




































AJELLS: Awka Journal of English Language and Literary Studies, Vol. 8 No. 1, 2021 
 
 

Ifechelobi & Nwachukwu                                                                                                                          1 

 

CONDUIT CORRUPTION: A MULTIMODAL CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF 

SLEAZE IN NIGERIAN SOCIO-POLITICAL SYSTEM 

 

 

Prof. Jane N. Ifechelobi 

Department of English Language and Literature 

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka 

Email: jn.ifechelobi@unizik.edu.ng 

& 

Winifred Ngozi Nwachukwu 

Email: wnwachukwu@yahoo.com 

 

Abstract 
Corruption has become endemic among many nations of the world, Nigeria inclusive. She, more than any 

other country in Africa, has suffered under the crippling influence of corruption despite her much-touted 

position as “the giant of Africa”. To this end, several responses to this ugly scenario have emerged ranging 

from the literary to the visual. This study is a modest attempt to investigate the conceptual representation 

of sleaze in the political cartoons of Mike Asukwo and the multimodal resources deployed in creating such 

cartoons. The population of the study is 50 cartoons from Asukwo’s BusinessDay on-line publications 

between 2015- 2018. The study provides a qualitative analysis of five cartoons on the themes of conduit 

corruption. They are purposively sampled to ensure they align with the theme of the study. The study adopts 

Kress van Leeuwen’s (2006) Social Semiotics and Kress and van Leeuwen (2001) Multimodal Critical 

Discourse Analysis frameworks for its analysis. The findings show that through Asukwo’s form of 

signification that corruption has eaten deeply into the fabrics of the nation. It further proved the analytical 

framework adequate for the interpretation of images thereby making the cartoon genre a formidable force 

in the fight against corruption as Asukwo sarcastically shows. 

Keywords: Multimodal Critical Discourse Analysis, Social Semiotics, Semiosis 

 

Introduction  

Background to the Study 

Analysing visual language has always been a problem as many people interpret images just as they appear. 

Semiosis as a form of communication is concerned with the exchange of messages through signs. 

Communication among humans is often done with the intention of conveying messages or meaning through 

the act or process of signification. Signification in this regard means the ability of signs (whether visual, 

textual or gestural) to communicate meanings. According to Pierce, the world is perfused with signs if not 

entirely made up of signs, (Pierce 1931). Consequently, all known cultures rely on signs to convey messages 

swiftly and conveniently. Thus, given that communication is meaning oriented, the ultimate goal of 

semiotics is to unravel the meanings that are built into all kinds of human interactions including those that 

come from words, symbols, narratives, symphonies, paintings, and comic books to scientific theories and 

mathematical theorems Danesi (2007).  

 

The universality of pictures is incontestable especially with the advancement in technology. Again, human 

experience has now become more visual and visualised than ever before. The tendency in the modern world 

therefore is to rely on pictures because they make communication more comprehensible, quicker and more 

effective (Mirzoeff, 1998). This is captured in what has come to be called the “pictorial turn” in which the 

visual is also being acknowledged as an essential component of communication (Mitchell, 2004). In other 

words, visual messages are much more succinct and provide clearer summary of events or issues. Such 

messages are given preference over conventional media in view of their unique features in communicating 

and retaining information (Benoit, Klyukovski, McHale and Airne, 2001).  

 



AJELLS: Awka Journal of English Language and Literary Studies, Vol. 8 No. 1, 2021 
 
 

Ifechelobi & Nwachukwu                                                                                                                          2 

 

A political cartoon is a form of political and editorial comment which is necessary and worth studying for 

its distinctiveness and significance. It is a hybrid of pictorial and verbal representations where the artist is 

given the license to mock and “censure” the actions of the powerful through the force of ridicule (Duss, 

2001, Manning and Phiddian, 2004). The cartoonist targets well known politicians and critical issues in his 

criticism (Niven, Litcher and Amundson, 2003).   

 

Cartoonists deploy both graphic and discursive resources in their works. The pictorial representation of 

events and issues function like riddles which need decoding. The cartoon genre equally entails the use of 

cognitive mechanisms to decode these complex metaphoric presentations. which re-enact reality. Like the 

court jesters of old, cartoonists speak to powers that be through their caricatures. Cartoons, therefore, have 

become tool kit for the cartoonist as he joins in the war of criticism through his caricatures. Notably, 

political cartoons come handy at a time when it is considered perilous to be too openly critical of an 

authority. To survive, therefore, the cartoonist has to code his messages.  

