning of the novel is symbolic. there we are introduced to the eight year old loner jessamy, who has psychological problem. she is emotionally down and her fever attack too are a source of anger, anxiety caused by her duality. she keeps reminding herself who she is “my name is jessamy, i am eight years old” (3). she perceives herself as being different: “there’s something about ….. [them] that’s too different from me. it makes me weird and always thinking weird things and being scared and i don’t want to have something missing from me” (127). she may be right because, she is in-between two cultures and the question becomes who is she? that is the problem of identification. her mother wants her to be something she cannot comprehend. hear her mother: “it is not a matter of my wanting you to be nigerian you are … you are english too, duh. and it’s ok” (268). this answer is not ok to jessamy because she wants to be one thing, either british or nigerian and the consequences is detrimental. she either removes or includes something from her identity and this is impossible. jess identity becomes questioned in her meeting with her grandfather gbenga and this is the first time jessy hears her yoruba name. “who?....wuraola sounded like another person … not her at all. should she answer to this name and by so doing steal the identity of someone who belonged here? should she …. become wuraola? ” (21) these two names suggest her imposed binarism. not belonging here nor there fully. but with time she becomes aware that this is her heritage and for real she is wuraola. hear gbenga even emphasizing that a name can reveal some characteristics about its bearer. “oyegbebi” grandfather gbenga says, means kingship lives here, he tapped his breastbone. here is where kingship lives. i am a princely man, and my children therefore should be proud and strong. everyone who hears my name and knows my people should know that” (30). this means that these names are symbols of cultural heritage and even self identity. and this is where we fault sarah’s inability to lead her daughter through because she too is also caught between two conflicting cultures. an examination of her background will reveal the reason for this ambivalence. sarah, jessamy’s mother was born and brought up by affluent nigerian parents. internally, there is a struggle for sarah to reconcile herself with her intentional migration to britain. fifteen years back, she was sent to study medicine but she disappoints her father by studying english. this is reminiscent of achebe’s protagonist who is faced with the same problem in no longer at ease. he was sent to study law but studies english. when he comes back, his town’s men who sent him abroad were disappointed. that is why we hear grandfather gbenga telling jessamy that her mother does not know what she wants, hear him. “what job do you find in nigerian that requires that knowledge of all these useless words?... words describing white peoples, white things, every single story spun out in some place where we don’t exist” (29). gbenga’s judgment reminds one of the fact that sarah left her african heritage for the white man’s culture thereby abandoning her race and identity. beside, her marriage to the white english man who is unaware of her culture is an evidence. severally she demonstrates ambivalence towards her ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 35 ogbazi & osita ethnicity in the novel. jessamy becomes the endpoint of all this; the strict upbringing which she did not take is melted on jessamy. “jessamy became afraid of her mother’s almighty cuff of the back of her head” (206). she also threatens and states that: “nigerian parents…. could kill a child over disrespect” (120). she refuses to teach her child yoruba language but is seen correcting jessamy’s english. she intentionally creates a chasm between her child and her yoruba heritage. contradictorily she does not tell jessamy any western fairy tale but only tells her yoruba folktales. this brings light to the fact that she embraced an alien culture she knows nothing about and abandons her solid yoruba heritage. sarah comes up with reasons for her daughter’s weird and reclusive behavior: “in nigeria …. children were always getting themselves into mischief, and surely that was better than sitting inside reading and staring into the space” (6). from the above discussion it becomes obvious that the problem of identity formation can be traced to sarah. in the tradition of west africa and western, oyeyemi finds a source. she was able to draw on both western and indigenous myths. again the presence of twins in the novel cannot be left out. she is engaged with the indigenous oral story telling of west africa that portrays the cultural belief in the co-existence of the real and the spirit world and in the mythical concept of the abiku or spirit child. oyeyemi repeatedly connects the magical and the present with the past by invoking the indigenous west african anxiety surrounding the mystery or apparent unnaturalness of twins or ibeji and the belief that twins possess supernatural powers. tilly tilly’s identity throughout the novel is uncertain. this leads us again to the first meeting between tilly tilly and jessmay, jessamy observes the following: “something about her was out of proportion was she too tall and yet too … small at the same time? was her neck too long? her fingers? (46). this is not normal, the narrator even adds the fact that she looks like someone who has crawled out of a tomb: “her toes and feet were whitened with gravel scratches and sand, and … chest…the skin of her knees and elbows was ashen and grayish in patches” (47). tilly tilly begins to mimick her friend’s voice. in england, tilly tilly becomes more spiritual. the event here disorients our sense of time, space and identity. the two enter houses unseen and even unravel so many secrets. she offers to be jessmay’s lost twin as mentioned and even offers her protection. unfortunately as time progresses jessamy becomes afraid of her friend. at one point tilly tilly takes control of jessamy’s body. this did not go down well with jessamy, it frightened her and she warns her friend not to do it again. jessamy discovers that no one else could see tilly tilly except her. though her new friend siobhan senses tilly tilly on one occasion. siobhan realizes that this thing is not a normal girl ie a human being. she realizes that she was going to harm jessamy. at this point on tilly tilly becomes something very wicked, a harbinger of death, anxiety and sorrow. she destroys sarah’s only computer and bathroom mirror. she even scares the hell out of the reader in the scene where jessamy wakes up and perceived tilly tilly’s skin. her skin smelt like wet rotten vegetable, only then she finds her hanging upside down from the ceiling: face dangling a few centimeters a way from hers; those pupils, dilated until there was no white; those enormous, swollen lips, almost cartoonish except that they were deepest black, encrusted with dead dry skin, coated here and there with chunks of (i don’t know, i don’t know, please don’t let me know, even guess) something moist and pinky-white…. the lips, which had paused, continued to move. transfixed she caught a glimpse as they moved over a small, manure stump, the remains of a tongue….. jess began to scream, long and loud, as the silent, never-ending torrent of reddish black crupted from that awful mouth and engulfed her, baptizing her in its madness. the worst thing is really happening (206 – 206). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 36 ogbazi & osita this scene resembles a scene from a horror movie, before this scene tilly tilly’s words are ambiguous and confusing. hear her when she tells jessamy she cannot belong because she perceives that jessamy wants to belong. one becomes confused as this point what immediately comes to ones mind is the fact that the black man cannot be accepted no matter how he tries he cannot be white. “there is no need to belong she say anyway there is no home and …..” she dives back to the past, obviously because she shares the african heritage with tilly tilly but this past is recollected in fragments. “our blood”. she say has been split like water for drinking, for washing and she tilly tilly, is a witness of the cruelty of the past (260). obviously she must have added to jessamy’s confusion too. oyeyemi brings to light the dangers of not honoring old traditions. in the novel sarah fails to perform the rituals for her daughter jessamy because she has turned her back to the traditions of her people. “jess lives in three worlds….she’s abiku…the spirits tell her things! fern tells her things …we should’ve. we should’ve d – d-done ibeji carving for her” (181). the above show that sarah regrets not going back to her roots and she admits this to daniel. she equally admits being scared of her daughter hear her: “i can’t mother this girl. i try, but ……i’m scared of her…..she is not like me at all. i don’t think she is like you either. i can’t even tell who this girl is” (201 – 211). she is the hybrid. the third space, the result of intermingling of two distinct cultures. to crown it all jessamy dreams of the same woman she saw tilly tilly drawing. the woman is said to be long armed and looks like an ere ibeji figure. it becomes obvious to jessamy that tilly tilly and the woman are same “like two sides of a coin” (171). at the end of the novel jessamy’s new friend siobhan is pushed down from a staircase by the evil tilly tilly. she is surely hurt and all fingers point at jessamy. to understand this incident one has to suspend all rational reasoning. also jessamy drifts into coma after a tragic accident and she finds herself in a “bush” trying to get back to the real world. she wanders through this bush trying to come in contact with her friend tilly tilly who is now “the sun” as she rushes straight to her dear friend, she wakes up: “hopped, skipped, jumped into tilly’s unyielding flesh jessamy harrison woke up and up and up” (334). the title, the icarus girl is connected to a myth in ancient greek called icarus. this myth is about the son of daedalus who to escape imprisonment\ flies by means of artificial wings but melts and falls into the sea and drowns when the wax on his wings melts as he flies too near the sun. his tragic flaw was hubris, because icarus was of firm belief that he can control his destiny and because of his youth and inexperience he overestimates his powers. obviously his youthful exuberance leads to his downfall. so the following excerpts above can be interpreted in line with this greek mythology of icarus jessamy having lost control of her body and mind ends up tragically. the tragedy is that she looses her identity. her internal conflict cannot be solved. this myth is strengthened by the yoruba poem at the end of the novel praise of the leopard. in this poem the leopard flings himself into dangerous situations, just like the african man who thinks he can handle two cultures. this bush is not new to jessamy she is familiar with it perhaps, through stories. this bush implies that her identity has come to question. she is told of her imminent death. “you are going to die” (331). in the bush she is carried around by a silent girl. suddenly her name is called three times “wuraola” (332) symbolizing not only the three times her grandfather called her (oyeyemi 313). the silent girl brings her close and they gaze at each other’s eyes. first jessamy believes she is looking at herself but then she understands that “it’s her” (333). jessamy tells her that she can share her name after this the girl disappears into the sky. “taken away into the sky in a stream of light” (177). this was jessamy’s twin sister who was not given a yoruba name due to the fact that she died at birth. this is symbolic; it means that jessamy still has the opportunity to recover. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 37 ogbazi & osita oyeyemi’s narrator is unreliable and immature her perception of events is questionable. oyeyemi use the third person omniscient narrative from the eye of an eight year old protagonist the events unfolds. not only is she a child but she suffers from a sort of psychological problem. a character that is seen hiding in a cupboard and constantly tries to remind herself who she actually is. oyeyemi’s narrative technique ruptures our perception of familiar myth and literary concepts. the novel offers an ambigious reading. also in the novel yoruba words and phrases are infused throughout, perhaps a way of bringing to light the cultural differences that exist in hybrid african countries. also in the novel there are allusions to greek myth and religious references, specifically yoruba. she juxtaposes both mythical and christian symbols for example when jess’s aunt is preparing a meal, her uncle asks: “are you sure you are not preparing for a modern day feeding of the five thousand? you are only cooking for twenty people, you know” (65). to understand the last harmattan of alusine dunbar by syl cheney coker of sierra leone one has to be conversant with the middle passage and how it affected sierra-leone. perhaps an understanding of the creoles of sierra leone will be useful. sierra leoneans are the syncretized result of cultural mingling between african, american, caribbean and european cultures. these liberated slaves who had been exposed to western culture brought these creoles. obviously one of the characteristic hybridity is tension. this transition is never smooth hear cheney – coker himself: if you have read my poetry, and of course my novel, it is clear that. i am a sierra leonean with roots in the history of the middle passage. initially i think i was trying to come to terms with defining what that history has meant for me and how in some ways it makes me slightly different, or so people feel from other west african writers. it is clear that if you are dealing with other west african writers who write in english, their mindsets, the traditional norms and forms that make themselves known in their poetry now and then, image clusters so to speak which they have inherited, remained intact. but in my case its quite different because i’m having to contend with the admixture for an african life and the history of slavery what does two have meant for us sierra leonian creoles. (11 – 12) obviously, this is a cultural crisis, and this crisis has to do with people who have lost their pride and heritage and the only resort will be to regain their self respect and dignity. cheney coker using magic realism travels through time and space, from the imaginary to the magical, from the living to the dead. he oscillates between the past and present. this brings to light the negative effects of slavery and the wickedness of the colonizers. he even brings to light the corruption and the dictatorship that plague the present day postcolonial africa. the story is very complicated it traces generations, the families of cromantines and the martin who were the founders of the malaguelta. and later thomas bookerman the leader of the new wave immigrant, phyllis dundas and the farmer brothers. these people who were originally slaves only to return to africa to face the worst kind of humiliation. their fight for justness and freedom reverberates throughout the novel. these families have blood link with the magical suleiman, who is also known as alusine dunbar. he has a daughter called fatmatta who he conceived through magical powers. his daughter is also known as bird woman and she possesses supernatural powers too. she is encountered in a boat returning to africa from america by the cromantines. at her death she relieves the burden in her heart to jeanette cromatine. jeanette was a proud and free young african american slave who is married to sebastian a slave. they were all in the boat returning to africa to find their roots. coker brings to light the kind of tyranny and leadership in africa, most of these people have bloodlines with these founders i.e. malaguelta and chromatins. he exposes the corruption during the military regime and also during the civilian regime, malaguelta grow and changes, these grandchildren of the chromatin sow the seed of anticolonialism. these arabs and british decide to withdraw because of the pressure. alibaba and “the forty ministers took over the reigns of malaguetta (381). these people are more corrupt than their predecessors. they are later overthrown by masimiara ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 38 ogbazi & osita the head of the army. sanka maru the new civilian assumes leadership but tyranny and opposition continues. magically the magical suleiman files in a carpet to get him: president sanka mani walked to a window, pushed the curtains aside and saw a magic carpet flying in the air, not knowing that it had come a long way and that its arrival had been predicted by an albino afraid of light, mesmerized by the occurrence maru thought he was seeing things when an old man lowered himself from the carpet, waved him, and disappeared under a tree. (395) the above is laughable, the meaning is also ambiguous, first coker exceeds the limits of reality distorting our sense of space. this could mean that it will only take a supernatural intervention to stop the corruption that exists in the african society. syl cheney coker is a postcolonial writer on the margin he shares common characteristics with the magical realist cosmopolitans of the latin american variety; he also has preoccupations in common with the cultural nationalism of some of the african decolonizers. his precise location and its political and narrative implications are revealed in the major themes of the novel, and its narrative points of view. these slaves are rootles and they are haunted by their rootlessness for example sebastian cromantines, dreams about his father telling him that he is restless and that his only peaceful place will be in africa, where his origin lies hear sebastian’s father: “a rootless man burdened by his inability to find a resting place” (9). after this dream sebastian decides to embark on a dangerous mission to return to africa to find his father’s origin and perhaps bury his bones there. fatmatta the bird woman is burdened with this same vision. she is being drawn to africa by a vision. this africa is where her umbilical cord is buried. thus: she saw a long ancestral bridge with a lot of people crossing from one end to the other, and suddenly everything was clear to her, cut off from that coalescence of man and spirits, burdened by servitude, she had merely been fulfilling a destiny circumscribed by fate, by an old animated life rhythm that went round the universe like a great flame and then she knew that she would not die in the land of leeches but that she would return shed all signs of degradation and abuse. because by the persistence of its looks by the grave and reverential distances it put between itself and other turkey, the great bird had come to take her home to that land where her navel string was buried (67). in africa the umbilical cord which usually connects the mother while in the womb to her unborn child. this umbilical is buried after the birth of the child this symbolizes the baby’s link to earth. a times where this is buried a beautiful tree is planted and this tree grows with the child. thus the above creates an image of return to the source. unfortunately fatmatta does not return home. she dies on the boat to be buried along with her umbilical cord in africa. this means that the journey of freedom is not going to be an easy one. but when they return to their homeland, they become aliens who are ignorant of the customs. sebastian on returning home asks the king for land. “which they were prepared to farm and pay him back from the harvest” (69). obviously, this may be the practice where he comes from but the king quickly warns him that “here, no one owns anything, not even the stones” (69). the king quickly reminds them that they are strangers: “keep off our women” (70). this is very painful. the people ascribe all negativity to these returnees. coker explores the superstitious belief in africa using the malaria incident. “but when their children succumbed to death soon after eating the sweet potatoes which the foreign woman had planted, they deduced with an age old logic, contrary to reason, that the seed of settlers misfortune had been planted in their world, which not even the totemic powers of the gods could halt” (101). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 39 ogbazi & osita again corruption is one cheney-coker’s thematic concern in this work hear him: we have just changed the government in sierra leon where there have been some of most corrupt politicians imaginable (there, of course, corrupt politicians every where from new york to istanbul). these are the chaps i went to school with, who had the finest education, who went to oxford and took ph.ds. they have no business being corrupt. i have come to the decision that the last people you want to put in government in sierra leone are people who are educated. they make the worst criminals. (16) as generation pass, and the search for freedom has become a thing of the past, the next problem becomes the leaders. these ruling classes are even more violent and brutal than the old slavers. they too resort to the same barbarity they accuse of the colonical masters of. it is an irony that masimiara was thrown into the same dungeon where they had put past slaves during the slave trade: “where in centuries past, the blood of his countrymen and women had mixed with their own excreta and vomit, before they were transported across the treacherous sea to die in the swampy bleakness of another world” (vii). these leaders have become more corrupt than their predecessors. the bribery, corruption and nepotism in these countries are unequaled. the worst is that these colonial masters still interfere in the affairs of the people. “us company to dump under waste off african coast. it was his country, all right; there was no doubt about it. he read how for the sum of twenty five million dollars the president had agreed to have the toxic waste dumped in the waters of his country, and kill off all the children” (xi). as time went on the gap between the rich and poor kept growing. the rich keeps getting richer and the poor, gets poorer. this greed does not emanate from history but it is something that is innate. thomas bookerman is disappointed and cries out: “men who only yesterday were shop keepers with bad teeth and could barely read, now ordered evening jackets in black venetians and hopsacks; women who only yesterday were content to wear hand-men-downs and keep clean houses had taken to buying gold and parading in silk and brocade at church services” (213). this is oligarchy at its peak coker in this novel emphasis that literature is the only tool that can call these sycophants to order. he sees it as a weapon to fight this hydra headed problem, thus: “poetry was a much more dangerous weapon than a whole army”. it cannot be denied that the writer is the conscience of his society. he is just like the biblical voice crying out with the sole aim of change. the novel like all magic realist novels is not an easy one. there are many story tellers who all want to tell the history of malagueta. these include alusine dunbar, thomas bookerman and even coker cheney at who becomes a poet as manifested in character of garbage. cheney ironically distances himself from the magical happenings, as it is done in most magical realists’ texts. the work is also filled with ambiguities; the tone of the novel is poetic too. the authors’ voice may be seen as omniscient but at the same time it is filled uncertainties. the structure of the narrative is fragmented and dispersed. again, its narrative voices is multiple and complex. conclusion so far this paper has strived to argue that magic realism constitutes a point of convergence between post modernism and post colonialism. magic realism becomes an important mode of expression worldwide, especially in post colonial cultures, because it has provided the literary background for significant cultural works. at the same time magic realism has also contributed to the growth of post modernism literary sensibility. cheney coker’s the last harmattan of alusine dunbar tells the story of the transatlantic slave trade and its horrors. he also presents the political situation in sierra –leone using magic realism. oyeyemi’s the icarus girl possesses all the defining characteristics of magical realism. she was able to incorporate yoruba folklore into her novel. her experimental style indicates that her work should be categorized as post modernism. the two works bear testimonies to the fact that magic realism is not shallow or a term to be done away with. magic realism is a resourceful literary tool that a writer could use to create a unique work. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 40 ogbazi & osita works cited abrahams, mayor, howard and harpham, galt, geoffrey. a glossary of literary terms. u.s.a:wadsworth, 2012. babha, homi. the location of culture. london: routledge, 1994. bowers, maggie. magical realism. new york: routledge, 2004. camaydfexias, erik. realismo magico y primitiv’s mo: relecturas de carentier, aesturias, rilfo y garcia marquez. lanham, md: university press of america, 1998. chanady, amaryll beatrice. magical realism and the fantastic: resolved versus unresolved antimony. new york: garland publishing inc, 1985. cheney-coker, s. (1990). the last harmattan of alusine dunbar. london: heinemann educational books. cooper, brenda. magic realism in west african fiction: seeing with a third eye. london: routledge, 2004. chuma-udeh, ngozi. trends and issues in nigerian literature.nigeria: malchjay , 2011. daniele, lee. “realismo magico: true realism with a pinch of magic”. the south central bulletin. 42.4 (1982): 129-130. dobbie, ann. theory into practice: an introduction to literary criticism. u.s.a: wadsworth, 2009. faris, wendy b. ordinary enchantments: magic realism and the remystification of narrative. u.s.a.vanderbilt university press, 2014. ifejirika, echezona. introduction to literary theory: criticism and practice. awka: mabcom system, 2014. mathew, strecher. “magical realism and search for identity in the fiction of murukami haruki” journal of japanese studies. volume 25, number 2(summer 1999), pp. 263-298. mehri, rhamzi and leylin, jamali. “magical realism as postcolonial device in toni morrison’s beloved” international journal of humanities and social sciences.vol2, no 5,march 2015. mile,cressida. “beyond black british writing: realism of bernardine evaristo and helen oyeyemi” a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the university of arts. february 2019. ogundipe-leslie, molara. re-creating ourselves: african women and critical transformations. africa world press,1994. okri, ben. the famished road. london: vintage publishers, 1991. oyeyemi, helen. the icarus girl. london: bloomsbury, 2005. reshmy, r. “magic realism in ngugi wa thiongo’s wizard of the crow”. international journal of english language, literature and humanities. vol. 6, issue 8 august, 2018. tutuola, amos. the palmwine drinkard.uk: faber and faber, 1952. wandiga, wandana. “theorizing magical realism: an historiographic perspective” . international journal of innovative language, literature and art studies. vol5,1, march 2017 . warnes, christopher. magical realism and the postcolonial novel: between faith and irreverence. uk: palgrave macmillian, 2014. zamora, lois parkinson and wendy b. faris, eds. magical realism: theory, history, community. durham and london: duke up, 1995. zlotchew, clark. varieties of magical realism. new jersey: academic press, 2007. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 63 ezenwa-ohaeto & umelo politeness maxims and verbal violence in families: a study of emekuku owerri north, imo state professor ngozi ezenwa-ohaeto department of english language and literature faculty of arts, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. & ngozi jovita n. umelo njovic59@yahoo.com abstract the study examined politeness maxims and verbal violence in families’ language use. the jeopardy of verbal violence in families against politeness maxims was discussed. the study hinged on brown and levinson (1978/1987) politeness theory and leech (1983) politeness maxims. the method of data collection used are; two research instrumentsquestionnaire and observations. the study adopted a quantitative research design of the simple percentage for data analysis. ten families were randomly visited to obtain data from the members. it was revealed that fourteen (14) out of the twenty-eight (28) participants were not aware of politeness maxims or its stipulations nor verbal violence and its implications. also, the result proved ignorance of politeness maxims stipulations made speakers to use verbal violence as normal and acceptable language of rebuke or correction. therefore, the study recommended that interactants should apply the stipulations of politeness maxims in conversations in the family so as to shun the menace of verbal violence. again, the use of polite expressions/courteous utterances in family interactions enhanced self-confidence and good interpersonal relationships among interactants. key words: politeness maxims, verbal violence, families, language use introduction the essence of communication is largely dependent on the existence of language. language is used to create, form, destroy or damage one’s well-being within the family and the society at large. words are powerful tools that can either lift an addressee up or tear him/her down. through language, feelings/emotions, ideologies, desires, questions etc are communicated. o’grady, archibald and katamba (1) opine that “words can be used to achieve various ends; language is at the heart of all things human”. words that are being spoken do not just have an effect but how the words are spoken, the tone of voice, the facial expressions and body language all play a part in the message that is being conveyed to that individual (brennan and lane as cited in thomason, 13). so much of what keeps the family together or broken rests hugely on language use and meaning. the family stands as a microcosm of a nation. language use and communication plays great role in family. the family ought to be a place where members feel loved and accepted the way they are. mckay (219) emphasizing the importance of communication in family relationship asserts that “a family with chronic poor communication becomes a pressure cooker”. each member is vulnerable to emotional devastation. the children especially are susceptible to a range of physical and psychological symptoms. families get into trouble when members are prohibited from expressing certain feelings, needs or awareness. the family as a unit is meant to create awareness, inculcate in the children the dynamics of conflicts and the promotion of peace making skills in homes as a necessary channel of socialization (gumut, 116). therefore, a family with chronic poor communication resorts to verbal violence. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 64 ezenwa-ohaeto & umelo verbal violence entails the use of profane, dehumanizing and insulting language to cause emotional pain or distress on others. it is an act of hate speech, criticism, swearing, curses, coercion and teasing of a person who is in control of other (lepper, 65-67). living free is a fundamental development aspiration. it is an objective that has thus far received comparative limited attention in human development issues. verbal violence creates fear in human development especially in a family. kembe (14) corroborates that verbal violence is a salient aspect of domestic violence that has not received much publicity. although, it is not physical in nature, does not leave visible bruises yet it is damaging and can leave individual with lasting adverse emotional scars for life. family interactions that are embellished with verbal violence depict lack of politeness maxims and do more harm than good. statement of the problem language use in the family is crucial for personality formation and perception. polite expressions during family conversation keep interaction smooth and maintain the face-value of interactants. politeness maxims are principles stated to enhance interactions for social relationships but most language users in the family are not aware of this. because language use in the family is common therefore, it lacks appropriate linguistic tokens that promote consideration and solidarity among interactants. due to lack of knowledge of politeness maxims, speakers in the family deploy verbal violence which is demeaning and destructive on the addressee. again, verbal violence contradicts politeness maxims in that its stipulations are violated in the cause of interaction and that results to face-threat, anger, anxiety, low selfesteem, depression, animosity and so on. again, many studies abound on physical violence, domestic violence and sexual violence but just few on verbal violence and politeness maxims. therefore, it is the intent of this study to expose the damage inherent in the violation of politeness maxims particularly in family sphere. purpose of the study the main purpose of this study is to create awareness to language users in the family about the effectiveness and benefits of politeness maxims for better flow of conversations among family members for quality family relationship. research questions: the following research questions are formulated to guide this study: • what are politeness maxims and their stipulations? • how do speakers at family level perceive verbal violence and what are the implications on the victims? • how has verbal violence promoted or demoted self-confidence and love on addressees in the family? conceptual clarifications the manner in which utterances are presented in conversational situations can enhance or breach conversation depending on how speakers utilize politeness principles in the process of interaction and how the addressee reacts to such tokens. politeness is a social deixis which expresses a high degree of solidarity between the speaker and the addressee. as a socialization process which begins from the family, all adult members learn how to behave politely, linguistically and otherwise. hence, politeness has not been borne as instinctive but it is a phenomenon which has been constructed through socio-cultural and historical processes (o’grady, archibald and katamba, 230). mills (6) aver that “politeness is the expression of the speaker’s intention to mitigate face threat carried by certain face-threatening acts towards another”. yule (135) posits that politeness is seen as showing awareness and consideration of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 65 ezenwa-ohaeto & umelo another person’s face. leech on his part, posits that politeness aids to establish and maintain mutual respect among interactants (128). brown and levinson (49) equally maintain that politeness helps interactants to minimize the imposition caused by a face threatening act. while watts (156) views politeness as a social behavior that helps to maintain the equilibrium of interpersonal relationships within a social group. again, lakoff (178) lists other functions of politeness as thus: 1. the appropriate use of politeness defines an individual as competent, benevolent and worthy of trust. 2. politeness is used to decide whether others are in or out socially; a basis on which to reward the good (the polite) and punish the bad (impolite). 3. politeness is a tool by which societies maximize and legitimize gender distinction and define appropriate gender rules and roles. generally, individuals who engage in conversations are required to show a degree of politeness among them. interactants are expected to show a level of social and linguistic considerations in interactions. such considerations for the conversational needs of others have been termed polite behaviours. politeness according to grundy (187) is seen as the exercise of language choice to create a context intended to match/suit the addressee’s notion of how he or she should be addressed. therefore, in agreement with other scholars, this study assumes that politeness implies enhancing and maintaining the face-worth of interactants in conversational situation. to maintain and balance social relation among interactants, certain degree of consideration is needed. thus, brown and levinson (61) are of the view that in positive politeness, the speaker and the addressee have the same needs and the speaker indicates that to the addressee. since politeness is a social phenomenon, its domain is beyond verbal choices but in co-operates behaviour and non-verbal mode that is wordless cues. for instance, when one offers her seat for another or bows in greeting, it is a sign of politeness but verbal violence is contradictory. verbal violence is a form of communication that is known to have destructive effects on the addressee. it is a profane language use that has a deep negative influence and leaves an indelible mark on the listener. verbal violence can also be defined as “the use of derogatory and destructive language on another person” (ewurum, njoku and umeh, 61). it can be expressed by such terms as global label, name calling, verbal abuse, dehumanizing language, demeaning words and so on. verbal violence is “any language or remark that is intended to cause distress to the individual which can be perceived as being demeaning, humiliating, intimidating or disrespectful resulting in feelings of inferiority, lowered self-worth and self-esteem, stunned goals and ambition (brennan qtd in lani, 16). lani (16) included in her definition of verbal abuse “as the use of critical or insulting behavior”. the work argues that the word behavior keeps the definition open to include not just the words that are being spoken but the tone of voice, facial expressions and body language. these instances are normally overt in nature but at times can be subtle like double-edge comments. going by the above definitions, it is assumed that verbal violence implies derogatory expressions, rude/nasty remarks, stony silence and mitigated attitudes on hearers. kembe (15) maintains that “verbal abuse is an act of constant criticism, name calling, social rejection, sarcasm and put downs on an individual”. obinauju (16) reveals that “the society contributes to perpetuating the act of verbal abuse by not taking it seriously enough and by treating it as expected, normal or deserved”. this does not contradict the traditional nigerian child rearing practice where the child is rebuked and chastised for doing wrong. according to the united nation’s standard (cited in kembe, 15) “verbal abuse is a condition of causing or ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 66 ezenwa-ohaeto & umelo permitting to occur of any form of offensive or harmful contact on the body of a person. such a contact incorporates any form of interaction, exchange of communication that brings shame, embarrassment, fear or disgrace to the person”. thus, it can be stated that verbal violence can be much more emotionally damaging than other types of abuse. this confirms the adage which says “sticks and stones may break my home but words will break my heart”. therefore, this study opines that verbal violence is like a sword that pierces through the heart with indelible mark. the addressee goes with an injury he/she nurse for the rest of life. theoretical framework this study utilizes brown and levinson (1987) politeness theory and leech (1983) politeness maxims for data analysis. brown and levison (1987) politeness theory: it is the theory that accounts for the redressing of the affronts to face posed by face-threatening act to addressee. it is based on the concept that people have a social self-image that they consciously project and try to protect. brown and levinson (61) construct their politeness theory on the premise that many speech acts are threatening in that they do not support the face wants of the speaker and or those of the addressee. they propose that a face threat directly affects the perceived relationship between the speaker and the hearer. for example, intrinsic face threat specified by this theory include: disapproval, disagreement, challenge and non-co-operation. brown and levinson (66) categorized face into two; positive face and negative face. they define positive in two ways: “as the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some other executors” or alternatively, “the positive consistent self-image or personality (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants”. it can also mean when others like, respect and approve of us. brown and levinson posit negative face “as the want of every competent adult member that his actions be unimpeded by others or “the basic claim of territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction that is freedom of action and freedom from imposition. negative face implies when we feel that others cannot constrain us in any way. leech (1983) politeness maxims: leech (128) posits politeness maxim as a way of explaining how politeness operates in conversational exchanges. leech’s concept on politeness maxims is concerned with conflict avoidance and geared towards comity. a polite speaker tactfully employs language in order to make his/her statements acceptable to the decoders. to be polite is saying the socially correct things (lakoff, 34). leech observes that politeness is sometimes relative to people and their culture, expressed through language use. leech identifies seven (7) politeness maxims as thus; 1. tact maxim which stipulates that speakers should; a. minimize the expression of beliefs which imply cost to others and maximize the expression of beliefs which imply benefit to others. b. minimize the expression of impolite beliefs and maximize the expression of polite beliefs. 2. generosity maxim states that interactants should; a. minimize benefit to self b. maximize cost to self 3. approbation maxim states that speakers should; a. minimize dispraise of others b. maximize praise or approval of others 4. modesty maxim stipulates that speakers should always; a. minimize the expression of praise of self ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 67 ezenwa-ohaeto & umelo b. maximize the expression of dispraise of self 5. agreement maxim states; a. minimize the expression of disagreement between self and others b. maximize agreement between self and others 6. sympathy maxim stipulates that speakers should; a. minimize antipathy between self and others b. maximize sympathy between self and others. 7. pollyanna maxim states that; people should look at the bright side instead of the gloomy side in talking about others. methodology the research adopted a descriptive quantitative type of study which aimed at obtaining data through questionnaire and observation. ten (10) different families, five (5) families each from the two villages (eedibia and ezeogba) that make up emekuku autonomous community were randomly selected to obtain data for analysis with the intent to find out if language users in the families know what politeness maxims are and their perception of verbal violence. family members form the population for the study and questionnaire were distributed to the members who filled and returned. data presentation: participants’ demographic data using statistical analysis of the simple percentage in a table below: s/n 1. variable(family) group (10) frequency of data valid % cumulative% five families ezedibia 3 10.7% 10.7% five families ezeogba 2 7.1% 17.8% five families ezeogba 4 14.3% 32.1% five families ezedibia 2 7.1% 39.2% five families ezeogba 3 10.7% 49.2% five families ezedibia 3 10.7% 60.6% five families ezeogba 2 7.1% 67.7% five families ezedibia 2 7.1% 74.8% five families ezeogba 4 14.3% 89.1% five families ezedibia 3 10.7% 100% total 28 100% 2. sex male 11 39.2% 39.2% female 17 60.7% 100% total 28 100% 3. age 30 yrs below 9 32.1% 32.1% 31 yrs above 19 67.8% 100% total 28 100% 4. position father 4 14.3% 14.3% mother 10 35.7% 50% biological son 2 7.1% 57.1% biological daughter 4 14.3% 71.4% house help 8 28.5% 100% total 28 100% 5. religion christian 27 96.4% 96.4% ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 68 ezenwa-ohaeto & umelo moslem ___ ___ ____ traditional 1% 3.5% 100% total 28 100% 100% 6. family background educated 6 21.4% 21.4% uneducated 10 35.7% 57.1% married 5 17.8% 74.9% single 4 14.3% 89.2% divorced 3 10.7% 100% total 28 100% 7. occupation civil servant 5 17.8% 17.8% business 12 42.8% 60.6% students 11 39.3% 100% total 28 100% 8. residence type selfcompound 8 28.5% 28.5% public compound 20 71.4% 100% total 28 100% from the table above, twenty-eight (28) out of thirty (30) copies of the questionnaire were filled and returned. from the twenty-eight (28), thirteen (13) which represented 46.4% were retrieved from five families in ezedibia while fifteen (15) which counted for 53.5% were gathered from another five families in ezeogba village in emekuku. out of the twenty-eight (28) family members that participated, eleven (11) that indicated 39.2% were male respondents while seventeen (17) which was 60.7% were female respondents. from the twenty-eight (28), nine (9) represented 32.1% were 30 years below while nineteen (19) which was 67.8% were 31 years and above. on the position of participants in the family, data retrieved showed that out of the twenty-eight (28), four (4) which counted for 14.3% were fathers, ten (10) which represented 35.7% were mothers, two (2) that counted for 7.1% were biological sons, four (4) which implied 14.3% were biological daughters while eight (8) that indicated 28.5% were house helps. on religion, twenty-seven (27) that represented 96.4% respondents were christians while only one (1) which indicated 3.5% was a traditional worshiper and no moslem among all the participants. family background indicated that out of the twenty-eight (28) respondents, six (6) that indicated 21.4% were educated, ten (10) that represented 35.7% were uneducated, five (5) which implied 17.8% were married, four (4) that counted for 14.3% were single while three (3) that indicated 10. 7% were divorced. then by occupation, five (5) which indicated 17.8% were civil servants, twelve (12) which implied 42.8% were business people and eleven (11) that implied 39.3% were students. lastly, residential type showed that eight (8) represented 28.5% of the respondents resided in their personal compounds while twenty (20) which indicated 71.4% lived in public compound. results and analysis questionnaire/res earch questions idea/lac k of knowled ge of politenes percepti on of verbal violence ignoranc e of verbal violence promoti on of selfconfide demotion and enhancem ent of hatred total ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 69 ezenwa-ohaeto & umelo s maxims and stipulati ons implicati ons nce and love strongly agreed 5 4 2 ___ 3 14(50 %) agreed 3 3 1 ___ 2 9(32.1 %) disagreed ____ ____ ____ ___ 3 3(10.7 %) strongly disagreed ____ ____ ____ ____ 2 2(7.1% ) total 8 (28.5%) 7 (25%) 3 (10.7%) 0 (0%) 10 (35.7%) 28 from the table above, politeness maxims and their stipulations were classified as; idea and lack of knowledge of politeness maxims stipulation in language use. by this, it was evident from the data that fourteen (14) that represented 50% of the respondents were stiffly in agreement that they had no knowledge of politeness maxims and its stipulations in language use. the result revealed that nine (9) which counted for 32.1% conformed to be ignorant of the implications of verbal violence on addressees rather they used it as language of rebuke. three respondents out the twenty-eight (28) which implied 10.7% participants disagreed to the promotion of self-confidence and love by those they abused verbally while only two (2) which counted for 7.1% respondents vehemently disagreed that they were been hated in the cause of correction on wrong deeds. discussion of findings from the foregoing, it can be deduced that interactans in the families do not have knowledge of politeness maxims and even those who were aware did not speak in accordance with the stipulations. this was contrary to brown and levinson (178) positive politeness strategies of seek agreement and avoid disagreement. also, it did not conform to leech’s (128) concept of politeness which is concerned with conflict avoidance. through observations, language users in families used verbal violence as language of rebuke and correction of wrong deeds and were ignorant of the implications. again, it was observed that, the speakers’ tone, voice and facial expression sent negative meaning to the addressees as the addressees perceived anger, humiliation, hatred etc. this contradicted svarova (9) who states that “addressers should indicate that they are reluctant to impinge”. conclusion and recommendations this study concluded that verbal violence violated politeness maxims and the stipulations in families. speakers deliberately employed verbal violence as acceptable utterances of rebuke and correction. therefore, the study recommended that family conversations be embellished with courteous utterances using the stipulations of politeness maxims to shun the menace of verbal violence. works cited brown, p. and levinson, s. politeness: some universals in language usage. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2006. .... universals in language usage: politeness phenomena. in e.n. goody, (ed), questions and politeness. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1987. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 70 ezenwa-ohaeto & umelo ewurum, rc. n., njoku, n.j. and umeh, i.j. for once the man is on his knees: a study of language of conflict and conflict resolution in nwosu’s chord of sanity. international journal of gender and development issues. vol 1.no. 8: 2018. 235-249. (2018), print. …. a pragmatic analysis of verbal abuse as face-threatening acts. natelcep journal of language and communication studies. 2019. grundy, p. doing pragmatics. london: hodder education, 2008. gumut, v. peace education and peer mediation .in s. g. best (ed). introduction to peace in west africa: a reader. ibadan: spectrum books ltd, 2016. hyden, m. verbal aggression as prehistory of woman battering. journal of family violence, 10: 2015.55-71. kembe, e.m. causes and effects on adolescent personality. journal of family development,vol 3, : 2008. pp.14-16. lakoff, r. the politics of nice. journal of politeness research: language, behaviour, culture.1 (2) : 2005.173-191. …. the logic of politeness or minding your p’s and q’s. chicago linguistic society. 