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Speech Therapy and Its Significance to Dyslexics: A Study of 

Hopespring Foundations, Port Harcourt 

 

Enobong Archibong Ansa1 Stephen Anurudu2 

University of Port Harcourt 

enobong_ansa@uniport.edu.ng1  steveanurudu@yahoo.com 

 

Abstract 

Speech therapy deals with brain stem activation for speech 

recovery. This study on speech therapy in dyslexics assessed the 

significance of therapy administration in speech recovery. The 

population for this study was derived from Hopespring Foundation 

School, Port Harcourt where reports for seven dyslexics were 

purposively selected; all selected samples were on therapy for either 

two and four years. Adopting the usage-based theory to explain the 

function of the principles of neuroplasticity, the limited effectiveness 

in the cognitive progress as a factor of therapy administration was 

assessed. The information for each subject which formed the data of 

this study were got from a progress report sheet. The information 

retrieved were recorded and presented on tables, grid and 

percentages and interpreted descriptively. The data showed that the 

results of the dyslexic’s cognitive outcome were a function of the 

brain neurons and not age of the child. The study recommends a 

dysfunction based therapeutic intervention since intensity, 

specificity and frequency are factors that trigger a higher brain 

neural activation, such that, cognitive adjustment becomes much 

easier and better.  

Keywords: dyslexics, speech therapy, speech recovery, brain 

neurons, neuroplasticity 

 

mailto:enobong_ansa@uniport.edu.ng
mailto:steveanurudu@yahoo.com


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1. Introduction 

Human communication is encoded with symbols that are deduced 

with the application of given phonemic skills. When the phonemic 

skills are not developed, communication would be impeded and may 

lead to different forms of speech dysfunctions that affect speech 

production and reception. Language disorder can affect all kinds of 

linguistic communication. Phonemic disorder is one of the most 

prevalent characteristics of dyslexia. 

 Catts (1989) defines “dyslexia is a developmental language 

disorder that involves a deficit(s) in phonological processing” (p. 

50) while Adolf and Hogan (2018) having reviewed other literatures 

on the meaning of dyslexia explain that it is a disorder based 

primarily on deficits in the phonological domain. It is easily 

manifest in the word reading level.  Additionally, Volkman (2020) 

describes dyslexia as an immature development of some language 

areas in the brain concerned with reading. Dyslexia, according to 

her, is not language bound but affects both speakers of symbolic 

languages and image language, as it is a loss in the brain network 

between the visual and audio cortex. She observes that the 

dysfunction is present from birth but can be changed if interventions 

such as motor programmes can be introduced to help create the 

connective network. In her study, she recommended a daily routine 

of this intervention and an introduction of memory games; 

identifying this as a factor that activates the brain’s mechanism, a 

notion related to the concept of neuroplasticity. 

 Conway (2017) wrote that the dyslexic brain can be rewired 

for effective speech communication. He pointed at the use of the 

multisensory method for language teaching. He specifically opined 

that that the functioning of the grey matters in speech recovery is 

essential. He further states that there is a mechanism known as 

neuroplasticity which explains the brain’s ability to create new 



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experiences and connections with intensive effort, irrespective of 

age. In his view, intervention programmes can be evaluated if 

effective after a week’s frequent practice. 

Conway (2014), reporting on how to make the weaker cells 

strong as a strategy in speech activation, described three basic 

principles. These principles are intensity, frequency and specificity 

of instruction. He described that these principles function with a 

system identified as neuroplasticity and which is significant to the 

success of rewiring the brain and addressing learning difficulties. 

Tobias (2020) expanded these principles of neuroplasticity to 

include: use it or lose it, use it and improve it, specificity, repetition 

matters, intensity matters, timing matters, salience matters, age 

matters, transference, and interference. She noted that these 

principles are not related to muscle strengthening but the rewiring 

of the brain.  We change behaviour and form experiences by 

allowing the use of the weaker side of the body and when this 

activity occurs over time, the experiences become engrained in the 

brain to a point of automaticity and this can be accounted for as the 

functioning of neuroplasticity.  

Of importance is Eden’s (2016) position that there are no 

structures in the brain that was designed to read rather, we 

reorganise the brain organs designed for other things. She added that 

the brain networks with the sound, sight and auditory skills to 

perform reading. This network does not work for a dyslexic because 

they are incapable of encoding and decoding sounds and symbols 

relationship. It is worthy to note that according to Hodge (n.d.), 

‘neuroplasticity can occur as an adaptive mechanism to compensate 

and adjust for lost function and/or to maximise remaining functions 

in the event of brain injury.’ (par. 3) She notes researchers have 

studied the effectiveness of explicitness in teaching sounds and 

phonology to dyslexics and observed that time and adequate 



Speech Therapy and Its Significance to Dyslexics - Ansa & Anurudu 

 

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examples to recreate the brain activity, will lead to a successful 

intervention. According to research in Eden’s view, after 

intervention, there is an increase in brain activities in the areas 

related to language. This provided an insight to the relationship 

between the brain and struggling readers and the value of the brain. 