 

Many people can say what corruption is all about but it has no clear cut definition. Its definition is dependent 

on the context in which it is examined. however, the incontestable thing is that corruption is a multifaceted 

problem facing the world. It has both destructive and inimical effects on all aspects of societal and human 

development. In other words, Corruption is a phenomenon not peculiar to any nation, race, gender, creed, 

sexual orientation, rather it transcends national boundaries and frontiers. Aluko, (2009).  

 

The nation’s corruption problems emanate from people who accord a lot of respect to material wealth 

regardless of how such wealth was acquired. The cliché if you cannot beat them, join them makes the race 

for the acquisition of wealth endless in the nation.  Little attention is paid to morals since it is generally 

believed that the end justifies the means. Buttressing the idea, Nwaobi (2004) avers that Nigeria must be 

one of the very few countries in the world where a source of wealth is of no consequence to others. People 

clamour around those who have “arrived” as they are given places of honour in the society.  Wealthy people 

who are known to be corrupt are regularly courted and praised by communities, religious bodies, social 

clubs and other private organizations. As a result, such people are often under pressure from their friends, 

and relations to share out the loot. In order for them to maintain the standard and satisfy societal 

expectations, they country has to remain in the vicious circles of corruption. 

 

Corruption exists in all societies. The major difference in the case of Nigeria is the extent of its 

pervasiveness and its implication for good governance, value system and political culture in particular 

Tanzi, (1998); Mutiullah, (2013). Hence, in the last few years, it has become a fashionable theme in the 

Nigerian media. News headlines often indicate the various levels of embezzlement ranging from tips, 

money laundering, payment of salaries to “ghost” workers, kick-backs to contract scams, bribery, fraud, 

favouritism and nepotism.  According to Page (2018), “Nigerians themselves view their country as one of 

the world’s most corrupt; it perennially ranks in the bottom quartile of Transparency International’s 

Corruption Perception Index”. 

 

Corruption in Nigeria has gotten to the level of being referred to as a pandemic that has reached an insoluble 

level. Commenting on the spate of corruption in the Niger Delta Development Commission, (NDDC), 

Ojugboh, in an interview with Chinwo (2020), notes the pervasive corruption, flagrant abuse of due process, 

abandoned projects and poor quality delivery among others at the NDDC. He noted that some of the awards 

were not spurious, but criminal as records available show that most of the awards were not backed by 

budget. The writer adds that the manner in which the political office holders neglect the projects they are 

supposed to execute and squander the entire money allotted to them is alarming and bothers on the 

pathological. The assertion is supported by the recent development involving the former EFCC Chairman 

who was accused of embezzling recovered billions of naira and also not accounting for seized hundreds of 

houses.  



AJELLS: Awka Journal of English Language and Literary Studies, Vol. 8 No. 1, 2021 
 
 

Ifechelobi & Nwachukwu                                                                                                                          3 

 

Commenting on the level of the scandal and corruption that greet the Buhari Administration, Eriye (2020) 

questions the genuineness of the administration’s much touted fight against corruption. The writer notes 

that it has been double and even triple whammy of scandals for the Buhari Administration that leaves its 

much-trumpeted anti-corruption credentials in tatters. Reacting, he asks, “what difference has been made if 

the same stomach turning tales of sleaze are being churned out by the system in manner that keeps pace 

with the regime it replaced?” (The Nation, July 15, 2020). This level of sleaze explains why it has been 

described as a cancer that has eaten deeply into the fabric of the Nigerian polity (Okolo, Okiemute and 

Akpokighe, 2014).  

 

Combating corruption all over the world has remained a herculean task and Nigeria is not exempted. There 

are different dimensions to corruption such as socio/psychological dimension; religious dimension; socio-

cultural dimension; political dimension depending on how it affects that facet of the society. The various 

acts of corruption range from how it is practiced by individuals to how it is practiced by organized systems. 

The socio/psychological dimension of corruption holds that the act of corruption is socially generated.   As 

such, individuals and corporate organisations are seen as products of the society or their environment. These 

various acts of corruption rub off on the larger society, affecting it adversely. Societies are therefore 

encouraged to make concerted efforts aimed at checking the menace of corruption as it is the major course 

of underdevelopment among nations.  