9, 292305. (1973). lani, t. childhood verbal abuse and its psychological effects on adults. walden university: https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations, 2018. leech, g. principles of pragmatics. harlow: longman,1983. lepper, m. r. dissonance, self-perception and honey in children. journal of personality and social psychology. vol 2, pp.65-74,1973. mckay, m., davis, m. and fanning, p. messages: the communication skills book. oakland, new harbinger publications, 1983. mills, s. gender and politeness. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2003. natalie, s., edelyn, v., thomas, j. and kristopher, j. parental verbal abuse and the mediating role of self-criticism in adult internalizing disorders. journal of affective disorders. florida state university united states, 2006. o’ grady, w. archibald, j. and katamba, f. contemporary linguistics: an introduction. england: longman, 2011. odebunmi, a. politeness and face management in hospital conversational interactions in south-western nigeria. ibadan journal of english studies, vol .1:2005. 2-22. svavora, j. politeness markers in spoken language.brono: masaryk university press, 2008. thomason, j. meaning in interaction: an introduction to pragmatics. new york: longman,1995. watts, r. politeness. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2003. yule, g. the study of language. cambridge: cambridge university press,2010. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 oparah 128 african playwrights and the post-colonial society: a study of emeka nwabueze’s a parliament of vultures and esiaba irobi’s hangmen also die chiamaka thelma oparah department of english, nnamdiazikiwe university, awka email: chiamakaoparah444@ gmail.com abstract writers, like preachers, write to moralize as well as criticize the ills in the society. their major aim is to recreate and correct using their pens which speak great volume against the moral decadence dominant in the society and the world at large. african playwrights write on several inherent issues dominant in the post-colonial society of which corruption takes the lead. this study examines corruption as one of the pre-dominant issues in the postcolonial society and as a cankerworm that has eaten deep into the fabrics of the society in the works of two west african writers namely emekanwabueze’saparliament of vultures and esiabairobi’shangmen also die. satire as a tool is employed to mock these corrupt leaders who have done more harm than good as well as their level of ignorance in governing the masses. this paper can be x-rayed through the critical lens of post-colonial theory, marxism and eco-criticism. this paper also reveals the effects of corruption as it subjects the masses to poverty, oppression, hunger, depression and even death. activism is seen as a revolutionary tool among characters in both texts. the selected texts are used as channels for mocking leaders who employ various corrupt practices to oppress the people without taking cognizance of their plight, while aiming for a better and corrupt free society. keywords: african playwrights, postcolonial theory, marxism introduction the history and the making of many parts of the countries of the world is a history rooted in deep and long years of colonialism and slavery (asika, 423). in other words, most parts of the world have experienced colonialism, slavery, or imperialism with africa not being an exemption. according to ifejirika, ‘‘colonialism means the forceful occupation of a people’s land, or territory by a stronger and more developed country and unauthorized control and administration of such a weaker state by a more influential state’’(135). most african countries were colonized by the whites who were interested in exploiting them while expanding their political tentacles and imposing their culture and religion on the colonized states. these countries were seen as the weaker or inferior states who should count themselves lucky to be colonized by them. colonialism had a great influence on the colonized states while ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 oparah 129 leaving behind indelible marks. religion and culture of the colonial masters were embraced wholeheartedly. this they said made us civilized, but what about other negative effects of colonization? the colonizers were only after their selfish goals. although many nations have moved on and have successfully shoved off the ashes of colonialism, there is no denial that colonialism left behind some negative practices and conducts among which is corruption. the prefix ‘‘post’’ attached to colonialism simply implies after colonialism. post-colonialism is defined as the academic study of the cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism, focusing on the human consequences of the control and exploitation of colonized people and their lands (okoye, 1; wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). in other words, it is concerned with the looking back at history the period of colonialism and the effects or consequences of the colonial masters. post-colonial literature justifies this definition with their writers focusing on the effects of colonialism on the people, a reclaim of their identity and the bid to recreate a better society. jonathan spivak, homibhabba, nestor garcia cancili, stuart hall, gayatrikspivak, amongst others are principal theorists of hybridity who are concerned with the effects of mixture upon culture and identity (okoye, 3-4). this may take various forms; linguistic, cultural, political, racial, etc. for instance, in africa, the coming of the white man had an impact on the culture of africans. religion, language, formal education, and other cultural practices were new and a bit strange but nevertheless was adopted and imitated consciouslyand unconsciously. there was a clash in culture and identity. the principle of orientalism by edward said raises questions about colonialism, imperialism, and construction of the ‘other’ with an intention to study what happens when one culture is dominated by another. as earlier stated, the post-colonial theory, marxist theory and eco-criticism are applied in analyzing the aforementioned texts. satire, used in ridiculing or mocking human vices or weaknesses is employed by the writer to criticize the selfish and evil practices of these corrupt leaders in our contemporary society. african writers like journalists, have a strong inspiration to write plays from their experiences. they write generally to tell the experiences of africans, their dealings with the whites during colonialism and issues being experienced after colonialism(post-colonial issues). their literature is usually imbued with despair and anger at the state of their nation and leaders who replaced former colonial oppressors. the people have a lot of expectations from their leaders after gaining independence but are disappointed at the exploitative nature of their leaders who are very corrupt, self-centered and greedy.their main aim is to acquire wealth thereby complyingwith the get-rich-quick syndrome, without considering the poor citizens who are eager to feed and survive. but the people not only suffer. what about the environment? ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 oparah 130 esiabairobi’shangmen also diereveals an exploitation of not only the people of izon state but also the environment. the notion of ‘‘the rich gets richer’’ and ‘‘the poor gets poorer’’ is cemented on corruption where injustice takes the lead. a society where the rich oppresses the poor and the haves suppressing and exploiting the have’s not. the marxists are against the exploitation of the poor for self-enrichment and in most cases take violent revolutionary movements in order to be heard.ifejirika opines that ‘’there is a class-struggle and distrust which leads to socio-political conflicts’’ (187). eco-criticism is employed by the writer to critically examine the effects of exploitation and the unquenchable quest for wealth on the environment. human beings and aquatic animals are not also exempted in the share of environmental injustices caused by corrupt and self-centered leaders. they are either exposed to hazardous substances or subjected to having little or no chances of survival owing to their polluted environment. this gives rise to activism and sparks off conflicts, protests and revolts that eventually lead to revolution and an expected change. african playwrights like ngugiwathiongo, wole soyinka. emekanwabueze, zulu sofola, ama ata aidoo, sefi atta, olu olagoke and others wrote using their works to conscientize the masses and the leaders against corruption, a plaque that has built its web round societies while even infecting the unborn. chinua achebe’s a man of the peopleand ayikweiarmah’sthe beautiful ones are not yet born are good examples of post-colonial novels that clearly expose the corruption that has engulfed the african society. the selected novels are discussed below to further expose different levels of corruption. a post-colonial discourse of emekanwabueze’sa parliament of vultures and esiabairobi’shangmen also die corruption is defined as a dishonest or illegal behaviour especially by powerful people (such as government officials or police officers) (meriam webster dictionary). emekanwabueze’s a parliament of vulturesportrays a society that is governed by corrupt leaders. nwabueze describes them as ‘’vultures who eat the nation to death leaving nothing for the masses to quench their thirst’’. these leaders are described as selfish, hypocritical and materialistic vultures inhuman attire. the insatiable desire for money and wealth leads madam omeaku to politics. she sees politics a game where the national cake can be shared and the fastest means of making money. in her discussion with nkechi, her daughter, she expresses her regrets over her marriage to mr. omeaku, a teacher whom she feels isbelow her standard after she is made a member of the house of assembly. she expresses thus: madam: i married your father when my eyes were not yet open. in those dark days, what does a woman know about the choice of an ideal man? but why should you ask me such a question? eh? who gave ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 oparah 131 mother impetus to ask me such a foolish question? what gave you the audacity to ask your sweet mother such a senseless question? (8) her regret knows no bounds when mr. brown, a political colleague expresses his disappointment at the filthy, unventilated and congested nature of the buildings in madam omeaku’s household. brown: … i had a rough time finding this place. the houses must have been numbered by someone with a peculiar way of counting. the whole place is so congested. and the inhabitants look like hungry folk. the whole place is filthy and …. madam: you see that is what it takes to marry a bush man for a husband. (9) her disregard for her husband is as a result of her great desire for money and comfort. she shows ingratitude to her husband who started a business with his gratuity of thirty –five years spent as a primary school teacher. madam omeaku creates an image of an irresponsible wife and wayward mother. nwabueze’s satirizes politicians like madam omeaku whose major aim of being a parliamentarian or a leader is to enrich themselves and their generations to come no matter what it takes. she is not perturbed about her daughter’s happiness or safety when she encourages her to become a prostitute, just like she did to her first daughter, so that she gains favour from her colleagues. get–rich quick becomes the desire of these politicians who believes that politics alleviates them from poverty. mr brown’s response to madam omeaku when he asked for a very chilled drink justifies his aim to be in the parliament. brown: madam, i prefer it on the rocks. madam: i’m sorry, mr brown. our fridge is not working. the compressor is bad. brown: too bad! (sips the drink). that’s why you have to support me in my quest for the chairmanship of the purchasing committees of parliament. in a couple of months you’ll have enough refrigerators to give as presents to your friends. (10) a society where ignorance is celebrated and illiterates govern the people. what then will be the fate of such a society? madam omeaku sees education as irrelevant and boasted in ignorance. she considers her husband a failure who can’t provide for the family. she advocates for whom you know than what you know. madam: … you’re an educated man, but you can’t even maintain your family. with your education, have you ever ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 oparah 132 given us a decent life? … i’ve worked my way into a position of authority without education…. (20) mr. omeaku feels disappointed at his wife’s behaviour. he wonders why a roadside food seller should become one of the country’s lawmakers. he frowns at the lawmakers who encourages prostitution and contributes to the malfunctioning of the family system. her victory over mr. barrister umehto become a member of the house, indicates what money can do and how election is conducted in the country. she emerged victorious with the assistance of mrasili, her campaign manager, who convinces the crowd and later throws money at them.hypocrisy is demonstrated in the play by rev. jossy. he is not really a priest but is given a title to earn credibility from the voters. some religious leaders are only concerned about their welfare, not even about the people’s salvation. to earn the people’s trust, they give themselves noble titles thereby deceiving and defrauding the masses. according to mr. brown, brown: yeah, prof. prof. he was a factory worker in london. we asked him to take that title in order to make our political party look intellectual. you see, our people are obsessed with titles. he doesn’t have a certificate. (11) this is corruption. the masses are deceived with an intention to exploit them. rev. jossy and dr. parkers are men of integrity who are against corruption. they represent some good leaders who yearn for a better nation but are rather blown out lik tiny flame. in other words, whosoever stands in the way of these leaders or oppose their intentions are forcefully arrested or silenced forever as seen in the play. ‘‘and after the presidential press conference, we shall arrange for their replacement. they are going to be put out of circulation for a very long time’’. (92). in the play, their corrupt colleagues deceive them by giving them a wrong time and collecting the minute book from mr. otobo who gets carried away by nkechi and her friends. this leads to madam hoha being the new secretary. a secretary who can’t read nor write, but is rather helped by habanero in the pronunciation of some words. the parliament, a place to run the affairs of the nation, becomes a hall of touts. parliamentarians of low integrity and class, who delight in abusing, tongue lashing and even fighting themselves. madam omeaku in seen holding dr. parker’s coat while he struggles to free himself (46). the question is: is this what should be done in a parliament? important issues are not discussed for solutions to be proffered. rather, they discuss their personal and family problems, practice fetish rites, allocate unnecessary allowances and vacation fees and so many other meaningless things that lack substance. an oath is sworn by the parliamentarians so that no member shall expose their corrupt practices. habanero states the condition of the oath sworn. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 oparah 133 habanero: it’s concluded. now, let us repeat what we have sworn before ogbunani. anyone here who reports any other member to the journalists, or who accuses another member of any offence without going through the chairman, anyone who talks evil about anyone here, especially with regard to financial gratification, may ogbunabani rub that fellow with ash.(59) two billion naira is signed by the speaker of the parliament, mr. habanero, for inconvenience allowances, purchase of expensive clothes and hiring of music group for the thanksgiving service. how can a nation grow or develop when money is spent on selfish desires and needs of these leaders appointed by the people to lead them. a parliament that lacks decorum to discuss important issues. is that a parliament? the playwright mocks these leaders who delight in sleeping around with young girls thereby encouraging immorality and prostitution. it is very appalling that these parliamentarians encourage this illicit act, pay huge sum of money to these girls and even accord some positions to some of them who didn’t merit it. the likes of nkechi, who becomes the president’s press secretary because of her mother’s conviction and immoral lifestyle. their plan of making madam omeaku the secretary is made concrete with nkechi distracting mr. otobo and making him come late, coupled with the difference in their meeting time. while planning to honour the thanksgiving invitation from members of st. bottle’s church, rev. jossy inquisitively asks about the ‘’girls’’, with mr. brown giving asooting answer to his question with madam omeaku supporting his answer. he expresses thus: jossy: what about the girls? how do you plan to procure them for the party? brown: thank you for that reverend. the chief of protocol, whose responsibility this is, has already taken care of that. all he has requested from the committee is ten air-conditioned vehicles and a modest sum of one million naira fuel the vehicles to collect senior girls from university campuses, and take them back after the party. madam: … furthermore, my daughter, nkechi, has been contracted to bring the younger generation of aspiring senior girls, the young school leavers, popularly known as jambites. we’re yet to receive their estimate. (85) the play also ridicules the ‘‘poor man’’ who seizes to criticize corrupt leaders when given a piece of the ‘‘national cake’’. mr. omeaku is a typical example. he becomes subtle and meek and respects his wife even stooping to the level of running errands for her. he doesn’t criticize or condemn the government ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 oparah 134 any longer and so is not concerned about others. in madam omeaku’s conversation with mr. brown, she narrates thus: madam: are you telling me? my husband is a typical example. since he started cruising in a chauffeurdriven mercedes, and living in a large estate, he has learnt to respect me. now he treats me like a queen, and his family members believe i’m the best thing that happened to them. (102) madam omeaku laments over the state of the universities in the country, deeming it unfit for her children to attend. yet, she is a parliamentarian, a leader, a lawmaker. what an irony! she boasts that by being a member of the parliament, she has acquired houses in choice locations in the country, and can afford long holidays in choice spots in any part of the world.revolutionary actions are taken by agitators, who storm the parliament and round up the parliamentarians as they attempt to escape from the building.this group of militants rush into the house and ties the honorable members while singing war songs. these youth patiently wait for the government to alleviate poverty and create a better nation but rather their hopes are dashed. the university system suffers neglect by these leaders who show no interest in providing infrastructures, putting an end to recurrent strikes, extortion, curbing secret societies as well as the general management of these universities. rather, they prefer to send their children abroad to study. madam omeaku, is a typical example. esiabairobi’s hangmen also dienarrates the ordeal of people of izon state. the play exposes the tragedy of unemployed youth, an exploited environment, the suppression of the poor and the common man, corrupt leaders and their practices and an unjust society. set in the niger delta in an imagineryizon state, the play narrates the tragic story and experiences of nigeria nation after colonization. the nation is faced with corruption, suppression and oppression from the haves’, leaders, the rich and the privileged. obviously, an adverse effect is expected, as an action leads to another. the youth become violent as they are unemployed, helpless and confused. instead of granting them jobs, the ‘big men’ use them as instruments to fight their political enemies. they indulge in stealing and other destructive activities. the people of izon state experienced poverty, hunger and death. blessed with oil, one of the natural resources that is currently the mainstay of the economy, this region suffers exploitation and extortion which constitute in a substantial dimension, retardation of healthy prospects and gradual imbalance of the eco-system in its entirety. the water, air, fauna and flora are gravely affected in all ramifications, with human beings not being an exemption. compensation fees, though very little are given to these leaders who should distribute them equally to the affected ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 oparah 135 victims and the people in general. but, rather these leaders spend it on their selfish desires and wants. chief erekosima, is a typical example of a corrupt leader who isn’t considerate but is entirely self-centered. three million naira is given to him but rather he gives one million naira to the councilors in kalabari local government, another one million to the chairmen of all the local government and the rest in renovating the palace, the coronation party, paying his children’s school fees and bribing his god-son peketulubodaminagbo, the chief superintendent at prison headquarters, port harcourt. this bribe is to placate some eminent citizens from his local government area, who were threatening to write petitions to the federal goverement when they heard that he confisticated the compensation money. he prefers to send his children to study abroad than in the local universities in the country. his response goes thus: erekosima: the standard of education in this country has fallen. ...so badly that the only things our universities produce are criminals, hooligans, armed robbers, thieves, villains, cutthroats, hangmen, like you. (114) what an irony! this man was a parliamentarian of the first republic and an exsenator of the second republic and an aspiring gubernatorial candidate. these leaders are not concerned about improving the educational sector in their country, but rather send their children abroad to study. chief erekosima understands politics to be the art of survival (self-oriented) to him; morality does not come into it. these corrupt leaders are full of pride and insensitive to the plight of the poor masses seeing them as ‘creatures of the swamp’, ‘crabs’, ‘periwinkles’ and ‘mudskippers’…. a definition chief erekosima gave. ibiaye, a native of amakalaka becomes a victim of the oil explosion. he becomes blind after he swam in a river which he didn’t know was dangerous. this he has done to save his life and that of his family while fleeing from his village. he narrates to tamara, orusoso and sotonye, the chief’s wives during the coronation ceremony: ibiaye: it was one morning, we woke up to see the sea heaving. the sea was roaring, its face black with anger. on it’s blue surface was something black. something thick and pungent, something like mud.but it was oily, oily like petroleum jelly. it surged like lavafrom the armpit of the ocean until it embalmed our little creeks. covered it. conquered it. cordoned off the mouth of the fresh water spring from which we daily drink. our plants began to die. our roots to rot. our seeds shriveled. …so we swam. on the shore. but little did we know that the water had been poisoned by the film of rancid crude oil where we saw our faces as we swam. … on the first day my eyes were only itching. the next day i scratched throughout the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 oparah 136 night. three days later, i could no longer see the sunlight. my eyelids were swollen. and my hosts said the nearest hospital was at port harcourt. and where was the money for the speed boat fare to port harcourt? and where was the money for the hospital bill? (97) similarly, the oil explosion has negative effect on aquatic animals, farmlands, plants, water, making it unsafe to drink and even on human beings as it leds to the death of many. families are displaced and many are rendered homeless. ibiaye’s sons are employed by the foreign companies to plant the mines in the bottom of the sea and they later died in action. it is pertinent to note that menial and demeaning jobs are only fit for the indigenes or natives of the land. one of ibiaye’s sons dies of a ruptured hernia while trying to plant a large iron grid into the swamp. dimeari, the young graduate yearns to join the suicide squad. he believes joining the gang will be revenge to the society that denied him a right to good living by keeping him unemployed. the suicide squad is made up of seven unemployed graduates amongst whom are masters degree holders, a doctorate degree holder and an ex-policeman. they revolt against the injustice meted on them .they believe that revolution must be on terrorism, violence, bloodshed and terror not until tamara, dimeari’s mother confronts and challenges to divert their energies into fighting a social cause that will bring economic liberation to the oppressed masses of izon state. she convinces them to rise against chief erekosima and retrieves the compensation that is for all. she further stresses: tamara: why then are you hiding here among these cowards. these rejects of the earth. these mudskippers. these periwinkles. your mates in other parts of the world are guerilla fighters, fighting for the liberation of their country. haven’t you heard of the red brigade of italy who kidnapped their prime minister and murdered him m because he could not find them jobs? ... young men dying for their land. here you hide in the bush and burgle people’s houses in the night. petty thieves. if you are destined to be thieves why don’t you become big time thieves instead of pickpockets picking the fleas from the armpits of the poor. a man has three million naira belonging to you in his house and you are here choking on crumbs of bread. what kind of young men are you? (85) tamara is seen as very brave and a revolutionary who with the help of the suicide squad kidnapped chief erekosima, who represents other leaders. literally, these leaders hang the masses daily with suffering, oppression and pain and so the suicide squad’s decision to hang chief erekosima on behalf of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 oparah 137 other leaders is a clear expression that one day they too will feel the pain being meted on the masses and will also be hung. yekinni, the hangman on discovering that he is being used by the government, decides not to kill the suicide squad members even if it requires being sacked. formerly a fisherman, yekinni believes his new position as a warden will change his poor status. but the case is the reverse when he gets to portharcourt and becomes a hangmanwhile being paid a meager sum of ₦198. this is not enough to cater for him and his family.his stubbornness and disobedience towards the warden, doctor and the chief superintenent is a form of revolution against the corrupt system of governance and signifies his total resolve for justice not minding the consequences. it is pertinent to note that corruption doesn’t just exist in the government or among authorities but also among the enforcers of the law. the collection of money from chief erekosima by chief superintendantpeketulubodaminagbois a clear instance of the reality. their responsibility to curb corruption and crime is reversed and most times remains a fallacy. when bribe is collected, the guilty is set free while the innocent suffers and wallows in pain and anguish. african writers generally reflect on various aspects of human experiences and project a vision towards the amelioration of the harsh living conditions of the people. this is a continuous effort to stop environmental degradation specially geared towards ending the marginalization of the native inhabitants. conclusion an early response to the cry of redemption geared towards curbing this menace that has eaten and is still eating deep into the fabrics of the society will be the beginning of freedom, economic development and growth of every nation. this remains the role of writers who are concerned about the general wellbeing of the masses, country and the world at large. corruption leads to insubordination and injustice, which tragically leads to violence that invariably has death or long suffering as its resultant end. works cited asika, emmanuel. literary appreciation, a practical demonstration. awka: scoa heritage, 2015. dobie, ann. theory into practice, boston: cengage learning, 2011. echezona, ifejirika. introduction to literary theory criticism and practice, awka: mabcom systems, 2014. goring, paul hawthon, jeremy domhnal, mitchell. studying literature, london: bloomsbury publishing plc, 2010. irobi, esiaba. hangmen also die, enugu: abic books and equip. ltd. 2011. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 oparah 138 nwabueze, emeka. a parliament of vultures, enugu: abic books and equip. ltd. 2011. nwahunanya, chinyere. literary criticism, critical theory and post colonial african literature, owerri: springfield publishers ltd. 2018. nwahunanya, chinyere. from boom to doom: protest and conflict in the literature of the niger delta, owerri: springfield publishers ltd. ogude, james. ngugi’s concept of history and post-colonial discourses, kenya. 1987. okoye, chike. introduction to commonwealth literature and postcolonial literatures. suleja: besing books, 2017. said, edward. culture and imperialism, new york. 1993. https//www.meriam –webster.com https://www.wikipedia.org ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 155 eze & ezenwa-ohaeto sexism as an aspect of face threatening act: a study of selected speech situations nwamaka regina eze email: amakachimere16@gmail.com & prof. ngozi ezenwa-ohaeto department of eng language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka abstract the effects of heightened gender consciousness as a result of creative awareness by feminist scholars and linguist have continued to influence women’s linguistic perception of male dominance in communication. this study has investigated the linguistic phenomenon of sexism as a form of face threatening act. it is motivated by the fact that the use of dehumanizing language, gender exclusive language as well as negative cultural practices such as male child preference have continued to be a linguistic instrument of perpetuating sexist language in the african society. the theoretical framework of this study is hinged on politeness theory of brown and levinson. the method of data collection is anchored on direct participant observation. this study used conversational settings such as family and church meetings to examine the linguistic phenomena of sexism as a form of face threatening acts from the perspectives of diverse speech situations. this study revealed that sexism constitutes an overt as well as covert face threatening act. it was also discovered that the sociolinguistic and cultural factors that encourage sexism in different speech situations in anambra state are the socio-linguistic assumption promoted by culture and religion which assumes that the male gender is stereotypically superior to the female gender. the linguistic implication of sexism as a form of face threatening act is that a sexist motivated impoliteness constitute verbal scar that it is intended to devalue the positive face of female co-interactants in a given speech situation. the study recommends thatthere is the need for female scholars, linguists and writers to be more focused in challenging patriarchal gender identity constructions that encourage the propagation of sexist face threatening language use in mixed gender communication. keywords: sexism, face threatening act, verbal scar and linguistic facelessness 1.0 introduction the controversies surrounding sexism as a form of face threatening act is the driving force behind this study which aims at discovering linguistic markers of sexism as an aspect of face threatening act. in gender studies, scholars, researchers and linguists have continued to lay emphasis on the use of effective, objective, persuasive, gender-friendly and acceptable communication patterns and expressions among humans. this is crucial because effective communication is fundamental towards creating and sustaining self-esteem, peace and sustainable interpersonal relationship in every linguistic community. secondly, due to the age long culture of male dominance, men are always portrayed as being responsible for protecting women and the family members; because they are assumed as the main breadwinners of the family. tannen (1990) highlights this socio-cultural difference, claiming that females and males are trained or brought up from childhood to comply with different conversational styles, “private speaking” “rapport talk” for the females and “public speaking” “report talk” for the males. this postulation is a linguistic reality in the african society where women have continued to be relegated to the background. in fact, men and women use language differently because they belong to two different subcultures. in essence, the stereotypical upbringing of children in the african society is built on the background that a girl must think and talk like a woman and a boy must talk, command and act like a man. wareing (1999) adds that women are less-assertive in language use and use “gossip” for conversational solidarity. guimei (2010) on the other hand points out that language is far from merely reflecting the nature of society; it serves as a primary means of constructing and maintaining that society. its existence and development are closely linked with the social attitudes of human beings and to a great mailto:amakachimere16@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 156 eze & ezenwa-ohaeto extent are affected by their social views and values. specifically, people’s socio-cultural behaviours and attitudes as well as thoughts are reflected in their use of the language. furthermore, the african society is man-oriented and man-centered. this fuels all forms of gender discrimination through the use of language. sexism in language use is a reflection of gender domination of women in social realities. however, there appears to be a gap in the study of sexism as it relates to what marks out sexism as an aspect of face threatening act. the objectives of this paper is to textually analyze linguistic phenomena of sexism as an aspect of face threatening through analyzing the lexical and grammatical features that encode the linguistic incidence of sexism as a form gender identity suppression, intimidation and facelessness designed to damage the positive face of women. this study will also highlight on the politeness strategies embedded in sexist expressions in order to ascertain how they constitute face threatening act. 2.0 conceptual clarifications it is pertinent to discuss concepts such as sexism, face threatening act, politeness strategy because they will be useful for the achievement of the objectives of this paper.sexism is defined in this study as a prejudice or discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. sexism can affect anyone, but it primarily affects women and girls. matsumoto (2001) posits that this practice is linked to stereotypes and gender roles which have been assigned to members of a linguistic community. based on this argument, the sex or gender of an individual determines acceptable linguistic role that they are expected to play within their linguistic community and beyond. witt (2017) points out that extreme sexism may foster sexualharassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence. this has introduced a different form of sexism which is hingedon discrimination toward people based on their gender identity, or sex differences such that they must adhere to their assigned linguistic roles. however, wilson’s (1997) definition of sexism seems to be more comprehensive. he posits that sexism is a form of expectations of women’s appearances, actions, skills, emotions and proper place in society. a sexist action is therefore, one which is predicated on an assumption of a difference between men and women which is not biologically justified and which is harmful to the peaceful and sustainable development and coexistence in the society. graddol and swan (1989) see sexism as any discrimination against women or men because of their sex made up on irrelevant grounds. the concept of sexism is also related to gender stereotypes. manstead, hewstone, miles et al. (1999) postulate that the notion of gender stereotype is a widely held beliefabout the characteristics and behaviour of women and men. the fact remains that sexism in language exists when language devalues members of a certain gender. therefore, sexist language, in many instances, promotes male superiority which affects consciousness, perceptions of reality, encoding and transmitting cultural meanings and socialization. furthermore, the ideology behind the linguistic phenomena of sexism is that male gender is superior. this is the linguistic motivation that has encouraged sexism for many years. ezenwa-ohaeto (2013) posits that language serves as the expressive vehicle of ideologies. in order words, ideologies are identified within the structures, style, system and content of the language. with particular reference to discourse events, ideologies are situated and expressed in discourses.ezenwa-ohaeto (2015) further points out that the male gender is both the primary and secondary beneficiary of these practices in the society while the female gender has remained the victim of this deliberately instituted interests and privileges that have been appropriated by one group over the other. from the foregoing, the working definition of this study is that sexism is an intentional, unfair and unwarranted discrimination of people based on the biological phenomenon of sex. sexist language is considered to be any language that is supposed to include all people, but intentionally excludes a gender. this is especially common in situations that describe jobs—common assumptions include that all doctors are men, all nurses are women, all coaches are men, or all teachers are women. most people would agree that these assumptions are largely untrue today, though the language used often perpetuates the stereotypes. according to atkinson (1993) linguistic sexism is a wide range of verbal practices, including not only how women are labelled and referred to, but also ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 157 eze & ezenwa-ohaeto how language strategies in mixed sex interaction may serve to silence or depreciate women as interactants. ivy and backlund (1994) added that if sexism refers to attitudes and/or behaviours that denigrate one sex to the exaltation of the other, then it follows that sexist language would be verbal communication that conveys those attitudes or behaviours. at its crudest and most hurtful, sexist language is a tool used to damage someone. fromkin, rodman and hyams (2007) typify the discrimination against women by quoting graham’s analogy: if a woman is swept off a ship into the water, the cry is man overboard. if she is killed by a hit-and-run driver, the charge is manslaughter. if she is injured on the job, the coverage is workmen ‘s compensation. but if she arrives at the threshold marked men only, she knows the admonition is not intended to bar animals or plants or inanimate objects. it is meant for her. obvoiusly, the stereotype for a woman must be everything bad while in the same circumstance, a man is always dignified. this shows the level at which language has demeaned women. many feminists have examined the representation of women in language and have, according to cameron (1998) concluded that our language is sexist because they represent or name the world from a masculine viewpoint and in accordance with stereotyped beliefs about the sexes. this means that language encodes a cultural value, and in this way reflects sexist culture. cameron (1998) further states that: language could be seen as a reflection of sexist culture. it could be seen as carrier of ideas and assumptions which become, through their constant reenactment in discourse, so familiar and conventional we miss their significance. thus, sexism is not merely reflected but acted out and thus reinforced in a thousand banal encounters. another issue critical for this study is, face-threatening. as mey (2001) rightly points out that the need to save face is recognised by languages and is an important socio-linguistic concept in human interaction deriving from notions of politeness. linguistic interaction, however, threatens interlocutors face andthis is why speakers use linguistic strategies that express solidarity and minimise potential threats both for themselves and the hearers. more so, a politeness strategy is a strategy that is used to prevent a violation of the hearer's face.to brown & levinson (1987), politeness strategies are developed in order to save the hearers “face”. face refers to the respect that an individual has for maintaining “self-esteem” in public or in private situations. usually, a person tries to avoid embarrassing the other person, or making them feel uncomfortable by the language used in the process of communication. face threatening acts (fta’s) are acts that infringe on the hearers need to maintain his self-esteem, and be respected. consequent upon this, politeness strategies are developed for the main purpose of dealing with these face threatening acts. there are four types of politeness strategies, described by brown and levinson that sum up human “politeness” behaviour. these are bald on record, positive politeness, negative politeness, and off record-indirect strategies. lakoff (1973) is of the view that politeness is a system of interpersonal relations designed to facilitate interaction by minimizing the potential for conflict and confrontation inherent in all human interchange. while fraser (1990) presents the notion of politeness as a conversational contract as he further states that, “upon entering into a given conversation, each party brings an understanding of some initial set of rights and obligations that will determine, at least for the preliminary stages, what the participants can expect from others”. in sociolinguistics, strategies adopted in politeness reveal the concern for others and minimize threats to self-esteem, "face" in given contexts of language use. politeness strategiesare known to be positive when they are intended to save ‘face’ by demonstrating degrees of friendliness. these strategies include placing disapproval with compliments, establishing cordiality by adopting jokes, nicknames, compliments, tag questions, special discourse markers and certain jargon and slang that are common to a given class or a social group. also, politeness strategiesare known to be negative when they http://www.glottopedia.org/index.php/face http://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/nicknameterm.htm http://grammar.about.com/od/fh/g/honorificterm.htm http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/discoursemarkerterm.htm http://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/jargonterm.htm http://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/slangterm09.htm ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 158 eze & ezenwa-ohaeto appear to give offence by detracting from the choice of complimentary expressions. these strategies include questioning, hedging, and presenting disagreements as opinions. the best known and most widely used approach to the study of politeness is the framework introduced by brown & levinson. their theory of linguistic politeness is sometimes referred to as the "'face-saving' theory of politeness. therefore, politeness focuses on awareness of another person’s face while presenting one’s own face. to accept somebody’s face means using strategies which are either threatening or saving and which express a negative or a positive face respectively. these strategies help to establish social distance, respect, deference or closeness, solidarity or friendship, depending on the situation and the used strategies. also, if something is said which could be seen as a threat to somebody else’s self-image, it is called a face threatening act. face-threatening acts (fta’s), are liable to threaten or damage the hearer’s positive face through expressions of disapproval/criticism, accusations, contradictions, interruption, expressions of violent emotions, etc., and threaten his/her negative face, i.e. orders, requests, reminding, offers, promise, etc. moreover, certain acts can also be face threatening to the speaker’s positive face, such as expressing thanks, excuses, acceptance of offers/apologies, etc, as well as his/her negative face, such as apologies, acceptance of compliments, confessions/admissions of guilt or responsibility, etc. for cameron (1998) women are usually “negotiating their relatively powerless position in interaction with men”. she further argues that interruptions, turn-constructions, verbosity, and floor management in verbal interactions are seen to be less in the grasp of women than men. but litosseliti (2006) views the demarcation of women’s and men’s language as traceable to the two sexes’ different socialisations. 3.0 theoretical framework the framework of this study is based on politeness theory of brown and levinson propounded in 1987. they see politeness as a form of universals in language usage”. the generality of brown and levinson’s theory focuses on ‘face’. according to them, face could be at risk any time interlocutors communicate and each participant in a normal human communication has two types of face need a positive face need and a negative face need. the positive face need is said to be the positive consistent self-image or personality claimed by a person in which he desires to be treated in a friendly manner. while the negative face need, is the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, freedom of action and freedom from imposition. positive politeness attends to a person’s positive face and includes such speech acts as compliments, invitations, greetings, expressions of goodwill and solidarity. on the other hand, negative politeness attends to a person’s negative face need and includes indirectness and apologies. it expresses respect and consideration. besides, brown and levinson’s model person chooses from three super ordinate types of strategies when a face-threatening act is to be performed. they are doing the act on record, doing the act off record and not doing the act at all. of these strategies, the first, doing the act on record is the most usual. they also outlined four main types of politeness strategies: bald on record, positive politeness, negative politeness and off-the-record or indirect strategy. the bald on record politeness strategy the bald on record politeness strategy makes no attempt to minimize possible threats to the hearer’s face while communicating. speakers who have a close relationship with their audience may engage in this kind of strategy, as there is every possibility that the addressee feels embarrassed by the speech act. more direct expressions, for example, are mostly used between friends or relations. for instance, telling your brother to ‘wash the car’ or a friend to ‘come to your house’. when these statements or the likes are said bluntly to acquaintances or visitors, the speaker is likely to be perceived as one who is impolite. positive politeness positive politeness, on the other hand, attempts to minimize the possible threats to the hearer’s face as interlocutors may know themselves fairly well. an example is, ‘i know you have spent a lot this http://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/questionterm.htm http://grammar.about.com/od/tz/g/verbhedterm.htm ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 159 eze & ezenwa-ohaeto season, but could you lend me five hundred naira?’ the speaker here takes into cognizance the fact that the hearer has got other things to do with his money before making his request. negative politeness negative politeness on its own part, presumes that the speaker will be imposing on the hearer. the possibility of feeling embarrassed is more in this strategy than the former two. the desire for one to remain autonomous is what is meant by negative face. that is why, a request made without putting into consideration the hearer’s negative face will show imposition. indirect politeness strategy the indirect politeness strategy includes the use of indirect language by a speaker so that he is seen as one who is not imposing. generally speaking, the more indirect the expression one uses, the politer one will appear. a speaker who says: ‘it is getting hot in her room’ could mean that the fan be switched on even though not said explicitly and not having directly required any to do the switching on. from the foregoing, it is evident that there is a great need to maintain the face wants of others in the communicative act. any speech act that falls short of this is taken as an intrusion on the cointeractants personal space and this is consequently labeled a face threatening act (fta). one commits this act whenever one behaves in a way that could potentially fail to meet positive face needs. 