She postulated that even adults with dyslexia can change their brains 

to become better readers.  

 Worthington (2019) added that interventions such as air 

writing overtime leads to an improvement in reading as reading 

sounds with their corresponding letters becomes automatic. He 

reported that researches have shown that the sensory-cognitive 

function or symbol imagery improves phonemic awareness. It goes 

beyond phonemic awareness to orthographic development for 

reading of sight words.  

 With dyslexia, intervention changes the brain matters and 

stimulates the brain’s activity for reading. In this way, speech is 

entrenched and developed in the brain using a cognitive approach in 

assisting the learner which activates the learner’s cognitive process. 

Therefore, speech therapy should not be valued as a task on muscle 

adjustment or speech patterning but a process of speech 

entrenchment and development. The study therefore examines the 

result of cognitive reconnections as a function of therapy 

administration.  

 

1.1 Statement of the Problem 

Understanding the brain and its functioning is essential in speech 

therapy delivery as the latter is not limited by age but the rate of 

recovery is determined by certain brain factors and volume of 

therapy administered. More so, training the brain on speech 

development requires an entrenched cognitive force to achieve the 

stabilisation of the disordered brain. However, interest has been 



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focused on achieving this feat with much less emphasis laid on the 

brain. Thus, the debate on how and what works in the brain to help 

boost the cognitive process and the relation of this stem to age. 

Interestingly, in Nigeria, many have affirmed that early detection 

and therapeutic intervention is effective but without a specific 

identification of the function of the neural stems and required 

intensity of therapy which is not age dependent.  Thus, the challenge 

of effective speech therapy may be factored from the type of 

therapeutic plans and/or designs that are not aligned with the 

function and principles of neuroplasticity and should not be 

exclusive of young and adult learners. 

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Study 

The primary aim of this study was to substantiate the relationship 

between speech therapy and recovery in dyslexia. The specific 

objectives include to: 

1. Examine the function of age in speech recovery by dyslexic 

2. Assess the effective function of the principles of 

neuroplasticity in dyslexia. 

1.3 Research Questions 

Guided by the objectives, the following questions were raised: 

1. To what extent is speech recovery factored by age in 

dyslexia? 

2. To what extent can neuroplasticity be determined as related 

to speech recovery among dyslexic? 

2. Theoretical Framework  

2.1 Usage-Based Theory: A Cognitive Perspective   

Bybee (2010) explained a cognitive process in speech development 

through usage-based theory. Writing on the usage-based processes, 

tel:2010


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several cognitive processes that influence the use and development 

of linguistic structure and which explain the functionality of the 

theory were identified. These include: (i) categorization: identifying 

tokens as an instance of a particular type (ii) chunking: the formation 

of sequential units through repetition or practice (iii) rich memory: 

the storage of detailed information from experience (iv) analogy: 

mapping of an existing structural pattern onto a novel instance, and 

(v) cross-modal association: the cognitive capacity to link form and 

meaning. Thus, there is a strong “cognitive commitment” to 

explaining linguistic structure using this approach. As Taylor puts 

it, “he general thrust of the cognitive linguistics enterprise is to 

render accounts of syntax, morphology, phonology, and word 

meaning in consonant with aspects of cognition which are well 

documented, or at least highly plausible, and which may manifest in 

non-linguistic forms” (Taylor, 2002, p. 9). 

Ibbotson (2013), explaining the scope of the usage-based 

theory as opined by Langacker, noted that “the more a linguistic unit 

is established as a cognitive routine or “rehearsed” in the mind of 

the speaker, the more it is said to be entrenched”. Schmid (2017) 

opined that that,  

Entrenchment posits that our linguistic knowledge is 

continuously refreshed and reorganized under the 

influence of social interactions. It is part of a larger, 

ongoing process of lifelong cognitive reorganization 

whose course and quality is conditioned by exposure 

to and use of language, and by the application of 

cognitive abilities and processes to language (n. p.). 

 

 For example, young infants are able to discriminate a wider range 

of sounds that are present in their native language than in a foreign 

language (Aslin, Pisoni, Hennessy, & Perey, 1981). Once this 

tel:2002
tel:1981


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entrenchment is established as a routine, it will be difficult to 

reverse.  

Therefore, the cognitive ability of the child should be guided 

towards the actual phonemic reproduction of the target phoneme and 

through the guidance of a caregiver. It is by this means the use of 

the therapeutic measures is expected to lead to mastery of phonemic 

discrimination. This theory is adopted for the present study to 

explain the effectiveness of the therapeutic measures used with the 

dyslexic. 