 

Many people have joined in the fight against corruption, condemning it in all its ramifications. Contributing 

to curbing the menace, the media employs different metaphorical expressions to describe and condemn the 

damages caused by corruption. Political cartoonists join the vanguard of critics in challenging this social 

pandemic. Cartoons are thus, used to lampoon the prevailing economic situation. Mike Asukwo craftily 

condemns the different ways individuals and agencies have been siphoning money out of the government’s 

coffers, this he tagged conduit corruption. Having examined what corruption is and how destructive it can 

be to a nation, the study examines Asukwo’s caricature presentations and their apparent critique of 

corruption and other unseemly activities in Nigeria. It also examines how effectively the tropes deployed 

could convincingly convey the message to viewers.  

The present study seeks to:  

 Explore the meaning potentials in the political cartoons     

 Investigate the multimodal resources deployed in creating them.   

 

Theoretical Framework 

The study adopts two-pronged frameworks involving Kress and van Lueewen (2006) Social Semiotics and 

Kress van Leeuwen (2001) Multimodal Critical Discourse Analysis theories. The choice of these two 

theories is based on their interrelatedness and suitability in ensuring that the various aspects of the data sets 

are given equal and in-depth treatment. Specifically, while visual semiotics (a.k.a. Visual Grammar) holds 

that “visual communication is always coded” (Kress and van Leeuwen, 2006:32), its fundamental thesis 

was inspired by the communicative meta-functions of language as already established by systemic 

functional linguists. The theory, holds that both visual communication and verbal discourse (i.e. language) 

work together to “form a comprehensive meaning making unit. In other words, the three meta-functions of 

language – ideational, interpersonal and textual – espoused in Systemic Functional Grammar (Halliday 

1978), correspond neatly with the three communicative functions of visual signs – Representational, 

Interpersonal and Compositional Meanings. The second prong of theoretical framework is the Multimodal 

Critical Discourse Analysis (MCDA). The MCDA is relevant to this study because of its multifaceted 

approach in combining both the denotational and connotational meanings of visual and verbal signs. The 

denotational meaning focuses on the literal message of the signs while the connotative meaning focuses on 

both the sociocultural and ideological underpinnings of such signs. Furthermore, the multimodal framework 

notes the inadequacy of only one resource in a communicative event, and incorporates other artefacts in the 



AJELLS: Awka Journal of English Language and Literary Studies, Vol. 8 No. 1, 2021 
 
 

Ifechelobi & Nwachukwu                                                                                                                          4 

 

meaning making process.  In applying the theory to the present study, therefore, attention will be paid to 

the denotation and connotational meanings that underlie each cartoon. 

 

Methodology 

The study adopts a descriptive research design. This descriptive design is based on the qualitative 

interpretation of the data from political cartoons produced by Mike Asukwo. The cartoons represent an 

important visual contribution from the cartoonist to the raging problem of corruption and sleaze within the 

Nigerian political context. The population of the study comprises 50 cartoons on the theme of corruption. 

These cartoons were collected from the electronic version of Laughter in the Mirror (Asukwo, 2018). A 

sample size of 5 cartoons dealing specifically on conduit corruption within the Nigerian democratic 

dispensation are selected for the study. Again, in ensuring a seamless selection of the relevant cartoons, the 

study adopts a purposive sampling technique. This is a non-probability form of sampling. The choice of 

this sampling is predicated on the fact that it allows the researcher to come up with a manageable number 

of cartoons from those with shared features and themes. The selected cartoons are rich in semiotic resources, 

thus opening up interesting interpretations. The analysis is based on the key concepts and theses of semiotics 

such as, the images’ Representational, Interactive and Compositional Meanings.  

 

Data Presentation  

The term Conduit Corruption is a metaphorical exploration of the diverse ways money was siphoned from 

the government coffers by individuals and agencies. The cartoonists used different symbols to represent 

the corrupt practices among the various agents of government. 