4.0 methodology the sources of data for this study comprise speeches situations such as church meeting, and tenants’ meetings. the rationale for the choice of the speech situation is based on the assumption that studying different speech situations will help the researcher to investigate the phenomenon of sexism as a form of face threatening act from different sociolinguistic backgrounds. the method of data collection of this work is anchored on direct participant observation. this method is suitable because it will enable the researcher to have a first-hand encounter on the phenomena of sexism. in this study, textual analysis will be used as a tool for data analysis. the study is anchored on politeness theory of brown and levinson. the purpose of textual analysis is to describe the content, structure, and functions of the messages contained in transcribed conversation in line with the objectives of the study. the theories utilized in this study are interrelated because they aim at describing, interpreting and critiquing social life, realities and ideologies reflected in the text. 5.0 results and data analysis the transcribed textual data from different speech situations used in this study were drawn from different speech situations such as tenants meeting and church committee meetings. data a. tenants meeting text 1: mr. okoye: these idle people that want to become men will not allow us to rest in this compound! from the above text, it was revealed that there are lexical features that mark out face threatening sexist language. in text 1, the use of “these” “that” “us” attest to this fact. the use of the adjective “these” is an obvious linguistic sexist string that clearly portray the negative gender identity which in turn set the stage for grievance face threatening act. the linguistic import of the word these idle people ideologically portrays that there is something negative about being a woman. hence, the use of the utterance: these idle people that want to become men will not allow us to rest in this compound! secondly, the use of the words “these idle people” is a sexist utterance that is overtly face threatening. this is factual because the use of such words is meant to undermine the positive face of the women present at the meeting and indeed all women in general. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 160 eze & ezenwa-ohaeto text 2: mr. joseph: i thought we (the men) have agreed in our last meeting that they (the women) should be in charge of sweeping this compound and mobbing the stair case? in text 2, the decisive nature of chauvinistic tendency embedded in lexical items that mirror sexist expression is brought to the fore. the use of the words “we the men” clearly point to this fact. this study has clearly shown that sexist expressions are not only man-oriented or man-centered words but they also include words that discriminate against the women on the basis of their sexual identity. here in text 2, the use of the words; (a) “we the men” (assertion of chauvinistic authority), (b) “in our last meeting” (men’s meeting previously held to discuss the issue prior to the general meeting), (c) “they the women” (exclusive female gender maker), (d) “should be in charge of sweeping this compound and mobbing the stair case” (gender intimidation), is a clear portrayal of the culture bound persistent second-class status of the african women. the linguistic importance of the word “they” is conceived to relegate the women to the background. even when all the tenants both male and female are paying the same house rent still their status can never be equal with the male co-interactant in this speech situation. the use of the collective pronoun “we” as seen above is another lexical item that has sexist ideology. for instance: i thought we the men have agreed in our last meeting. the above sentence points to the fact that the role an african woman performs and how she should be referred to has been sociolinguistically predetermined and sustained from generation to generation by the patriarchal african culture. text 3: nwamaka: mr. okoye. who are the idle women in this compound? why do you always think that men are more important than women? please we…. (she was interrupted) text 3 is an attempt at gender assertiveness and the quest for the negotiation of equal linguistic power and treatment. in the above text, nwamaka questions the assertion by asking the question: who are the idle women in this compound? why do you always think that men are more important than women. furthermore, the third part of the text 3 “please we….” followed by an interruption reveals that linguistic interruption is another form of sexism as a form of face threatening act. here, the interruption of nwamaka is a clear indication of disrespect as a result of her sexual identity as a woman. text 4: mr joseph: (interrupts nwamaka…) shut up your mouthnwamaka… or whatever you call yourself, let me educate you. it is a taboo for men to be sweeping compound and scrubbing the floor when useless girls like you and other women that are supposed to be taking care of their crying babies are living here. a critical look at text 4 affirms linguistic interruption as an aspect of face threatening act. text 5: ikenna: bia this girl. you think you have gone to school; how do you expect an honorable like me an ozo titled man in my community to be sweeping compound for you. i can see that you are you mad! one of these days, i will flog you at your bombom in this compound. in text 5, utterances that are face threatening such as: (1) bia this girl. (2) you think you have gone to school! (3) i can see that you are mad (4) i will flog you at your bombom in this compound were used to reinforce the sexist and chauvinist orientation of the men participating in the above speech situations. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 161 eze & ezenwa-ohaeto data b. church meeting text 6: elder chima: we are here to select members of the seven-man committee for this year’s harvest as instructed by our rev. in the above church meeting, text 6 is a clear case of sexist expression that is also face threatening. for instance, the use of the collective pronoun ‘we’ to refer to the male interactants that want to select members of seven-man committee’ is also face threatening. text 7: mrs. obiora: why 7-man committee members? why do the men in this church always sideline women in spite of the great number of capable women we have and their numerous contributions for the growth of this church? first of all, i suggest that this year’s harvest and bazaar chairman should be a woman. i think that…. text 7 is an attempt by a female interactants in the church meeting to oppose male gender dominance by asserting that the female gender is a capable human with immense potential of contributing to the progress of the church in any capacity. text 8 bro miracle: (interrupts mrs. obiora) what do you mean? have you seen or heard that a woman held the post of a chairman of the harvest and bazaar planning committee in this church? god forbid. that suggestion is not good for us in the body of christ. it is obvious here that our sisters here have turned a devilish blind eye to the teachings of our lord jesus christ in the bible. please, if they want to redeem their souls before it is too late, they should go and read: i corinthians chapter 14 verse 34; “it says that women should remain silent in the churches”. they are not allowed to speak. it is not proper for them to speak, but must be in submission as the law says. brothers in christ, am i the one that added this in the bible? christ himself placed women where he wants them to be. so, can we call master jesus, the omnipotent god of all ages a man of injustice. a critical look at text 8 points to the sociolinguistic variables that fuel sexism as a form of face threatening act. the above text has shown that religion is one of the most dominant factor that encourage the use of sexist expression especially in a religious setting. this motivation is even supported by some popular verses of the bible such as: i corinthians chapter 14 verse 34; “it says that women should remain silent in the churches” as cited in text 8 by a male interactants. text 9: mrs. grace: we can still give it a trial. who knows whether the result will be better in this year’s harvest? we have to… text 9 of the above text is also an indication that women are beginning to question sexist stereotype and men dominance of their gender in spite of the fact such practice has not yielded much positive result in terms of positive female gender identity reconstruction. text 10: bro james: (interrupts) taaa! sit down. i say sit down. if you don’t have anything reasonable to say just keep quiet. how can you utter such a nonsense? women are meant to be under men and not the other way round. let’s not tempt our lord jesus christ. i am certainly sure that we will get the same result we got from the garden of eden from that seductress and sinful woman, eve who had sown a sinful seed in the heart of all women. i’m quite amazed! women in this our church are beginning to be influenced by the sinful culture in this world. i wonder how our women will handle this executive post righteously without being deceived like eve and other adulterous women in the bible. text 10 also reveal that interruption is a linguistic weapon in the hands of male chauvinist to perpetuate sexism and face threatening act. the above utterances are carefully preconceived notions aimed at suppressing and intimidating women in the african society. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 162 eze & ezenwa-ohaeto 6.0 discussion from the above text, it was been revealed that there are lexical features that mark out face threatening sexist language. for instance, the use of “these” “that” “us” attest to this fact. the use of the demonstrative adjective “these” is an obvious linguistic sexist string that clearly portrays the negative gender identity which in turn set the stage for the perpetuation of face threatening act. the linguistic import of the word these ‘idle people’ in text 1 ideologically portrays that there is something negative about being a woman. hence, the use of the utterance: these idle people that want to become men will not allow us to rest in this compound! the study also revealed that the chauvinistic tendency of the male gender in the african society correlates with the textual data examined in this study. it has shown that sexist expressions are not only man-oriented or man-centered words but they also include words that discriminates against women on the basis of their sexual identity. the study has also shown that linguistic interruption arising from the use of sexist expressions is as an aspect of face threatening act. the data analysis equally portrayed thatlinguistic interruption is a discourse weapon in the hands of male chauvinist to perpetuate sexism and face threatening act aimed at suppressing communicative power of women in the african society. 7.0 conclusion from the textual analysis of this study, it is obvious that sexist expressions are man-oriented or mancentered language. this study also found out that sexist expression can be seen as face threatening when negative, harsh, impolite lexical and grammatical words are encoded in the utterance. again, gender suppression through the use of words that exclude the women is also an aspect of face threatening act because such utterance or words points out that women are of lesser or inferior value. therefore, this study can categorically affirm that lopsided gender identity construction in favour of male gender is an aspect of face threatening act in the african society.the study discoveredthat negative politeness strategywas used extensively by male interactants to intimidate and harass their female counterparts linguistically and this constitute an obvious face threatening act. 8.0 recommendations based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made: 1. there is an urgent need for female scholars, linguists and writer to be more focused in challenging patriarchal stereotypes in the african society through the production of literary works that will be an inspiration that will help to correct the negative socio-linguistic image of the nigerian women and the girl child. such works should focus on advocating for equitable distribution of housework, promoting male responsibility for fatherhood and inclusion of domestic work for all sexes at home and in the society at large. 2. efforts should also be made by enlighten women to challenge the over bearing influence of culture and religion through counter narrative. 3. more serious efforts should also be articulated to linguistically challenge cultural taboos that subjugate women such as son preference and stereotypes in upbringing up of the boy and the girl child. 4. the government as well as women non-governmental organizations should vigorously promote the education of the girl child by championing the removal of gender stereotypes in the media that tend to portray woman as a second class citizen who is only capable of child rearing and cooking in the kitchen. this can be achieved by promoting radical and women sensitive interpretation of religion and sexuality. 5. lastly, there is the need for female legislators at the federal and state level to sponsor bills that will make it a crime to harass a woman or a girl child linguistically and physically on the bases of her sex. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 163 eze & ezenwa-ohaeto references atkinson, k. (1993). language and gender. in jackson, s. et al. (eds.) women’s studies: a reader. hertfordshire: harvester wheatshef. brown, p. & levinson, c. s. (1987). politeness: some universals in language usage. cambridge: cambridge university press. cameron, d. (1998). the feminist critique of language: a reader. (2nd ed). london: routledge. ezenwa-ohaetongozi (2013). linguistic predetermination of conjugal status of igbo women. unizik journal of arts and humanities, vol 14, no 1. ezenwa-ohaeto, n. (2015). fighting patriarchy in nigerian cultures through children’s literature. studies in literature and language, 10 (6), 59-66. fairclough, n. (1995). critical discourse analysis: the critical study of language. british: longman group ltd. fraser, b. (1990). perspectives on politeness. journal of pragmatics, 14(2), 219-236. fromkin, v., r. rodman & n. hyams. (2007). an introduction to language. (8th edn.) boston, u.s.a.: thomson wadsworth. graddol, david and joan swann. (1989). gender voices. oxford: basil blackwell. guimei, he (2010). an analysis of sexism in english. journal of language teaching and research. vol 18 no 4. lakoff, r. (1973). the logic of politeness; or minding your p’s and q’s papers from the 9th regional meeting, chicago: chicago linguistics society. litosseliti, l. (2006). gender and language: theory and practice. london: hodder education. macklem, tony (2003). beyond comparison: sex and discrimination. new york: cambridge university press. manstead, a. s. r.; hewstone, miles (1999). the blackwell encyclopedia of social psychology. oxford, uk; cambridge, mass., usa: blackwell. matsumoto, david (2001). the handbook of culture and psychology. oxford university press. mey, j.l. (2001). pragmatics: an introduction. oxford: blackwell publishing ltd. nakdimen, k. a. (1984). the physiognomic basis of sexual stereotyping. american journal of psychiatry. 141 (4): 499–503. wareing, s. (1999). language and gender. in l. thomas & s. wareing (eds.), language, society and power: an introduction (pp. 65-82). london: routledge. wilson, j. g. (1997). sexism, racism and other -ism. in s. biagi and m. kernfoxworth (eds) facing difference race, gender and mass media. california: pine forge press. witt, jon (2017). soc (5th ed.). new york: mcgraw-hill education. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ujah/issue/view/10513 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 95 onyenweaku language of altercation in conflict situation: a critical study of selected speeches of president muhammadu buhari and mazi nnamdi kanu okechukwu onyenweaku department of languages, akanu ibiam federal polytechnic, unwana, ebonyi state, nigeria okechukwuonyenweaku @gmail.com abstract language use in conflict situation is essentially a skillful undertaking that calls for meticulousness and diplomacy among interlocutors so as to mitigate the impact of conflict on human relations. while a cautious and diplomatic use of language has the potential to douse conflict, language of altercation escalates it and truncates peaceful coexistence among diverse multi-ethnic conglomerates. to this end, this paper examines language of altercation in conflict situation and makes a critical discourse analysis of selected speeches of president muhammadu buhari and mazi nnamdi kanu. the motivation for the study is the expediency of examining linguistic choices that often characterize utterancesof “powers that be” in the nigerian sociopolitical landscape, with a view to ascertaining their implication on the peaceful coexistence of nigerians. data for the study were textual, culled from daily newspapers, live interviews and broadcasts on television stations. atextual analysis approach was adopted for the analysis. findings revealed that the two principal actors, in many occasions, engaged in the use of language of altercation in advancing and explicating their views and perspectives on certain sensitive national discourse without taking cognizance of the effects of such utterances on national security, unity and cohesion. consequently, the paper recommends, among others, that while occupants of exalted public offices should desist from making unwarranted and provocative utterances, the media professionals should not accept to publish writeups with explicit or implied language of altercation. the paper equally advocates that the ministry of information should organize public orientation to educate nigerians on the need to ensure that their language use has a touch of civility and politeness. keywords: language, altercation, conflict, communication, conflict management introduction language is, indubitably, an essential medium of interpersonal communication available to man in which he expresses himself and attracts reciprocal actions from his fellow interlocutors within his sociolinguistic milieu. the role of language in human relationships is fundamentally expedient in that it has the capacity to serve as a significant instrument of understanding, cohesion and peaceful coexistence, and also a potent instrument of disunity and alienation, capable of truncating existing peace among a people. whatever role language plays in any sociolinguistic and political environment is solely dependent on how individuals deploy it as they address matters of personal, communal or national interest. indeed, language in a situation of conflict can be likened to a two-edged sword – it can be used to fan and intensify the fire of conflict, and it can also be cautiously and diplomatically used to douse and quench the raging fire of conflict and eventually restore normalcy, understanding and friendliness. ike (232) observes that when individuals, communities or nations experience a sour relationship due to conflict of any magnitude, it is language that will resolve the matter, be it in or out of court, or in a panel or group discussion. however, if language of altercation is deployed in such a circumstance, it would inevitably escalate the existing conflict to an alarming proportion. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 96 onyenweaku in most political entities comprising multi-ethnic and cultural nationalities such as nigeria, conflict is an inevitable recurring phenomenon. this is usually occasioned by diverse interests and struggles over resource control and status symbols. consequently, there is often unavoidable clash of interest among power brokers and among their teeming supporters. conflict is a struggle or contest between people with opposing needs, ideas, ideologies, beliefs and value systems. it is a clash of interest among individuals or groups over values and claims to scarce resources, status symbols and power (nwaomah, 135; daramola and dararmola, 135). in such a situation, it is imperative that speakers, especially those in positions of authority, apply caution in their linguistic choices as they express their views on any sensitive national discourse. this is crucial because the use of language of altercation would only trigger off conflict rather that mitigate it. language of altercation, in the context of this paper, is an unguarded and provocative use of language that conveys an explicit or concealed hatred, enmity, resentment or bitter disagreement between the addresser and the addressee(s). it is an uncivil language use that projects a deep-seated contentious relationship between individuals or groups experiencing an unresolved clash of interest. odo and kayode (79) aver that the actual reason for the absence of peace in nigeria is lack of appropriate language use that would truly unite and cement the unity of the diverse ethnolinguistic groups in the country. indisputably, misuse of languagein a heterogeneous society aimed at promoting primordial sentiments for selfish reasons only fuels disunity, acrimony and conflict among the ethno-nationalities. it is against this backdrop that this paper examines language of altercation in conflict situation (with particular reference to nigeria) and makes a critical analysis of some speeches of president muhammadu buhari and mazi nnamdi kanu. language, conflict/conflict situation and language of altercation in interpersonal communication: conceptual overview language acquisition and the capacity to deploy it competently during interpersonal communication are part of the profound distinguishing gifts god gave to man. with the use of language, individuals express themselves and eventually communicate intensions, desires, likes, dislikes and feelings about issues around them. consequently, language is at the epicenter of most human activities; whether we are conversing with people, settling disputes, setting goals or planning on how to accomplish a given task, language is essentially deployed for the actualization of the intended objective. language is essentially a system of making meaning and expressing/communicating intentions and feelings. it is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols; it is primarily a system of phonetic symbol for the expression of a communicable thoughts and feelings (sapir, 8 cited in emezue, 2). in consonance with the foregoing, while john carol sees language as a structural system of arbitrary vocal sound and sequence of sounds used in interpersonal communication, dates views it as a tool “we use to do things” (ike, 12). this entails that language is often at the centre stage of almost all activities embarked upon by individuals within the human society. the importance of language is perhaps more evident in interpersonal communicative situations where its misuse could result in a face-off, bitter disagreement or even war. this explicates the need for caution and diplomacy in language use. however, individuals, in some occasions, advertently or otherwise use certain utterances that are quite provocative to the feelings and sensibilities of the addressee. such a language use results in conflict situation in some occasions, and escalates already conflict situation in another occasion. thus, what a language ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 97 onyenweaku user says is as crucial as the way he says it. because language one uses is symptomatic of one’s total mental stability, it reflects one’s feelings and expresses the inner-workings of one’s mind (nwokocha, 214) on one hand and also precisely captures the exact disposition of a speaker as well as his behavioural characteristics and penchant for particular attitudes on the other hand. so, an offensive language use reveals the feelings of the speaker about his addressee, andthis would only escalate altercation and promote conflict in the speaker’s physical and social environment. conflict itself is an unavoidable part and parcel of human life so long as human beings coexist with one another. it most often arises due to differing views about things, situation, ideologies and desired expectations. corser cited in ogene (146) sees conflict as a struggle over values, claims to status, power and scares resources in which the aim of the conflicting party is to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals. it is usually a serious disagreement, struggle or fight arising from or out of differing opinions, wishes, needs, values and interests between or among individuals or groups; it is equally an opponent-centred episode or series of episodes based upon incompatibility of goals, aims and values, and involves direct or personal interaction in which the opposing parties are perceived as controlling the desired goals, such actions introducing strain or stress in the relationship between the parties on the attainment of a set of interests or goals (akpuru-aja, 15; nwaomah,95 citing magagula,5; alkali, 516). because everyone or group wants the best part of everything available, there would be a clash of interest. it is this circumstance that breeds a conflict situation. a conflict situation, therefore, is a situation where there is serious disagreement and contention as a result of struggle over power, possession and control of scarce resources or simply because of incompatibility of value system, ideology, goals and expectations over life and issues. nwaomah posits that a conflict situation becomes prevalent where the goals, aspirations, interests and needs of social groups cannot be achieved simultaneously and where the value system of such groups are at variance (135). this can be found rife within or between social relations such as ethnic groups, social institutions and organizations, religious groups, political parties, states and between sovereign nations. humanity is inevitably entangled with conflict, and so long as individuals engage in interpersonal interactions, there would be unavoidable clash of interest. conflict is, therefore, a perennial feature of social life. in a situation of conflict, irrespective of its kind or nature, language plays a significant role in its handling, management and resolution. this is because with the use of language, ideas that can inflame a society are widely propagated, accepted and acted upon. such a provocative and unguarded language use is what we refer in this discourse to as language of altercation. literature is not replete with a widely accepted definition (and explication) of the concept of language of altercation. nevertheless, a probe into the denotative meaning of the term “altercation” would assist us to unravel (and arrive at) the meaning of language of altercation. to this end, we rely on mckechnie’s (52) definition of the concept in the webster’s new universal unabridged dictionary, for it succinctly captures the perspective from which this discourse views and approaches the concept. according to him, the term “altercation” denotes “a warm contention in words; dispute carried on with heat or anger.” it is a controversy (expressed in words) arising from divergence of opinion and incompatibility of views, expectations and ideologies. this contention in words is usually expressed in indecent, angerfilled and provocative utterances that depict unrestrained hate for one’s perceived rivals. it connotes derogatory remarks that are socially offensive targeted at a person or group of persons by an angry addresser. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 98 onyenweaku in consonance with the foregoing, language of altercation can be seen as a provocative language use that conveys the hatred, rancor, enmity and open disagreement or face-off between an addresser and the addressee. the motivating factor for the use of this kind of language, according to nwokocha (215), are ego exhibition, intimidation and unbridled arrogance. furthermore, similar causative or inspiring factors may include: power intoxication, disenchantment over a system, prolonged grievances on a person or group, uncontrolled covetousness and subjugation of the down-trodden, injustice, avarice and personal aggrandizement. in fact, the list is almost inexhaustible. the ultimate objective of the use of language of altercation is to subdue one’s perceived enemy or enemies into perpetual apprehension and silence. a juxtaposition of our definition of altercation as “a warm contention in words…”, and kuper and kupers’ view of conflict as “a contentious relationship exemplified in words, revolutions and other struggles” reveals that language of altercation and conflict situation have something in common. this position is premised on the fact that a highly provocative or contentious utterance directed at one’s perceived rival (individual or group) has the potential to instigate and trigger off acrimony, violent demonstration, revolutionary struggles and eventually afull blown war. this is even more dangerous in a situation of conflict where there is already precarious security conditions – where a single unguarded utterance could escalate violence and result in loss of lives and property of the citizenry.the implication of the above is that language has power – power to calm down tension and power to bring about conflict, insecurity, killing and maiming in any sociopolitical environment, with its far-reaching consequences. language of altercation in conflict situation and management: the nigeria experience language use is a skillful activity which abhors levity inits handling, especially when it is used to address a sensitive matter in a pluralistic and ethno-cultural entity. this is imperative because its misuse has the capacity to jeopardize the corporate existence of the nation, especially in a conflict situation with all its uncertainties and volatility. language is a powerful tool in the hands of the users. inits social function, language has the feature of a double-edgedsword in a conflict situation– it can be used to fan the fire of crisis, or it can be used to solve delicate issues diplomatically (nzeakor and osundu, 356; bivan and byat, 9). in other words, language can be abused when it is used in negative ways to pull down rather than build up a society and its developmental efforts and achievements. language of altercation truncates peace and peaceful coexistence among a people. it is often used to sow a seed of discord among the citizenry, especially in a conflict situation where there is glaring clash of interest among diverse social groups. when conflict breeds insecurity, it reflects in the kind of language people adopt to express their feelings and experiences. to this end, ojaide (5) states that the period of conflict/insecurity creates its own language because people who are frightened, anxious,or, traumatized seek the language to express their inner and outer fears.indeed, there is a profound effect which a conflict situation has on the speech mannerisms or patterns of language users. because people speak out of strong emotions in such a period, there is the tendency that language of altercation could feature quite prominently in the speaker’s discourse. in nigerian, conflict situation has become a new normal, especially in recent times. from the menace of the fulani herdsmen, boko haram, kidnappers, to disturbances from the recent agitation of the ipob members, bandits and the current unknown gunmen, insecurity has ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 99 onyenweaku become a part and parcel of life in nigeria. unfortunately, most of these circumstances are brought into existence by those in the corridor of power through their selfish acts orchestrated by political, economic and religious reasons. those who hold political powers exploit these situations to advance their selfish interests at the expense of the peace and social stability and progress of the vulnerable citizens. for instance, most of the religious crises in the country are locked in with politics; those who are fond of political power hide under the garb of religion to twist positions in their favour (alokan, ayodeji and babalola, 169), mainly by engaging the dastardly services of some uninformed youths and fanatics to achieve their self-centered goals. corroborating our position, onyike (6) cited in nzeakor and osundu (370) insists that the constant witness of conflict in nigeria is as a result of (i) inequitable access to power and resources (ii) denial of basic human rights (iii) non-democratic and exclusive governance (iv) discrimination on the bases of sex, religion, ethnic origin and socioeconomic status (v) total absence and abandonment of moral and ethical restraints in the use of power and management of public resources. regrettably, the use of language of altercation in addressing burning national issues has further contributed very significantly in instigating rancor, division and insecurity in nigeria. individuals at the helm of affair – in the governance of the country are, unfortunately, worst offenders in this circumstance. from the president, senators, members of the judiciary, to the governors and their political associates, evidences abound where these occupants of sensitive political positions abuse and misuse language as they talk about national issues from their various personal perspectives. similarly, from the leaders of the niger delta groups, those of the indigenous people of biafra, arewa consultative forum, odua people’s congress, to those of the miyetti allah cattle breeders association, and the various leaderships of the youth wings of these sociocultural and political organizations, language of altercation has features in their respective speeches at one time or the other on sensitive nation issues. however, in spite of the far-reaching effects of such utterances (due to the social position of the speakers), highly placed individuals in nigerian have continued to use certain language that depict hate, intimidation and insensitivity to the feelings of the addressees. the adoption of such unhealthy language has begun to attract the attention of concerned individuals and scholars in recent times; they are beginning to realize the tendency of such language use to further aggravate the already worsening crises and insecurity in the country. for instance, nwosu laments: if i say that the independence day broadcast is the second hate speech i have heard from the president in a space of 40 days, i would be incorrect, especially as the details of what constitutes a hate speech is increasingly looking like the proverbial malawian constitution of kamuzu banda’s. it is whatever they tell us that we accept as the law. so, i will only recall that, after being away for103 days, pmb returned to deliver one angry-speech (where he berated us for behaving badly, especially on the social media), and about 40 days later, he delivered yet another one (where he took the igbo elders to the cleaners, over ipob) yes, pmb makes “angry speech” and not “hate speech.”what nwosu prefers to call “angry speech” is what we refer to as language of altercation in this discourse. he went further to regale us with instances of this “angry speech.” according to him, in august (2017), he [president muhammadu buhari] not only addressed us as “my dear citizens” ( a reminder that we could well be subjects of an imperial majesty), he also accused us of crossing the “red line” – a line which we did not know who drew it or when it was drawn. well, pmb then went ahead to draw ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 100 onyenweaku a new line; he called it “hate speech.” till this day, we are still waiting for the dss, the defence headquarters, the ministry of interior or the attorney general to give us a breakdown of what does (and does not) constitute a “hate speech.” indisputably, utterances made by those who occupy leadership positions, especially in a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic nation such as nigeria,“carry heavy weight,” and can influence people and situations in ways that might be beyond the imagination of the speakers. this accounts for why great caution is required in terms of linguistic choices to be made by those leaders as they air their views on any delicate and sensitive national issue. it is, unfortunately, a sad commentary that many occupants of political positions in nigeria are constant users of language of altercation. the use of this language manifests more prominently during sensitive periods in the country where there is usually a clash of interest among “powers that be.” in such situations, we witness fragrant abuse of language as they fight one another to pave way for themselves into one political position or the other. for example, according to idris (244), the utterance credited to the former presidential flag bearer of all progressive congress in the 2011 electioneering campaign, muhammadu buhari, in which he said: “i will make nigeria ungovernable if jonathan wins in 2011” is a case in point. also, he was quoted to have said in 2015 that “both monkey and baboon will be soaked in blood” if he failed the 2015 general election. similarly, elder godsday orubebe’s comment (the former minister of niger delta affairs) on channels television in which he accused the then inec chairman, professor ibrahim attahirujega, of being “tribalistic, selective and partial” (idris, 259) in handling election matters under his watch indicates another instance of misuse of language on a critical national issue. it should be noted here that the mere fact that professor jega and muhammadu buhari share the same ethnic enclave makes the above utterance too sensitive during the period in which it was made. such an allegation, whether true or false, has the capacity to provoke social unrest, demonstration and post-election violent conflict. these exemplified the use of language of altercation in a conflict situation, a very dangerous trend that has assumed an alarming dimension in contemporary nigeria. in order to ensure the maintenance of peace and avoidance of conflict through appropriate language use in the society, it is crucial for speakers to be exposed to language education. language education, in this context, refers to the sensitization of the citizenry in polite language use for the maintenance of peace and conflict management and resolution through effective use of language. this orientations equally involves the media practitioners and all those who pass information through the media – both in verbal and written platforms -because of possible varied interpretations their listeners and readers may give to an utterance (toyin, 251). it is, therefore, imperative for language users to acquire relevant skills in language use that will help them maintain peace, prevent and resolve conflict that may arise in the course of human relations and verbal interactions. such important skills include: (i) use of unambiguous words and expressions (ii)polite communication skill (iii) ability to clarify utterances that may be misunderstood by some listeners (iv) avoidance of unsubstantiated claims (v) tolerance of other people’ personal, divergent and opposing views on issues, etc. furthermore, strict adherence to the maxims of grice (maxims of quantity, quality, relation and manner) would assist language users immensely in ensuring the attainment and maintenanceof peace through their use of language. grice had advised language user to “make [their] conversational contributions such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the acceptable purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which [they] are engaged (grice,45 qtd in ezeifeka, 80). explicating his injunction further, speakers are enjoined to (i)try to make their ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 101 onyenweaku contribution one that is true, and not to say what is false or that for which they lack evidence (ii) to be relevant – by making appropriate linguistic choices that really address the issue at hand (iii) make their contributions as informative as required, and (iv) try to be perspicuous – by avoiding ambiguity, but being orderly, clear and brief in their utterances on any issue.this is, therefore, the need for a paradigm shift in the use of language in conflict situation (as evident in the contemporary conflict-stricken nigeria) by all and sundry, especially among power brokers and those who control and influence a large number of ardent followers in the country. data presentation and analysis data for this study are textual in nature. they were randomly culled as excerpts from some of the “important” speeches delivered at different occasions by the two principal actors in the contemporary political melodrama in nigeria – president muhammadu buhari and mazi nnamdi kanu, the nigerian president and the leader of the indigenous people of biafra, respectively. the textual data were obtained from daily newspapers, live interviews and broadcast on television stations in nigeria. the work first presents isolated excerpts from some speeches of president muhammadu buhari, and subsequently those of mazi nnamdi kanu. the selected discourses are presentedherein below: 1. “recent calls on restructuring, quite proper and legitimate, has let in highly irresponsible groupsto call for dismemberment of the country. we cannot allow such advocacy.” 2. “as a young army officer, i took part from the beginning to the end in our tragic civil war costing about two million lives, resulting in fearful destruction and untold suffering. those whoare agitating for a rerun were not born in 1967 and have no idea of the horrendous consequences of the civil conflict, which we went through.” 3. “i am very disappointed that responsible leaders of those communities [igbo communities] do not warn theirhot-headed youths what the country went through. those who were there should tell those who were not there the consequences of such folly.” 4. “at all events, proper dialogue and any desired constitutional change should take place in a rational manner, at the national and state assemblies. these are the proper and legal fora for national debate, not some lopsided, undemocratic body with predetermined set of objectives.” 5. “government is keeping up with the momentum of dialogue with stakeholders in the niger delta to keep the peace. we intend to address genuine grievancesof those communities[not the agitation from thosein the south-east region]. government is grateful to the responsible leadership of those communities and will pursue lasting peace in the niger delta.” in a recent statement during his meeting with the new service chiefs over the agitations and social unrest in the south-east region of the country, president muhammadu buhari made the following statements (culled from the guardian (online) of june 2, 2021): 6. “we will treat them [the ipob members] in the language they understand.” 7.“they [the agitators] will soon have the shock of their lives.” 8. “we are going to be very hard sooner or later.” furthermore, during his interview on a television station on june 10, 2021 as captured in punch newspaper, president buhari said: 9. “that ipob is just like a dot in a circle. even if they want to exit [through secession], they will have no access to anywhere.” (square brackets, mine) similarly, in another interview on nigerian television authority (nta) on june 11, 2021, president buhari said these (to the secessionists – ipob and oduduwa members): 10. “i will arrest, try and jail those fomenting trouble in nigeria.” 11.“it is now fire for fire.” ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 102 onyenweaku in the same vein, while defending his perceived accusation of president muhammadu buhari of indulging in a hate speech (language of altercation) in his reaction against the agitations by the indigenous people of biafra, shehugarba (the senior special assistant to the president on media and publicity) quoted some “angry speeches” by mazi nnamdi kanu (in daily sun newspaper of october 11, 2017) “as being circulated on the social media” as followed: 12. “i will go to abuja, and when i am coming back, i will bring buhari’s head.” 13. “if they don’t give us biafra, therewill be nothing left breathing in that zoo called nigeria.” 14. “if they don’t give us a date for referendum, there will be no election in anambra or any partof biafra land.” 15. “it is clear that the only language the zoo called nigeria understands is war and death, and we are ready for war.” 16. “from today forward,i put the protection of biafra land in the hands of the biafra security service.” 17. “if the zoo army enters biafra land, they will die.” 18.“buhari is a mad man.” 19.“it is either biafra or death.” 20. “i call on all igbos who have the know-how to manufacture bombs, arms and ammunitions tocome forward. we need to take this war to the zoo.” in a related development, the media and publicity secretary of ipob, in his response to the proscription of ipob by the federal government of nigeria and branding it a terrorist organization, according to attah (45) made the following statements: 21. “i want to make it absolutely clear to all and sundry that ipob does not condone and will never engage in any crime or violence, no matter the level of provocation by the barbaric buhariregime. all spurious allegations sprouted by lai muhammad to justify his barbarismare nothing more than pure lies, fabricated to give ipob a bad name….” 22. “…recorded incidents of lawlessness normally happens when soldiers convey on the venue of such peaceful gathering and open fire on unarmed civilians. it is ipob that are the victims of statelawlessness. we have at various times been visited with midnight abduction, torture, extra-judicial execution, humiliation and imprisonment without trial, all perpetrated by buhari’s police andsoldiersmade up of hausa-fulani islamic fundamentalists.” a cursory look at the words and expressions in bold prints in the isolated excerpts above indicate that they constitute language of altercation. these utterances made by the two leaders examined in this study respectively bring to the fore the fact that some occupants of leadership positions in nigerian are highly deficient in terms of decent, polite and civil language use, particularly in the periodsof conflicts when their emotions are quite high and strong. discussion a critical examination of the foregoing data (extracted exclusively for the purpose of this study from president muhammadu buhari and mazi nnamdi kanu) obviously reveals an “overdose” of fragrant use of language of altercation. there is apparently a conflict situation existing between the two principal actors on the one hand and the millions of people whose interest they represent on the other hand. but unfortunately, both of them carelessly indulge in the use of provocative language as it is evident in this study. for instance, it is provocative for president buhari to describe a group of people agitating for an interest (which is their constitutional right in a democratic nation) as an “irresponsible group” with “hot-headed youths,” and then accuse them of “agitating for a rerun” of the 1967-1970 nigerian civil war. for this reason, he went further to threaten them recently by asserting that ‘they will have the shock of their lives” after being “treated in a language they understand.” again, president buhari currently engaged in another use of language of altercation when he stated (in a violent period in the country) that ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 2, 2021 103 onyenweaku an entire geopolitical region in nigeria is “like a dot in a circle” and that “even if they want to exit, they will have access to anywhere.” such utterances directed at a section of a country by an incumbent president is unhealthy, provocative and insulting. furthermore, it is an inappropriate use of language to say that “it is now fire for fire” against citizens of a nation simply because a group of people from those regions engaged in an agitation for selfdetermination in a democratic regime. on the other hand, it is equally unhealthy, impolite and linguistically inappropriate for mazi nnamdi kanu to use those provocative utterances and insulting words on the president and the nigerian state irrespective of his feelings and personal perspectives and interests. for example, it is quite abusive to describe a president of a country as “a mad man,” and to call nigerian “a zoo.” it is also inappropriate and threatening to assert that “it is either biafra or death.” in the same vein, urging his supporters who have the skills to manufacture bombs and ammunitions to go into action and produce them because “[they] are ready for war” is absolutely dangerous in a situation of conflict. it also signals a threat to maintain that “nothing will be left breathing in that zoo if they don’t give [them] biafra.” indeed, these unfortunate exemplifications of language of altercation are too sensitive, inciting and dangerous in a country that is highly bedeviled by insecurity. because they come from “powers at the centre” and people who command large followership, the negative effects of such utterances are unimaginable. for example, describing the nigerian police and army as ‘buhari’s police and soldiers,” and the present government as a “barbaric regime” can fuel hate, disenchantment, acrimony and violence, especially as they emanate from the “powers that be” and controllers and shapers of opinions, views and actions of a large audience. conclusion and recommendations language is, incontrovertibly, a potent instrument of peace initiation, maintenance and strengthening; it can also serve as a weapon of disunity, disintegration and violent conflict promotion. language of altercation as it has become evident in this study is an ill wind that blows no one any good, especially when it is used in a conflict situation. the position of this paper, therefore, is that language should be used cautiously, politely and diplomatically to maintain, manage and resolve conflict and not to be used provocatively to escalate it. for language to play its expected role in this circumstance, it must be a positive language that is polite, soothing, peaceful, factual and friendly – one that does not convey directly or indirectly a feeling of hatred, rancor and acrimony. because emotions are usually high and strong during a period of conflict, deploying language of altercation in airing one’s views on sensitive issues would inevitably fan the fire of conflict rather than mitigate the situation. to this end, this paper recommends that: (i)occupants of exalted public offices in nigeria should, as a matter of necessity, desist from making unsubstantiated and provocative claims on sensitive national discourse. (ii) leaders at all levels of governance should jettison the use of language of altercation/hate speech both in their utterances and in writing as they advance their views on any matter. (iii) the media professionals should not accept to publish any writeup with obvious or implied language of altercation. (iv)the ministry of information should organize public orientation programmes to educate the masses on the need to be civil and polite in their language use. 