 

 

3. Methodology 
This study employed a qualitative research method. Data were 

collected from primary sources using an observation of the progress 

report for the dyslexics. The subject for this study were seven 

dyslexic pupils from ages 3 to 14 who were already on therapy taken 

from fifteen pupils with speech disorders in the selected sample site. 

The subjects were purposively selected to exclude those who had 

extra therapy sessions. The data were retrieved from the school’s 

progress report which contains details of their progress and 

identifiable condition, if any. Analyses were descriptively done as 

results were presented on tables and charts. Bybee’s Usage Based 

Theory supported the cognitive changes identified.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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4. Data Presentation and Analysis 

4.1 Data Presentation 

 

Table 1: Interview Report 

Question Response 

What is your opinion on the 

possibility of activating word 

reading skills in dyslexics? 

The dyslexic can learn to read 

if taught 

How regularly do you hold a 

therapy session? 

Two times a week for a one-

hour intensive practice and an 

extra day for musical session. 

They are allowed to learn with 

their peers 

 

In your opinion, what factors do 

you think contribute to the 

activation of   their reading 

skills?  

Practice on sounds 

Are you aware of a mechanism 

known as neuroplasticity? If 

yes, what is its function? 

No.  

Do you think that there is a 

special organ for reading? 

Yes, and the poor development 

of that part of the brain is 

responsible for this disorder 

 

How do the dyslexics learn? Hmmm, for the dyslexics, they 

learn using sounds and images 

 

What method of therapy do you 

apply? 

No specific method but I 

engage them in sound and 



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word naming activities. 

Sometimes, we include games. 

In your opinion, do you think 

that a child with dyslexia can 

become a normal reader? 

It is possible but the child may 

still be challenged by a few 

concepts even as an adult  

 

Can dyslexia be overcome in 

adulthood? 

I don’t think so. The adult 

brain will be difficult to train  

 

Table 2 Cognitive Report 

Respondent 

ID 

Age Years on 

Therapy 

Cognitive 

Report 

A 11 4 
No expressive 

ability but good 

reception (mid-

interruption-

withdrawal)  

 

B 3 2 Average on 

expressive and 

receptive ability  

 

C 8 4 Average on 

expressive but 

good receptive 

ability 

 



Speech Therapy and Its Significance to Dyslexics - Ansa & Anurudu 

 

32 

 

D 14 2 Good expressive 

ability and above 

average receptive 

ability 

 

E 9 4 Limited 

expressive ability 

and above 

average on 

reception 

 

F 11 4 Average on 

expressive but 

poor receptive 

ability 

 

G 10 2 Poor expressive 

and receptive 

ability (comorbid) 

Table 3 Subjects’ Performance Rating 

Age  Years on Therapy Percentile 

Rating 

11 4 35% 

3 2 45% 

8 4 50% 

14 2 66% 

9 4 48% 

11 4 39% 

10 2 30% 



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Figure 1: Information Grid Chart  

 

4.2 Discussion of Findings 
The results from this study showed that the human brain can be 

rewired by an understanding of the mechanism of neuroplasticity; a 

mechanism that is not age related and which is effective for 

cognitive reconnection. This position collaborates Mohr’s (2017) 

view that measuring neuronal correlates of good (or poor) language 

recovery could help to identify patients who might benefit (or not) 

from a specific therapeutic method and can contribute to the 

development of effective neuroscience-based neurorehabilitation 

techniques.  

 Apart from exceptions from progress report on two subjects 

from the data presented (A and G) who had other stated factors – 

interruption and comorbidity - that may be considered to have had a 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

age

years on therapy

percentile  rating



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possible effect on the result of the intervention, the data explained 

that speech recovery is effective through practice as presented in 

table 3. All subjects received same pattern of therapy and had no 

extra therapy schedules. However, A and G were identified as 

exceptions as stated above. F was also listed as low (39%) though 

relatively close to the expected average of 40%. The cause of the 

difference for F is not discussed since it had no notable presentation. 

All other subjects scored above 40% in the test administered. 

 As earlier reported by Tobias (2020), when the first principle 

of neuroplasticity, intensity is not applied, the consequent effect is a 

resultant poor ability despite the years on therapeutic sessions. For 

instance, A who had same years of therapy as F is less productive. 

Both subjects were identified as having no trait of comorbidity. The 

study accounts for this difference as a result of disconnection during 

therapy which does not align with the principle of intensity. 