Figure 1. How the Nigerian Government Feeds Pupils in a Lockdown 
 

Figure 1 above denotes a pregnant woman feeding from a bowl tagged N13.5B. She sits on a dais labelled 

Humanitarian Affairs and through an umbilical cord, feeds a child sitting under a hut. The presence of a 

book in front of the child indicates he is a pupil. Connotatively the cartoon is based on the much-touted 

Federal Government School Feeding Programme (SFP). According to the Minister for Humanitarian 

Affairs and Disaster Management, a total of 13.5 billion naira was spent in feeding some school children 

during the Covid-19 lockdown. This claim caused a stir all over the country as the citizens wondered if 



AJELLS: Awka Journal of English Language and Literary Studies, Vol. 8 No. 1, 2021 
 
 

Ifechelobi & Nwachukwu                                                                                                                          5 

 

actually the children were fed, given that they were not going to school during this time. It is a coded 

message with the cord representing the channel through which the money was siphoned.  

 
Figure 2. The Uncommon Transformation 

 

The cartoon in Figure 2 above denotes an ill-fed cow grazing on a sparse grass. The impoverished cow is 

gleefully being milked by a character tagged the AKS House of Representative and transporting the milk 

via a pipe to a house tagged Governor in Retirement. Connotatively it is an indication of how the governors 

and lawmakers jointly milk the state, its impoverished state notwithstanding. Ironically, the uncommon 

transformation was not for the generality of the people but for personal gain. The store house is for future 

use while the resources are milked dry at the expense of the citizens.   

 

 
Figure 3. Subsidy Scam Clinic 

 

The oil sector is fraught with endemic corruption. The government removed the oil subsidy to enable it 

utilize the subsidy funds to support productivity within the sector. The insatiable corruption embedded 

within the domains of the public and private sectors made the subsidy lose its essence. In figure 3 above, 

the law makers labelled NASS are literarily presented as medical personnel attending to the DISKO who is 

the patient. The doctor and nurse infusing dollars into it by way of drip while he smiles from his sick bed 

having gotten a life line through the infusion of dollars to his system. The cartoon connotes the dollar 



AJELLS: Awka Journal of English Language and Literary Studies, Vol. 8 No. 1, 2021 
 
 

Ifechelobi & Nwachukwu                                                                                                                          6 

 

pumped into the sector were made to enrich private individuals at the expense of the generality of the 

people. It is a scam and another avenue for siphoning funds. 

 

Niger Delta Commission 

Embezzlement is a type of crime/fraud where a person misappropriates the assets entrusted to 

him/her. Most times the assets are used for unintended purposes. It involves theft of resources by 

persons entrusted with the authority and control of such resources. Figure 8 above shows a man and 

a woman being flushed through the tunnel struggling to keep afloat. It depicts the former Niger Delta 

Commission Chairman who embezzled billions of naira meant for projects.  He is shown in an 

embattled situation with his former deputy as they were being washed away through the tunnel.  

 
Figure 4. Niger Delta Commission  

 

The Security Vote 

Security vote in figure 10 above depicts a military personnel fighting insurgency. The cartoon indicates 

how money is lavished on security personnel who in turn feed fat and are unable to carry out the operations. 

The officer with the bulging stomach says he is ready to ‘frontally’ confront the insurgents. Insecurity 

becomes another conduit pipe through which money is continuously siphoned by the various agents of the 

government 

 



AJELLS: Awka Journal of English Language and Literary Studies, Vol. 8 No. 1, 2021 
 
 

Ifechelobi & Nwachukwu                                                                                                                          7 

 

 
Figure 5. The Security Vote 

 

Discussion of Findings 

Aside the use of denotation and connotation to symbolically represent corruption, the cartoonist effectively 

utilized Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) framework to indicate the interdependence of the different modes 

in a communicative event. Social semiotics provides a way of analyzing the relationship between, people, 

places and things depicted in the cartoons. According to Halliday, any social action tends to be encoded 

“linguistically in the form of ideational meaning.  The Ideational metafunction, is realized through the 

speaker’s cultural and personal experiences of the external world, his/ her thoughts, feelings and reactions 

to the processes taking place in this external world (Kress and van Leeuwen 2006). These are expressed 

through the presentation of caricatures drawn from the producers’ environments.  For an instance, the 

woman in Figure 1. captioned “How the Nigerian Government Feeds Pupils in a Lockdown” above is 

adorned in a hijab which is the traditional attire of the Moslem women. It easily gave up the identity of the 

Minister for Humanitarian affairs. Again, women are known to nurture their unborn by feeding them 

through the umbilical cord. The cartoon presents a pregnant doing the same. Ironically, she eats while the 

cord connects her, not to a fetus but to an infant who merely stares. The cord is a metaphorical presentation 

of the channel through which funds are siphoned by the Ministry of “Humanitarian Affairs” which she 

represents. Figure 3. is presented as a scam the subsidy used in injecting life line to the Dyskos ended in 

private pockets just as the budget for fighting insurgencies end up in private stomachs. Figure 4. Shows the 

Chairman of the Niger Delta Commission and the Managing Director fighting dirty in public and opting to 

go down the drain together. 