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a psychoanalytical reading of chinelo okparanta’s under the udala trees harriet chinonso okwara department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: onyewuchim82@gmail.com abstract in the recent times, african writers seem to engage in hot debate on whether homosexuality is african, alien or of western import. scholars who project it as unafrican validate the inhuman treatment meted out on the victims. in nigeria, the law prescribes 14 years imprisonment for the offenders. some religious sects go as far as sanctioning death for the victims. however, the fact remains that whether homosexuality is unafrican or not seems immaterial as the practice speedily makes waves and continues to stare us in the face in the wake of the 21st century. the need to evaluate, analyze and look for proactive measures to cure the malady since the nigerian law frowns at it becomes exigent. this research analyzed the causes of homosexuality, the homophobic attitudes of the society and its traumatic effects on the victims using okparanta’s under the udala trees. the resercher found out that the homosexuals are traumatized in nigeria as a result they let out negative behaviour such as infidelity in marriage and frictional interrelationship with negative consequence. this research goes ahead to proffer psychoanalytical principles as its theoretical framework as well as lending its measures as solutions to the menace since it goes against the societal norms. keywords: homosexuality, psychoanalysis, nigerian literature introduction in the recent times, the concept of homosexuality has witnessed a large support, boom, hatred and condemnation in different parts of the world. in spite of the earlier purported notion in africa and particularly nigeria that homosexuality is ignominious and as such too sensitive to delve into the reality has continued to stare us in the face in the wake of 21st century. it therefore becomes necessary for the writers to explore this reality in their works. some writers have highlighted the causes of this sexuality in their works while experiences have also shown that man’s need for companionship has led to imbibing this sexuality. man as a ‘social animal’ desires and is in constant need for another human being either to satisfy his sexual needs or to socialize. this points to the reason why some individuals who have spent so mailto:onyewuchim82@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okwara 107 many years in prison would tend to gratify their sexual urge with their fellow inmates since they can only be put in the same prison cells with people of their own sex. ajibade’s jailed for life is an example of this prison sexual non conformist experience. ajibade asserts: my eye never seen this king thing before. man dey f-k another man’s yansh. haba!’ it was case of sodomy. since the warder did not catch them at it, the alleged offenders were not punished. but the authority decided to increase the potash…in the prison food. they believed it would kill the sexual urge of theprisoners. but the prison still throbbed with pent-up lust. (132) the above experience arises from the shock experienced by one of the characters who is amazed at seeing an abomination committed. it goes to show that homosexuality exists in the prison according to ajibade. peer group pressures and teenagers in the unisex schools also fall prey to this arrangement too. frankie the protagonist in the novel titled lives of great men (2017) by frankie edoziengets lured in same sex affair by a hostel mate who seemed to be bored by the monotonous activity in the unisex school arrangement. some homosexuals can on their own, decide to take on the same sex orientation as a choice. in some part of africa especially in nigeria, some women attribute same sex affair as an avenue for women emancipation and liberation from what the women folk tagged ‘patriarchal world’. this was the case of habiba in the novel titled habiba (2013) by razinat mohammed. this novel has maiduguri (northern nigeria) and muslim setting. habiba is forced into marriage with a man old enough to be her grandfather as collateral for money her father borrowed from the old man long before the inception of the marriage. consequently, she resolves to punish her father and husband by engaging in lesbian affair with her co-wife. economic advantage has also been noted to influence the choices people make as regards their sexuality. a high and influential person can lure a younger and poorer partner into same sex affair with the hope of supporting him/her financially. this was the case in “caught in the act”, a short story by ozioma nduka culled from a collection titled rakes and dustbinsby mbanefo ogene. other people may still decide to indulge in same sex affair after going through an excruciating experience in the hand of the opposite sex. in another note, early exposure of children to obscene, pornographic images and movies involving same sex affair can also cause gender non conformity in nigeria. parental neglect of a child in the child’s early stage of life can lead to the child to make wrong choices. this was the case of adrian in walking with shadows by jude dibia who finds love and acceptance from the same sex partner. it was the love and acceptance which he had longed for from his parents and was denied him. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okwara 108 in nigeria, many have assumed heterosexual because of social inhibitions imposed on homosexuality. when this happens the homosexual tendencies are according to freud’s psychoanalytical theory repressed, suppressed or denied which many a times cause fixations. fixation as one of freud’s repressive model entails the inability of the human person to develop from one stage to another due to some suppressed characteristics on the course of growing up. this could result when a man grows to love another man as a result of certain experiences he had with the opposite sex at an early stage in life. the same also is applicable to the woman. a harsh and oppressive mother/son or daughter/father relationship can lead to a child seeking love with a same sex partner. as they remain fixated as a result of this long lasting experience, it becomes very difficult to convert “fully developed homosexual into heterosexual” (freud, 151). according to freud, these unresolved and repressed issues which cause these fixations usual surge up when triggered by incidents and at severe cases may cause negative behaviours that are frowned at by the society. freud however advocates for the treatment of these issues by a good application of the psychoanalytical theory. wiedeman insists that a “purely analytical approach consisting only of interpretation, without any other elements of support, classification and confrontation with reality, hardly exist in discussions of the psychoanalytical therapy of homosexual men” (676). he goes ahead to elaborate the necessity of the theorists to help their patients internalize acceptable social values which will gradually correct those tendencies that are socially unacceptable. even though nigeria has the right to outlaw whatever she deems unacceptable but a mother does not cast away a recalcitrant child. it is necessary for a body which makes a rule to also provide a remedy for victims who may get trapped as a result of circumstances beyond their control and all others in general. a good application of the provisions of the psychoanalytical measures especially in school, prisons and places where young people are mostly found since they seem to fall victim to the practice, can go a long way in checking these social anomaly. some of the homosexuals have confessed their helplessness at the point of acquiring the sexuality and their weakness at ‘curing’ it. in she called me woman (2018), a research work carried out by azeernah mohammed et al on twenty four nigerian women. the authors found out that some of the women were traumatized as a result of their undying sexuality contrasting with the homophobic nigeria society while many were vocal in canvassing for their right to exist in nigeria. it therefore becomes pertinent to evaluate these traumas through a psychological means since it pertains to the human psych and by so doing device a way of addressing the issue. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okwara 109 background and concept of homosexuality and trauma homosexuality refers to any sexual attraction, romance, intimacy, relationship or intercourse between people of the same sex. it was referred to as ‘gay’ in the 1920s and 30s which according to deana f. morrow and lori messinger in sexual orientation and gender expression in social work practice: working with gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people “refers to as people (male or female) whose principal and intimate attractions and romantic relationships are towards other people of the same sex” (7). bullough posits that “homosexuality," a philologically awkward hybrid of greek and latin elements came to be the term applied to people who love those of the same sex, while "heterosexuality," equally philologically impure, came to be applied to those who gained pleasure from the opposite sex” (9). david mcwhirt et al, assert that “karl maria … coined the term ‘homosexual’ (1869a, 1869b). this word was picked up by gustav jager (1884) and by richard von krafft-ebing (1894) who popularized it in the various translations of his work” (10). according to the scholars, other terms proposed by other scholars example “sexual inversion” (1936) by ellis and “inverted sexual instinct” by westphal and some other similar words for many years competed with the term as words meant to represent sexual orientations. however “…the use of the term ‘homosexuality’ by magnus hirschfeld …carried the day” (10). trauma on the other hand refers to a severe encounter or experience that leads to intense sadness, pain or sorrow. people’s traumatic experiences are varied and their responses too are in different forms and degrees. the traumatic experiences of rape, chronic illness or natural disaster couldresult to severe effects while some others are latent and seem not painful that we see them as part of everyday life. in this instance we have the structural violence. this arises as a result of laws and structures by an organization or a state which deprive individuals of their basic needs. this particular trauma seems painless and many a times lasts longer than necessary that the individual fails to see its effects. in this study therefore, trauma refers to the negative effects of the discrimination, intolerance and outlaw on the homosexuals emanating from nigeria’s religious and cultural orientations. homosexual trauma in nigeria arises out of the homophobic attacks on the victims by individuals and the law which proscribes fatal measures to them. these lead them to practice their sexuality in the closet with many assuming bisexual to fit into the society. homosexuality in african’s conception the belief that homosexuality is alien to africa in the prehistoric times can be traced to edward gibbons’s assertion in his history of the decline and fall of the roman empire (1781). he says that “i believe, and hope, that the negroes, in their own country, were exempt from this moral pestilence [i.e., ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okwara 110 homosexual ‘vice’]” (506). this could however be erroneous as further studies by stephen murray suggest that “hardly any europeans had traveled more than a few miles into the african interior than gibbon made this assertion” (x1). according to murray, sir richard burton was later to validate gibbon’s view in his statement that “the negro race is mostly untainted by sodomy and triba[l]ism” (246). burton made this assertion after observing homosexuality indiscriminately practiced near east and south asia as against what he witnessed in africa. in 1987 however, daniel hrdy supports gibbon’s position by stating that “homosexuality is not part of traditional societies in africa” (11-13). on the other hand some people believe that homosexuality existed in africa but was introduced by the europeans. the first in this regard is daniel vignal’s essay in 1983 in which he analyzed twenty three african novels and concluded that homosexuality was introduced into africa by the europeans. few years later chris dunton reaffirms vignal’s investigation with his text, wheyting be dat: the treatment of homosexuality in african literature after analyzing many african texts elaborately. against the above assumptions steven murray and roscoe carried out a more elaborate research in boy-wives and female husbands and found out many instances of homosexual practices in africa. for instance in lesotho same sex affair was practiced. cicero opines that: in lesotho, females engage in what is commonly considered intimate behavior to the western world: they kiss, sleep together, rub genitals, participate in cunnilingus, and maintain their relationships with other females vigilantly. since the people of lesotho believe sex requires a penis, however, they do not consider their behavior sexual, nor label themselves lesbians. (lesbianism in africa, 1) scholars have also traced same sex attraction in nigeria. bisi alimi in her seminal article titled “if you say being gay is not african, you don’t know your history” maintains that “in digging up facts, i found that while many africans say that homosexuality is un-african, african culture is no stranger to homosexual behavours and acts” she goes further to state that “in my local language (yoruba) the word for ‘homosexual is adufuro…in the northern part of nigeria, yan dauda is a hausa term to describe effeminate men who are considered to be wives to men” (1). the above denial and acceptance dichotomy have remained unresolved and as such homosexuals are intimidated and their existence threatened leading to the trauma witnessed among them in nigeria. more attention is given to this impasse against the expedient psychological measures needed to re-orientate the victims on the need to embrace the societal acceptable sexuality in nigeria as a basis for societal reintegrate. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okwara 111 homosexuality in nigerian literature previously, the concept of homosexuality was seen as too dishonouring and of western origin. some of the african writers in general and nigeria in particular were a bit reserved in delving into the concept as a result of detachment to what they call ‘alien’ to their culture. some of the writers who ventured into it portrayed it negatively and seem to ‘throw’ it back to its originators by creating only white gay men in their works. the character of joe golder in soyinka’s the interpreters is an american homosexual. in dilibe onyeama’s sex is a niggar’s game the western racists fabricate tales of high sexual prowess in the africans. however brian (a white) is gay and comments that homosexuality was brought into africa by the western colonists. recently, some nigerians have imbibed the practice of same sex affair though some writers too still project it negatively. in razinat’s habiba, the protagonist habiba engages in lesbian affair with her co-wife to punish her husband and father for forcing her into early marriage with a man old enough to be her grandfather; an act deemed abominable among the muslim adherents. the above texts give an unsympathetic portrayal of the theme of homosexuality as against recent works which witness an upsurge of homosexual themes in a positive light. texts like edozien’s lives of great men tells the story of the selfasserting homosexual character frankie in america, okparanta’s under the udala trees also tells the story of ijeoma, a closeted homosexual in nigeria. there are so many others like ikpo’s fimi sile forever, dibia’s walking with shadows, iweala’s speak no evil and a lot of short stories. a psychoanalytical reading of okparanta’s under the udala trees different societies have different views about homosexuality and this shapes their attitudes towards them. these attitudes emanate from one’s cultural, religious, legal and sometimes ideological orientations. the homosexuals have been loved, appreciated, tolerated, despised, hated, banned or outrightly killed depending on the societies they belonged. attitudes to same sex relationship give birth to the notion of homophobia and homophilia. homophobia is total rejection, discrimination and intolerance to same sex orientation while homophilia is the acceptance, appreciation and love for homosexuality. these attitudes however lead to different responses among the homosexuals. they are either ‘proud’ or in the ‘closet’. a proud homosexual is one who asserts his/her sexuality without fear of intolerance, rejection or death while a homosexual in the closet is afraid of negative attitude. he hides behind closed doors to express his/her sexuality. homophobic attitudeshave been classified into societal, cultural, legal and religious categories. however, societal and religious homophobic attitudes give rise to the depressing and traumatic ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okwara 112 experience witnessed by the protagonist ijeoma in the text under the udala trees by chinelo okparanta. okparanta’s text pictures vividly the daily inner struggles experienced by the same sex persons in the homophobic nigerian society. as the plot begins the writer explores a strife and hostile environment made possible by the nigerian civil war. the protagonist, ijeoma at the tender age of eleven had to witness the gory sight of blood, massacres, decapitation and gruesome death which characterizes a war torn environment. the war injects features like hate, irritability, hostility, strife, lack of food and safety eroding the peaceful, loving and tranquil atmosphere which characterized ijeoma’s home. ijeoma’s father was shelled. all these resulted to her mother’s near insanity. in the guise of giving her a ‘safer’ environment, ijeoma is practically thrown away to nnewi at the house of a family friend (the grammar school teacher) where she assumes the position of a house help. these experiences form the initial trauma as ijeoma had to readjust to another home where the grammar school teacher and his wife were to be her guardian. in nnewi, she indulges in lesbian affair with amina, a displaced hausa girl. it was a shock to the two girls as the grammar school teacher (their guardian) opens the door and found the two girls copulating. the first words that bring them to consciousness are “…an abomination” he goes ahead to elucidate the gravity of the offence “…that is what it is, if a name is to be given to it! …the koran condemns it as well. i don’t know much of islam but i know enough to know that the koran and the bible see eye to eye on this matter!” (uut, 125). ijeoma leaves nnewi to be with her mother in aba on account of the ‘abomination’. the tag of taboo and the religious background of ijeoma’s mother make the house too contemptuous for the two of them to live in. her mother perceives the act as despicable, abominable and as such ijeoma needed god’s forgiveness and divine cleansing. her mother begins a bible cancelling sessions with the hope of casting away the demon of homosexuality. against what her mother believes in, ijeoma wishes to assert her sexuality. consequently two contrasting worlds are created; one of her mother who pulls from a different standpoint and ijeoma who sees the issue differently. her mother desires that her daughter repents from the evil of same sex desire perceived with a religious lens as sinful and contravening the design of “a man and a woman” by god. she continues to preach to her daughter on the evil inherent in her actions “…man must not lie with man, and if man does, man will be destroyed. which is why god destroyed sodom and gomorrah” (uut, 74). borrowing from leviticus 18, she made it categorically clear the bible’s take on the issue “…thou shall not lie with mankind, as with ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okwara 113 womankind: it is an abomination” (uut, 75). ijeoma on the other hand tries without success to educate her mother on the contrary. she says “woman was created for man, yes. but why did that mean that woman could not also have been created for another woman? or man for another man? infinite possibilities, each one of them perfectly viable” (uut, 83). even though she tries, ijeoma gets subdued by the increasing religious indoctrinating power of her mother which condemns her sexuality. it has become an ever increasing shouts of “…you must ask god for forgiveness of all your sins especially for that one particular sin in you…no child of mine will carry those sick, sick desires. the mere existence of them is a terrible disrespect to god and to me!”(uut, 86) in the house. in the protagonist, okparanta portrays an individual who is inwardly tormented by increasing religious tenets, environmental tag of taboo and abomination projected by her society (aba). as the plot progresses, the reader is made to see that ijeoma is battling to lie afloat against the teeming homophobic environment of her mother who represents her society that frowns at her sexuality and would go to the extent of burning the victim. one such case was the case of adanna who gets burnt upon discovery. the mob who led the burning raid believed that the act “was aided by god, that an example needed to be set in order to cleanse aba of such sinful way” (uut, 210). at the height of her mother and societal rebuff to her sexuality, ijeoma resorts to self pity and depression. she goes to church often to plead for god’s forgiveness and cleansing as she had been labeled sinful and her acts despicable. “in the moment i began to believe myself a witch under the influence of the devil, and if mama’s exorcism did not work, then it seems that i owed it to myself to find something that would. self purification was the goal.” (uut, 196). she really engages in a soul torturing dilemma. on a particular day, the dejection in her heart seems to envelope her. she goes to the church to seek answers from god as she states: just reaching the pulpit, i knelt down, pulled out my bible…i opened my bible, placed my palms firmly on its pages. closed my eyes and prayed: dear god, what is the meaning of this?...dear god i am a sinner, and i come before you to beg you to please show me the path to righteousness. but what if i am not, in fact, sinning? what if i am subjecting myself to this guilt for no reason at all? lord, i am confused. please give me a sign. if there is any evil in my heart, please give me a sign so that i might recognize it and in doing so, avoid it. (uut, 197) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okwara 114 she also finds herself weak to battle two opposing forces of homophobic attitudes and the ever undying lesbian desire. she tries to wobble between the two phenomena but happiness eludes her as the two are polar opposites. she however realizes that it is difficult to repress the homosexual pleasure she feels especially when triggered by euphoric and lustful thoughts of ndidi. okparanta writes: i was full of thoughts of ndidi. as i changed into my nightgown and climbed into bed, there she was, taking up all the spaces, right down to the cracks and crevices of my mind. i could not help myself … i have myself having a physical reaction to her in my thoughts. i become so engrossed, so swollen with desire… memories of the bible study with mama rushed back to me yet again, no matter how hard i tried to put them away from my mind. condemning words falling upon my consciousness like a rainstorm, drenching me and threatening to drown me out. iwas the happiest i had been in a long time, but suddenly here was this panicked dream, as if to mocking ask how i could even presume to think happiness was a thing within my reach.(uut, 194-195) ijeoma continues to groan under the heavy burden of undying sexuality and internal fear of homophobic attacks. she despises men and heterosexual marriage in preference to her same sex partner ndidi. this points to the reason why her marriage to chibundu (a male) fails. conclusion homosexuality and trauma have continued to be enduring issues in a homophobic society. as homosexual traits remain undying and continue to manifest in the individual’s life, he/she perpetually stands at loggerhead with his/her society that kicks at such orientation. at the height of it, the individual degenerates into trauma, frustration and depression.while analyzing the text, one observes the protagonist, ijeoma who gets choked by two worlds of enduring same sex orientation and her immediate homophobic society. this however leads to depression, frustration, intra family fracas and many a times a failed heterosexual marriage as in the case of ijeoma who had to quit her marriage with chibundu to be with her homosexual partner, ndidi. works cited ajibade, kunle. jailed for life: a reporter’s prison notes. nigeria: hebn publishers, 2003. azeernah, mohammed., chitra, nagarajan & aliyu rafeeat. she called me woman: nigerian queer women speak. london: cassava republic press. 2018. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 okwara 115 bisi, alimi. “if you say being gay is not african then you don’t know your history” the guardian, 9, september, 2015), source http://www.thegaurdian.com. bullough, vern. homosexuality: a history (from ancients greece to gay liberation). new york: routlegde, taylor $ francis group, 1979. cicero, kingsley. (2010, september, 5) “lesbianism in africa”, retrieved from http://www.nairaland.com//509115/lesbianism in africa kingsley-cicero, on feb, 02, 2020. dibia, jude. walking with shadows. lagos: jalaa writers’ collective, 2011. dunton, chris. “wheyting be dat? the treatment of homosexuality in african literature. research in african literatures,1989. edozien, frankie. lives of great men. london: team angelica publishing, 2017. gibbon, edward, the history of the decline and fall of the roman empire. vol. 4, 6th ed. london: methuen. 1781 hrdy, daniel. “cultural practices to the transmission of hiv in africa.” review of infectious diseases 9:1109-19. i987. mcwhirter, david, sanders, stephanie & reinisch, machover. homosexuality heterosexuality: concepts of sexual orientation. new york: oxford university press, 1990. mohammed, razinat. habiba. ibadan: kraft books, 2013. morrow, deana and messinger, loni. sexual orientation and gender expression in social work practice, working with gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people. columbia: columbia university press, 2006. murray, stephen & roscoe, will. boy-wives and female-husbands: studies in african homosexualities. new york: palgrave, 1998. okparanta, chinelo. under the udala trees. new york: mariner books houghton mifflin harcourt boston. 2016. onyeama dilibe. sex is a nigger‟s game. london: satellite books, 1976. soyinka, wole. the interpreters. london: fontana/collins, 1965 vignal, daniel. “l‘homophilie dans le roman negro-africain d‘expression anglaise et francaise. peuples noirs, peuples africains 33 mai. wiedeman, g. h. homosexuality. journal of the american psychological association. 1974. http://www.thegaurdian.com/ http://www.nairaland.com/509115/lesbianism ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 178 a wrecked self: a psychoanalytical reading of rape victim in atta's everything good will come dr. mbanefo s. ogene department of english language & literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: sm.ogene@unizik.edu.ng & nneoma onyinye ezeonyi department of english language & literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: ezeonyi.nneoma@gmail.com abstract this research is an investigation of wrecked self: a psychoanalytical reading of rape victim in atta's everything good will come. this work fills the scholarly gap of bringing to light, the traumatic experience female rape victims endure and the psychological dent this experience leaves on their mental health forever. this study applies freud’s psychoanalysis and burgess & holmstrom's rape trauma syndrome theory in exploring the excruciating pain atta’s rape victim endured. the psychological damage she suffers as a result of many horrifying experience and debasement pushes her to adopt repression as a defence coping mechanism. this study not only explores the evil of rape; it goes further to enlighten rape victims and the society on the dangers of rape on the human person; the phases of rape trauma and its coping mechanisms. it also explores the essence of debunking rape myths and possibly avoids the factors that constitute to rape increase in the society. it urges the readers to insist on the need to hear the voices of those that are powerless and victimized. keywords: rape, psychoanalysis, trauma, burgess & holmstrom's rape trauma syndrome theory introduction rape is invasive; it is the violation of the victim’s privacy, and threatening the victim’s sense of control as well as undermining the victim’s self-worth. there are fast growing incidences of rape in our society today and there are misconceptions concerning rape including the belief that it is the victim’s fault. african writers write to refute those beliefs and emphasize to the society, rather than apportioning blame on the victim, the destabilization and dehumanization on the victim should be recognized instead. they engage in debunking rape myths, revealing the factors that are linked to rape, rapist attitude towards the victim and most importantly, the negative impact of rape on the victim; how it alters, destroys and dehumanizes the victim. simply put, rape is a forceful ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 179 penetration of vaginal, oral and anal sex on another without consent bourke in rape work: victims, gender and emotions in organizations and community context describes rape as “a felony in which a person is forced to have sexual intercourse without giving consent” (90). in nigeria, there are no accurate statistics for rape case; but this can be excused as even economic policies are drafted without correct statistics. this does not take away the fact that rape is endemic in the country. can anyone give an account of the number of house maids that are regularly raped by their employers? the number of male children being raped by their care-givers? or the students raped in universities? or the daughters that are raped by their stepfathers? rape may be seen as part of nigeria culture because of the government’s negligence in effectively punishing such crimes as a warning to the culprits perpetrating the evil. abadamosi, hakeem published in nigerian tribune online media in 2018 on how ondo police arrested a 50 year old carpenter for allegedly raping autism challenged girl in ondo state(www.tribuneonlineng.com). olowolagba in february 8, 2019, published rape cases in daily post media which include a rape case of a 65 year old man arrested for raping and impregnating a minor11 year old girl who happens to be a hawker in unguwar gawo village, in babura local government, jigawa state (february 8, 2019. www.dailypostng.com). iol an online media house in january 4, 2019, updated an article, “lavender hill rocked by eight rape cases on new year’s day cape times,” exposing the number of rape cases already on the desk. according to the article, lucinda evans, who started an anti youth and gender based violence campaign called ‘save our vaginas’ the previous year, took to her facebook page to ask why rape is a culture that is still allowed in our communities? that it is 11:00am of a new year but 8 rape survivors approached her organization for help after their ordeals. most rape victims rarely open up due to the humiliation and stigmatization that go with it (january 4, 2019, www.i’ll.co.za). more so, following the careless commentaries of peoples on social media platforms like: facebook, instagram, twitter and so on, rape is often misinterpreted to be the fault of the victim for: wearing clothes exposing some of her body parts, walking alone in lonely places at an ungodly hour, drinking in the company of men, clubbing, visiting a male friend and so on. some as well believe that women should be weary of the danger that is part of their everyday life. the society still plays the blame-game on rape victims. it is typical to ask the rape victim, especially a woman, if she tried to resist while she was being raped. rape is a traumatic and life-threatening experience that cannot be easily forgotten. it may leave a survivor full of fear, doubt and anger. not only does it affect the survivor, the pain ripples through her family and friends if the survivor chooses to tell them. emecheta states in one of her works, the rape of shavi that “rape ages and humiliates any woman, young or old” http://www.tribuneonlineng.com/ http://www.dailypostng.com/ http://www.i’ll.co.za/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 180 (98). the memory of being raped and the fear experienced during and after the occurrence may never vanish completely which may leave some of the victims severely traumatized throughout their life time. it is important to note that rape has escalated in our present day society due to lack of interest in knowing the excruciating pain rape victims undergo. how does a rape victim feel after being raped? does it have a long or short term effect on the victim? how does the society at large perceive rape issue through the representation of characters by african writers? why do most people neglect the dehumanization and psychological trauma on rape victim? to them, is it the victim’s fault; or connected to male dominance; rape myths; psychological factors? the concept of the trauma associated with rape is neglected by the majority of the people of the society particularly in african. this is because people still make careless commentary on rape victims like, how can a victim take her life because of mere rape; how can rape turn one into prostitute; so, mere rape makes a victim to lose focus in life? significantly, this study is carried out in order to reveal the psychological damage as well as the near-death traumatic experience a rape victim is compelled to endure; with the intention to educate the public on the importance of being supportive to a rape victim instead of prejudicing; and to also understand the depth of the psychological damage it causes and help cub rape in the society. psychoanalysis and rape trauma syndrome theory as theoretical tools there are many theories which may be applied to this study; but this study adopts freud’s psychoanalysis and rape trauma syndrome theory. the later theory is described by psychiatrist, ann wolbert burgess and sociologist, lynda lytle holmstrom in 1974. these theories help in reading and interpreting the mind of the character under study relating the consequences of the rape incident to the character's later life choices. in examining freud’s psychoanalysis, freud explores the three persons “id”, ‘ego”, and “superego”. freud believes that his structured model of the mind (id, ego, and superego) could be in conflict at anytime since they perform different functions. therefore, a person's ego adopts one or more defence mechanisms to protect him or her when he or she could not cope with the stress of the conflict. the defence mechanisms include: repression, denial, projection, displacement, regression and sublimation (eagleton 132-134 qtd. in odinye 2019). repression is an unconscious defence whereby the ego pushes disturbing feelings, ideas or thoughts out of consciousness. eagleton argues that "that what has dominated human history to date is the need to labour and for freud, that harsh necessity means that we must repress some of our tendencies to pleasure and gratification. in essence, every human being has to undergo this repression of freud named the 'pleasure principle' by the reality principle'....if too much is demanded of us, we are likely to fall sick" (freud 131qtd. in odinye 2019). this form of "sickness is known as neurosis" (eagleton 132qtd. in odinye 2019). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 181 in 'denial' as a defence mechanism, the ego blocks the traumatic experiences from consciousness causing the individual to disbelieve the reality of the experiences.psychoanalysis as a therapy is based on the observation that individuals are often unaware of many factors that determine their emotions and behaviour. therefore, it is important to note that freud built much of psychoanalysis on his patients' trauma; thus trauma theory also becomes very relevant in exploring the experiences of the rape victim in this study. ifeoma ezinne odinye (2019) in “violence and the girl-child in selected novels of buchi emechara, yvonne vera, nuruddin farah and ikechukwu asika” summarizes that: basically, psychoanalysis as a theory finds connections amongan individual's unconscious mental processes. this connection is linked to an emotional wound resulting to psychological injury or distress that leads to trauma. trauma theory is an extension of psychoanalysis. (51) judith herman in “trauma and recovery: the aftermath of violence – from domestic abuse to political terror” asserts that “to study psychological trauma is to come face to face both with human vulnerability and with the capacity for evil in human nature” (8). herman further stresses that the “study of psychological trauma means bearing witness to horrible events” (8). meek supports herman's view by emphasizing the “role psychological theories of trauma play in explaining how life-threatening situations or physical violent experiences can cause individuals to suffer behavioural and memory disorders over extended periods of time” (5).(herman qtd. in odinye 2019, 51). according to burgess and holmstrominrapetrauma syndrometheory, rape trauma syndrome (rts) is "the psychological trauma experienced by a rape victim that includes disruptions of normal physical, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal behavior"(981). tewksbury (2007) states that “both male and female victims of rape exhibit rts symptoms. rts paved the way for consideration of complex post-traumatic stress disorder” (27). sandoval (2002) opines that rts is “a cluster of psychological and physical signs, symptoms and reactions common to most rape victims immediately following a rape, but which can also occur for months or years afterwards” (1). burgess and holmstrom identifyy the three stages of rts thus: the acute stage, the outer adjustment/disorganization stage, and the long term reorganization stage, though some researchers and therapists discovered another phase known as underground phase. the acute stage occurs during the rape, or days or weeks after a rape. the immediate symptoms may last a few days to a few weeks and may overlap with the outward adjustment stage. (981-986) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 182 according to (scarse 1997,) male on male rape: the toll of stigma and shamethere is no typical response amongst rape victims. however, the united state's rape abuse and incest national network, (rainn) asserts that; in most cases, a rape victim's acute stage can be classified as one of three responses: expressedhe or she may appear agitated or hysterical, and may suffer from crying spells or anxiety attacks; ccontrolledthe survivor appears to be without emotion and acts as if 'nothing happened and everything is fine; and shock/disbeliefthe survivor reacts with a strong sense of disorientation. they may have difficulty concentrating, making decisions, or doing everyday tasks. they may also have poor recall of the assault. (98) though, sandovalin handbook of crises counselling, intervention and preventions in the schools asserts that:“not all rape survivors show their emotions outwardly. some may appear calm and unaffected by the assault” (1). while desirée (1992)in what is rape trauma syndrome? opines that: behaviors present in the acute stage can include: diminished alertness; numbness; dulled sensory, affective and memory functions; disorganized thought content, vomiting; nausea; paralyzing anxiety; pronounced internal tremor; obsession to wash or clean themselves; hysteria, confusion and crying; bewilderment; acute sensitivity to the reaction of other people. (92) according to burgess and holmstrom, they note thatin the outward adjustment/ disorganization stage (oads), the survivors in this stage seem to have resumed their normal lifestyle; but that all but 1 of their 92 subjects exhibited maladaptive coping mechanisms after a rape (986). burnamet al. in “sexual assault and mental disorders in a community population” reveals: other coping mechanisms that may appear during the outward adjustment phase which include: sense of helplessness; hypervigilance; extreme anger and hostility (more typical of male victims); sleep disturbances such as vivid dreams and recurring nightmares; insomnia, wakefulness, night terrors; flashbacks; dissociation (feeling like one is not attached to one's body); panic attacks; reliance on coping mechanisms, some of which may be beneficial (e.g., philosophy and family support), and others that may ultimately be counterproductive (e.g.self harm, drug, or alcohol abuse). (843-850) in this vain, herman points out that: complete amnesia known as dissociative states may occur…. dissociation can be so severe that a fragmentation of the personality can result in the emergence of alter personalities. victims attempt to return to their lives as if nothing happened. may block thoughts of the assault from their minds and may not want to talk about the incident or any of ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 183 the related issues. victims may have difficulty in concentrating and some depression. this phase may last for years and the victim seems as though they are over it, despite the fact the emotional issues are not resolved. (84) lastly is the re-organization or recovery stage. here, burgess and holmstrom emphasizes on the importance of family, friends and institutions reactions towards the victim. they opine that:“in this stage, rape victims survivor integrate the sexual assault into their lives; the rape is no longer the central focus of their lives; negative feelings such as guilt and shame are resolved; and they no longer blame themselves for the attack. they have come to terms with their past” (981-986).the major ongoing critique against this ideology according to the critic, stefan (1993) in “protection rackets: rape trauma syndrome” explains that:“the literature on rts constructs rape survivors as passive, disordered victims, even though much of the behavior that serves as the basis for rts could be considered the product of strength. words like "fear" are replaced with words like "phobia", with its connotations of irrationality” (88). summarily, the criticism is rational, but it is worthy of note that the theory of rts is relevant in this research as well as psychoanalysis because theynot only specifydefence mechanisms for mentaland emotional assaults, they alsoencompass behavioural and psychological reactions along with recuperation common to victims of rape; they equally help in understanding the mind of the victim. rts theory describes the stages of response and recovery that victims of rape experience. conclusively, the rts theory testimonieshelp to educate the jury about the psychological consequences surrounding rape; persuading them to dispel rape myths by explaining counterintuitive post-rape behavior. especially in cases in which prosecutors have introduced rts testimony, defendants have also sometimes proffered rts evidence, a practice that has been criticized as undermining core values embodied in rape shield laws, since it can involve subjecting victims to compelled psychological evaluations and searching cross-examination regarding past sexual history. therefore, these theories are indispensable in understanding as well as interpreting rape victims. aspects of psychoanalysis and rape traumatic experience in atta's everything good will come this is a coming of age novel about two girls growing into women in post colonial nigeria. throughout the plot, one of the female protagonists, enitan’ faces different personal entanglements; ranging from family troubles, rape, cheating boyfriend’s and imprisonment. while sheri on the other hand is enitan's friend and the rape victim in the story; whose life falls apart after the rape incident. sheri is not only gang raped but her virginity was snatched. sheri ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 184 is raped, devalued, ruined and is robbed of her womanity and pride on the day she went for a picnic with her friend, enitan. atta (2005) explores thus: sheri was lying on the seat. her knees were spread apart. the boy in the cap was pinning her arms down. the portly boy was on top of her. his hands were camped over her mouth. daramola was leaning against the door (everything good willcome,65).