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MONODRAMA AND THE NARRATOLOGY OF ORAL AFRICAN CULTURE: A 

STUDY OF MBAJIORGU AND BINEBAI 

 

 

Laserian Onyeka Anuforo 

Department of English Language and Literature, 

Alvan Ikoku Federal Collage of Education, Owerri 

Lascrian75@gmail.com 

& 

Professor Chike Okoye 

Department of English Language and Literature 

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka 

cb.okoye@unizik.edu.ng 

Abstract 

The word drama and most importantly its sub-genre called solo drama seem to be dominated 

by written text only. But the more solo drama in Africa showcases itself in the forms of written 

text, the more the oral narratology of African culture reveals itself in solo drama. The solo 

drama we mean here is not stand-up comedy, performance poetry and monologue in poetry 

which many people think are the same as solo drama. This research made attempt to study solo 

drama especially its language that serves as the distinguishing feature in form of narration that 

is heavily influenced by the oral tales of African culture that “oscillates between poetry and 

prose” as evident in Mbajiorgu and Binebai. This one-man theatre or solo drama orientation of 

only one person performing all the roles in the play and still achieves believability in the minds 

of the audience, promotes mobility of art and also reveals human conditions. Yet, monodrama 

relies much on language that operates in-between “poetry and prose” to achieve its aims as 

against the usual multiple characters playing specific role which tends to encourage waste of 

resources and its language of terseness which the usual drama is known for. 

 

Introduction 

Monodrama is said to be a fictional story about life told on stage by only one person who 

embodies all other characters before an audience. The above made scholars like Patris Parvis 

in his Dictionary of Theatre: Terms, Concepts and Analysis to argue that solo drama is a “play 

with single character or at least a single actor who may take on several roles. And that such 

plays focus on one individual and explore his innermost motivations, subjectivity and 

lyricism…”  The above statement by Parvis is as against the multiple characters tradition where 

group characters play different roles. It should be recalled that the origin of drama dates back 

in Greece during the thanks-giving ceremony of the Greek god, Dionysius around 6th century 

B.C. Emeka Nwabueze tells us that,  

The genesis of dramatic art took place one day in the sixth 

century B.C. The major activity of the vintage season was to 

assemble to give thanks to the god, Dionysus… In the middle of 

this presentation of activity one of the chorus members mounted 

the   altar stone assumed the role of the god about whose 

activities the chorus had assembled to recount. Stepping out of 

himself and assuming a character…  this sole actor impersonated 

and imitated  the hero instead of singing about him… the man  

who performed this historic act was Thespis, the Greek artist 

credited with the discovery of drama… the first actor… the first 

writer of tragedy.   (11-12) 

 



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It is amazing how drama with its documented origin in solo dramatic art has been neglected 

and overtaken by multi –cast tradition as if solo theatre or performance never existed before. 

Therefore, this work studies monodrama and the tale -telling of African oral culture in 

Mbajiorgu and Binebai. That is to account for the existence of the peculiar language of solo 

drama that “oscillates between prose and poetry” that is heavily conditioned by the narratology 

of African /Nigerian oral tradition. Going by the Western concept of drama, as has been said 

elsewhere, it means that whatever forms the dithyramb must have taken before the Thespian 

imitation and impersonation remained non-drama, at the most, mere ritual. Greg Mbajiorgu 

argues on the origin of monodrama and then corroborates that, 

As far as documented and published history is concerned, the  

origin of improvisatory solo is traceable to Thespis. That is the 

fact  before us. There may have been pre-historic fore-runners but 

there is little or no evidence to substantiate such claims like that 

of Thespis of ancient Greece, documented in Aristotle’s The 

Poetics.(325) 

In backing the argument above, Nwabueze further adds that,  

Soon after this marvelous and innovative performance, other 

Greek artists began to imitate the performance aesthetics of this 

extraordinary  artist (Thespis)… since then, this art has grown 

considerably, acquired different forms and has come to mean 

different things to different people .(12) 

 

The researcher has maintained elsewhere too, that drama, having grown and acquired different 

forms including additional characters known today as multiple-character convention, has 

maintained strong holds in the world of drama and theatre for centuries. Nwabueze adds that it 

was not until 18th century that,  

The earliest example of monodrama was created … and it is 

entitled Pygmalion by a playwright named Jean-Jacques 

Rousseau. But we must note that it was at the beginning of the 

20th century that great actors reduced multi-cast plays to the 

vision of one character … (325) 

 