 

Figure 5. shows the much touted fight against insurgency which entailed the voting of huge sums of money 

to curb the menace. Unfortunately, such funds are diverted into private pockets. The cartoon shows an over 

bloated soldier, unable to stand, fighting from a sitting position. More so, instead of the sophisticated 

weapons used by the terrorist, he uses a catapult, a traditional hunting tool to fight the deadly group. This 

makes a mockery of the whole situation. The empty cans of sardines and other canned drinks indicate the 

level of seriousness and genuineness in the fight. It presents the money budgeted for the fight as going into 

what is tagged ‘stomach infrastructure’ in a common parlance.  



AJELLS: Awka Journal of English Language and Literary Studies, Vol. 8 No. 1, 2021 
 
 

Ifechelobi & Nwachukwu                                                                                                                          8 

 

The Interpersonal metafunction concerned with communicating attitudes and evaluations are depicted 

through represented characters which bring the cartoonist into the context of the situation. The characters 

help in the expression of his own attitudes and judgements, while seeking to influence the attitudes, and 

behaviour of others. He communicates his viewpoint and perspective through the characters. Figure 1. 

condemns the feeding of school children programme during the lockdown. Again, Figures 2., 3. and 4. 

condemn the use of state resources for personal gains while Figure 5. attacks the hypocritical fight against 

insurgency.  Many of the participants are presented as Offer contacts. They merely communicate 

information to the viewer as there is no direct eye contact with him/her. The participant in Figure 2. 

however, is realized as a Demand contact as he looks directly at the viewer as if in need of an explanation. 

The vectorial directionality presented by the cartoons present a reading path for the reader. The reader 

follows the direction of the pipes to see where the food in Figure 1. is being channeled. Same are applicable 

to the pipe in Figure 2. and the flow of the drip in Figure 3. Vectors are also formed by the hands of the 

participants in Figure 4. as they engage in a scuffle.  The catapult in Figure 5. channels the viewer’s attention 

to the soldier’s target. Many of the participants are symbolic representations. They are used to signify one 

form of corruption or the other. All the participants are frontally presented showing equal power relations 

with the viewer.  

 

The textual metafunction, is realized through the organization of language into a coherent text. Images can 

be read to convey meanings. The lacing of the elements together helps in their reading. Information value 

is realised through the placing of the elements within the frame. The elements placed at the left are taken 

as given and as old information while the ones placed at the right are taken as new information. This 

therefore presents a reading path of from left to right.  For instance, image reading is realised through the 

empty sardine tins which show the officer to have been enjoying himself, eating gluttonously rather than 

engaging in the on-going fight against insurgency. In a related development, image reading was also 

achieved in the scuffle between the Minister for Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) and his 

assistant in Figure 4. They are seen fighting dirty in murky waters of corruption after embezzling public 

funds. Image reading is in other words known as picture speak as the obvious smile on the AKS 

Representative shows while he milks dry a malnourished cow in Figure 2. Figure 3 reveals the smile of 

satisfaction from the Dyskos as the dollars are deposited in their system via a drip. The other agent of 

corruption is NASS symbolically represented by the nurse and doctor abating crime. The elements within 

the frames in the analysed cartoons are connected in one way or the other.  Like a narrative, the frames 

equally provide a reading path for the cartoons.   

 

Salience is realized also through the depiction of the soldier’s tommy, as he ‘frontally confronts the enemy’. 

His poise shows lack of commitment in the fight against the enemy. Salience is also realized by 

foregrounding the cords in the various cartoons, thereby attracting the viewer’s attention. On the other hand, 

the linguistic accompaniments help in driving the message home. In figure three for instance, the doctor 

asks the patient how he feels and his response shows the contentment in spite of his lying on a hospital bed. 