{she further laments):there was blood on her pubic hairs, thick spit running down her legs. semen. (everything good will come, 66) this singular event changes the life of sheri. atta's use of first person narrator eliminates the chance for the reader to feel the impact of the psychological damage ‘the act'inflicted on sheri immediately after the rape; especially burgees et al. acute phase of trauma. but, through enitan's narration, sheri's disoriented state of mind is made clear as rainn stipulates in rape trauma syndrome that in the acute phase of rts, the rape victim is disoriented (36). sheri’s rape is a pivotal moment in the novel for both girls. it is as'a misfortune that binds them,' and which both of them are unable to speak about into adulthood. silence marks every aspect surrounding the rape. the three boys hold sheri down, gag her, and then proceed to silence sheri through the rape which she is unable to articulate. atta through enitan describes it thus: a silent moment; a peaceful moment.” “n-nm, she moaned…[it is the only sound she is able to make]i dressed her, saw the red bruises and scratches on her skin, her wrists, around her mouth, on her lips…. there was blood on her pubic hairs, thick spit running down her legs. semen. i used sand grains to clean her, pulled her panties up…. (everything good will come, 66) atta’s character, sheri depicts freud’sanalysis in an outline of psychoanalysi swhich states that: “the ego adopts different defence mechanisms when faced with a difficult situation” (sigmund freud, 18). the rape incident weighs heavily on sheri denting her superego of uprightness and her self esteem that has been trampled. to avoid reaching the neurotic state, her mind represses the horrifying rape experience as a defence mechanism to cope with the horrors of the rape. she silences the incident that all through the narration, she never mentioned the rape not immediately nor after she was abused. the fallible narrator enitan, does not know how it happened except for the scene she witnessed herself. this clearly indicates that some rape survivors prefer repressing their experiences; they avoid talking about it as a way of defence mechanism and recovering from their emotional trauma. sheri prefers to live in denial of the rape incident because she fears public criticism and stigmatization associated to being a rape victim. rainn asserts that;“in acute stage, rape victim may suffer from crying spell, anxiety, nauseating and vomiting (36). atta explores these syndromes in the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 185 novel, when enitan takes sheri home and bathes her. “sheri, unable to say a word of what happened…stood up and let out a cry... just as she lurched, her vomit splattered over the table, hitting my face. she lunged forward and another mound of vomit plopped on the veranda floor” (everything good will come,68).this analysis concludes burgess and holmstrom's ideology on rts that whether or not rape victims are injured during a sexual assault, rape survivors exhibit higher rates of poor health in the months and years after an assault (959). and the above conclusion is sheri’s fate. she becomes deteriorated; the vibrant and agile sheri shuts down to a mute and self detached lady almost removed from reality because she prefers to live in denial. atta explores the blame the society puts on the victim and the impact of such blame on the victim’s mental health through the narrator enitan. enitan blames sheri for her rape. she is confused by what she has seen and as a result of this, feels anger towards sheri who is the victim. she internalizes the blame against sheri thus “the fist in my stomach explodes.yes. i blamed her. if she hadn’t smoked hemp it would never have happened. if she hadn’t stayed as long as she did at the party, it would not have happened. bad girls got raped. we all knew. loose girls, forward girls, raw, advanced girls. laughing with boys, following them around, thinking she was one of them” (everything good will come, 68). unconsciously, it is the teachings of her mother that surface and influence enitan’s interpretation of events. the rape has far reaching consequences and is detrimental to the psyche of both women and men. the physical and psychologically effect of rape is explored in this novel. atta portrays both the physicalas well as the psychologically effect of rape through her character sheri which includes: unwanted pregnancy, selfhate, damaged uterus, self-absorption and so on. she further explores other consequences of rape through the actions of sheri. firstly, she attempts to self abort the pregnancy with the use of a hanger atta states: "she struck a hanger up herself and nearly killed herself" (everything good will come, 70).this action results in damaging her reproductive system, leaving her barren. this outcome not only exposes the physical negative effect; it also explores the rape victim's mental state that is detrimental to her wellbeing. sheri, despite her biology knowledgeforgets the danger of self-abortion because she is not in the right frame of the mind. she is psychologically drained and devoid of feeling; her demented state of mind completely clouds her judgement making her oblivious of the grievous harm she is about to inflict on herself through self abortion. through this novel, atta tries to tell the readers that it is better to be ugly, crippled, or even a thief, than to be barren as a woman. women are linked tosome of their reproductive parts and while "marriage could wipe out a slutty past, angel or not a woman had to have a child." she further explains through ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 186 enitan to sheri that: "a woman may be forgiven for having a child out of wedlock if she had no hope of getting married…. marriage could immediately wipe sluttish past, but an angel or not a woman had to have a child” (everything good will come, 105).thisexposes sheri's general poor health and damaged psyche. the emotional trauma and psychological damage of feeling self pity, low esteem, disorientation, fear of being talked about, little or no social life, unwanted pregnancy, damaged uterus are all the consequences arising from being raped. these emotions lay emphasis on burgess and holmstrom's rts theory of the outward/adjustment and disorganization stage (oads) of rape (981-986). her realization that the incident leaves an indelible memory of pregnancy triggers a crisis in her 'frail self'as she describes herselfsince the rape incident (everything good will come 105). she feels that her body has betrayed her. it is as if her body, the foundation of her suffering as she tells herself is an autonomous thing; acting independently from herself in ways detrimental to the body. this experience anchors to burnam et alassertion of “dissociation (feeling like one is not attached to one’s body) [as second phase coping mechanism oads]” as stipulated inrts (849). she makes out her body to be a different person, different from her and outside of herself. this psychological state of depression that forces sheri to create two entities; one defiled being ‘her body’ and the other undefiled 'her mental state of denial'. this explains herman's point that “…dissociation can be so severe that a fragmentation of the personality can result in the emergence of alter personalities” (84). the issue of unwanted pregnancy, where sheri has been nurturing an absence of memory (as a coping mechanism)in the acute stage of rape as desiree 1992 states that “diminished alertness, dulled sensory, affective and memory functions, disorganized thought content…are all part of some individuals coping mechanism” (92). also, the damaged womb is a constant reminder of the traumatic experience of the rape incident which has stuck with her like a life long burden affecting her decisions in later life. according to burnam et al. (1988), hé clearly mentions other visible rts coping mechanism paramount in the oads to include: “sense of helplessness, hypervigilance, extreme anger and hostility….some of these coping mechanism may be productive or counterproductive like self-harm, drug abuse alcoholism” (843-850).and these mechanisms especially the sense of helplessness is clearlyindicated in the life of sheri and her coping mechanism is counterproductive because it propels her to self-harm. this is revealed during a conversation that ensued in later life between sheri and enitan; one can clearly point out sheri’s sense of helplessness and psychological state of mind that propels her and pushes her into making life changing decision by self aborting the pregnancy that leads to damaged womb the writer says: "what did i know? taking a hanger to myself, with all the biology i studied. i still thought i had a black hole inside me so which single man from a normal family would have a ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 187 person like me?" (everything good will come, 105). but at that moment, sheri feels getting rid of the pregnancy by herself is what is best for her. it is not in her making to destroy her future; but when a victim is mentally traumatized, the psychic is usually damaged. to the society, sheri's act of self aborting is abominable and degrading but what the society does not understand is the current mental state of the victim. when victims are emotionally derailed, their reasoning becomes asocial and absurd. sheri's human sense of reasoning has been damaged at that point of time, that she couldn't remember the implications of the actions she took rather she is overwhelmed with decisions that will make her feel better and not bring shame to her person thereby getting rid of the pregnancy that damaged her womb. atta through her character suggests that a barren woman has no future. therefore, sheri's barrenness sets up her future as a "sugary girl" because she is convinced that no single man from a normal home will want her (everything good will come, 100). after several years have passed, sheri and enitan meet again when enitan comes home from england. enitan finds out that sheri is the mistress of the brigadier. in exchange for an easier lifestyle, she plays the role of housewife and does all of the cooking, cleaning, and care of her man. sheri knows how to take advantage of the fact that men often stray from their marriages. this new found life of sheri is a clear indication of burgesss and holmstrom (1974) rts of oads which suggests that some rape victims at times become hypersexual, promiscuous or probably withdraw from a positive lifestyle to a negative one because they are emotionally destabilized (981-985). this is attributed to sheri; after realizing that she is barren, she believes that marriage is no longer for her therefore she chooses an easier lifestyle with the brigadier rather than carrying her misfortune to an innocent man's house in the name of marriage. she fears that the society will still ridicule her when she finds it difficult to conceive. in understanding the implications of trauma, sheri's decision in trailing the negative aspect of life is not surprising, rather, her traumatic experiences or better still, psychological state of mind put her in a spot that she does what is best for her not minding its implications. another devastating nature of rape x-rayed by atta in everything good will come is that it makes the victim disengage from any social activities; identity crisis is also triggered following the abuse; the victim is in constant confusion and fear of the society perception of her and her perception of herself (204). atta’s set triumphant strategy is the possibility of her female character reclaiming her alienated bodies. this proves problematic in the context of the cultural isolation of the character. atta tries in presenting her character with reintegrated identity, but takes this to the social stigmatization of a raped woman. due to sheri's past experience, she separates herself from social activities. atta opines;"sheri would not come for her party. she was not interested in people who will gossip about her....scrutinized her whenever they ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 188 see her unhappiness, sexual frustration, and other deprivations, so that they could say her life was well and truly ruined" (everything good will come, 204). this makes sheri to be self-conscious, often minding her business especially in public places like enitan’s office. she rarely responds to greetings because she feels awkward and convinced she is being talked about. furthermore, long term effect of rts is explored in this novel; one of which is the feeling of vengeance. in the later life of sheri, through her discussions with enitan, her feeling ofvengeance on the rapists is showcased, atta reveals sheri's lamentations: "i did not rape them; they raped me, and if they see me they'd better cross the road...be vengeance cause if i get my hands on them, there will be nothing left to cross with" (everything good will come, 104-105). this is to say that some rape victims never forget the incidence, they are traumatized thereby carrying with them an unforgiving spirit and yearn for as a way of knowing that justice has to be done. sheri's anger and emotional trauma are drawn from her predators' attitudes towards her and this falls in line with one of the acute phases of rape trauma syndrome by (rainn) which stressed that victims' pain is a disorder caused by the actions of the rapist. atta achieves this as sheri laments: "the boys were absurd in my mind, with their red eyes and hemp, and skinny bodies. i would have to exaggerate them to explain why they jinxed her life and why i still couldn't open my mouth to talk about them” (everything good will come, 105). though through enitan's discussion with one of her classmates in london, it is portrayed that sheri's justice came when damola ajayi was admitted into a mental institution where drug addicts in lagos end up. according to herman, “complete amnesia known as dissociative states may occur….. victims may attempt to return to their lives as if nothing happened” (84). and sheri shows symptoms of this coping mechanism in the novel. she lacks the zeal to talk about the rape after the horrifying incident. in addition, she represses her emotions (as her coping mechanism); living as though it never happened pointing to sandoval (2002) assertion that “not all rape survivors show their emotions outwardly. some may appear calm and unaffected” (1). atta through her character buttresses the fact that freud's defence mechanisms and rts coping mechanisms can help a person to successfully cope with rape traumatic experience and heal its psychological damage. sheri's rape armed her with a revengeful spirit, she becomes hyper vigilance. during her discussion with enitan, she is of the view that in as much as she lives under the dictation of a man, she cannot be mistreated or mishandled. atta makes it clear that her victim has control over her life and determines what happens next in her life. she flares thus: “now, where i differ from most women is, if you lift your hand to beat me, i will kill you, god no go vex” (everything good will come, 107).sheri's hyper vigilance conformsto burnam et al (2002) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 189 claim that it is one of the attributes rape victims exhibit in oads of rts coping mechanism. throughout the story line, sheri who could not defend herself during the rape incident later becomes too defensive. the ugly experience put her in a way that she refused to be subjected to any form of oppression from any man aside from the ones she chooses for herself. atta confirms this as sheri fights the psychological impact of being rape and moves ahead in life; she also indulges in physical combat with brigadier when he goes beyond what seems to be his boundary with his different attempts at making a complete chattel out of her. sheri's repressed feelings erupt, and “she beats him for every person who had crossed her path in life” (everything good will come, 161). this confirms that a repressed feeling may sometimes be triggered by a similar act of events that put the victim in such a state (freud 1974 in outline of psychoanalysis, 20). atta portrays that sheri's healing starts with the suppression of the rape incidence, alongside enitan who supports and encourages sheri to trail in the positive aspect of of life. she decides not to rely on the past "i'm a todaytomorrow woman. i can't look back. i have my business, plenty of children around me. someone will always chase me. i still have a pretty face. abi? its other people who worry about me. me, i have no worries except when i die” (everything good will come, 299). but despite that she feels so, she worries about her death because no child of hers will bury her since she is barren (long term effect of trauma). also, enitan reuniting with her becomes part of her recovery process that makes her retreat from the negative aspect of life and channels her energy on becoming a better woman tomorrow thus: “you are better than this, sheri. anyone you want, you can have" (everything good will come,104). enitan gives sheri the idea of a catering business, which she puts into motion when the brigadier hits her. this enables sheri and her family to take care of them without being supported by a man. "sheri had become guarded about her personal life” (everything good will come, 245). the reunion of both women in the novel marks the beginning of a new era in sheri's life. with enitan, sheri begins to realize that though life has not been fair to her, she has the capability of making life treat her better. she realizes her potentials and struggles for a better life rather than living under the confinement of the brigadier. the psychological impact of rape on the loved ones is evident. although enitan does not experience the rape physically, she is emotionally and psychologically scarred by it; her innocence is disrupted. atta further reveals how sheri's rape sharpened enitan’s horizon for a better perception of the world. she begins to ask some questions about existence: “sheri had gotten pregnant from the rape. didn’t a womb know which baby to reject? and now that the baby had been forced out, how did it look?” (everything good will come 73). sheri's rape to enitan is an enduring distrust of men, a notion bolstered by the fact that so many ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 190 seem to betray her. enitan's first relationship did not end well due to her frigidity towards her partner. her sexual experiences become more varied while she is in england, she is still tainted by sheri’s rape and the puritan voice of her mother. the memory from the rape is a visual reminder as she could not bear the thought of semen leaking out of her ‘rolling down her thighs’, so she always needed to wash afterwards because she believes sex was a filthy act. her experience of the opposite sex is still largely uncomplimentary; some men who take from women and do not give much in return. atta further portrays that each time enitan opens her mouth to tell him "about sheri and me that awful summer, i thought my voice would blast my ribs apart, flatten him, flatten the bed, toss my sheets around like the wind, so i said nothing." (everything goodwill come, 77). her boyfriend complained of her frigidity in bed and described it as a form of mental illness. referring to enitan that "she is like other nigerian women in bed. you just lie there, like dead women (everything goodwill come, 77). through sheri’s rape, enitan learns the brutality that women can occasionally endure at the hands of men. the narrator draws our attention to the treatment of nigerian women by nigerian men, so that whether at home or in the diaspora the cultural implications that implicitly allow men to treat women as sexual objects in the next generation of boys. but in the end, she regains her life back and overcomes her traumatic experience. this proves that rape victims needs love and understanding neither pity nor criticism to overcome the traumatic experience. conclusion it is established in this research that atta is of the opinion that rape in its entire entirety is demoralizing on the human person. rape and its traumatic experiences on the human psyche is devastating and deteriorating. it is still a trending issue and its growth is on rapid increase in our society today. many rape victims have threaded in negative aspects of life after the incidents due to the negative effects of the psychological trauma on such victims. moreso, lack of knowledge of rape psychological trauma on the victim by the society by blaming and degrading rape victims with distorted notions of rape on the victim without realizing its harm contributes immensely to victims' counterproductive defence mechanism. this research finding also exposes how rape affects a child's growth and development. it equally exposes how rape is a destroyer of woman's dream and aspirations. it is clear that an aftermath of rape may turn some victims to thread in the negative aspect of life believing that it is the best life can offer them since it is proven that rape affects human reasoning as this paper's theoretical anchors uggests; that one of the effects of rape is that some rape victims may become disoriented thereby indulging in unhealthy lifestyle like promiscuity, drug and alcoholic abuse and so on. from the research done, it is deducted that rape is attributed to poor parental background, peer group influence, moral and societal decadence. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 191 in all, this study encourages the society to be more considerate towards rape victims. to understand and realize the psychological damage and mental trauma rape victims are forced to undergo and instead of shaming the victims, they should be a support system to the victims helping them get justices and ensuring that whichever coping defence mechanism the victim may adopt will not be counterproductive but instead productive. this research concludes that with love from family and friends; and through successful application of defence mechanisms by freud and rts coping mechanisms, a rape victim can overcome the traumatic experience and move on happily in life. works cited abadamosi, hakeem. “ondo police arrested a 50 year old man for allegedly raping autism challenged girl.” nigerian tribune online, 2018, www.tribuneonlineng.com accessed november 15, 2018. anonymous. “lavender hill rocked by eight rape cases on new year day cape times.” iol online media house, january 4, 2019, www.i’ll.co.za. accessed on may 4, 2019. atta, sefi. everything good will come. nigeria: aaa press, 2000. print. burgess, ann wolbert and lynda lytle holmström. rape trauma syndrome. american journal psychiatry, vol 131, no. 9, 1974, pp.981–986. doi:10.1176/ajp.131.9.981. accessed may 4, 2018. ... coping behavior of the rape victim. am j psychiatry, vol. 133 no. 4, 1976, pp.413–8. doi:10.1176/ajp.133.4.413. accessed may 14, 2018. burnam, m a. et al. "sexual assault and mental disorders in a community population". journal of consulting and clinical psychology, vol. 56, 1988, pp. 843–850. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.56.6.843. accessed may 4, 2018. davis, k.m. "rape, resurrection, and the quest for truth: the law and science of rape trauma syndrome in constitutional balance with the rights of the accused". hastings l.j, vol. 49, 1997-1998, p.1512. desirée, hansson. what is rape trauma syndrome? institute of criminology. university of cape town: occasional papers series, 1992. emecheta, buchi.the rape of shavi. new york: g.braziller, 1985, p.98. freud, sigmund. an outline of psychoanalysis. new york: norton, 1949. herman, judith. trauma and recovery: the aftermath of violence—from domestic abuse topolitical terror. new york: basic books, 1997, p.84, 119. odinye, ifeoma ezinne. “violence and the girl-child in selected novels of buchi emecheta, yvonne vera, nuruddin farah and ikechukwu asika.” a dissertation presented to the department of english language and literature, nnamdi azikiwe university awka, october, 2019. pp.4851. http://www.tribuneonlineng.com/ http://www.i’ll.co.za/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 ogene & ezeonyi 192 olowolagba, fikayo. “rape cases in nigeria.” daily post-nigerian news. february 8, 2019. www.dailypostng.com. accessed on july 14, 2019. sandoval, h. jonathan. handbook of crisis counseling, intervention, and prevention in theschools. psychology press, 2002, pp. 1. isbn 978-08058-3615-8. retrieved 1st october 2017. scarce, michael. male on male rape: the toll of stigma and shame.insight books, 1997. stefan, s. "protection racket: rape trauma syndrome." psychiatric labeling, andlaw, vol. 88, 1993-1994. nw. u. l. rev., 1993, p.1275. tewksbury, allan richard. "effects of sexual assaults on men: physical, mental and sexualconsequences". international journal of men's health, vol. 6, no. 1, 2007, pp.22–35. doi:10.3149/jmh.0601.22. accessed on july 26, 2018. http://www.dailypostng.com/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 1 signifying symbols in traditional dance:a study of nkwanwite dance akas, nicholas c. phd1 and okeke prisca i.2 1, 2 department of theatre and film studies nnamdi azikiwe university, awka corresponding author – akas, nicholas c., phd email: akasdancescholar@gmail.com abstract the use of iconic symbols during traditional indigenous performances (dance), has remained an indispensible tool. the major problem facing the use of signifying symbols during performances is because, they are seen as mere cultural artifacts or for aesthetic flexibility display. these assumptions might be generally accepted, but in core dance scholarship is not acceptable and must be redressed through this paper. the aim of this paper is to communicatively interpret some of the signifying symbols, used in dance towards understanding their sociocultural essence. objectively, this paper would analyze the signifying symbols used in nkwanwite traditional dance for the following reasons: (a) to acknowledge the use of cultural symbols as part of people’s mythology belief. (b) to interpret, analyze and document the signifying symbols as a sociocommunicative tool. (c)to give each of the signifying symbols, sense of belonging and value wherever they exist in the dance. in order to achieve this; sense making theory would be used as theoretical frame work towards interrogating the essence of the signifying symbols. from the findings, due to lack of interpretation and documentation on the use of signifying symbols in dance. it is gradually going into extinction or misclassify as mere props. in conclusion, non dance scholars should mailto:akasdancescholar@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 2 always attribute meaning to every signifying symbols used in traditional dances beyond the aesthetics perception; because in them people’s cultural identity and sustainability are imbedded. keywords: traditional dance, nkwanwite, mythology belief, sense making theory introduction dance as an art used non-verbal forms to communicate with its audience. the non-verbal forms always come in the form of gestures, movements, symbols and otherwise. in non-verbal communication using a signifying symbol, rhythm and movement are of great essence.the use of communicative signifying symbols in traditional dances tells us the situation of events at a particular time, what gave rise to situation and proffer the possible way in resolving the situation. akas nicholas observed that “in dance the use of signifying symbols in traditional dance is not static, it changes because its thematic potency always centers on communal mythological belief system. (2). aspasia dania concurred; signifying codes are a form of knowledge representation which retains the characteristics of things or behavious that are directly observable in the environment (eg trees, animals and people). (24) the use of useful and meaningful signifying symbols in dance, makes it symbolic language tool for communication. the level of the symbolic language exhibited in dance using signifying symbols cut across barriers of language and culture, making it a ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 3 universal tool for communication irrespective of; tribes, religion, tradition and profession. roxy levy maintains that; choreographers/dancers use symbolism to communicate with the audience. they usually have a certain story or idea in mind that they want to portray. this is what is called the “intent” of the dance world. (5) the essence of signifying symbols in dance brings the people closer to their various dances with an interpretative mindset of seeing it beyond mere annual festivals and use of signifying symbols as mere artifacts akas suggested that; the movement pattern of symbols during performances vary greatly from one culture to another depending on the way in which environmental, historical and sociological circumstances are portrayed semotically through the use of symbols. (21) the dancer uses his body movement/signifying symbols to externalized the choreographer’s inner most emotion and reproduce it before an audience in order for them to understand the originality of the existing dance in form, styles, contextualization and otherwise. rosemarie samaritan further postulates that; for the dancer’s body to communicate effectively using signifying symbols, it must undergo series of training, formation and adaption in order to enhance the communicative cum interpretative essence in dance movement. the dance steps are ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 4 well crafted within the signifying symbols during dance festivals, in such a way that it will make a positive statement before the live audience. (185) theoretical framework all analysis in this paper is anchored on sense making theory by dervin brenda. sense making theory helps to examine the communicative value in any creative work of art; be it dance, music, printings and drawing. it gives the artistthat sense of belonging that at the stage of creation every idea matters, especially when utilized positively. naresh kumar agarwal observed that; sense making theory is all about trying to reconcile apparent differences and polarities without wishing away the difference, but reorganizing them as important. (106) dervins brenda as cited by foreman wernet opines that; the use of sense making theory while analyzing cultural symbols paysexplicit attention to the “hows” of communication that occurs at every level of performance, that helps us not only to understand how performance communicated, but rather to intervene, change and improve the potency. (116) the above assertion shows that no cultural symbols exist in abstraction; rather the environmental factors give rise to its existence and substance. the essence of any symbols used in traditional dances is to pass the required information across, but ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 5 in a situation whereby the intended message is not achieved, it automaticallybecomes ordinary props. dervins brenda stated that; be it in music, dance, symbols, play analysis and costume analysis the sole aim of any creative work is to; bridgethe gap of complex or multiple misinterpretations placed on content analysis of performance, rather than aiming to assist individuals and community to make sense in the usage of cultural symbols beyond generalized assumption. (64) this paper adopted this theory in order to give the iconic symbols used in the dance understudy (nkwanite) sense of belonging and socio-cultural values. devins maintained that; if the communicative gaps in the use of symbols are not well analyzed, interpreted and documented. the required essence (communication) becomes mere art for art sake only. (4) dervin further stated that every cultural symbol used in performance or literary work must be appreciated by the evidence from its point of pictorial diagram. it is based on this pictorial analysis by drevin brenda that the various symbols used in the dance (nkwanite) would be analyzed for effective understanding. help gap understanding ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 6 the socio-cultural values of signifying symbols akas posits that “though symbols are beautifying in the eyes, its usage before the choreographer automatically becomes a corrective instrument”. (65) uji charles concurred that; people should always look beyond aesthetic cultural attachment in the use of symbols: rather what should be is the interpretative utilization before the ideal audience. (48) so far, every signifying symbols in dance to be identified and appreciated, it must always perform the following cultural values: 1. it always stands as a corrective tool. 2. it stands as a watch dog. 3. it stands as historic referral for proper documentation especially in oral traditions. 4. it aids in cultural identification. perspectives on signifying symbols in traditional dances the use of signifying symbols in dance is gradually been misinterpreted as artistic enhancement or indigenous tool for performative display. this assumption based on generalized perception is true and acceptable, but in this paper it goes beyond that. scholarly wise, in dance, for any signifying symbols to be culturally acceptable as communicative tool, it must undergo four due processes such as: (a) what gave rise to the emergent of the symbols? (b) the effectiveness of symbols beyond its assumed usage. (c) the communal belief system on the symbols. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 7 (d) the socio-cultural essence of the symbols in solving situation of things in the community. signifying symbols vary in their usage but what should be the basic perception of any choreographer is its sociological function. it is the sociological perspective attached to the use of symbols in traditional dances that reawaken people’s consciousness to begin to value the use of symbols in dance as a communicative tool. akas affirms that; the use of signifying symbols must be made sacrosanct for the initiate only, because they are the ones who understand and uphold the cosmological ideology imbedded in them as cultural signifier, identifier and sustainability. (47) the origin of nkwanwite dance this dance centers on women and their various experiences in their matrimonial home. the dance started in 1905, according to mrs orji agha in an interview by a woman called mrs udu ibeh, who was believed to be the first woman to perform this great and ageless dance in afikpo community. mrs udu ibeh in an interview said; she played a symbolic role in this dance because, she was the first woman to get married at the age of eleven in afikpo community. so, because of her inexperience in what marital life is all about, she suffered a lot in the hands of her husband. according to mrs ibeh in an interview too, her husband beat her every day because she was not good in sex, she did not know how to wash her husband’s clothes and she was not good in cooking. so because of all these, her husband beat her claiming he wanted his wife to be strong, sexually active and caring. according to mrs julian uruh in an interview, “the beating was so much on mrs. udu ibeh that as a child, she ran ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 8 back to her parents for help. but her parents would return her back that same night to her husband telling her that in marriage, parents are not allowed to interfere. on several occasions, mrs udu ibeh was disgraced in public by her husband for forgetting to call him the pet name he loves which was “di m oma”. mrs ejem in an interview said; ‘it was recorded that each time she forgot to call him the pet name, her husband would flog her with any available stick around. mrs udu ibeh was highly maltreated in the hands of her husband who was 45 years older than her’’. her husband on his part was a drunk, a womanizer and a chain smoker. on several occasions, the husband would be so drunk that he would end up inside a gutter, at times her neighbours would call her and say "thatyour drunk and good for nothing husband has chosen his comfortable place again as usual, go and carry him”. mrs udu ibeh in her interview said once she heard this, she would run out to go and save her husband. mrs julian uruh still in an interview explained, “if ibeh sleeps inside the gutter till the next day, he would kill his wife the next day”. so each time she hears her husband was inside a gutter, she rushed out to save her husband. so one fateful day, according to mrs ibeh, she was trying to carry her husband who was heavy both in size and body structure, when she had a dislocation and was taken to a midwife for treatment. it was in the house of the midwife under serious pains that she started crying and singing. her crying and singing was narrating her ugly experiences in the hands of her husband, starting from the first day till that particular moment. she said in one of her songs that “marriage has a sweet and bitter taste; it is the duty of a woman to accept both taste for peace to reign”. it was her cries of lamentation that originated nkwanwite dance in afikpo till date. nkwanwite dance performance in afikpo bases its origin and communicative potency on some metaphoric guide, serving as a ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 9 reflective pointer and as a reminder in the mind-set of any woman in afikpo that wants to get married. nkwanwite dance performance in afikpo, ebonyi state initiation ceremony the initiation ceremony into nkwanwite dance performance is of great essence semiotically. it is strictly meant for young ladies between the ages of 20-34years. the reason for this age is because it is believed that at this age bracket, any young lady in afikpo is supposed to be in a relationship and/or preparing to get married. so once any lady in afikpo has gotten to this age bracket, she will be fully initiated into the dance. during the initiation ceremony, there is no sign of ritual of any kind, rather the body of dancer determines whether they will be initiated into the dance or not. the body of the dancer stands as the only decisive tool in becoming a member of this group. the body of the dancer remains highly indispensable symbolically; because it helps to determine whether the young men who will come to watch the dance will be attracted and afterwards seek for any of the ladies’ hand in marriage. according to mrs ibeh in an interview; ‘what makes a good dancer and a full initiate in this dance is the ability of the dancer to take care of her body. it is believed that once she can achieve that, she will look charmingly attractive in the eyes of young men who will be searching for their future wives during the performance’’. in order to achieve the required body configuration to be a member, the selected young ladies to be initiated will be assembled together in a compound fenced round which symbolically is called ngkachi umunwaanyi (protector of the ladies). the essence of this symbolic fence (ngkachi umunwaanyi) is to protect the outside world from seeing the ladies until the d-day. inside this compound, the initiates would be taught a lot of things like; a. how to seduce their husbands ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 10 b. how to feed their husbands and children c. how to take care of their mothersin-law d. how to avoid being a gossip subject e. how to manage in the time of lack in the family f. how to take care of themselves and still be in good shape before and after giving birth. the above pictures shows what some women suffer in their husband's house; all these would be taught to the initiates by a special woman nicknamed mma ugogbe nwada (the beauty of the maidens). mma ugogbe nwaada remains a symbolic woman during the initiation because during her days as a young lady and a full member of nkwanwite, she kept all the rules and regulations guiding the initiates then. she had up to eight suitors all asking for her hand in marriage, and there was a general saying that ‘whenever she is dancing, all the men watching her performance would be carried away to empty their pockets on her’. so during the initiation, she makes sure that the initiates are very attractive, charming and beautiful for the young men who will be watching their performance on the d-day. it is a belief that any initiate who has gotten to the age of marriage and keeps the rules and regulations guiding the dance must surely get her future husband from the young men who are watching the performance. during the full initiation into the dance of nkwanwite, the initiates always appear in three symbolic dance line formation; a. the sampling formation b. the bravery formation c. the readiness formation all these formations are communicative in nature more especially, in exposing the different stages nkwanwite initiates ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 11 pass through before becoming full initiates. the communicative potency of this formation is as follows: the sampling formation plate 1: a cross section of maidens on the sampling formation this sampling formation is dotingly called the formation of queens. this formation is solely meant for maidens who are complete women and have all it takes to make their various would-be husbands remain forever faithful to them. the idea of being complete women is that the maidens are virgins who will get impregnated on their first sexual intercourse with their would-be husbands. the special gift from their ‘chi’ to those who maintain their virginity before becoming initiates into the dance is a male child. the male child serves as a proof of faithfulness of the woman before getting married to her husband. at this point, the initiates are told to always be attractive to their husbands before, during and after child bearing, because once they stop being attractive, their husbands will have the necessary justifications to cheat on them. they are also advised to always expose those attractive parts of their body like their stomach, breasts, waist, laps and hair, because once all these are well kept too, their husbands will forever remain faithful to them. it is at ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 12 this point that the initiates are fully educated and informed on what it takes to be a wife both in child bearing, looking attractive to their husbands and also knowing how to encourage, motivate and sustain the family during agonizing moments. the bravery formation plate 2: a cross section of maidens on bravery formation this can be interpreted as the moment of tribulations in the various families the women will be married into. the initiates are here reminded that marriage is not a bed of roses, rather at times the taste differs like; a. some marriages are sweet sweet sweet b. some marriages are bitter sweet bitter c. some marriages are bitter bitter bitter d. some marriages are neither sweet nor bitter but whichever situation they meet in their marriages, all they need to do is to give unswerving support to their husbands and guide their children. the bravery formation fortifies and presents the various realities of life to the initiates by telling them that depending solely on their husbands will at times warrant dehumanization, starvation, and make the woman a ‘non ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 13 locomotive engine’ before the eyes of her husband’s mother inlaw and her husband’s siblings, thereby belittling the woman to the general adage of ‘oriaku’. so in order for the initiates to maintain their respects in their husbands’ house, they must contribute positively at home. the readiness formation plate 3: a cross section of maidens on readiness formation the body communicative potency of initiates here presents them as being fully trained, informed and equipped on how to take care of the house, their husband and their children. also, it means the initiates are fully prepared for marriage and any man that marries them at this point, marries forever to breakthrough and open doors. the semioticinterpretative gift that follows the initiates at this point is always showcased whenever they spread their hands during performance which implies – ‘we are a blessing to any man that marries us and remains faithful to us’. the initiates at this point are seen as full initiates and are officially welcomed into nkwanwite dance performance. music the use of the music called akwa oyiri in nkwanwite dance performance is of a symbolic essence. it is of symbolic essence ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 14 because the thematic strength of the song centers on reminding any married woman in afikpo, the disadvantages of being a barren woman. according to the thematic analysis of the music, any married woman in afikpo that is not pregnant nine months after her wedding or that has stayed years in the marriage without any child, is always seen as a she-he and cannot be associated with. the husband of the barren woman or wife is free to marry another wife once it is confirmed that the barren woman fondly addressed as ‘she-he’ cannot give birth to a child, or she will be asked to go back to her parents. the music semiotically portrays the various sufferings barren women go through in their husband’s house in afikpo. this suffering goes as follows: a. she will not be allowed to cook for her husband, because it is a belief in afikpo that once a barren woman cooks for her husband, he will not be able to impregnate any woman again should he decide to remarry. b. she is not allowed to send the children of her co-wife on an errand, because it is believed that sending the children on an errand blocks the favour that will follow the child when he/she gets married in the future. c. she is not allowed to stay in the same room with her husband, rather she is subjected to a thatch house, the reason for subjecting her to this symbolic thatch house is to remind her that she is not yet a full woman. d. the barren woman is also subjected to constant cries which are full of rhetorical questions for her ‘chi’. the symbolic essence of the cries of the barren woman is to beckon on her ‘chi’ to remember her and give her own child. aside the suffering of the barren woman stated in the song akwa-oyiri, the theme of the song for effective interpretative ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 15 understanding is divided into three symbolic sub-headings such as; a. akwa oyiri na chi ya (the cry of the barren woman to her god) the woman is expected to ask the gods of fertility in afikpo why she is still barren while others are giving birth in numbers. according to mrs ibeh in an interview, it is of their mythological belief in afikpo; that once the barren woman can cry well, she might touch the heart of the ‘god of fertility’ and she will start bearing children again. in order to achieve this effectively, the woman is expected to do three symbolic things like; be totally faithful, avoid envying those who have children and their children and to be always submissive to her husband. plate 4: this dance movement symbolically represents akwa oyiri na chi ya b. akwa oyiri bere di ya (the cry of the barren woman to her husband) this is another symbolic action in the dance. the barren woman is expected to cry to appeal to the heart of her husband not to marry another woman, not to rule out her chances of giving birth completely and not to address her as she-he again. at this point, ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 16 oyiri (the barren woman) is advised to always do everything humanly possible in putting a smile on her husband’s face. plate 5: this movement represents akwa oyiri bere di ya dance movement the dance movement here is very symbolic, communicative and of great semiotic essence. the semiotic interpretation of the dance movement lies in the symbolic communicative formation of the dancers on stage. it is the symbolic communicative formation of the advanced women dancers that portrays the message of the dance to the audience. the dancers being advanced women and not young ladies is of symbolic essence. it is believed that these women dancing are real women and they all gave birth in their various husband’s houses exactly nine months after their marriage and all their first issues are all males. so they are seen as complete women and not ‘she-he’ (barren woman). another effective essence why advanced women are the only dancers, according to the belief of afikpo, is that women performing nkwanwite dance is to prove three symbolic thoughts on women such as; to prove the strength of women irrespective of their age, to prove their fertility and also to prove their readiness to give birth to more children if age permits them. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 17 the communicative semiotic essence in the dance is divided into three symbolic dance formations such as: aka ije oyiri this dance movement based on its symbolic interpretative essence centers on women of afikpo especially the married ones. it exposes the negative effects of been barren for years after marriage and not being able to conceive in the first nine months after marriage as the tradition demands. it is of great belief in afikpo, based on the interpretation of the dance movement ,that any barren woman in the community is yet to be accepted by her husband, her husband’s siblings and husband’s kinsmen based on the fact that anything can happen to the fate of the woman. the use of the tale of a black horse as a prop during the dance movement is of great significance. the black horse tale symbolizes the uncertainty in the married life of the barren woman in the community. the black horse tale based on its symbolic hand movement during the dance, reminds the barren woman of the following; i. that her husband has the right to return her back to her parents. ii. that her husband can still keep her as a wife but totally ignore having any sexual intercourse with her. iii. that her husband can still keep her while he remarries. iv. on no account is she allowed to send the child of the favoured wife on any errand. all these can be witnessed with the symbolic throwing of hands by the women with the tale of the black horse in their hands during the dance movement. oyiri nnoo this dance movement is highly symbolic and communicative in nature. the symbolic, communicative and interpretative potency of the dance movement centers on the following; the two ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 18 women, black horse tail and the white handkerchief. this dance movement communicatively portrays the total acceptance of any married woman in afikpo community in her husband’s community. the total acceptance is always effectively based on the mutual understanding between her and whatever she meets in her husband’s house. the following portrays the yardstick for measuring total acceptance in oyiri-nnoo dance movement formation. those yardsticks are as follows: plate 6: this dance step symbolizes oyiri nnoo a. to be an achiever. b. he wants his wife to be a gogetter. these are symbolic meanings placed on the open arena performance space, which any woman married into the community is expected to fulfill throughout her stay in her husband’s house. the open performance arena transients from being a mere venue to a serious reflective tool for married women in afikpo community which helps them imbibe good character in their homes. conclusion from findings so far, signifying symbols is an indispensible tool in any traditional performance in nigeria and beyond. what ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 19 should always be the working metaphor of any choreographer is to make use of communicative iconic symbols to avoid myopic misinterpretation. at this point if possible, the choreographer should always alert the audience before and after production; that beyond the mere props used by the dancers there is an interpretative undertone in them. it is through the undertones that dance (especially nkwanite), will be appreciated as didactic tool. in conclusion, dance scholars should put more effort in analyzing, documentary and preserving symbolic cultural artifact before they are been misinterpreted as log of wood or ordinary sculptural work. works cited akas, nicholas. dance, a sociological tool in a child’s development:dancing monster and uzo asexamples, global journal of human social science arts and humanities, vol. 15 (2) 2015. pp 38-48. aspasia, dawia: the ability of using symbols and its contribution to dance learning: the laban notation system. athens: university of athens press, 2015. dervin, brenda: audience as listener and learner, teacher and confidante: the sense-making approach. michigan: michigan university press, 2003. foreman, wernet: rethinking communication: introducing the sense –making methodology. london: harington press, 2003. naresh, kumar agarwal: making sense of sense making: tracing the history and development of dervin’s ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 20 sense-making methodology. london: university of london press, 2017. roxy, levy. semiotics in information system. texas: university of texas press, 2014. samaeritter, rosemarie: body, movement and dance in psychology. netherland: netherland university press, 2009. uji, charles: “towards the theories and practice of the dance art.” international journal of humanities and social science, vol. 4 no. 4, 2014. 251 – 259. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 21 literature, history and contemporary development in nigeria: a study of chigozie obioma’s the fishermen chioma emelone department of english and literary studies nwafor orizu college of education, nsugbe email: emelonechioma@gmail.com abstract literature reflects the society and so is a tool for historical discourse. literary artists in nigeria have used this means to bring up issues which seem forgotten in the nation’s history. these issues are presented to their readers to enlighten them so as to enable them solve contemporary problems such as poor leadership because nigeria as a nation has yet to grapple with the problem of poor leadership since independence. this problem has been a great concern to literary artists as they portray the masses’ expectations and disappointments. the annulment of 1993 presidential election in nigeria is one of them. this massive disappointment has been recreated by chigozie obioma in the fishermen where he tells of the shattered hope of a proud father of six who wishes his sons to be great men in the society. he also presents the torn hope and peace of these brothers as he tells the story of the symbolic meeting of the brothers with chief m.k.o. abiola which metaphorically alludes to the struggle of nigeria’s failed leadership. with the use of sociological critical approach to literary analysis, the dashed hope of the nigerian masses and its effects on the populace are discussed. keywords: literature, history, contemporary development, failed leadership mailto:emelonechioma@gmail.com ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 22 introduction history can be recreated through literature. because literature mirrors the society, literary artists bring back to the present those events that had taken place in the society at one point in time or the other. this move is not merely for the sake of art but to help in redirecting the present for a positive change. african writers, as ezeigbo puts it, “grapple with the reality of african past for the purpose of illuminating and interpreting the present and directing the future” (11). the contemporary development of every nation must begin with the correction of past mistakes and with the reenactment of these past mistakes and their consequences; the writer is hopeful that a new society will emerge. one particular problem which nigeria has been facing as a country is poor leadership and that has slowed down the pace of the country’s development. leadership entails the capability of successfully managing an entity or an organization. it involves the ability to give meaningful direction to collective effects through locating and solving the problems of an organization. the importance of leadership in government is affirmed by masciulli, mikhail and knight who have it that “leadership is an essential feature of all government and governance: weak leadership contributes to government failures, and strong leadership is indispensable if the government is to succeed” (3). this, therefore, means that there could be a government without leadership because it is just a characteristic of government, and that its presence may not be felt in a particular government or governance. in this case, it is the weak form of leadership which may eventually bring about a disaster. leadership implies empathy and commitment to the populace. a leader needs to possess a deep understanding about the feelings and thoughts of those whom he leads so as to be able to really consider their perspectives. he should also be committed to the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 23 growth of the people and the nation at large and should lead by example. by so doing, a leader displays a sense of responsibility. the nigerian masses, the common people in the country, have lost hope and trust in the government because of the insensitivity of those who occupy various leadership positions in the country. these leaders have continued to exhibit and protect selfish interests in their course of governing the nation. achebe in the trouble with nigeria succinctly posits that “the trouble with nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership… the unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise to the responsibility, to the challenge of personal example which are the hallmarks of the leadership” (1). since her independence in 1960, nigeria as a nation has been facing a lot of leadership problems. the unsteady leadership forms which began to fluctuate between the civilian and the military immediately after independence coupled with other glaring effects of the nation’s contact with the colonial masters have left the nigerian masses in a pitiable state. between 1963 when dr. nnamdi azikiwe took over the leadership of nigeria from the westerners and this present day, the military rule was on ground for about twenty one years. as recorded by ogbeidi, it was general muhammadu buhari who ousted power from alhaji shehu shagari in 1983 when the nigeria populace tasted democracy once again after the civilian administration of dr. nnamdi azikiwe between 1963 and 1966. then, came general ibrahim babangida in 1985, who in 1993 promised the nigeria nation of handing over the steering of the nation’s affairs to a democratically elected president. and also, election process was planned and the masses went to the polls with the hope of returning to democracy. it was a kind of battle against the military regime for nigerians who were so determined to take the bull by the horns. votes were cast between chief m.k.o. abiola of social democratic party and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 24 the national republican convention candidate, alhaji bashir tofa. the nigerian masses had their hope held high, but then, it crashed. as asserted by salawu and hassan, “it was the hope of good governance that nigerians expected from mko abiola that made them vote for him across the nation irrespective of ethnic and religious affiliations” (32). writing about the election, reuben abati, a renowned nigerian journalist puts it in his article, “june 12 and m. k. o. abiola” that the election was adjudged to be free and fair, and peaceful. but the ibrahim babangida-led military government had been playing games with the transition – to – civil rule, and so it chose not to announce the final results of the election, and later on june 23, 1993, the presidential election was annulled. it was a torn-hope for the nigeria masses as power returned again to the military when chief ernest shonekan’s interim government was ousted and general sani abacha took over the mantle of leadership. this disappointment has been metaphorically recreated by chigozie obioma in his first novel, the fishermen, a novel shortlisted for the 2015 man booker prize and the winner of the inaugural ft/oppenheimer award for fiction. this is one of the problems that have emanated after independence and writers such as chinua achebe, ngugi wa thiong’o, mongo beti, ayi kwei armah, femi osofisan, etc. have presented these problems in one way or the other. in the words of ugwuanyi, “most african writers have tended to draw their materials from past and continuing history of their people and have been showing their concern for or commitment to the aspirations of their people (73). this is the case with obioma in this novel, for writers, by diagnosing the ills of the society make the people aware of the follies of man. in criticizing the shortcomings of the government and the people’s attitude to life, they are hopeful that meaningful changes will eventually take place. this ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 25 confirms the assertion made by amodu that “literature become a vital tool in exposing various societal shortcomings. it instructs the mind of the reader, it serves as a window to the world and an effective instrument for national consciousness, integration and development” (123). brief background information on obioma’s the fishermen set in akure, the capital city of the present ondo state in the ‘90s between the electioneering period of the 1993 presidential election and the military regime of general sani abacha, the fishermen is a story of four brothers ikenna, boja, obembe and benjamin whose father works with the central bank of nigeria and, at the commencement of the story, is transferred to yola, a town in the northern nigeria. their father’s dream is to see his children as great men as he maps out various professions for them. when their father eventually leaves for yola, the boys, against their parents’ desire decide to fish in omi-ala river, a river where terrible incidents take place. it is on one of the days when they are at this dangerous omi-ala river that the brothers have an encounter with abulu, a madman whose prophesy that one of the brothers will kill the eldest, tears down the hope and expectation of their father who, on his own part, has failed in his responsibility as a father to intervene at an appropriate time. this family story of four brothers is fused with the nigeria story of the electioneering and annulment of the 1993 presidential election and its effects on the populace as well as the plights of the people during the abacha regime. as the stories intertwine, the brothers meet one of the presidential candidates, m.k.o. abiola, when he comes to akure on a campaign tour and he gifts them a calendar which they cherish so much. it is their hope that “if he becomes the president after the election, we’d be able to always brag that we’ve met the president of nigeria!” (the fishermen 73), and “when m.k.o. becomes president, we could ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 26 go to abuja, nigeria’s seat of government, and we would be let in by just showing the calendar” (the fishermen 80). it is, therefore, a devastating situation when ikenna, during his period of metamorphosis, tears the calendar to pieces. as helon habila puts it in his review of the novel, the fishermen embodies “a metaphorical allusion to the struggles of nigeria’s failed leaders… an elegy to lost promise, to a golden age squandered”. nigeria, indeed, “has been less than fortunate in its leadership” (achebe 11). with the use of sociological approach to literary criticism, the relationship between the writer and the society is explored. a critic explores the circumstances of the social and cultural period in which the writer lives and the relation of a literary work to the audience toward which the work is addressed. ogene puts it that “the basis for this approach to literature is the conviction that art is not created in a vacuum: it is a work not simply of a person, but as an author fixed in time and space answering to a community of which he is an important member” (33). the writer’s environment helps to explain social attitudes and opinions that appear in a literary work. literature, therefore, becomes a product of time, place, culture, and an individual, and therefore, capable of affecting, and perhaps changing the society into which they are introduced. sociological approach is considered appropriate for this study because the novel under study deals with a family, the smallest unit of the society, alongside nigeria leadership of the 1990s where the political, economic and culture milieu are woven. failed leadership as portrayed in the fishermen nigerian leaders, at the time in which this novel is set – president ibrahim babangida and general sani abacha – have been acknowledged as authors of pain on the nigeria populace. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 27 the babangida administration, according to olayiwola, “promulgated many decrees to curb political communication and gag the press. despite the administration’s euphoria and attempts to wear a human face, journalists were imprisoned, newspapers/magazines were proscribed, university teachers were sacked, social critics were arrested and jailed, students were massacred and a press council was established” (the fishermen 38). the reasons made the masses eagerly await the transition from military rule to the civilian, but eventually, the 1993 election was cancelled. it was, indeed, a coup against the nigerian people. the abacha regime, on the same hand, let loose of terror on the nation. abati, in his article “june 12 and mko abiola” asserts that during the abacha-led government, media houses were attacked, journalists were jailed, bombed, beaten, civil society activists were hauled to detention, and when, on june 11, 1994, chief m.k.o abiola the undeclared winner of the 1993 presidential election, requested that his mandate be duly recognized, he was arrested for treasonable felony and eventually died in detention on 7th july 1998. obioma, in thefishermen, recreates the disappointment by the leaders using a first person point of view. just as yakubu puts it, “african writers are social crusaders. they have used their literary works to express their concern over bad governance in their various societies” (77). the failure in leadership is metaphorically portrayed in the fishermen through the character of mr. eme james agwu whose departure from his home tears his family apart. when the story commences, the reader grasps the fact that he has been transferred to a branch of central bank of nigeria situated yola “a town in the north that was a camel distance of more than one thousand kilometers away” (9). this becomes a big blow to his wife and children. his ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 28 sons -ikenna, boja, obembe and ben begin to live a life coated with freedom. the eldest of the brothers, ikenna, a fifteen year old boy, becomes the head of the house and he, at a point, becomes so defiant to his mother’s instructions. the narrator, ben keeps emphasizing the effect of their father’s absence on the family. that home of his which he rules with great strength and unity becomes vulnerable due to his absence. his sons who he has wished to become great men pilot, lawyer, doctor and professor decide to take up fishing without their parents’ knowledge. fishing in a dreadful omi-ala river shows the boys’ level of vulnerability as their encounter with abulu the madman and his prophesy that ikenna will be killed by one of his brothers set the plot of the novel in full motion. eme’s initial intervention when he becomes aware of his sons’ adventure at the omi-ala river would have nipped the problem in the bud because his presence around his house, and his principle of guerdon “a word with which he emphasized a warning or highlighted the retribution for a wrong act” (the fishermen 11) – keep the boys’ behaviour in check. in his absence, ikenna enveloped by fear due to abulu’s prophesy, not only talks back at their mother, but also isolates himself, skips breakfasts to avoid going to school with his brother boja, and skips lunches and dinners when they are meals that are eaten together from the same bowl as his brothers. he, as a result of these, begins to emaciate and his sclera – the whites of his eyes turns pale yellow; he actually becomes sick. it is only a threat of contacting his father about his health condition that forced ikenna to seek medical attention. it is only when the damage has been done; when his two sons have lost their lives that eme returns home and settles with his family in akure even as the consequences of his absence linger on and his dream of having great men as sons becomes shattered. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 29 obioma metaphorically uses this story to expose the failure of the nigerian leaders who are so irresponsive to the plight of the masses. just as eme’s lack of readiness in reacting to the breakdown of his family’s unity and his initial irresponsive attitude towards his wife’s emotional breakdown, the condition of the masses also received lack of concern from the powers that be. the economy of 1990s nigeria is described by the narrator as ‘biting’ (the fishermen 31). the narrator equally describes the conversation which his parents have on his father’s first visit from yola “about the depletion of the naira under the rotten polity that is this current administration… the central bank was heading for doom. he bemoaned the poor health facilities in the country. he swore at abacha, the dictator, and railed on about the marginalization of igbos in nigeria. then be complained about the monster the british had created by forming nigeria as a whole” (the fishermen 34). with this, obioma indicts the british for these problems. ikenna’s blood which flows into some spilt palm oil in mama’s kitchen when he is stabbed by boja his brother is also likened to “the river niger and benue whose confluence at lokoja birthed a broken and mucky nation”(the fishermen 149). the author apparently objects to the amalgamation of the southern and northern protectorates of nigeria by sir fredrick lugard in 1914. the depletion of naira, the central bank heading for doom and the ‘biting’ economy all point towards the state of poverty which engulfs the masses. the return of the queues at the petrol stations which is attributed to “the nation’s daily output [which] has now been cut by fifteen thousand barrels a day” (the fishermen 237) and the “rutted and dilapidated highway “death traps” called road” (the fishermen 296), where people die everyday, all depict a failure in leadership. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 30 the portrayal of the masses’ response to failed leadership in nigeria the leaders’ inability to synthesize the nation’s resources so as to perform creditably and acceptably and their unscrupulous manifestation of their superior strength, and behaving more like savage tyrants than partners and friends greatly affects the masses who respond to some of these actions in various ways such as riots. obiomarecreates the people’s response at the annulment of the 1993 presidential election. riots broke out in some parts of the nation as the situation becomes a tribal issue. this situation and many other incidence before it confirms achebe’s assertion that “nigeria was called “a mere geographical expression” not only by the british who had an interest in keeping it so, but even by our “nationalists” when it suited them to retreat into tribe to check their more successful rivals from other parts of the country” (the fishermen 5). ben, the novel’s narrator tells of his experience during the uprising. at this point, his father’s irresponsive attitude is buttressed. when the commotion begins while they are at school, “i sat there, waiting for the moment when father, like other fathers who had come to pick up their children, would come. but instead of him, boja appeared in my classroom’s door calling my name… “daddy isn’t coming, “he said…” (the fishermen 123). he leaves with his brothers and they run for safety. their contact with m.k.o. abiola gives them great concern as they assume that that will give them away as m.k.o. supporters and so the enemies’ targets. the narrator captures the incidence as a tribal war thus: a group of men, armed with clubs and machetes, trooped past, casting furtive glances about and chanting, “death to babangida, abiola must rule”… we crawled behind one of the houses and found a van with a dead man in it ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 31 parkedjust across from the backyard, its front door left open. we could tell from the man’s attire – a long, flowing senegalese robe – that he was a northern: the main targets of the onslaught by m.k.o. abiola supporters, who’d hijacked the riot as a struggle between his west, and the north, where the military president, general babangida, belonged. (the fishermen 126) consequently, there is a mass exit of the northerners from the south and vice versa. again, the masses, who have seemingly lost hope in the government on ground, resort to every means to avert suffering. and so, corruption becomes the order of the day. ben, the narrator, puts it that corruption… had eaten the entrails of the nation” (the fishermen 219). this is not only the case of a corrupt government but the masses in the public offices who apparently receive meagre salaries indulge in the act so as to make ends meet. they too become insensitive to one another’s plights. the constable whom mr. agwu meets at the police station obviously demands for some bribe from him before he carries out his responsibility not minding that the man before him is a father of a missing child. secondly, the narrator’s as well as his brothers’ hope to migrate to canada is as a result of the condition which the family at that point is stuck in. the news of their travel to canada is received with utmost joy and portrays the move as a step into a more comfortable life. the narrator puts it thus: “mr. bayo, father continued, had promised to take my brother and me with him to canada. the news exploded over the table like a grenade, scattering shrapnel of joy all across the room. mother shouted “hallelujah!” and, rising from her chair, burst into singing. i, too, was elated and my body was suddenly charged with wanton joy” (the fishermen 219). ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 32 stylistically, obioma in the fishermen exhibits a degree of expertise. having keyed into the style of such writers as daniel defoe, charles dickens, camara laye, ferdinand oyono, chimamanda adichie, tsitsi dangaremgba and other bildungsroman writers, obioma presents a narrator who “moves from innocence through mock-sophistication to wisdom” (dobie 409). just like laye, the narrator in camara laye’s the african child or kambili in adichie’s purple hibiscus, the reader meets a narrator who presents his story through more than one perspective. there is a primary vantage point which is that of the young boy but it is, at some points, being modified by the viewpoints of a man, reflecting on his childhood. with retrospection narration, the narrator gives a recall of events from a distance of many years where he looks back on time when he was younger. he tells us, “wherever i think of our story, how that morning would mark the last time we’d live together, all of us, as the family we’d always been, i begin – even these two decades later – to wish he hadn’t left, that he had never received that transfer letter” (the fishermen 12). by this, the reader deduces the fact that the story is being recalled after twenty years, at a time when the narrator who is nine years old at the commencement of the events has become an adult. the choice of a first-person point of view in this novel is a great move in engaging the reader’s emotional sympathy completely. it is also a means through which the author is able to tell the story of the agwu family alongside that of 1990’s nigeria. the narrator’s relay of his father’s absence from the house and his irresponsiveness as well as their consequences aptly captures the actions and inactions of the government and their effects on the nigerian masses. a family which has ample resources and intelligent and brave children crashes due to father’s failure in ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 33 his expected responsibilities just as it is with nigeria with all the mineral resources. the use of metaphoric expressions in the novel is quite captivating. the titles of almost all the chapters are used metaphorically. mr. agwu who is the father in this novel is described as an eagle – “a mighty bird that planted his nest high above the rest of his peers, hovering and watching over his young eagles, the way a king guards his throne” (the fishermen 31). the author, in this comparison, shows the ambition, strength and responsibilities of a leader. the narrator, in making this comparison, emphasizes that their “home would not have become vulnerable in the first place, and that the kind of adversity that befell us would not have happened” (the fishermen 31). ikenna, the first of the brothers is said to be “a python: a wild snake that became a monstrous serpent living on trees, on plains above other snakes” (the fishermen 47). this description portrays ikenna as dangerous and this transformation into a monstrous being remains as a result of his father’s absence from home which gives him and his brothers the freedom of fishing at omi-ala river where they encounter abulu the madman who gives a prophesy that he will be killed by one of his brothers. mother’s inability to checkmate her sons’ behaviour even when she attempts to bring the situation under control is compared to that of a falconer. boja, the second of the brothers is compared to a fungus that “hides in the body of an ignorant host” (the fishermen 161) when his body remains in the well where he drowns himself after stabbing and killing his elder brother. hatred is likened to a leech while hope is metaphorically compared with “a tadpole : the thing you caught and brought home with you in a can, but which, despite being kept in the right water, soon died” (the fishermen 245). this metaphoric expression aptly captures the situation in which the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 34 narrator and indeed every member of his family finds themselves – and, by extension, the nigerian masses’ fate too. the narrator sees himself as a moth after the death of his brothers who since his life have been his best companion; and his younger siblings as egrets who remain unscathed in the midst of storm. symbolically, there are other incidences that point to the dashed hope of the nigerian masses as a result of failed leadership. the narrator tells of “father’s treasured portrait” which is shattered into pieces when ikenna kicks his sister’s plastic chair and it plunged into the shelf on which the glass covered portrait is. another symbolic incidence is the darkness which, the narrator observes, has descended heavily around them as abulu, the madman sings on after prophesing about ikenna’s death. “even the nigerian flag that hovered over the police station two hundred metres away had darkened” (the fishermen 91). this obviously does not signify positivity. it suggests doom and this is what the masses are yet to grapple with. ikenna’s passport which his brother tears and throws into a well and the drowning of boja in that same well, the boys’ desire and plan to leave the country for canada which is stalled by their killing of abulu and the eventual disappearance of obembe and imprisonment of ben, the narrator, all symbolize the fact that nigerian masses are mired in failed leadership. obioma’s use of simple language is probably intentional as that enables him to get his message across to his audience. as ogwude puts it, “the question of language use is of primary importance to every committed writer since he or she aims first and foremost to achieve a wide and relevance readership” (the fishermen 74). conclusion nigeria, as a nation, has been so unfortunate when it comes to leadership as an aspect of human existence and literary artists ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 35 have continued to use their works to portray the various ways where the government of the nation has failed the masses. this is what chigozie obioma has done in the fishermen, where the irresponsive attitude of a father as well as that of our leaders mar the hope and future of those they are meant to serve and protect. this recreation of history is meant to serve as a redirection to the present leaders who will redirect their steps towards working for the development of the country. works cited abati, reuben. “june 12 and m.k.o. abiola”. 11 june 2016 >pmnewsnigeria.com/2016/06/11/june-12-and-mkoabiola-by-reuben-abati>. accessed 20th october, 2019. achebe, chinua. the trouble with nigeria. heinemann, 1983. amodu, eneojoh j. “literature as a mirror of society: a literary analysis of mohammed idris’ a mystical ring”. ajellsawka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 4, no.1, 2013, pp. 122-136. dobie, ann b. “early streamofconsciousness writing: great expectation”. nineteenth century fiction vol. 25, no. 4, 1971, pp.405-416. jstor<http://www.jstor.org/stable/ 2933119> accessed 21st october, 2019. ezeigbo, t. akachi. facts and fiction in the literature of the nigerian civil war. university press, 2019. habila, helon. “the fishermen by chigozie obioma review”. the guardian 13 march 2015https://www.the guardian. com/books2015/mar/13th-fishermen-chigozie-obiomareview. accessed 20th october, 2019. http://www.jstor.org/stable/%202933119 ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 36 masciulli, joseph, mikhail a. molchanov, and w.andy knight. “political leadership in context”. ashgate research companion.2009 researchgate. net/publicastion/ 237607547-political-leadership-in-context. accessed 20th october, 2019. obioma, chigozie. the fishermen. cassava republic, 2015. ogbeidi, michael m. “political leadership and corruption in nigeria since 1960: a socioeconomic analysis”. journal of nigeria studies, vol. 1, no. 2, 2012, pp.1 – 24. ogene, mbanefo. literary appreciation: theory and practice, with creative writing andtextual critcism. nolix educational, 2010. ogwude, sophie obiajulu. “political and human rights in nonfiction prison literature”. war in african literature today 26, edited by ernest n. emenyonu. hben publishers, 2008, pp. 71-86 olayiwola, rahman olalekan. “political communications: press and politics in nigeria’s second republic”. africa media review, vol. 5 no.2, 1991, pp. 31 45, <sanweb.lib.msu. edu>dmc>pdfs>jamr005002004>. accessed 22nd oct., 2019. salawu, b. and hassan, a. o. “ethnic politics and its implications for the survival of democracy in nigeria”. journal of public administration and policy research, vol. 3, no. 2, 2011, pp. 28 – 32, http://www.academic journals.org/jpapr. accessed 16th may, 2020. ugwuanyi, ‘dele maxwell. “postcolonialism and politics of resistance in ngugi wa thiongo’s wizard of the crow”. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies volume 7, no. 1, 2020 page 37 ujah:unizik journal of arts and humanities, vol. 15 no.1, 2014, pp. 68 90. yakubu, mohammed attai. “contemporary african literature and the concern over bad governance in nigeria: a study of olu obafemi’s naira has no gender and femi osofisan’s moroutodun”. american international journal of contemporary researchvol. 5, no. 5, 2015 pp. 77 83 <www.aijcrnet.com>journals>vol_5_no_5_october_20 15>. accesssed 23rd october, 2019. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 122 ezenwa-ohaeto & ikemelu women’s sexist language as a tool of patriarchy: a re-reading of nwapa’s efuru prof. ngozi ezenwa-ohaeto department of english language & literature nnamdiazikiwe university, awka & agatha uchenna ikemelu email: adanwugo@gmail.com abstract sexist language is any discriminatory language that is either spoken or written which implies an unwarranted bias against a particular sex. patriarchy is a concept that empowers men to see themselves as superior, while women are subordinate. it is said to be at the root of sexism, and is usually practised by men against women, as revealed by various research works. there is, however, a dearth of research works on sexism as practised by women, specifically in works of fiction. this work therefore is poised to examine selected utterances of the female characters in efuru by flora nwapa so as to show how these utterances reflect sexism, and so help to sustain patriarchal ideology.the theoretical framework isfeminist critical discourse analysis, and sara mills’ criteria for evaluating statements for sexism is used for the descriptive analysis. this paper is of the view that women use the indirect form of sexist language thereby helping to sustain and perpetuate the patriarchal ideology of male domination and female subordination. keywords: sexist language, patriarchy, subordination, perpetuation introduction patriarchy is a system of practice that sees men as being superior to women. in a patriarchal society, there is an unequal power relationship between women and men as it makes men to be in control of women’s life. the male sex is taken as the standard, the norm; while the female sex is seen as being sub-standard, as according to beauvoir, “she is determined and differentiated in relation to man, while he is not in relation to her; she is the inessential in front of the essential. he is the subject; he is the absolute. she is the other” (26). invariably, beauvoir frowns at aristotle’s view that just as the soul has the body as its subject, men who by nature are superior to women are rulers, while women are ruled (lerner 208). aristotle, according to lerner, reasons that women are biologically inferior to men “a mutilated male”, and as such are inferior to men in their capacities, reasoning, and decision-making (207). for aristotle, therefore, it is a man’s world. men control and dominate everybody, specifically the women, around them. lerner continues that men are given dominant and masculine attributes which are“rational, strong, endowed with the capacity for procreation, equipped with soul and fit to rule”; while women get subordinate and feminine ones like “passionate, unable to control her appetites, weak, providing only low matter for the process of procreation, devoid of soul and designed to be ruled” (209). in a patriarchal society, the male sex (man) is hierarchically superior to the female sex (woman). according to kate millet, in this society, sex as a biological category is therefore turned into a status category that has political implications (24). man is, thus, the privileged sex, and inthe words of dale spender, “has the potential to order the world to suit their own ends, the potential to construct a language, a reality, a body of knowledge in which they are the central figures, the potential to legitimate their own primacy, and to create a system of beliefs which is beyond challenge” (142-43). the patriarchal world believes that women are naturally ordained to be under men, as katherine frank quotes a ghanaian daily saying, “a woman may gain the whole world but she would have lost her soul if she doesn’t become a male’s extension or somebody’s mother” (17). consequently, the travails of the female folk are heaped on the altar of patriarchy, a system in which women face ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 123 ezenwa-ohaeto & ikemelu different sorts of marginalization, subjugation, and exploitation, all in the name of culture. all these place women perpetually under the shadows of men. according to gloria fwangyil, women are subjected to male oppression and suppression at various stages of life. unfortunately, female oppression is deeply ingrained in the culture of the societies which ensures the continuation of patriarchal control. this situation makes it impossible for women to seek ways of liberating themselves because doing so will be tantamount to challenging the age long tradition and customs of the people. (15) based on this inequality of the sexes, the patriarchal society creates some linguistic structures that reinforce and sustain the seeming male superiority. language thus becomes a powerful tool in the transmission and perpetuation of patriarchal ideology, as in the words of cameron in feminism and linguistic theory (henceforth ‘fem.ling.’), men appropriate language and so “are able to exercise subliminal control over their subordinates and maintain their own power” (100). according to kendall and tannen,the book language and women’s place (lwp) by robin lakoff, was the first of the studies that looked at language used by women and men as dictated by the society, and, which has contributed to reinforcing the status of women as subordinates to men (640). in her work, lakoffherself argues that gender inequality is mainly demonstrated through language use, and that linguistic discrimination against women reflects in the way women are taught by the society to use language, and in the way general language use treats them (46). from their childhood, girls are trained by their parents not to talk rough like the boys, but rather, to talk like a lady. having imbibed this, later on in life, these same women will be derided by the society for not being forceful in speech, which is exactly what the early socialising process prevented them from being initially. hence, lakoff concludes that “a girl is damned if she does (learn her lessons well), damned if she doesn’t (48); just like simone beauvoir says a woman’s wings “are cut, and then she is blamed for not knowing how to fly” (731). however, an in-depth study of the works of fiction by both men and women reveal that men may not be the sole proponents of patriarchal ideology in the male-dominated world. women also can be culpable. tess onwueme rightly points out that women who at one time experienced victimization from men tend to resort todiscriminatory, oppressive and abusive use of power and thus continue to perpetuate the unjust systems which they claim to abhor (306). so could it be that while decrying man’s sexist attitude to them, women on their part exhibit the same attitude on themselves and their fellow women through their speech? this is a question begging for serious answer. and to do justice to the question, this study will analyze flora nwapa’sefuru, as the novel is said to be a work of fiction “that vividly portrays the woman’s world” (stratton 80). sexism sexism is typically seen as any situation or case that privileges one sex above the other. an action, equally, is said to be sexist if it is based on the belief that there exists a disparity between women and men, though “not biologically justified”, and which is inimical to the interests of a particular sex (umera-okeke3). societal cultural, and sometimes, religious values which prize one sex higher than the other are the major culprits of the existence of this phenomenon. sexism is a recurring decimal in many societies of the world today, and in the views of umera-okeke, the problem is further heightened by many people thinking it is a thing of the past (3). according to christie, sexismis a site for the construction and contestation of gender relations, though she regards it as “a spurious representation of realgender relations (50). sexism is also regarded as any irrelevant discrimination, stereotyping, prejudice against women or men based on their sex (graddol and swann 96; sutherland et al 687).explaining this definition, graddol and swann clarify that sexism includes any discriminatory social practice, and so, according to them, a tv breastfeeding programme which focused on mothers’ experiences cannot be termed sexist, but a programme on childrearing that does not include fathers may be called sexist. that is to say that sexism refers also to ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 124 ezenwa-ohaeto & ikemelu attitudes and/or behaviour that exalt one sex over the other (ivy and backlund72). this discrimination and exaltation is based on sex role stereotypes (gender) constructed by the patriarchal society for differentiating and judging people based on their sex. what this means is that both men and women can be affected by sexism, though more often than not, women are at the receiving end (graddol and swann 96). sexism manifests itself in the society not only through people’s behaviours or actions, but also through the language they use. in the views of umera-okeke(2), because we live in a patriarchal society that values men over women, the language we use and the way it is used reflect these values. it is believed, according to cameron in feministic critique of language (henceforth ‘fem.crt’), that “language represents the world from a masculine viewpoint” and in accordance with gender i.e. stereotyped beliefs about women, men and the relationship between them (9). incidentally, the content of these gender stereotypes reflect the unequal status and power between women and men in the society. from early childhood, people come to learn that certain concepts or words are associated with one sex or the other. it is based on this that people generally assume that a police officer is a man; a nurse is a woman; an engineer is a man; a teacher is a woman, etc.; hence, stereotypes are generated and perpetuated through language (umera-okeke 3). in line with this, menegatti and rubini observe that one of the means through which sexism is perpetrated is verbal communication (2). this is so because the content of gender stereotypes is reproduced in the utterances people make in everyday communication. sexist language based on their definition of sexism above, ivy and backlund propose that sexist language will refer to any verbal communication which exhibits those differential attitudes and behaviour (72). for dale spender, sexist language is the manifestation of bias in favour of males in language (15). she also cites berger and kachuk as defining sexist language as any language that “relegates women to a secondary and inferior place in the society” (15). this assertion is in line with that of weatherallwho observes that sexism concerns how language in various contexts constructs gender in ways that put women at a disadvantage or demean them (76). a more encompassing definition is from margaret doyle who sees sexist language as linguistic terms and usages that exclude or discriminate against women; that which presume that maleness is standard, the norm, and that femaleness is non-standard, or the exception (150). the summary of these definitions is that sexist language is a language or speech which reflects values and thought patterns that see men as superior, the ultimate but women as second-class, and the subordinate. it must be pointed out here that a language becomes sexist based on how it is used, not on what it is a system of communication, for according to fromkin, rodman, and hyams: just as the use of some words may reflect society’s views towards sex or natural bodily functions or religious beliefs, so also words may reflect racist, chauvinist, and sexist attitudes. language itself is not racist or sexist but reflects the views of various sectors of a society. such terms, however, may perpetuate and reinforce biased views, and be demeaning and insulting to those addressed. (490) on how a language reflects and connotes sexist attitudes in the society, fromkin and rodman, and hyamsquote a school journal, the balloon thus: a businessman is aggressive: a businesswoman is pushy. a businessman is good on details; she’s picky. … he follows through; she doesn’t know when to quit. he stands firm; she’s hard. … his judgements are her prejudices. he is a man of the world; she’s been around. he isn’t afraid to say what is on his mind; she’s mouthy. he exercises authority diligently; she’s power mad. he’s closemouthed; she’s secretive. he climbed the ladder of success; she slept her way to the top. (482) ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 125 ezenwa-ohaeto & ikemelu the descriptions above throw the women in bad light, while the men are described honourably. this goes to show that the journal or its society has a demeaning and debased view of businesswomen, and it reflects in the language used of the women. it has been established that women are at the receiving end of most linguistic structures and usage in the patriarchal world, as according to lakoff, “the marginality and powerlessness of women is reflected in both the ways women are expected to speak, and the ways in which women are spoken of” (45). supporting this, cameronstates that “sexist language teaches us what those who use it and disseminate it think women’s place ought to be: second class citizens, neither seen nor heard, eternal sex-objects and personifications of evil” (‘fem.ling.’91). sexist language manifests in various forms to give a glimpse into the place of men and women in the society. types of sexism sara mills in language and sexismdistinguishes between two types of sexism, namely, overt/direct sexism, and covert/indirect sexism (11-12). a. overt sexism overt sexism is language use that is clearly identified through the use of linguistic markers or through the analysis of terms that have long been associated with the expression of discriminatory opinions about women, and which are interpreted to mean that women are inferior to men. in collaboration but with more insight, benokraitis and feaganadd that overt sexism is the act of unequal and harmful treatment of women that is readily apparent, visible and observable and can be easily documented (30). forms of overt sexism mills in feminist stylistics, and language and sexism, (henceforth ‘fem.styl’.,and ‘lang.’respectively) enumerated different types of overt sexism. some of them are discussed below. 1. generic forms these are terms which are used to refer to male human and also all humans (graddol and swann 101). according to mills, the use of these generic form presents the male as the unmarked form, the norm; and the female as the marked form thereby contributing to the invisibility of the human female in a language, and in the society (‘lang.’47). supporting this view, spender asserts that using the symbol, ‘man’ at the expense of ‘woman’, supports the visibility and primacy of males; hence, the male is seen “as the worthier, more comprehensive and superior sex and we divide and organize the world along these lines” (153). under generic forms, there are generic nouns and generic pronouns. a. generic pronouns according to mills, the pronoun, he/him/his/himself becomes generic when it is used to refer to both the female sex and the male sex (‘fem. styl.’65; ‘lang.’47). she further explains that this usage can be confusing because when it is used to refer to groups of people, one may not know if it is used generically or sex-specifically, as in the example, "every child should come to school with his parent on monday.” b. generic nouns the noun, man is the most well-known generic word. it is used universally to include both women and men, though most times, it is male-directed (mills ‘lang.’49). examples are manpower, mankind, man-made, chairman, foreman, workman, etc. (mills ‘fem.styl.’67). 2.insult terms for braun and kitzinger (cited in mills ‘fem.styl’ 52), terms of insult which are used for women are sexualized, and include words like: bitch, ho, pimp, faggot, prostitute, etc. these terms, mills points out, objectify women and incite violence and abuse towards them (mills ‘lang.’ 52).stanley (cited in graddol and swann 110) found out that there are 220 words used to describe a sexually promiscuous ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 126 ezenwa-ohaeto & ikemelu woman, while there are just 20 for a sexually promiscuous man. one wonders why this should be so, if not for male glorification, because promiscuity takes both sexes to occur. 3. semantic derogation a. unequal constructions here, terms associated with women and which initially had positive meanings, overtime degenerated to have wider reference, but their male equivalents retained their high-status meaning (schultz cited in mills‘lang.’56). for instance, master and mistress were both used of a person who has control, authority or ownership; but nowadays, whereas master still retained that predominant sense, mistress has degenerated, and taken the additional and more common meaning of ‘a woman in an extramarital and sexual relationship with a man’ (graddol and swann 113). maggio (cited in ivy and backlund 87) presents the wedlock declaration: “i now pronounce you man and wife” as another unparallel construction where the man remains a man, but the woman becomes relegated to a wife, an identity that is subsumed in man’s identity. another instance, according to hellinger and bussmann (cited in mills ‘lang.’58) is where terms which refer to professions associated with women have lesser status than those associated with professions where there are more men. citing as example, they reveal that in french, couturier, a masculine word refers to fashion designers, and can be used by both women and men; but couturi`ere, a feminine word, refers to just seamstresses or tailoresses. b. diminutives as affixes another form of semantic derogation is seen in suffixes which not only refer to a female counterpart of a male referent, but also carry an additional negative meaning for the female (hellinger cited in mills ‘lang.’59). some of these affixes are -ette, -trix, etc. the suffix, -ette, is a diminutive term. giving an example, graddol and swann observe that one can be the manageress of a launderette or a cake shop, but not of a bank or a company, in which case, manager will be used as the generic term (100). 4.naming in this case, women are forced by the society to identify themselves in relation to their marital status, e.g. through the use of miss or mrs, but for men, no equivalent distinction for marital status exists. the only title used is mr (mills ‘lang.’64).in the part of igboland where this writer comes from, traditionally, married men are commonly addressed by their native titles, while married women are identified as mama with their child’s name affixed, as in mama uche, meaning uche’s mother. the patriarchal nature of language finds it worthwhile to make women’s marital status visible, while obscuring that of men (ivy andbacklund 91). spender describes it thus: “the practice of labelling women as married or single also serves supremely sexist ends. it conveniently signals who is ‘fair game’ from the male point of view” (27). in addition, for naming, some words of endearments which men use for women can be demeaning (mills ‘fem.styl.’89). mills cites as an example, ‘my chick’, which equates women with ‘cute small animals’ (89). coming closer home, in the researcher’s area, the term, ‘tomato jos’ is used to refer to women, and for mills, it implies something that is good for consumption. furthermore, she added that these words of endearment “reproduce asymmetric patriarchal power relations” (89). 5. the order of names the order of address terms usually places the male term first before the female term thereby giving a subtle indication that males are superior and more prestigious (ivy and backlund 87; mills ‘lang.’ 62). examples are mr and mrs, men and women, boys and girls, husband and wife, brothers and sisters, his and hers, etc. regarding this, malkiel(cited in willis and jozkowski139) asserts that the paired words are ordered according to the hierarchy of values in the structure of a society. consistent with malkiel’s assertion, hartman and judd (cited in willis and jozkowski 139) argue that malefirstness syndrome reinforces the second place status of women. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 127 ezenwa-ohaeto & ikemelu b. indirect sexism this type of sexism is variously called new sexism, retro-sexism (mills ‘lang.’134), subtle sexism, and covert sexism (benokraitis and feagin30; 31). it denies responsibility for an utterance through irony and humour and embeds sexism at the level of presupposition or prefaces it with disclaimers or hesitation (mills ‘lang.’ 135). indirect sexism is difficult to identify because, according to lazar, its workings in discourse are taking on more subtle forms (1). in line with this, sutherland et al note that in this type of sexism, stereotypes that support inequality are retained but nuanced, hence making it difficult to detect and challenge (687). supporting this, benokraitis and feagin, add that indirect sexism is seen as normal, natural, acceptable and customary (31). they give an instance as when a male faculty member is congratulated and encouraged for becoming the chairperson of the department, but a woman who attains such a position is likely to be asked how she could combine the job with her family schedule. giving further insight into indirect sexism, mills points out that sexism does not reside in words and phrases alone, as explicated under overt sexism (‘lang’. 3). in an utterance, there may not be a word that has sexist denotation or connotation, but the belief system articulated in the utterance may be sexist. she argues that it is not just enough to discuss the language elements of sexism i.e. the linguistic features of words that reflect sexism, rather the more subtle indirect sexism should be focused on (3). this should be so because, according to her, in certain utterances, gender is not oriented to explicitly but the “presuppositions underlying the utterances are gendered and based on sexist beliefs” (128). forms of indirect sexism mills in language and sexism identifies various forms of indirect sexism. some of them are highlighted below. a. humour: according to mills, research has shown that humour can be used to “reinforce unequal power relations” (141). she argues that women are usually at the receiving end of jokes by men who use their “stereotypical knowledge” of women “for comic effect” (140). b. presupposition:sexism at this level is difficult to challenge because the sexism inherent in an utterance can be masked hence giving way to the speaker to deny any intended sexism (145).this is as a result of what christie (54) terms ‘textual polysemy’, which is a piece of text being open to several interpretations and meanings. this can be seen in cameron (cited in mills ‘lang.’ 146) where advertisers use verbal play and presupposition, and so cannot be accused of sexism. citing also as an example, mills demonstrates that in the phrase, ‘so, have you women finished gossiping?’, there are presuppositions which should be unravelled, like: that women's talk is trivial; that women gossip more than men; that where two women are talking together, they are assumed to be gossiping, etc.), before an answer can be given (145-146). eckert and mcconnell-ginetalso add that “beyond what we say overtly, we often imply much more” as in the utterance, ‘she is tall’ (192). the implication here, according to them, may be that her height may make it difficult for her to get a boyfriend, and therein lies the sexism in the utterance (192). they therefore conclude that most times, it is implications that create and sustain gender ideologies more than explicit messages. in collaboration, mills states that it is only through metastatements which underlie statements that indirect sexism can be exposed (‘lang.’ 153). c. collocation: this has to do “with the company that words keep” (148). according to mills, some words associated with women usually have negative connotations, though they may not be sexist per se, e.g. divorcee, single mother, lone parent, etc. (149). d. euphemism: here, certain experiences in the lives of women are spoken about metaphorically, or by using male-centred terms for them (mills ‘fem.styl.’ 89). mills cites as an example, ‘menstruation’ which is referred to in several terms. in this researcher’s locality, it is called ‘the red visitor’. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 128 ezenwa-ohaeto & ikemelu theoretical framework this paper is premised on the framework of feminist critical discourse analysis (henceforth feminist cda) as espoused by michelle lazar (2007). the argument of feminist cda is that power and ideology in discourse work to sustain a hierarchically gendered social structure (lazar 141). since this working is assuming a subtle form (for instance, through indirect sexism) in the society, feminist cda aims to reveal the subtle ways in which these taken-for-granted power relations are produced, sustained, negotiated and challenged in the society (142). this calls to mind the focus of cda on exploring ways that “social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context” (dijk352), but feminist cda, in addition to that, pays a detailed attention to gendered assertions in such discourses.being that one of the principles of feminist cda is to investigate how gendered relations of power and gender ideology are constructed and deconstructed in discourse, feminist cda, therefore, critiques discourses that sustain a patriarchal social order, i.e. power relations that see men as the privileged social group, while women as a social group are disadvantaged, excluded and disempowered through textual representation, and through interactional strategies of talk (lazar 149). based on this principle, therefore, this paper will examine the utterances of some of the female characters in efuru, written by flora nwapa, so as to expose how their speeches propagate sexist attitudes and practices against themselves and against other women, thereby helping to sustain and perpetuate patriarchal ideology. sexist language used by the female characters in flora nwapa’s efuru sara mills brought out some criteria for gauging statements for sexism in her books, feminist stylistics(64-96); and language and sexism (1-5; 133-52). as has been mentioned earlier, mills is of the view thatattention should be focused on indirect sexism because that is where gender ideology usually lurks. hence, the analysis of the selected utterances by the women will look at the covertly expressed meanings in communication so as to uncover the subtle and complex renderings of patriarchal ideological assumptions and power relations (lazar 151) inherent in them. some of these criteria as summarised by the researcher, and with some modifications by darweesh and abdullah (2016) are presented here. so, for mills, a statement is sexist if it has any of these attributes: a. reliance on stereotypes about women (e.g. female as dependent on men) b. propagates patriarchal ideals (male as norm, the standard) c. trivializes women’s experience/activities d. presents women negatively e. female self-sacrificing/suffering for men f. maligning/disparagement of women g. reference to women based on physical attributes rather than personality. however, only three of these criteria are selected and analysed here. reliance on stereotypes about women extract 1:who will look after me and my children?let’s see how you will die and leave me with these children to look after(p.98). the speaker of these utterances is nwabata. she laments that nwosu, her husband, is going to the hospital for treatment and she feels he would die there. nwabata sees herself as gullible without the protection of her husband; that her survival and that of her kids is dependent on the existence of her husband. by implication, nwabata is saying that a woman has no life nor identity of her own unless it is linked to a man’s. ex.2efuru told him that she would drown herself in the lake if he did not marry her (p.7).this utterance goes to show that efuru does not value her life much. the stereotype of woman as an emotional being and an appendage to man is what she presents here. she forgets that if she kills herself, adizua will definitely look for another girl. ex.3bend down and sweep like a girl, ajanupu commanded (p.45). ex.4put your legs together and sit like a woman (p.45). ajanupu uses gender as a stereotypical tool. gender is constructed by the patriarchal society and assigns social roles to women and men. a stereotype that is usually used for female characters is that of household management (mills ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 129 ezenwa-ohaeto & ikemelu 2008:127). women are assigned the roles of housekeepers and child-rearers, and from early childhood, they are indoctrinated to take up the role as they grow up. ex.5but can’t the husband do anything about it? he is to blame for letting a woman rule him (p.175). the female speaker here presents the stereotype of man as lord in a marriage, and head of the family. she believes women to be the subordinates of men and so should not undertake any other role that places her otherwise. ex.6amede, your daughter-in-law will die. she is guilty of adultery (p.215). this is omirima speaking here. she cast herself in the mould of the village gossip. it should be noted that gossiping is one the stereotypes which the patriarchal society attributes to women. it is a negative behaviour that keeps women in a subordinate position (liladharcited in mills 2008:128). propagates patriarchal ideals a. male as norm, the standard ex.1a female relation who came to console efuru said to her: a girl is something, though we would have preferred a boy. (p.72) ex.2 omirima says: what is annoying is when some women have about six children and all of them are girls. what one will do with six girls i don’t know (p.184). the preference for a boy-child is another way a patriarchal society subjugates women (nmah 64). it has been observed that male children are preferred more in nigeria than in any other west african country (ibanga cited in izugbara 8). when a male child is born, there is greater jubilation than when a female child is born. in a patriarchal society, a woman who has daughters only but no male children for her husband will not inherit any of her husband’s property. this is because it is only male children who inherit their father’s property, and their mother gets a share of the property through them. the lineage of a family is perpetuated also through male children, but not the females. in efuru, women voice their preference of boy-child over the girl-child thereby lending support to the culture that treats women as secondclass citizens. b. marriage as the ultimate for girls ex.1bend down properly, you are a girl and will one day marry (p.45); remember she is a girl and she will marry one day. if you don’t bring her up well, nobody will marry her (p.45). ex.2how is it that a grown-up girl like that is not able to wash clothes properly? how can she live in a man’s house? (p.181) ajanupu and amede are the speakers here. one of the patriarchal beliefs is that marriage is the ultimate goal for a girl child. this is reflected in an igbo saying “ugwunwanyibu di ya” which translates as “having a husband bestows status on a woman”. in the words of chukwuma, “marriage still remains the most greatly desired state of being for most young girls in every african society. …there is nothing else that bestows as much status and social worth on a woman in a patriarchal society where her worth is predicated on male interest (80). the strategies of socialization and metamessage are employed here. socialization is one agency through which the stereotypes of the sexes are transmitted from one generation to the next, and it is a woman’s greatest handicap in achieving a positive fulfilment in life. through indoctrination, female children are raised from infancy to believe that they are only fit for the domestic roles of wife, mother and housekeeper. once these are achieved, every other thing becomes a trivial matter. the female speakers of these utterances perpetuate patriarchal ideology by implying that the major aim of training a girl or instilling good housekeeping skills in her is for her to be able to get married and fare well in her marital home. for instance, in pointing out that ogea cannot wash clothes properly, why correct her with the aim for her to be able to wash her husband’s clothes when she gets married? why not for the simple aim that it is for her sanitary well-being? ex.3why must they go to these places together? it is your fault for allowing them to be together always. are they companions? (p.138) the speaker here, omirima, restates the patriarchal belief that marriage entails a relationship between a superior (man) and a subordinate (woman), and should not be turned to a relationship of equality. she implies here that a woman is expected to always be at home tending to hearth matters and assisting the husband. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 130 ezenwa-ohaeto & ikemelu ex.4she will have to leave school if we decide to have her as eneberi’s wife (p.180). here, the speaker is ajanupu. the future of a girl-child is compromised here because of early marriage. early marriage is one aspect of culture that subjugates women, disempowers and keeps them at the periphery in the society (ebo242). this goes to buttress the patriarchal saying that a woman’s education ends in the kitchen. c. circumcision ex.1 one day, efuru’s mother-in-law called her … she said to her, you have not had your bath.(p.11). ex.2 a female neighbour of efuru’s said: efuru is having her bath. poor girl, it’s so painful (p.14). bath here is used as euphemism for circumcision, otherwise known as female genital mutilation (fgm). according to the news bulletin of world health organization (2020), fgm refers to all procedures involving “partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons” (www.who.int/).according to who, this practice does not have any health benefits; rather it has grave health consequences like pain, infection, and haemorrhage. in the cultures that practice fgm, it is said to be done so as to protect a girl’s virginity before marriage, ensure fidelity in marriage, and increase the sexual pleasures of a husband (nandini439; okpala and utoh-ezeajugh15). kalokoh (1) also points out that it deters women from sexually-deviant behaviours, and ensures the control of men over them. in collaboration, althaus notes that in societies where lineage is traced through fathers, female genital mutilation decreases the uncertainty which surrounds the paternity of children by discouraging women from being sexually active outside of wedlock (131). in efuru (p.14), it is said to make for a smooth pregnancy and childbirth. women support and encourage fgm even though it is a painful act. during efuru’s circumcision, we are told she “screamed and screamed” and that the act was very painful. her motherin-law was there to console her by telling her “it will soon be over, my daughter, don’t cry (p.14). this subjugating act of circumcision is carried out by women on women and in the presence of women. how then does one explain this women’s violent act on women? in many patriarchal societies, men lay down the rules for an acceptable female image, circumcision being one of them, and women, through their utterances, wholly acquiesce to the rules so as to gain a high social status and also be deemed marriageable (monagan169). d. polygamy ex. 1 efuru said to adizua, i am losing hope again. don’t you think it will be better if you begin to look around for a young girl for a wife (p.26). ex. 2 efuru sat on her bed and began to think, what is wrong in his marrying a second wife. it is only a bad woman who wants her husband all to herself (p.53). ex.3 ajanupu said to efuru, only a bad woman would like to be married alone by her husband (p.57). ex.4 efuru to her father: no father, i don’t object to his marrying a second wife. i don’t object to it at all (p.63) ex.5 ajanupu said to efuru, it is about you and your husband. don’t you think you will begin now to look for a young girl for him? (p.164) ex.6 efuru’s mother-in-law told her, you are taking keen interest, my daughter, in getting a wife for your husband.it is good. i am happy (p.180) ex.7we want to marry again, efuru said laughing (p.214). here, she is talking about getting a third wife for gilbert, her husband. research has found out that the practice of polygamy accords with the self-interest of men and is also a means to control women (okin15). from the female characters’ utterances in the novel, it could be seen that they totally accept and encourage polygamy. they are even the ones who bring up the issue of marrying more wives for already-married men. they employ the strategy of the cliché, only a bad woman would like to be married alone by her husband to perpetuate and reinforce the patriarchal ideal of polygamy. in the case of (7) above, the purpose of getting another wife is for the second wife to have another woman to compete and contend with, thereby, limiting the wife’s ability to assert her ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 131 ezenwa-ohaeto & ikemelu rights and objections in marriage. this is one of the aims of polygamy. it gives men power to marry more wives if they feel their wives do not fulfil their matrimonial duties adequately. female self-suffering/self-effacement for men ex.1we did not want to disturb you (p.32). in this situation, efuru had just been delivered of a baby. the husband questioned why he was not called to be part of the event, but she replied that they (ossai and efuru) did not want to disturb his beautiful sleep! this is the father of the baby in question. the women preferred to bear the burden of the sleepless night alone. the metamessage being sent here is that adizua is the lord and master of the house, and so deserves an undisturbed rest while the women can forgo their sleep when it comes to seeing to domestic affairs. ex. 2 gbonu, my daughter. it is what every woman undergoes. so, don’t worry(p.15). this was said by ajanupu. according to okafor(60) women have invented some expressions for articulating their subordinated positions. an instance is “uwaumunwanyi”: an igbo expression that translates as the world of women; women’s lot, and which signifies “separation from the mainstream which is male” (60). women are at the periphery; the world does not revolve around them. they are the relegated group. by ajanupu telling efuru “it is what every woman undergoes” when she came to see her after her circumcision, she is indirectly referring to “uwaumunwanyi”: an expression of resignation and acceptance of the fate of women in the patriarchal world. ex.3 my mother asked me to leave my husband’s house, but i refused. i still had faith in him … but when i was well, i went back to my husband’s house (p.60). ex.4 i gained nothing from my long suffering… but i am proud that i was and still am true to the only man i loved (p.61). ossai’s utterances here exemplify what mills (‘lang.’ 128) regards as sexist beliefs being embedded in the presupposition underlying an utterance. based on what lazar’s points out as the discursive construction of ways of being a woman, ossaihere presents the patriarchal image of the ideal wife who has to endure whatever she sees in a marriage, while the husband goes about sowing his wild oats. as noted by adebayo (cited in mutunda96), ossai makes herself "the prototype of the objectified woman, always wronged but eternally forgiving, preferring to suffer from emotional paralysis.” she assumes that her happiness is tied to a man. instead of her to get on with her life and independence, she prefers to let it waste waiting for her husband to come back to her. of course, in the end, the man returned to her but after he had contracted a disease which killed him a few days after returning. so what did she gain from the long waiting? nothing. rather, she is proud that she fulfilled the stereotypical role of the enduring wife. ex.5 giveadizua one year … and if he does not come back to you … (p.83). ajanupu advises efuru to stay in wait for adizua for one year to know if he would return to her. ex.6 but i say, stay. i have no reason whatever for asking you to stay, but stay (p.88).ossai, the very woman who said she gained nothing from long-suffering for her run-away husband is here advising a young woman to follow her footsteps. since she saw there was no gain in the venture, if she had truly loved efuru, she would not have advised her thus. lazar terms this, ‘gender relationality’, and it has to do with how women perpetuate sexist practices against their ilk. as agents of patriarchy, ajanupu and ossai seek to ensure subservience, under the guise of family honor and fidelity, by advising efuru to stay in wait for adizua. ex.7your husband will come back to you after all his wanderings. men are always like that. (51) using the instrument of metamessage and cliché, the speaker justifies and legitimises the waywardness of men in marriage. as for women, they are to ‘grin and bear’ it so as to be seen as good wives. conclusion it has been widely acclaimed that the novel, efuru, celebrates the emancipation of women from voicelessness by giving voice to its female characters. but how did the women utilise this emancipation? by resorting to sexist language in favour of the menfolk. sexist language results from an underlying patriarchal ideology. the attributes of sexism which are seen in the utterances of the female characters in efuru can be said to be a consequent of the women seeing reality from a male point of view. it is quite obvious that their utterances portray men as the superior sex, while they place women at a lower level; hence, constructing a sense of inequality between the male sex and the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 132 ezenwa-ohaeto & ikemelu female sex through their speech.these women use a number of interactional strategies to achieve this. the strategies of metamessage, socialization, insult, and gossip are identified in this work as the frequently-used strategies which the female characters employ to cast themselves in the mould of second-class human beings. the sense of unequal power relations between men and women embeddedin their utterances show that women,too, use sexist language in favour of the men, thus helping men to sustain and perpetuate patriarchy – an ideology that maintains male superiority, and female subordination and subjugation. works cited althaus, frances. “female circumcision: rite of passage or violation of rights?” international perspectives on sexual and reproductive health. journal of peer-reviewed research. vol. 23 issue 3, september 1997.130. www.guttmacher.org/journalaccessed on 8 october, 2020. beauvoir, simone. the second sex. new york: vintage, 2010.www.uberty.org accessed on 20 november, 2018. benokraitis, nijole, and joe feagin. modern sexism. blatant, subtle, and covert discrimination. englewood cliffs, n. j.: prentice-hall, 1986. https://archive.org/details/modernsexismblat0000beno accessed on 20 september, 2020 cameron, deborah.feminism and linguistic theory. london: macmillan, 1986.https://archive.org/details/feminismlinguist00came/page/100/mode/2up accessed on 20 september, 2020. … . introduction: why is language a feminist issue? feminist critique of language. 2nded. ed. deborah cameron new york: routledge: 1986 121.https://archive.org/details/feministcritique0002unse/page/n19/mode/2upaccessed on 5 september, 2020. christie, christine. gender and language: towards a feminist pragmatics. edinburgh: up, 2000.www.academia.eduaccessed on 7 july, 2020. chukwuma, helen. “marital stress and female health in literature by select african women.” beyond the marginal land. gender perspectives in african writing. ed. chiomaopara. port harcourt: belport, 1999. 80 92. darweesh, abbas and nesaem abdullah. 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menegatti, michela and monica rubini. “gender bias and sexism in language.” oxford researchencyclopedia of communication.www.communication.oxfordre.comaccessed on 23 november, 2018. millet, kate. sexual politics. chicago: university of illinois, 2000.https:// archive.orgaccessed on 8 december, 2018. mills, sara. feminist stylistics. london: routledge, 1995.www.epdf.pub_feminist-stylisticsaccessed on 2 march, 2020. … . language and sexism. cambridge: up, 2008. www.waldenu.eduaccessed on 12 june, 2020. monagan, sharmon. “patriarchy: perpetuating the practice of female genital mutilation.” journal of alternative perspectives in the social sciences. vol. 2, no.1 (2010). 16081.www.researchgate.comaccessed on 8 october, 2020. mutunda, sylvester. “women subjugating women: re-reading mariama ba's so long a letter and scarlet song.” ufahamu: a journal of african studies. 33: 2 & 3 winter & spring 2007. 90-125.www.ijellh.comaccessed on 13 january, 2019. nandini, s. “cultural burden in flora 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“linguistic sexism: an overview of the english language in everyday discourse.” afrrev laligens. vol.1 (1), march 2012. 1-17. www.ajol.info accessed on 27 may, 2020. weatherall, ann. gender, language and discourse. new york: routledge, 2002.www.fib.unair.ac.id accessed on 4 september, 2020. world health organisation. female genital mutilation. 3 february, 2020. www.who.int/newsroom/fact accessed on 15 october, 2020. willis, malachi and kristen jozkowski. “ladies first? not so fast.” the journal of sex research. 55 (2) 2018. 137-145.www.waldenu.eduaccessed on 10 september, 2020. http://www.fib.unair.ac.id/ http://www.waldenu.edu/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 1 nigeria in the eyes of mike asukwo: a semiotic perspective prof. jane n. ifechelobi department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: jn.ifechelobi@unizik.edu.ng & winifred ngozi nwachukwu email: wnwachukwu@yahoo.com abstract humans are placed in a world of symbols which they have created. that pictures are universal is for the most part incontestable. however, much attention has not been given to the analysis of pictorial representations of cartoons in the media. this makes people view cartoons as ordinary pictures. the study sought to explore the inherent meaning potentials contained in the political cartoons; analyse their symbolic representations; categorise them into specific conceptual and source domains; investigate the multimodal resources deployed in creating such cartoons and finally, align the findings with the shared vision of the cartoonist for nigeria. the population of the study was 124 cartoons from asukwo’s businessday on-line publications between 20152018. the study provides a qualitative analysis of six cartoons on the themes of corruption and violence. they were purposively sampled due to the high frequency of their occurrence within the period. the study adopted kress van leeuwen’s (2006) social semiotic framework for its analysis. the findings showed an increasing rate of violence and corruption in the political arena within the period. the cartoonist therefore creatively harnessed the text and cartoon media to humorously communicate serious socio-political issues. he condemned the high rate of corruption and violence in the country while advocating better and responsible governance. these findings align with the ideological stance of the cartoonist and his overall vision for the country. keywords: semiotics, political cartoons, ideology, multimodality, humour introduction background to the study analysing visual language has always been a problem to many people who interpret images just as they appear. communication is a form of semiosis which is concerned with the exchange of messages through signs. human beings use language to speak about objects in their environments, social relations, history, the future, and products of the imagination. communication among humans is often done with the intention of conveying messages or meaning through the act or process of signification. only the human language can serve this purpose. signification in this regards means the ability of signs (whether visual, textual or gestural) to communicate meanings. consequently, all known cultures rely on signs to convey messages swiftly and conveniently. the conveying of such messages are most times contextual. many societies have evolved systems of symbols, which at a first glance, may appear strange and odd to the outside observer owing to the irrational meanings which they seem to evoke. upon a closer examination, however, those symbols tend to reflect a specific cultural logic. thus, every symbol functions to communicate information between members of a specific culture in much the same way as conventional language which does so in a subtler manner. hence, for the contemporary media to catch the attention of the public, they have to depend on the use of the verbal and non-verbal signs to convey information. this process of recording ideas, knowledge, or messages in some physical way is called representation in semiotic studies. more precisely, representation refers to the use of signs to relate, depict, portray, or reproduce something perceived, sensed, imagined, or felt in some physical form (danesi, 2002). these signs and symbols do not in themselves constitute a language. rather, they are devices by which ideas that are too difficult, dangerous or inconvenient to articulate in common language are transmitted. this transmission ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 2 usually takes place among people with shared cultural, ethical, religious, social, political, etc., experience and orientations. thus, given that communication is meaning oriented, the ultimate goal of semiotics is to unravel the meanings that are inherent in human interactions including those that come from words, symbols, narratives, symphonies, paintings, and comic books to scientific theories and mathematical theorems (danesi, 2007). it must be emphasized, therefore, that communication by visual means such as through images as part of human culture predates the advent of textual scripts. pictography predates the written texts. unfortunately, this has not received the attention it deserves in the academia as it is still struggling to catch up with “the horse that long left the stable” (kress, 2010). while most linguists have been more interested in the linguistic structure of texts and how such texts feature in the social process, their attention has largely drifted away from the pictorial devices used in communication. in other words, the written text is so close to home that global academia has neglected its non-verbal component. verbal language is being displaced as a communicational mode by image in many instances of public communication: whether in school textbooks, in newspapers, in reports produced in institutions of all kinds, in the electronic media, and in the information and communication technologies in general. the logical conclusion to be reached from all these is that image has ceased to be used as mere illustration or an embellishment of the core message of the written text. instead, literacy is being considered to go beyond the ability to read just words but also the ability to interpret pictorial representation of ideas within the written text. the emerging paradigm shift suggests that the shape and the direction of the current communicational world demand a re-assessment, in which language is just one of a number of modes of communication, all of which are culturally and socially shaped (kress, 2010). a holistic approach that incorporates both the verbal and non-verbal means of meaning making is not only desirable but long overdue. that pictures are universal is for the most part incontestable. again, given that human experience is now more visual and visualized than ever before, the tendency in modern world is to rely on pictures because they make communication more comprehensible, quicker and more effective (mirzoeff, 1998). this is captured in what has come to be called “pictorial turn” in which the visuals are also being acknowledged as an essential component of communication (mitchell, 2004). in other words, visual messages are much more succinct and provide clearer summary of events or issues because such messages are given preference over conventional media in view of their unique feature in communicating and retaining information (benoit, klyukovski, mchale, and airne, 2001). accordingly, the fundamental task of a semiotic investigation is to provide a platform or a system in which the perceptual and conceptual representation and interpretation of ideas through signs and symbols can be considered as a given in every society. consequently, as texts evolve from mono-modal (where they were dominated by the written language) to multimodal ensembles (which are replete with visual images, sophisticated design elements and hypertext features), the strategies readers draw upon to comprehend these complex texts will need to evolve as well (unsworth, 2002). thus, the competencies required of readers in today’s environment have expanded from cognitively based reading comprehension skills (pressley and block, 2001) to include strategies for comprehending the visual images and design features presented within and across multimodal texts (serafini, 2011; sipe and pantaleo, 2008). by deploring both graphic and discursive resources, political cartoons function like complex, multimodal riddles constructing images that trigger cognitive mechanisms in the minds of the readers. cartoonists re-enact reality by creating imaginary scenario and using cartoons to refer to real life situations. furthermore, since visual signs have become an important part of political expression, constructing either positive or negative images of politicians, political parties and addressing other issues and events of concern in the society, etc., a study of political cartoons which generally rely on a multiplicity of visual resources is not only desirable but also expedient in the light of the emerging linguistic and socio-political practices. this is because the cartoonist acts like the court jesters of old, who were allowed to speak truth ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 3 to power in a way that ordinary citizens were not allowed to. cartoons, therefore, become the tool kit for the cartoonist who joins in the war of criticism through pictorial representations. the fundamental ingredients of pictorial representations are images. every image that is utilized by the cartoonist in any given socio-political environment must be such that can provide a conventional comment, the transcription of a reality, a word, a vision, or an idea into a visible code that becomes, in turn, a manner of speaking of the world and inhabiting it (mbembe, 2001). images serve as visual codes which can be used to create messages in a socially meaningful way (cobley, 2001). hence, through pictorial representations, political cartoons challenge the traditional ways of literacy, thereby affording readers new ways of interpreting meaning and reality. this use of image in communication is important because the message that it communicates and its effects on human emotions and behaviour… will likely inspire the viewers to act as and when required (mitchell, 2004). cartoons are being increasingly used to open up political spaces, awaken critical consciousness, and address issues of deprivations and violence. political cartoons usually come handy at a time when it is considered unsafe to be too openly critical of an authority. mike asukwo joins the battle through his cartoons by engaging in the act of graphic defiance and resistance against authoritarian leadership. to determine whether his contributions are effective in this regard, a collection of his works over the years needs to be examined in order to see how a reliance on multimodal tropes has helped him to comically represent the nigerian political and socioeconomic experience. this will also assist in investigating how his cartoons conceptually construct satire as a way of denouncing socio-political and economic imbalances in the country with a view to transforming its national values. multimodality, relies on the amalgamation of various communication modes ranging from audio (both oral and aural resources) to visual (including gestural resources) to convey messages to the target audience (danesi, 2013; kress and van leeuwen 2006). a multimodal ensemble is a text that draws on a variety or multiplicity of modes while modes are socio-culturally shaped resources for realizing, representing, interpreting and communicating meaning potentials (kress g. , 2010). however, it must be pointed out that each mode is capable of representing meaning but it is inadequate in solely communicating meaning effectively. accordingly, the premise of multimodality is that in many domains of contemporary writing, textual structure is realized, not by only by linguistic means, but also visually, through layout, colour, typography and other resources. the world is saturated with negative stories – disasters, oppressions and terrorism. nigeria as a nation is fraught with political upheavals and economic downturn with a legion of corrupt practices and insecurity. the contemporary nigerian society needs a medium that can subtly deliver sociopolitical issues in an accessible. many are yearning for a more responsible government; others are looking for a humane diction and style in reportage. everyone is patiently waiting for someone to change the narrative. nigerians need someone to jumpstart a new sociology of hope. mike asukwo, sarcastically and in a “mischievous manner” has responded to this call, through his political cartoons. however, aside being confined to the fringe side of newspapers (where most of these cartons occupy a tiny section of the entire textual layout), there is also a more disturbing scenario where the readers hardly see beyond the humour and the entertainment that come with flipping through the cartoon sections of our national dailies. in other words, there is a gross lack of interest in probing beyond what appears to be the dark and slapstick humour emanating from political cartoons. there is a need, therefore, to explore the meaning potentials of political cartoons; analyse their symbolic representations; investigate the multimodal resources deployed in creating them, and align the findings to the overall vision of the cartoonist who creates them. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 4 the research aims at studying mike asukwo’s collection of political cartoons as have been presented in the online editions using insights from multimodal discourse analysis and socio-semiotics. more specifically, the study seeks to:  investigate the recurring themes in the cartoons published within the period  analyse the symbolic and humorous representations of such cartoons;  investigate the multimodal resources deployed in creating the cartoons,  align the findings to the overall vision of the cartoonist for nigeria. consequently, not only will the study examine the cartoons for their apparent critique of corruption and other un-seeming activities in nigeria through the themes represented by the cartoonist, it will also examine the graphic humour in the cartoons and investigate the applicability of a combination of multimodality and social semiotics in analysing the data. humans are placed in a world of symbols which they have created. often times, their lives are inseparable from the values and meanings that such symbols bring to them. an in-depth study of these symbols will not only deepen an understanding of shared world experience but will also help in the development of the non-verbal aspect of human communication. against this backdrop, the study will be of benefits to language students and teachers, political office holders as well as the general public in the acquisition of knowledge, expansion and interpretation of their non-verbal repertoires. the study will serve as a springboard for assisting students in coming to better understanding and appreciation of semiotic and multimodal contributions to the analyses of political cartoons. this will help gain insights into the sociopolitical events in the country through the thematic representations of such events by the cartoonist. also, the analyses of the corpus of asukwo’s editorial creation will broaden the teachers’ perspectives in helping their students to have an increased understanding of the structures and features of political cartoons in a more integrated and holistic approach. for the political office holders, the discussion of the semiotic as well as the multimodal contents of the cartoons will help in providing a platform for them to evaluate their actions and policies vis-à-vis the yearnings and aspirations of the masses. the documentation of asukwo’s editorial creations in the form of political cartoons will help them not only to review their own contributions as active participants in the political events in the country but also help to see the mistakes made by their predecessors and how such mistakes shaped public perception of governmental policies thereby avoiding a repeat of the similar mistakes. most importantly, the study will help them to be their own critics using a light-hearted non-confrontational method provided by the cartoonist. the vast majority of nigerian masses (who have become the direct victims of government oppressive and corrupt practices), the study will help them to find some solace in mike asukwo’s work since it does not only seek to adumbrate how government actions and inactions affect them but also a non-confrontational engagement can become impactful in shaping governmental decisions. the study is restricted to the print versions of mike asukwo’s cartoon creations on nigerian political events and issues as contained in his online print medium. the timeline covers political cartoons created by the cartoonist within the period (2015 to 2018). the study is carried out drawing insights from two linguistic theories: multimodal discourse analysis and social semiotics. theoretical framework in an increasingly visual age, multimodality can help us to avoid the routine of privileging one semiotic mode over the others. this accounts for an emerging paradigm in discourse studies which extends the study of language in combination with other resources. multimodal discourse analysis is essentially concerned with the theory and analysis of semiotic resources. the concepts of multimodality and visual communication are grounded on studies proposed by halliday (1978) and kress and van leeuwen (1996/2006) where visual communication and verbal discourse form a comprehensive meaning-making unit. systemic functional linguistics posits the interconnectedness of the linguistic and the social, stating ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 5 that the structure of language has evolved as a result of the meaning making functions they serve within a social system or culture where they are used (unsworth 2008). drawing from halliday’s systemic functional linguistics, kress and van leeuwen (1996/2006) stated that images, like language also simultaneously realize three different kinds of meaning. in their model, they named halliday’s ideational meta-function “representational meaning” where the verbal and the visual construct the nature of events, the object and the participants involved. the interpersonal, they termed “interactional” meaning, where the verbal and visual resources construct the nature of relationships among speakers/listeners, writers/readers and viewers/what is viewed; while the textual meta-function was termed the “compositional meaning asserting that any semiotic mode has to be able to represent aspects of the world as experienced by humans. in the concept of interactive meaning, images are shown to create relationship between the viewers and the world inside the frame. the artist is able to achieve this through three key factors. they are contact – where the image through facial expression/gaze makes a demand from the viewer; distance through which images bring people, places or things closer to the viewer or keep them at an arm’s length and point of view which is presented through the angle used in the image to suggest attachment of domineering power over the viewer (jewitt and oyama 2001). methodology the research design is qualitative in orientation and approach. it investigates a social phenomenon in a particular society. the data were drawn from asukwo’s businessday on-line publications between 2015 2018. the population of the study was 124 cartoons out of which the purposive sampling technique was used to select six cartoons from the themes with high frequency of occurrence for analysis. content analysis was used in sorting the cartoons into topical themes reflecting current issues and events. this study employs the visual social semiotics as explicated by kress and van leeuwen (2006) as an effective model for a multimodal analysis. basically, a social semiotic analysis of an image tends to focus on its three different layers of meaning: representational meaning: the “participants” (people, places or things) that are literally depicted in the image; interactive meaning: the implicit relationship between the viewers and the characters in the image; compositional meaning: the placement of the image’s visual elements that integrates them into “a meaningful whole (kress and van leeuwen 2006; jewitt and oyama 2001). the model therefore gives us an understanding of how an image performs the above meta-functions simultaneously. data presentation three cartoons were chosen from each theme for a semiotic analysis. the selected cartoons are rich in semiotic resources. the analysis is based on the key concepts and theses of semiotics such as the semiotic resources’ denotative and connotative meanings, the images’ representational, interactive and compositional meanings. special attention is also paid to the aspect of visual signification process: cartoon no. 1 “lawmakers are not talking” ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 6 the above cartoon shows the nigerian lawmakers with their mouths stuffed with vehicles which were gifts to them. with such gifts, they could no longer condemn acts of corruption. the vehicles were used to prevent them from performing their oversight functions as senators. the different regions of the country are recognisably represented through the shapes of caps adorning their heads again, it can be seen that the vehicles have become a unifying factor for the lawmakers as they dropped their brooms and umbrellas being their party symbols while trying to swallow the cars. ordinarily, the symbolic brooms and umbrellas were objects of disunity among the political parties but because they were gifted collectively they decided to forego their differences for the period. cartoon no. 2 “the growing mess” (july 3, 2015) in the cartoon, “the growing mess” the naijean stable represents the nigerian nation. the cartoon shows the president with beads of sweat laboriously trying to clean the heap of dungs deposited over a period of sixteen years by the people’s democratic party. pdp was accused of being the most corrupt government having messed up the nation’s economy. the ruling party apc however, promised to clear up the mess and to restore sanity to the nation within a few months. the president, looks bewildered as the cow, symbolic of the apc is seen contributing to the mess in the stable. the composition showed the president in the middle of the mess. the president’s gaze forms a vector in a unidirectional manner as he looks at the cow droppings. his fixed gaze draws the attention of the viewer to the new information given by the cow droppings on the right indicating the new mess by the apc. cartoon no. 3 “war against corruption” the above cartoon named “war against corruption” depicts the fight against corrupt government officials by a corrupt official. however, the tool used in fighting corruption is equally made of wood and seen to be ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 7 one of them. the officers therefore, are comfortable and relaxed, assured as they cannot be harmed by a fellow ‘woodie’. the tags on the trees indicate that all facets of government establishments are occupied by corrupt officers. the cartoonists humorously condemns these acts of corruption by government officials cartoon no. 4 “you can keep fighting for your heroes” (30th june, 2018) the cartoon titled “you can keep fighting for your heroes” signifies the level of bitterness and rancour among the populace due to the seeds of discord sowed in them by the political class. the political leaders are seen standing at an elevated height, sign of power and superiority looking down on the people who are busy fighting. ironically, they use their umbrellas and brooms, symbols of their political parties as weapons of war while the leaders are seen having fun at the scene. this obviously is an oppressive situation where the people are pitched against one another in a fierce battle while the political class stands aloof watching. it is a condemnable act that the cartoonist tries to depict through the cartoon. cartoon no. 5 “jos crisis” the cartoon captioned “jos crisis” depicts the present political landscape in nigeria where there is mass killing of the farmers, the owners of the land by the fulani herdsmen who try to dispossess them of their lands for grazing. the agonized mother in the cartoon whose son was killed beckons on the president who is seen majestically walking away and gazing ahead (distances himself) from the scene. the woman reminds the president of his statement at inauguration that he “belongs to all and belongs to nobody in particular”, an indication that he would be fair and just to all. however, due to his appeared insensitivity to the situation, the woman further declares “we are “nobody”, an ironical expression that a human being is nobody. the vector formed with her outstretched hand is in an appeal to a superior authority while the ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 8 armed hand pulls her back retrogressively from her only source of hope – the president. she lies positioned between danger and the president, holding her bleeding son. figure 6 “the northern girl-child” the above cartoon has no title but i captioned it the “northern-girl child” because it depicts the fate of the girl child in the northern part of the country. the naïve looking girl is found in the presence of three men representing different facets of the society. the politician sees her as one he can easily take as a young bride, the age notwithstanding. the religious fanatic sees her as his convert and a slave to him. on the other, the representative of the society sees her as a suicide bomber that should be lynched. this is the fate of the child often married off to men old enough to be her grandfather. she is neither safe in the society nor with the religious practices in the society. analysis kress and van leeuwen (2006) in their analytical approach consider the application of composition in multimodal texts to be of great importance. this includes the information value, which is realized through the placement of the elements of a composition either on the left or right margins or in a centralized position for effects. salience refers to how some elements in an image are given prominence and made to stand out in the eyes of the viewer while framing enables the artist give separate identity to elements or represent them as belonging together (jewitt and oyama, 2001). in applying this model as an analytical approach to the cartoons of mike asukwo, these components of kress and van leeuwen (2006) social semiotics were taken into consideration. the cartoon data analysed in this paper are reactions to recurrent issues affecting the nigerian society. they are believed to have already been reported in other media outlets, more especially in the businessday magazine and the internet. for the purpose of this study, only five cartoons were purposively selected for analysis out of the 124 cartoons downloaded from 2015 to 2018 on-line publications of mike asukwo’s political cartoons. the cartoons carry a variety of social themes including corruption, economy, political malpractices, insecurity, and governance style among others. the selected cartoons are representational and they portray recurring political themes and issues that critically affect nigeria as a nation especially as pertains to corruption and violence. they also show how images combine with verbal text to produce meaning. the images are “… acerbic, caustic, mnemonic, humorous, creatively apt and wicked, mordant, sarcastic and mischievous” according to the cartoonist (asukwo, 2018). the cartoonist tactically crafts his discourse to present familiar issues in this unique way with the messages evoking emotions of anger, fear, desperation and hopelessness in the readers. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 9 the table below indicates the percentage rate of occurrence of thematic contents of the political cartoons. major themes rate of occurrence percentage of occurrence government 8 6.5% violence 29 23.4% corruption 55 44.4% people and economy 20 16.1% people and infrastructure 5 4.0% governance 4 3.2% policies 3 2.4% total 124 100% the analysis from the above table indicates a 44.4% rate of corruption which has the highest number of occurrences. it is evident of the corrupt nature of the nation as corruption has often been described as cancer which has eaten deep into the fabric of the nation called nigeria. it is closely followed by violence which has become an endemic problem in the society with a 23.4% rate. violence exists in all spheres of life ranging from religious to domestic and high spate of kidnapping in the nation. political and economic issues ranked third with a 16.1%. governmental issues ranked fourth with a 6.5% while people and infrastructure ranked fifth with a 4% rate. governance and policies ranked sixth and seventh respectively at the rates of 3.2% and 2.4% respectively. discussion of findings every object in the cartoons under analysis is a signifier representing certain phenomenon in the life of the nation. the findings of the study demonstrate how cartoons are used in the media discourse to comment on current socio-political issues in order to transform people, keep them informed and abreast of topical issues that affect their lives. they equally see the effort by the cartoonist through his ideological stance to address the core values that are gradually eluding us as a nation. the analysis of the six selected cartoons indicates that certain socio-political and economic issues have remained endemic and the themes keep recurring on the nigerian political scene. they include the themes of violence, corruption, government policies, infrastructural development and the nation’s economy. the cartoon in figure 1 shows the lawmakers with their mouth stuffed with vehicles. the have their gazes fixed with eyes wide open unable to swallow the vehicles. the vehicles stuck in their mouths are bribes to “shut” them up from being vocal especially in matters of corrupt practices. the cartoonist criticizes the hypocritical nature of the ruling party in the second cartoon. the president is seen clearing the stable, symbolic of the nigerian nation of the dung deposited by the erstwhile pdp which was acclaimed to have messed up the nation within its sixteen years of governance. while the president clears the mess, the horse, symbolic of the apc government drops more mess in the stable. the third image indicates the high level of corruption in many government establishments. above all, the agent for fighting the corruption is seen to be made of same stuff. it therefore makes the fight almost impossible. the fourth cartoon captioned “fighting for your heroes” shows the masses pitched against one another while their leaders are celebrating with drinks. the image in the fifth cartoon is an indication of the state of insecurity in the nation. it represents the current face-off between the fulani herdsmen and the jos farmers with the mass killing of the land owners. the president is shown walking away from the scene while the woman clutching her dying son beckons on him for help. his mien and disposition indicates his being uninterested in the spate of killings in the middle belt region of the nation. the nigerian landscape is depicted as a place where people live in fear as shown in the sixth cartoon. the little girl is seen between three men who relate to her differently. one wants to possess her as a bride her age notwithstanding. the other wants her as his slave as she was forcefully converted from christianity to islam while the society want her lynched as she has become agent of suicide bombing for her captors. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 10 how was meaning produced in the political cartoons pictures tend to catch attention first in a multimodal text. the pictures represent an understanding of world shared by the group members. they tell different stories. vectors are elements that help to realize the types of relationships that are represented in images. a vector shot between two connected subjects, such as two humans looking at each other, would serve to draw the viewer’s attention to this particular aspect of the image. the cartoonist made effective use of vectors in his cartoons. the lawmakers could be seen staring at a direction which attracts the attention of the viewer. the vectors formed by their gazes depict a demand from a higher authority but they were unable to respond as their mouths are stuffed with the vehicle. the woman in figure five beckons on the president with an outstretched for assistance. she is seen being pulled back forcefully by another arm with a gun whole the president is seen walking away from her. in figure five, the people were depicted as ones whose lives could be sacrificed for the political gains of their leaders as they engaged one another in a fierce fight while the leaders leisurely watched on. the little girl shown in figure 6 seen terrified as she surrounded by the men. most of the cartoons used for the analysis took the narrative structure in their representations. the visual vectors presented the actors as doing something or involved in a communicative event the movement of the vectors help in the narrative process as meaning is read into the cartoons though the direction of the vectors. gaze is another important aspect of multimodal analysis. gaze is a form of direct address (kress & van leeuwen 2006). the president fixed a gaze at the cow in figure 2 in utter amazement with the mess piling up. his gaze helps in the narrative process as the focus is taken away from the information indicating the sixteen years of rule by the pdp, “given” to a “new” action by the apc on the right. the facial expression by the little girl in figure 6 equally tells a story. she looks up demanding for help while the fierce looking men approach her for different motives. the one that looked kind, rather had an ulterior motive behind his kind looks. in the same manner, the woman with a dying son appeals to the president while he looks away in an impersonal manner. one can easily read a state of helplessness from the gazes on the faces in the cartoons. salience is achieved by the cartoonist as some of the elements were foregrounded. the large eye balls of many characters in the cartoons depict surprise. visual and linguistic elements complement each other in multimodal studies. in figure 2, the sign on the heap of dungs helps explain how long the pdp government was in power. the exclamation “kai” by the president was in utter surprise as the cow was depositing a new set of dungs. the expression is culturally bound as it meant “what?” in the hausa language. in figure 3, the utterances by both the masses and the leaders explain the reason for the confusion as the people engage in a “free-for-all fight”. the people use the pidgin language, which is the language of the masses as one of them utters the word “…you de craze?”, meaning “are you crazy?” on the contrary, the elite political class use the mesolect as one of them declares, “my supporters are fiercer than yours”. prominence is also given to the linguistic elements that of importance in the cartoons. the cartoonist made effective use of satire in his work. the lawmakers in figure1are seen almost choking in the process of swallowing the vehicles given to them. the eye balls could be seen popping out from their sockets. the woodies in figure 3 equally have different facial expressions depicting their dispositions towards the anti-corruption exercise. the cartoonist was able to humorously depict these scenarios while passing on important messages through the cartoons. to what extent do the cartoons align with the cartoonist’s vision for nigeria? cartoons are sites for visual information. they reveal features of the society that are not usually observable through other sources. the cartoonist has used his cartoons to reveal his ideological inclination. he criticizes the social malaise in the nation. one could read palpable fears through the empty gazes on the faces of some of the images shown. the girl in figure 6 has fear written all over her. the cartoonist condemns acts of violence in the society. he further condemns the spate of corruption in the nation. through the cartoons, mike asukwo tries to re-echo the need to uphold the chore values of the nation which are gradually eluding us as a people. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 ifechelobi & nwachukwu 11 conclusions this paper has demonstrated how cartoons are used to accomplish communicative tasks in nigerian electronic media. the cartoons were creatively used to provide political commentary and to mirror the social realities of the time. the study has shown how the artist skilfully and humorously depicted issues that need attention aimed at shaping people’s understanding to bring about positive change in society. thus, nigerian political cartoons are used by the media specifically to build up public attention, reorient people and initiate social and political reforms in nigeria. this paper posits that political cartoons constitute a potent multimodal genre comprising linguistic and non-linguistic devices which are used to convey meaningful messages. visual images are linguistic tools that are rich in meaning and they could bring to fore easy interpretations and understanding that are strong and powerful, especially when sensitive issues are involved. the satirical presentation of the images also provides avenues for relaxation for the stressed populace. this study will serve as a springboard for further research in the cartoon genre considering the importance of multimodality in the contemporary society reference ajokwu 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(2002). changing dimensions of school literacies. australian journal of language and literacy 25(1) , 62-77. unsworth, l. (2008). multimodal semiotics: functional analysis in contexts of education. london: continuum international publishing group. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 50 hate speech and political discourse: a study of selected speeches of nnamdi kanu chinwe theresa eze department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email: ezetessy16@gmail.com abstract speeches are written with clear intents and purposes to explain, persuade, amuse, inform, or to influence ideas. language and politics are intimately related as they influence each other. the language of politics is usually persuasive. politicians are aware of the power of language to influence thoughts, persuade, and control people’s behaviour, so, they choose language strategies that would help them achieve their aim. political activists most often resort to hate speeches and threats while addressing the public. in the course of the use of hate language, there might be problems of misinterpretation. the paper investigated the extent hate language in political discourse could help politicians in persuading their audience to adopt their political ideology. the research derived its theoretical framework from persuasion theory. the research studies the political speeches of mazi nnamdi kanu – the ipob leader. data for the study comprises kanu’s three political speeches. textual analysis is employed to answer the research questions and evaluate the data. the result of the analysis proved that nnamdi kanu used hate speeches to incite hatred in the hearts of his followers. he equally uses hate speech to enact power, dominance, inequality and bias in the minds and lives of his audience. keywords: hate speech, persuasive theory, political ideology introduction many countries, like nigeria practice democracy and in the democratic nations, freedom of speech is allowed. a speech is an expression of thoughts and ideas through spoken discourse. it can also come in the form of a written text. public speakers always strive to appeal to their audience. the speaker could also aim at persuading, motivating and informing the audience. but when the speech includes demeaning, offensive and hurtful language which is aimed at stigmatizing a group of people, it is called hate speech. according to wolfsin, hate speech generally includes offensive speech directed at minorities. in its most vulgar form, it includes the racial and sexist epithet such as ‘kike’ and ‘fag’. at more subtle level, or so it is argued, it includes books, cinema and television images that demean a minority’ (1). tsesis argues that hate speech ‘antisocial oratory that is intended to incite ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 51 persecution against people because of their race, colour, religion, ethnic group or nationality and has a substantial likelihood of causing …harm’ (211). simpson defines hate speech thus: hate speech is a term of art in legal or political theory that is used to refer to verbal conduct – and other symbolic, communicative action – which willfully expresses intense antipathy towards some group or towards an individual on the basis of membership in some group […] hate speech thus includes things like identity – prejudicial abuse and harassment, certain uses of slurs and epithets, some extremist political and religious speech (e.g statements to the effect that all muslims are terrorists or that gay people are second-class human beings), and certain displays of hate symbols (e.g swastikas or burning crosses). (211) hate speech stems from tolerance and indifference. it is an exhibition of indifference to a grousp of people’s different ideologies on social, political and religious issues like ethnicity, race, religion, politics, sex and gender. papanikolatos gives a varying definition of hate speech as ‘a moment in the process of forming national identities and intensity varies depending on its historical, social and political circumstances which may provide conditions for establishing a more or less inflated national self as against others’ (10). s/he further defines it thus: hate speech in its most explicit manifestation and at its most intense level, is the denial of the very existence of others as such within the borders of particular state, that is, the negation of the existence of the minorities be they religious, cultural or ethnic ones. in this case, the media attempt to stress the imaginary concept of a fully homogenous society. the negation of the existence of others may also go beyond the borders of a particular state, which brings forth the denial of the existence of certain ethnic identities (12). these definitions unanimously agree that hate speech covers expressions that instigate, elevate or upgrade religious, social, political or racial hatred due to intolerance. this intolerance is usually manifested through discrimination and hostility against a group of who have different ideas, beliefs and ideologies. intolerance to a people’s sexual orientation, gender and national origin can also lead to hate speech. hate speech can take the form of identity-prejudicial verbal abuse and harassment online, aspersion, slurs, epithets, graffiti’s and extremist political and religious discourse. for instance, due to the issue of terrorism and boko haram insurgency in the northern part of nigeria where muslims are ubiquitous, nigerians seem to view every northerner as a terrorist. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 52 when people employ hate speech, they want their voices to be heard. they want to promote their ideas, identities and ideologies to the detriment of other people’s identities and ideologies. hate speech infringes on people’s dignity. in nigeria, hate speech is a crime. the hate speech bill tries to ‘eliminate’ hate speech and discourage ethnic, religious or racial intolerance. the bill states stiff penalties for offences like ethnic hatred. it states that: a person who uses, publishes, presents, produces, plays, provides, distributes and/or directs the performance of any material, written and/or visual, which is threatening, abusive or insulting or involves the use of threatening, abusive or insulting words or behaviour, commits an offence, if such person intends thereby to stir up ethnic hatred, or having regard to all the circumstances, ethnic hatred is likely to be stirred up against any person or persons from such an ethnic group in nigeria. a person subjects another to harassment on the basis of ethnic for the purposes of this section where, on ethnic grounds, he unjustifiably engages in a conduct which has the purpose or effect of (a) violating that other person’s dignity or (b) creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment for the person subjected to the harassment. (godwin par. 4&5) the bill goes ahead to stipulate a minimum of a five-year jail term and/or a fine of not less than ten million naira for culprits. ultimately, the death penalty awaits anyone who causes another to die through hate speech. this bill encourages respect for different forms of diversity in a pluralistic society. political discourse political discourse has to do with discourse in politics. discourse represents analysis of written, verbal or non-verbal language. political discourse focuses on discourse in political meetings like campaigns, manifestoes, debates, presidential speeches, but it may not be limited to discourse practices in these political gatherings or by politicians. tongtaozheng says: “political discourse should not be restricted only to settings such as parliamentary proclamations, speeches and election campaigns but also apply to all linguistic manifestations that may be considered political" (1). according to teun van dijk; political discourse is identified by its actors or authors, viz., politicians. indeed, the vast bulk of studies of political discourse are about the text and talk of professional politicians or political institutions such as presidents and prime ministers and other members of government, parliament or political parties both at the local, national and international levels (12). political discourse means different things to different discourse analysts. the definition of political discourse has been problematic. it has been delineated to cover issues of control, power, conflict and influence. according to john wilson: …one needs at the outset to consider the reflexive and potentially ambiguous nature of the term political discourse.the term is ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 53 suggestive of at least two possibilities: first, a discourse which is itself political; and second, an analysis of political discourse as simply an example discourse type, without explicitreference to political content or political context. but things may be even more confusing. given that for some definitions almost all discourse may be considered political…, then all analyses of discourse are potentially political, and, on one level, all discourse analysis is political discourse. (398) although these definitions have a slight difference between them, they agree that political discourse deals with discourse practices by politicians. they also agree that political discourse ought to have political context; whether formal or informal. political discourse is usually employed by politicians and political supporters whose aim is to achieve political goals. chilton and schaffner conclude: if ‘politics’ is confined to institutional politics – parliamentary debates, party conference speeches and the likes and generally more overtly linked to ideology, then the objects of study for political discourse analysis can be easily circumscribed. but everyday conflicts – say between men and women, workers and managers, policemen and black youths, even schoolchildren and teachers – are sometimes by some people characterized as ‘political’. however, it is probably useful to maintain a distinction between institutional politics and everyday politics. (6) in political discourse, the politicial language employed is the focus. political language is ‘who speaks to whom, as what, on what occasions and in what goals’ (van dijk 225). politicians use certain linguistic strategies in their texts and talk. they use language to ‘manipulate’ the public to believe in them. ‘political language is concerned with presenting and selling a positive image to others. the success of this merchandizing depends on the linguistic skills employed, which …may include persuasion, seduction, conviction, pledging or pretence, among other actions’ (salem 82). nnamdi kanu and ipob nnamdi kanu is a political activist who is of british – nigerian nationality. he is the known leader of the indigenous people of biafra (ipob) and also the director of radio biafra a london-based radio station. nnamdi was born in september, 1967, in isiamaabia state, nigeria to the family of the royal highness eze israel kanu. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 54 ipob has only one weapon with which to fight nigeria and that is civil disobedience not armed conflict. the main agenda of ipob is to separate the south-east and some south-south regions from the rest of nigeria. ipob hopes to achieve this separation through referendum. he had a strong feeling that igbos are seriously marginalized and relegated to the background in terms of development. wanting to be a ‘saviour’ that would lift the south-south out of their pains plunge them into utopia as he advocates change and a republic of biafra. the struggle for biafra did not start in the 20th century, however, reignited this fight in 2012 when he formed the ipob organization to champion the quest of the igbo people to have their own nation outside nigeria. persuasion theory persuasion theory is a mass communication theory that can be applied in politics, advertising and conflict resolution. ‘persuasion…is central to public relations: in that it is able to influence target public’ (smith 1). daniel o’keefe defines persuasion as ‘a successful intentional effort at influencing another’s mental state through communication in a circumstance in which the persuaded has some measure of freedom’ (5). these definitions agree that the primary purpose of persuasion is the intent to influence. persuasion theory deals with messages directed at surreptitiously changing the attitudes and mindset of listeners. the idea is to influence the listener without employing any kind of force. the audience is persuaded and not manipulated. in this theory, emphasis is laid on the most desirable persuasive effects of propaganda. speeches are delivered with the clear intent of persuasion, instead of just stringing words together to form sentences. in political discourse, political leaders deliver persuasive messages which they believe would sway the voters. research question to what extent does hate speech in political speeches reflect social power abuse? social power is the extent of influence an organization or a person has over its members or even society at large. generally, social power is the ability to influence other people. a person or organization that wields power has a large amount of influence over people. social power is usually located in politics and society at large. unlike physical power, force is not used to get people to act the way they do. gershaw agrees: coercive power influences others through threats and punishment. coercive power is frequently used, because it gets quick results and is relatively easy to use. unfortunately, it has several important drawbacks. first, the low-power person dislikes the high-power ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 55 person. if this is the only source of power, the low-power person will get out of the relationship as soon as possible. (does anyone ever want to associate with a bully?). second, the low-power person has to be constantly watched so they cannot avoid the demand behaviour or get away from the high-power person. third, if the power scales tip the other way, the former low-power people are likely to retaliate for the punishments they have received. in addition, if you rely almost exclusively on this power as a parent, children obey a coercive only because of fear – not because they think they are doing the right thing. (58) however, people cannot be socially powerful without the consent and support of others. most people have power because others give it to them, so people cannot be powerful without the endorsement of human beings. when one is armed with social power, one can bring about a change in the beliefs, attitudes, behaviour and values of someone because of their actions or expertise. this means that social power gives rise to social influence.because ‘power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely” (dalberg 21), in a social relationship, the person that wields the power might tend to abuse it. and social power abuses that power. analysis of the selected speeches excerpts from the speeches of nnamdikanu: a. i’m a biafran and we are going to crumble the zoo. some idiots who are not educated said they’ll arrest me, and i ask them to come. i’m in biafra land. if any of them leaves biafra land alive, know that this is not ipob (kanu 10 – 12). b. the plans of our enemies are not going to be actualized. the enemies are planning, but we are formidable. we are going to boycott anambra state election. after anambra 2017, in 2019, there’ll be no elections in biafra land (26 – 29). this speech is tee aftermath of the massacre of the members of the secessionist separatist group ipob. in his speech, kanu continuously refers to nigeria as ‘the zoo’. he equally influences his audience to change their beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviour towards their own country, nigeria. after all, it is a zoo and they will ‘crumble the zoo’. kanu, as the supreme leader, wields social power over other members of the separatist group. this means that he has social influence over them. by calling nigeria a zoo, kanu leads his people into believing that nigeria lacks law and order, and that they can go about flouting the laws of the country/zoo. with his social influence over them, kanu persuades them to boycot the then oncoming anambra gubernatorial election and the 2019 presidential and ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 56 gubernatorial elections in nigeria. according to inec’s reports, which have been quoted earlier, only twenty-two percent of registered voters took part in the election. so, kanu was able to influence ipob members to boycott the election. kanu’s participation in the election report is palpable. he abused power that was vested on him as the ipob supreme leader by leading his members into not exercising their franchise. also, kanu uses hate speech to garner solidarity from ipob members. kanu usually constructs his political discourse to reflect asymmetrical power relations between him and his audience as he always manipulates and dominates them to do his wishes.kanu employs hate speech to show his discrimination, hatred and bias against nigeria. his hatred for nigerians drives his discourse and he constantly reproduces that hate in his political talks. he uses it to influence ipob members to do things that are against their own nation. ‘every rightthinking human being knows that the slogan ‘one nigeria” is a ruse. nigeria was not a united country and will never be a united country even in the foreseeable future’ (38-39). to refresh our memories, nigeria is a country made up of three distinct nations with mutually exclusive and diametrically opposed and irreconcilable value systems. among these nations, biafra is the only one with a distinct and internationally accepted republican value system predicated upon the twin philosophy of (1) “egbebere, ugobere” the principle of natural justice, fairness, equity, equality before the spiritual and temporal laws and (2) “eziokwubundu” which is the weaving of the irreducibility of truth into the day to day discourse of life, in essence, a life of nobility predicated on honesty’ (kanu 38 – 41). that nigeria is perpetually in doldrums politically, economically and socially is of no surprise to any discerning mind and keen followers of the miserable history of nigeria. after all, is it not why we found ourselves in far flung lands like the usa and many more countries around the world?’’ (kanu 44) the general aim of this speech is to persuade the igbos at this conference to join and support ipob in their struggle for the restoration of biafra. his social power over them as the leader of the secessionist separatist group would have sufficed in influencing the audience to support ipob in the restoration of biafra. but kanu goes on to display his discrimination against nigeria in order to persuade his audience. he disparages nigeria, yet extols biafra which is a part of nigeria. kanu adopts hate speech to disparage nigeria and then form a kind of social relationship with his audience against their perceived enemy, nigeria. hate speech, as a discursive strategy, enables kanu to form the identity of biafra; the nation to be identified with and loved. ultimately, he employs hate speech in displaying his inequality and bias against nigeria. hate speech is illegal in ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 57 nigeria, so, kanu abuses his social power, and uses it to lead his members into indulging in illegal linguistic exercise. discussion of findings and conclusion language is primarily used for communication. language possesses persuasive tendencies. words are usually structured to have certain effects on their hearers or readers. human beings do things with words. words persuade; among other things. some words have been termed power words because the psychological response they elicit from their hearers or readers. language plays a pivotal role in politics. language and politics are inseparable. political speeches are usually geared towards persuading, motivating and influencing people to join political struggles. politicians also make use of the first person pronoun ‘i’ to show themselves worthy of the cause, and the third person pronoun ‘we’ to show inclusion and participation in the struggle of their people. political activists understand that there are certain persuasive strategies that influence people to change their attitudes, beliefs, behaviour, values and mindset and they copiously employ these persuasive strategies in their discourse. they do not apply violence. hate speech can be employed by a politician as a discursive strategy to promote tribalism and hatred. it can be used to enact social power abuse, bias, dominance and inequality. hate speech can achieve dominance over an audience using social cognition. a politician can employ hate speech to implicitly display power, control and dominance over his members. on the other hand, a politician can equally persuade his audience using hate speech. social power abuse can be enacted in a political speech. the politician can use manipulation and dominance as tools of influence and persuasion. these tools can be employed by a speaker to achieve discursive control over his target audience. when a political speech contains hate speech, it drives the audience in the wrong direction. hate speech drives an audience to enact inequality and bias in their hearts against another group of people .it also drives an audience to do things that are inimical to the laws of the nation. politicians should desist from using hate speech. although hate speech can assist in forming the identity of a political group, it is illegal in most countries of the world including nigeria. political discourse should focus on persuading the target audience to join in the political struggle. it should not redirect its focus on the other party thereby inciting hatred and making disparaging statements about the other group of people. political speeches, albeit persuasive, can also be geared towards educating the audience on its aims and aspirations, especially if the separatist group has not been popularized. casting aspersions on another group of people can lead to hatred and political ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 7 no. 2, 2020 eze 58 wars because hate speech serves as a threat to the opposition group who in turn can decide to act on the threats. works cited abati, reuben “a letter to nnamdikanu by reuben abati” www.saharareporters.com. accessed 25 dec., 2018. charteris-black, jonathan. politicians and rhetoric: the persuassive power of metaphor. new york: palmgrave macmillan, 2005. chilton, paul. “challenges in the study of language and politics: challenges for jlp”. journal of language and politics. 6.3, 2007, pp 297 – 301. dalberg, john. acton-creighton correspondence.cambridge university library, department of manuscripts and university archives, 1887. online library of liberty, https://oll.libertyfund.org/ titles/acton-acton-creighton-correspondence. gershaw, david. “social power and its abuse”..a life on line.http:// virgil.azwestern.edu/dag/lol/socialpower.html.accessed 30 dec., 2018. godwin, ameh. “hate speech offenders to die by hanging – nigeria’s senate’s new bill”, 2018.https://dailypost.ng/2018/03/01/hatespeech-offenders-die-hanging-nigeia-senatsnew-bill/. accessed 9 oct., 2018. ogbonna, anthony. anambra election: ipob says low turnout sign voters obeyed boycott order. www,vanguardngr.com. acessed 25 dec., 2018. owoseye, ayodamola. only 22 percent voters partook in anambra election – inec. www.premiumtimes.com. oxford university press, 2000. richburg, keith. appreciation: nelson mandela averted what many expected – an all-out civil war. www.washingtonpost.com. accessed 21 dec., 2018. salem, ahmed. “elusiveness in political discourse : how to apologize the american way”. role of media in nation building: botanical discourse, contact languages and translation. cambridge : cambridge scholars, 2016, pp 80-92. smith, greg. persuasion theory.www.markedbyteachers.com. accessed 3 apr.,2018. tuan luu.“rhetorical structures in the language of vietnamese advertisements”.asian social science. 6.11(2010) pp 175 – 182. van, dijk, teun.“ principles of discourse analysis” . discourse and society.4.2(1993) pp 249-283. https://oll.libertyfund.org/%20titles/acton-acton-creighton-correspondence https://oll.libertyfund.org/%20titles/acton-acton-creighton-correspondence https://dailypost.ng/2018/03/01/hate-speech-offenders-die-hanging-nigeia-senats-%09new-bill/ https://dailypost.ng/2018/03/01/hate-speech-offenders-die-hanging-nigeia-senats-%09new-bill/ http://www.premiumtimes.com/ http://www.washingtonpost.com/ http://www.markedbyteachers.com/ ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 24 ifechelobi & chima advertisement slogans of selected soaps and detergents in nigerian market: a pragmatic analysis prof. jane n. ifechelobi department of english language and literature nnamdi azikiwe university, awka eamil: jn.ifechelobi@unizik.edu.ng & ezinne agwuama chima email: zinychima92@gmail.com abstract central to pragmatics is to understand the strategies or mechanisms that aid interlocutors to work out hidden, indirect or implied meanings of an utterance or a whole text. however, this study investigated the language of advertisement with specific attention to the slogans of selected products in the nigerian market. in the study, four slogans of soaps and detergents were sampled and analysed using some pragmatic principles: speech acts, cooperative principle and its maxims and implicature. this study is a descriptive qualitative research. the data were sourced from the internet. findings reveal that the slogans performed three types of speech acts: assertive, directive and commissive respectively to communicate the advertisers’ intended messages. also, the advertisers predominantly employed the assertive act to fascinate the potential customers. furthermore, the advertisers deliberately flouted the maxims of quality, quantity and manner to manipulate and influence the decision of the potential customers to gain support and patronage from them and this generated implicatures. keywords: pragmatics, advertisement, slogan, soap and detergent introduction pragmatics is a very important aspect of linguistics which suggests that utterances must not be long to communicate effectively. so, in conversations, people employ their linguistic prowess to make their utterance short yet meaningful. pragmatics practically deals with strategies that govern how meaning beyond the words can be interpreted and understood without ambiguity. according to wales (1989:365): pragmatics is the study of language use which is concerned with the meaning of utterance rather than a grammatical sentence or proposition. in communication often times, people utter/write words that are sometimes apparently different from what they actually say/write, yet the listeners understand the additional or hidden meaning and communication is achieved. however, pragmatics makes this possible. according to crystal (1997:301): pragmatics studies language from the point of view of users, especially of the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction and the effects their use of language has on other participants in the act of communication. in this present time, language does not serve as just a mere tool of communication rather it has become a powerful tool to earn money. it has become the most influential device of publicity in the business world due to its persuasive and attractive nature. this is why watson and hill (1993:146) considering the language user, define pragmatics as thus: the study of language from the point of view of the user, especially the choices, constrains he meets in employing the use of the language and the effect the use has on the communication situation. language is a veritable tool which the advertisers leverage in design advertisements slogans to communication, create interest in or promote sales of products and service. so, companies constantly search for good advertising firm that could get their messages to the potential customers. advertisement slogan has proven to be a successful tool for communication between the advertisers and the public. slogans are the most important and condensed messages that advertisers would like to ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 25 ifechelobi & chima send across their intended customers. slogan is one of the effective ways to draw attention to product and services, it tells a lot about products qualities. according to urdang and robbins (1984:18) slogan is defined as “a group of words that promise a reward in a dramatic way which is easy to read, easy to say, and easy to remember”. smart and intelligent slogans leave unforgettable impressions in the mind of potential customers. in fact, the tone and language of a slogan positions the brand of the product it represents so, a well-designed slogan has the capability to make the product desirable in the market. slogans can be seen in newspapers, magazines, radio, television, internet, billboards, posters and so on. today, internet is the fastest growing advertising medium apart from television and radio, it offers incredible opportunities for a wide range of business and advertising presently. the essence of advertisement slogan is to communicate the existence and quality of a product to the public. unfortunately, some of these slogans do not communicate explicitly with clear messages. however, this is one of the reasons why advertisement slogans are prone to pragmatic analysis and interpretation. different products in the market have advertisement slogan(s) with which they are identified with. these slogans are short and simple; often written in three to six wordsyet, they sum up what the product or service has to offer. sometimes, they follow a particular pattern as in the examples below: it’s delicious/it’s refreshing future assured/stability assured slogan is said to be effective if it has the potency of making the product stand out from every other similar products as exemplified in the following slogans below: clorets chew gum confidence in every breath/orbit chew gum just brushed clean feeling maggi cube seasoning – with maggi, every woman is a star/knorr cube – your taste maker again, slogans make different products to be recognized easily. furthermore, advertisers sometimes do not abide by the proper grammar rules just to achieve their goals as seen below: h2o water water’s gonna be jealous darling japanese fibre natural styles for every you more so, there are other special situations in which words are spelt differently from the correct spelling that is generally accepted. below are some examples: maltex i feel goooood p.k. chewing gum a looong lasting taste milksi milk has this advert creamitasti milk slogans are vague, ambiguous, and indirect; the advertisers who design themare more interested in the aesthetics use of words in order to create catchy and appealing slogans not minding if the messages thereof are being properly communicated to the potential customers. more often than not, this pose a great challenge as the potential customers struggle to interpret the intended messages in the slogans. however, the researcher having observed the nature of advertisement slogans generally and the concern of pragmatics which is to provide solutions to the problem of communication, finds it of great significance to investigate some of the pragmatic principles that aid speaker’s/writer’s intended meaning making process for effective communication between the advertisers and their potential customers. theoretical framework this work was theoretically based on the following: cooperative principle, conversational implicature and speech acts theory. austin, who first propounded speech acts theory posits that “saying something is doing something”, that is, words perform actions. in other words, actions performed via utterance are generally called speech acts. later his student, seale expounded on that. he introduced the notion of ‘indirect speech act’ to describe speaker’s communicative intention. austin in “how to do things with words” prescribed six acts (locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary) which ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 26 ifechelobi & chima utterances perform. these acts were further redefined by searle who distinguished five types of acts performed thus: assertives, directives, commissives, expressives and declaratives. furthermore, grice’ cooperative principle’(cp) and implicaturescentres on the ability of interlocutors to make sense of the utterances they exchange in spite of some missing elements, that is, such elements are often implicated and such implicatures are made possible by cooperation between speakers and listeners. in fact, conversational implicature is actually a kind of indirect speech act, a special case of performing one illocutionary act by way of performing another. grice’s cooperative principle is an assumed basic concept in pragmatics. along with speech act theory (e.g. austin 1962 and searle 1969), grice’s work on the cooperative principle initiated the current interest in pragmatics, and led to its development as a separate discipline within linguistics, and as such it is discussed by most textbooks in the area, and often cited in academic papers within pragmatics and associated disciplines. in a nut shell, of all the pragmatic theories that aid interpretation of meaning, the study will specifically adopt the ones discussed in this chapter to establish the fact that pragmatics is a relevant aspect of linguistics that aid effective communication and interpretation of messages with a stake on how utterances are understood especially, in the field of advertising generally. methodology this study adopted qualitative research method. however, the study is qualitative in nature because it focused on describing how advertisers leverage pragmatic principles (especially those adopted for this study) to their advantage. this study covered advertisement slogans of the selected products available and accessible in the internet. a total of six advertisement slogans of soaps and detergents were purposively sampled. the instrument for data collection was the internet, you tube precisely. the study adopted secondary data collection and the data were analyzed using searle’s speech acts theory together with grice’s cooperative principles and implicature. data analysis and discussion the four sampled data are presented for analysis using the pragmatic theories adopted in this study. in presenting the data, they are labelled datum one – four but grouped into two (a & b). the data in group “a” are sourced from advertisement slogans of beauty skin care soaps, whereas group “b” data are sourced from advertisement slogans of laundry detergents. group a datum one: dove soap slogan: reveal beautiful glowing skin the act performed through the slogan is assertive. here, the advertiser is making a strong claim about the product. the maxim flouted here is that of quality which states thus, ‘do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence’. here, the slogan is an assertion yet to be tested to ascertain the truthfulness. the implicit meaning that could be inferred here is that the product possesses a quality that could bring out one’s hidden beauty datum two: pears transparent soap slogan: look young, stay young in the data above, the speech act performed is directive. the advertiser is suggesting the potential customers to do something. the advertiser flouted the maxims of quantity and manner. the maxim of quantity requires adequate information to describe and point the product to the intended customers but the advertiser could not provide that. also, the advertiser carelessly repeated the word ‘young’ which is not necessary thus, failed to avoid verbosity which is against maxim of manner. the implicature generated here could be that the product rejuvenates the skin. ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 27 ifechelobi & chima group b datum three: ariel detergent slogan: 1 wash the slogan is categorized as assertive. this is because the advertiser is making a strong affirmation about the product. the advertiser copiously flouted the maxim of quantity. the information is too brief and less informative to describe the product such that the customers can easily identify it. the implicit meaning that could be derived from the slogan is that the product is very active, makes washing less burdensome. in other words, the product produces the desired result quickly. datum four: waw detergent slogan: washes a lot, saves a lot the advertiser is describing the product and at the same time promising an offer therefore, the speech acts are assertive and commissive. the advertiser flouted the maxim of quality which requires the speaker not to say something which lacks adequate evidence. the implicit message that could be inferred from this is that the product is highly effective and profitable as using it could save the customers a lot of strength, time, energy, money and lots more. summary of findings for a more organized and comprehensible discussion; differentsubheadings were used here to achieve a succinct discussion. the illocutionary act(s) that communicate(s) the advertisers’ intended messages to the potential customers here, the data were analysed based on the occurrences of searle’s taxonomy of speech acts: assertive (representative), directive, commissive, expressive and declarative. however, findings reveal that only the assertive, directive and commissives occurred in the data sampled. the slogan performed a total number of five speech acts thus, assertive occurred three (3) times. directive and commissive record one (1) time each. expressives and declaratives record zero (0) number of occurrence. therefore, the illocutionary acts that communicate the advertisers’ intended messages to the potential customers are assertive, directive and commissive. the illocutionary act(s) that is/are predominantly employed by the advertisers to fascinate the potential customers following the findings, it is revealed that three types of speech acts were performed comfortably albeit at different occurrences. but the assertive records the highest number of occurrence at three (3) times. in other words, the speech acts that are predominantly performed is the ‘assertive’. however, this implies that the speech act has the highest degree of attractiveness. the conversational maxim(s) that is/are deliberately flouted by the advertisers to manipulate and influence the decision of the potential customers to gain support and patronage from them from the findings, the advertisers flouted the three conversational maxims – quality, quantity and manner at varying frequencies. however, findings reveal that the advertisers flouted the conversational maxims for a total of five (5) times. the maxim of quality was flouted two (2). the maxim of quantity was flouted two times (2) times and the maxim of manner was flouted once. (2) times. however,the advertisers flouted these maxims in such an artistic and confident way to persuade and convince the potential customers. the possible implicatures generated from the cases of maxims flout in the work finding reveals that there are different interpretations of meaning that could be generated from the cases of maxims flout above. finding shows that the advertisers blatantly flouted these maxims intending for their customers to search the underlying meanings. these advertisers have flouted these ajells: awka journal of english language and literary studies, vol. 8 no. 1, 2021 28 ifechelobi & chima maxims to imply different meanings: that the product guarantees quality, rejuvenates the skin, guarantees quick result, produces reliable result withadded advantages. conclusion this study has examined how meaning is conveyed and interpreted in advertising. the study reveals that the advertisers have unique ways to communicate their intentions to the target customers. however, the study has proven that words can actually perform actions. advertisement slogans perform actions which geared towards communicating the advertisers’ intended messages to the potential customers to persuade and influence their consuming behaviour. interestingly, slogans can perform these acts simultaneously hence, a productive means for conveying more complex and persuasive information to the potential customers. also, that the flouting of any of the maxims of the cooperative principle does not mean that there is invariably a breach of communication. there may appear to be apparent flouting of maxims by the advertisers which is often deliberate, but the slogans are however regarded as felicitous regardless of this perceived flouting of communication maxims. works cited crystal, david. (1997). the cambridge encyclopedia of the english language. 2nd edition cambridge: cambridge university press. urdang, laurence and ceila dame robbins. (1984). slogans. usa: gale research company. wales, k. (1989). a dictionary of stylistics. london: longmansc group ltd. watson, j. and hill, a. (1993). a dictionary of communication and media studies. london: edward arnold. appendices appendix 1 appendix 2. appendix 3. appendix 4. 