In analyzing such statement, one notices that the above great actors’ act of reducing multi-cast 

plays to the vision of one character playing all the roles is nothing but a rediscovery of solo 

theatre that took place during the 20th century. The above, no doubts is in line with modernist 

philosophy/ Avant-garde / theatre of revolt which is an attempt to reclaim, assert and to 

overtake even the multi-cast tradition and then serve as a better drama alternative. The 20th 

century artist is said to have set out to collapse the prison wall imposed on arts by the old art 

tradition in order to be free to experiment and arrive at new order and make progress since life 

abhors stagnation.  In the opinion stated above, it then means that it is the modernist thinking 

that brought about writers, artists and their art like Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, Samuel 

Beckett, Jerzy Grotowsky, Bertolt Brecht, Funsho Alabi, Wole Soyinka, Esiaba Irobi, Greg 

Mbajiorgu, Benedict Binebai and so many others. No doubts, minimalism and “poor theatre 

practice” are conditioned by avant – garde thinking. Minimalism and the concept of “poor 

theatre” practice by Jerzy Grotowsky point towards same direction in drama and theatre. 

Grotowsky rejects the toga of “rich theatre” and opts for the cutting down “all non essential 

scenery, costumes, and props to create the so-called poor theatre where the only focus was the 

unadorned actor”.  

 



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Solo drama which is dependent on the concept of minimalism is indeed drama/ theatre of 

revolt- with the “forbidden styles and subject matters” like the one- man actor vision, including 

feminism that was never given attention until the modernist era. Robert Brustein in his 

modernist thinking reveals that, 

Messianic revolt is the initial stage of the modern drama… it can 

be found in Ibsen, Strindberg, Shaw, and O’ Neill… Messianic 

drama is a medium of absolute liberation, unrestrained by 

dramatic rules or human limitations, through which the rebel 

dramatist indulges his insatiable appetite for the infinite. (16-17) 

 

It is in the spirit of theatre revolt that the concept of minimalism manipulates the theatrical 

props thereby trying to overtake multiple characters tradition in order to maintain its place as 

better-alternative in the world of dramatic art. Furthermore, solo drama encourages the creative 

power of the individual’s survival in the economic mess like ours and then stands as a 

handy/mobile means of campaign against injustice, impunity, corruption, squandering of 

public funds, child abuse, human trafficking and all forms of social vices. The Nigerian artists 

like Mbajiorgu and Binebai despite their long training in the Western technicalities of 

drama/theatre are still heavily influenced by their African oral/solo performance heritage .In 

all humanity, it is said that man spoke before he wrote. The above argument shows that 

whatever metamorphoses we find in the form of written solo drama of Mbajiorgu and Binebai 

has its roots in the African / Nigerian oral tradition like the Ozidi saga in Ijaw Kingdom and 

others with its peculiar tale -telling language structure instead of mere dialogue and terseness 

which drama is known for. Indeed, the said roots can be traced to the peculiar language of the 

oral narratives in traditional African setting like the folk tales, etc.  Binebai tells us that, “I read 

some of J.P Clark’s plays like Ozidi…” (390) He further adds thus,  

I tried to establish a pattern of solo drama tradition that has its 

roots in the Ijaw cultural background and other ethnic groups in 

the Niger- Delta. This tradition is drawn from the story telling 

tradition of the Ijaw people. Stories are told in Ijaw land to dance, 

music and mime yet the story teller does not enter into dialogue 

with those who sing and dance… (393) 

Greg Mbajiorgu in an interview too granted to Austine Amanze Akpuda reveals that, 

… I listened to fork tales told by my mother… my elder sister 

thrilled me with moonlight tales. …I grew to love folk tales… 

All these experiences have no doubt contributed to my 

development as a solo performer… I came from Ihiaha in Ihiala 

Local Government Area of Anambra State. In that part of Igbo 

land, we have notable minstrels like Seven (7-7) Promoter, and 

several others. (338). 

 

It is this unique language that this research sets to showcase for better understanding   

The minimalist artwork like monodrama that is highly mobile in nature suggests that drama or 

its presentation can actually take place anywhere whether in the theatre or not. Grotowski 

attempts to answer the question; what is theatre which his answer falls in line with minimalist 

tradition thus,  

can the theatre exist without costumes and sets? Yes, it can. Can 

it exist without music to accompany the plot? Yes, it can. Can it 

exist without lighting effects? Of course. And without a text? 