His contentment being from the dollars rolling into his pocket. In Figure 5., the soldier announces his state 

of preparedness for the battle. His utterance confirms his frontal readiness.  The artist employed the 

technique of labelling in some of the analysed cartoons. He also used speech balloons which helped in 

reading the thoughts of the represented characters. The accompanying texts help in elaborating the 

presented viewpoints by making the pictures more distinct. This, therefore, shows the indispensability of 

both the verbal and visual modes in a communicative event.   

 

Conclusions 

This paper has demonstrated how cartoons have been used to depict the level of sleaze in the Nigeria socio-

political terrain. It shows some of the avenues through which individuals and agencies siphon funds from 

government’s coffers. Though cartoons are presented from the humorous perspective, they serve as social 

comments, representing the cartoonist’s viewpoint as he comments on the social malaise. Noting that 

corruption is the bane of many countries as it is the major cause of underdevelopment, the cartoonist creates 



AJELLS: Awka Journal of English Language and Literary Studies, Vol. 8 No. 1, 2021 
 
 

Ifechelobi & Nwachukwu                                                                                                                          9 

 

awareness, condemns the social evil while entertaining viewers. The multimodal analytical framework 

proved adequate for the anaylsis as it ensured that all facets of the data are treated adequately. The research 

has proved the cartoon genre a formidable force in the fight against corruption, especially during repressive 

regimes. The study recommends a research on the much touted fight against corruption by the government 

to ascertain the level of sincerity in it.  

  

 

Works Cited 

Aluko, M. A. (2002). The institutionalization of corruption and its impact on political culture and 

behaviour in Nigeria. Retrieved from Nigeria. Nordic Journal of African Studies, vol. 11(3) on 23 

September, 2019. 

Asukwo, E. (2018). Laughter in the Mirror. Lagos: doculand print and copy center. 

Benoit, W., Klyukovski, A., and McHale, J. A. (2001). A fantasy theme analysis of political cartoons on 

the Clinton-Lewinsky-Starr affair. Retrieved from Critical Studies in Media Communication, 

18(4) Retrieved from DOI: 10.1080/07393180128097. 

Chinwo, E. (2020, July 19). NDDC: A dIsturbing cesspool of corruption. Retrieved September 12, 2020, 

from thisdaylive.com. 

Duus, P. (2001). Presidential address: weapons of the weak, weapons of the strong. the development of 

the Japanese political cartoon". Retrieved from Retrieved from Cambridge Unversity Press on 

2December 2018. 

Eriye, F. (2020, July 15). Comedy of scandals. The Nation. Retrieved August 23, 2020, from 

thenatiomonline.net on August 23, 2020. 

Halliday, M. (1978). Language as a social semiotic: The social interpretation of Language and meaning. 

London: Edward Arnold. 

 Houser, N. and Kloesel, C, (1992). The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Vol. 1 (1867– 

1893). Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press. 

Kress, G. and van Leeuwen, T. (1996. 2006). Reading images: the grammar of visual design. London: 

Routledge. 

Kress, G. and van Leeuwen. (Eds.) (2001). Multimodal discourse: contemporary communication. Oxford 

UK: Oxford University Press. 

Kress, G. and van Leeuwen. (2001). Multimodal discourse: the modes and media of contemporary 

communication. London: Arnold. 

Manning, H. P. (2004). “In Defence of the Political Cartoonists’ Licence to Mock”. Retrieved from 

Austrialian Review of Public Affairs Vo, 5 no. 1 PP. 25-42 

httP//www.austriliareview.net/journal/v5/n1/manning.pdf. 

Mirzoeff, N. (1998). The visual culture reader . New York: Routeledge. 

Mutiullah, A. O. (2013). Rethinking public administration with advance attitude. Abuja: Omotosho 

Publishers. 

Niven, D. S. (2003). “The political content of late night comedy”,. Retrieved from International Journal 

of Press/Politics https://doi.org/10.1177/1081180X0300080003007. 

Okolo, P. Okiemute, R. and Akpokighe, O. (2014). Corruption in Nigeria, the possible way out. Global 

Journal of Human Sciences. F. Political Science vol. 14, issue 7. Retrieved from 

https://socialscienceresearch.org/index.ph 

Page, M. T. (2018). A new taxonomy for corruption in Nigeria. Massachusetts Avenue, NW: in Carnegie 

endowment for international peace publications department. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

https://doi.org/10.1177/1081180X0300080003007
https://socialscienceresearch.org/index.ph