Yes; the history of the theatre confirms this. In the evolution of 



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25                  Anuforo & Okoye 

the theatrical art, the text was one of the last elements to be 

added. (983) 

 

However, Grotowski goes further to interrogate the definition of theatre when he asks, “but can 

the theatre exist without actors? I know of no example of this”. Again, he asks, 

can the theatre exist without an audience? At least one 

spectator is needed to make it a performance. All the 

other things are supplementary – perhaps necessary, but 

nevertheless, supplementary. (982) 

In this reductionist approach where theatrical elements are minimized to the barest optimal 

where the actor and the audience are the most essential, then the whole task falls on the body 

of the actor to achieve a total theatre effects on the audience.  

 

The Prime Minister’s Son, My Life in the Burning Creeks and the Narratology of oral 

African setting   

(A cemetery beside a local church. On  stage is PRIME MINISTER'S SON in a completely 

tattered outfit dirging as he advanced towards his mother's tombstone.) 

 

PRIME MINISTER'S SON: (Dirging.) 

 

Keduz' Ife m g' erne?  Uw'agwu go m' ike Keduz' Ife m g' erne?  

Uw'agwu go m' ike Abum onye na-enwero onye ona-echekuwbe  

Keduz' ife m g' erne?  Uw' agwu go m' ike Keduz' ife m g' eme?  

Uw' agwu go m' ike Keduz' ife m g' eme? Uw' agwu go m' ike What 

shall I do?  I am tired of life What shall I do?' I am tired of life I am one 

who has no one to turn to What shall I do?(1-3)  

PRIME MINISTER'S SON cries passionately as he stoops beside his mother's tombstone.} 

As we are, so she was. As she is, so shall we be. 

(Sits beside the tombstone) But why, mother?  Why?  

Why did you leave me this way? Now that you are gone,  

what is the essence of my life? Come and take me along with you. 

Mama, please come… (11-12) 

In similar vein as a monodrama, we notice a drama presentation in the tradition of 

monopolylogue where only one character enjoys the patent rights of words in a flow of 

interaction with himself and where monologue, dialogue, drama and monodrama converge 

and then exhibit peculiarity thus,  

 (Dirging in tears as he turns, facing the audience.) 

Keduz' ife m g' eme? 

Uw' agwu go m' ike 

Keduz' ife m g' eme? 

Uw' agwu go m' ike 

… 

My friends, and countrymen, my sorrowful and 

melancholic tale goes beyond my tears of misery. For 

more than sixteen years, Ezinma, Emenike and I lived 

peacefully, a happy family, until last year… (5-8) 

 

PRIME MINISTER'S SON as EZINMA: Sir, thank you very much. 

PRIME MINISTER'S SON as PRIME MINISTER: You're  

 welcome. What's your name? 



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26                  Anuforo & Okoye 

PRIME MINISTER'S SON as EZINMA; Ezinma! 

PRIME MINISTER'S SON as PRIME MINISTER: Ezinma,  

 you're very beautiful. 

PRIME MINISTER'S SON as BLIND WOMAN: Thank you my son. May your days be 

long!  

(12-14)  

 

Here, we notice the language that is almost the same with the oral tales of African tradition 

like the prose narratives which Jasper Onuekwusi in Fundamentals of African Oral Literature 

tells us, “…are fairly long and are prosaic”(50). That is against the tenets of dialogue which 

drama is known for. For dialogue in drama or dramatic dialogue, Nwabueze maintains that, 

the word dialogue derives from the Greek word “to converse” This 

means that there ought to be at least two speakers for dramatic 

dialogue to thrive. Dramatic dialogue involves the exchange of speech 

between two characters, the thoughts of a single character; and 

conversation between several characters in a play (104)  

 

The above is in contradiction with ventriloquism type of language which makes possible every 

monodrama and then points back to the narratology in oral tales in African milieu. Mbajiorgu 

opines that, language in monodrama “oscillates between prose and poetry”. And that such 

language is based purely on what is regarded as ventriloquism which enables the solo actor to 

achieve verisimilitude of those other characters which the lone actor embodies. In the 

background of The Prime Minister’s Son, Mbajiorgu argues that,  

Ventriloquism is a well known mimetic technique that was used 

by the ancient Greek soloists for interpreting multiple roles. This 

vocal characterization technique required by the single actor who 

is interpreting multiple roles can only be appreciated in a 

performance and not in a text. (67)      

In supporting the adequacy of this language form in monodrama, C.B Davis submits that,  

Masked actors, puppeteers, storytellers, monolinquists and other 

performers who signify multiple identities with the voice usually 

rely on systems of difference that reveal cultural codes for class, 

ethnicity, gender and socially typed personality of the speaker… 

(qtd in Mbajiorju, 67-68) 

Davis is said to have identified two types of vocal modulation that are associated with 

ventriloquism which are vocal transformation and acoustic perspective thus,  

Vocal transformation designates a change of voice that is in 

contrast either to the speaker’s normal voice or other assumed or 

imitated voices, while acoustic perspective is the principle 

behind not only the voice-illusion or the distance ventriloquism 

but also the auditory signification of space and movement in a 

sign system (qtd in “background”, 67-68).        

 

It is believed that we can only appreciate the connection between voice and identity only in 

the circumstance of stage performance where the lone actor appropriates his voice and body 

in a bare space (Mbajiorju, 68). In the same vein, it is argued that the solo actor embodies the 

other characters on stage realistically by the use of what Charles Mathew calls 

monopolylogue which he sees as, “One man having the monopoly of words in a series of 

dialogue with himself”. (qtd in “background”, 67)  The ventriloquism and monopolylogue in 



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27                  Anuforo & Okoye 

monodrama that are “fairly long and prosaic” just like we have in oral tales in African culture 

are what we encounter when The Prime Minister's Son speaks as Emenike thus,  

PRIME MINISTER’S SON as EMENIKE: 

Ozoemena was my best friend in the orphanage.  

Throughout that week, this man,whom we called Master,treated 

us like princes. One Saturday morning, some strange faces 

visited our new home. Later that same day, Master went out with 

Ozoemene and that was the last time I set my eyes on Ozoemene. 

All my efforts to enquire about Ozoemena’s whereabouts from 

Master were dismissed with a wave of the hand. Out of curiosity, 

I asked people in the neighborhood whether they knew where 

Ozoemena could be, but each person I asked treated me like a 

dynamo. I sensed something fishy was happening in my new 

home. It wasn’t until I had a misunderstanding with one of the 

street boys that he, in a bid to spite me, told me that my occultist 

and cabalistic master would soon use me for sacrifice. The boy 

also wished I would rot in the shrine, but then, he had unwittingly 

unraveled the puzzle of Ozoemena’s disappearance. In my room 

that night, I kept eating Kola nuts to keep awake. By the dead 

hour of the night, when spirits are known to roam the surface of 

the earth, I stole out into the harsh harmattan air and wandered 

off with nothing but the dirty clothes on my body. I walked for 

two nights non-stop to another part of the town where I was sure 

the long hands of my master could not get me.(36-37) 

   

Like The Prime Minister’s Son above, My Life in the Burning Creeks that is for our analysis 

was written by Binebai.  Benedict Ebimotimi Binebai writes thus, (At the public square in 

Gbaramatu in one of the creeks of the Niger Delta, a dirge ... a fairly tall black skinned youth 

of about thirty years comes out to the deserted public square. He is wearing a blue jean trousers 

and a faded T-shirt): 

 

PEREWARE:       

What does life mean to you (Pointing to someone in the 

audience) Enjoyment? Does it mean the same thing to me? 

The endowment of life is partial. Some people are born with 

silver spoon some have silver spoon entrusted unto them.  And 

there are others born with silver spoon. But the gods deny them 

the right and privilege to feed with the silver spoon. If life is not 

partial, why is it fair to some people and foul to some others? 

Yes!... 

(Physical effects of fire flames) 

For many years my people stood against Subjugation. One day, 

three low flying helicopters came to my land and we all gave a 

wave of welcome as our kingdom was in a Festive mood…(56-

58)    

(Faint sound of helicopters as Pereware waves briefly and stops short…)  

Oh! My God.What has come over me?  I have started this story 

wrongly. Please bear with me. Let me start from where 

the creator of my story started it. 

 



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28                  Anuforo & Okoye 

(A brief song to usher in the narration. The song continues in the background, fading 

progressively as Pereware speaks) 

   

I graduated from one of Nigeria’sprestigious universities and 

was posted to Kano for National Youth Service. My friend, 

Abubakar, from Sokoto State who read Islamic and Arabic 

Studies was posted to Delta, My own state, and was further 

posted to Chevron at Escravos where he served and was retained 

there at the Public and Corporate Affairs unit. I returned from 

Northern Nigeria after service without a job offer…(7) 

 

PEREWARE:                         But Abubakar, how do I make it when I don’t have a  

                Godfather? I need the job, would you take me to a  

                godfather who can offer me the job? 

 

PEREWARE as ABUBAKAR: The bitter truth is that you need to become a 

                                                Muslim and truly bear a Muslim name before the assistance 

                                                can come 

We experience the show of a blown ventriloquism and monopolylogue in monodrama that is 

conditioned by the fairly long and free flowing pattern in oral tales of African setting. The 

above is what we see when Pereware speaks as Wenetua reeling out the frustration of average 

Nigerian/Niger-Deltan thus, 

  

PEREWARE as WENETUA: Every choice you make in the burning creeks points to 

futility and cruelty  and sometimes self destruction 

Becoming a fisherman is futile because oil  has polluted the 

waters; what about the flora and fauna   that have been deprived 

of their fertility? Your dream of having a job is killed by the 

monster of discrimination and oppression and to be in politics 

means fighting a war of violence against your will. Youths of the 

aquatic region take to diving dangerously into the depth of the 

river to collect water snails to eke a living even the choice of 

going into local crude oil refining is another suicidal venture. 

The effect of this local refinery can be devastating as its health 

implications hold no good future for our people. The quality of 

our unborn children in this burning and oil refining creeks will 

fail our future generation. In this burning creek, the traditional 

life support system has been destroyed by oil exploration. People 

now embrace all types of available economic means to keep the 

family going. These militants see the oppressors as people who 

want them to be quiet even in the face of economic and social 

injustice, resource theft, environmental degradation, and 

political exclusion. But while they have been using our oil to 

drive their cars, fuel their airplanes, and keep the wonderful 

wheels of our wealth whirling. Those of us in the burning creeks 

have had our land, lives, and dreams destroyed. …So, what are 

you doing with that rope? You want to die because you have no 

job yet? You are a coward! You have a sick mother who has 

spent all her savings and used up her sweat to make you a man. 

And a university graduate.  And you think because life has not 



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29                  Anuforo & Okoye 

been fair to you, the best thing to do is to die to allow your 

mother wallow and die in sorrow and pains? (29-30) 

          

In the above language structure, we notice a peculiar type where “fairly long and prosaic” 

language form just like the fairly long and free flowing pattern in oral tales in African culture 

is imposed on the monodrama especially that written by Africans like  Mbajiorgu and Binebai 

which they consciously set out to achieve.  

 

Conclusion  

So far, one notices that despite being trained in the Western technicalities in drama and 

consequently its sub-genre called monodrama, Greg Mbajiorju and Benedict Binebai create the 

first monodrama in Nigeria that appropriate the Igbo and Ijaw oral language form/ tales -telling 

heritage respectively. As one –man theatre, its root points back to the one-man oral 

performance in most human societies especially in Africa and her oral language pattern which 

now graduates into what is regarded as the pioneer monodrama and its peculiar language form 

in Nigeria today.  

  

   

Works Cited 

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Martins’ Press, 1986. 21-53. Print. 

Binebai, Benedict. My Life in the Burning Creeks. Ibadan: Temple Publications, 2014. Print. 

…”Interview with Benedict Binebai by Paul Izoigwe”. 50 Years of Solo Performing Art 

       in Nigeri 1966-2016. Eds. Greg. Mbajiorgu, Amanze Akpuda. Ibadan: kraft Books 

Limited, 2018. 387-399. Print.  

…”My monodrama: The Vision and Philosophy” 50 Years of Solo Performing Art in Nigeri 

1966-2016. Eds. Greg. Mbajiorgu, Amanze Akpuda. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited, 

2018. 376-386.. Print. 

Brecht, Bertolt. “The Modern Theatre is the Epic Theatre”. Dramatic Theory and Criticism 

Greeks to Grotowski: New York: Library of Congress Publication, 1974. 978-996. 

Print. 

…”Theatre for Pleasure or Theatre for Instruction” Dramatic Theory and Criticism Greeks to 

Grotowski: New York: Library of Congress Publication, 1974, 849-854. Print. 

Brustein, Robert. The Theatre of Revolt: An Approach to the Modern Drama. Boston: An 

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Grotowski, Jerzy. “The Theatre’s New Testament”. Dramatic Theory and Criticism Greeks to 

Grotowski: New York: Library of Congress Publication, 1974. 978-996. Print. 

Mbajiorgu, Greg.. The Prime Minister’s Son. Ibadan: Kraft Book Limited. 2011. Print.   

Mbajiorgu, Greg. Improvisation as a Strategy for Creating Dynamic Solo Play: A Study of 

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Greg. Mbajiorgu, Amanze Akpuda. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited, 2018.  179-195.. 

Nwabueze, Emeka. Studies in Dramatic Literature. Enugu; Abic Book 2011. Print. 

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