Respondent A’s report is observed as being influenced by periods of 

interruption which is not experienced by respondent F. Furthermore, 

subject D with just two years of therapy has a high cognitive and 

percentage rating. From side notes on observation as obtained from 

the therapists, D is the most consistent dyslexic as regards 

responding to sessions. This correlates with Ibbotson’s (2013) 

position on the effect of enrichment and entrenchment as essential 

when working on cognitive functioning. The frequency and 

repetitive implementation of encoding linguistic codes enriches the 

mind of the speaker; here, the learner. 

 According to Mohr (2017), 

The efficacy of intensive therapies can be explained by 

neuroscientific principles of learning and memory: high 

intensity and mass practice facilitates and enhances learning 

and cortical plasticity by correlated neuronal activity and by 

strengthening of synaptic contacts between neurons. From 



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this perspective, any intensive cognitive-behavioural 

intervention can maximize the effects of training-induced 

brain plasticity, which is ultimately a consequence of 

effective learning. Similarly, multiple repetitions of stimuli 

or tasks applied during language training, as well as the 

imitation of language skills modelled by language therapists 

will enhance learning and re-structuring of residual language 

networks (par.6). 

 

More so, the result from the sample of this study signals the 

therapists’ low understanding of the cognitive connections that are 

activated using therapeutic interventions and poor knowledge of the 

mechanism responsible for this reconnection as well as the 

disadvantage of using general therapy methods for dyslexics. It is 

worthy to note that specificity is identified as an essential principle 

in speech recovery. Each learner’s interest should be wired to 

specific needs. Eden (2016) had pointed to the fact that apart from 

designing an intervention programme, it is essential to tailor such to 

the specific needs of the child/or learner. In the study, it was thus 

observed that the therapy used on the school was not designed for 

specific needs- dyslexia. As presented in the therapist’s response in 

table 1, the dyslexic is not trained using dysfunction specific therapy 

but exposed to general speech therapy. If this was adopted, given 

that each child has had less than two years of therapy, a more 

enhanced speech performance would have been observed 

considering the duration of therapy and the effectiveness so far 

measured. 

 From the data, as against upheld position on age and speech 

recovery, age was not identified as significant to the cognitive 

changes. Given the opinion on language learning being age-bound, 

it would have been expected that subject D will lose active neural 



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reconnection. Respondent B who would be expected to have the 

most significant result had a score lower than D. Thus, with 

reference to language learning being age bound; no result is 

dependent on the age of the subjects. An evaluation of the youngest 

and oldest subjects, ages 3 and 14 respectively, and with same years 

on therapy signified that there is no age limit in speech recovery 

even though there may be other unmeasured variables that would 

have influenced B’s performance, the presence of an above average 

score for D, tells that learning is a life-ling process. Hence, on age 

relationship to the functioning of neuroplasticity, this study affirmed 

earlier works (Tobias, 2019, Eden, 2016) that learning to rewire the 

brain to form new codes/or experiences is a lifelong activity; not age 

dependent.  

 Projecting a relative fluency for the subjects who have had at 

least two years of therapeutic sessions and the actual identification 

of average ability for the subjects contradicts Worthington’s (2019) 

observation and the principle of neuroplasticity- by Tobias (2020). 

More so, assessing the reported years on therapy for the subjects 

under study, it may be stated that the therapist may not understand 

the brain network principles. If knowledge were present, activities 

would have been designed specifically to rewire the brain on the 

deficit patterns for dyslexics therefore ensuring a re-organisation 

influenced by the desire to activate the cognitive process through a 

specific plan which will better help in the organisation, chunking, 

analogy, cross modal association of sounds as postulated in Bybee’s 

theory for an effective usage productivity. 

 Agreed that dyslexics are phonemically deficit, it should be 

given that the deficiency is presented as an inability of mapping 

sounds to their corresponding letters. Bybee identified this as a stage 

in cognitive processing. Thus, juxtaposing neuroplasticity and 

cognitive processing, it is easy to understand the need to adapt some 



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major principles-specificity, intensity and frequency. In spite of the 

poor adaptation of these principles, it is still observed that there are 

active neural sockets activation. These connections account for the 

encoded skills that signalled a progress in cognitive conditioning of 

the subject. This accounts for the cognitive difference(s) in the 

progress for subjects of same ages and years of therapy-eleven years 

of age and four years of therapy. The intensity and duration for the 

first subject is interrupted and his cognitive progress is less than the 

latter subject who had four years of uninterrupted sessions. 

5. Conclusion 

Speech therapy can be enhanced through therapy administration. All 

subjects in this study were above the above stated age yet identified 

with poor speech abilities either receptive, productive or both. 

However, earlier studies like this present study affirmed that 

dyslexics can acquire speech competence. The brain is elastic and 

can adjust to accommodate new experiences and skills. 

Understanding this is essential to any recovery programme designed 

for the dyslexic. The communication system needs specific attention 

especially for developing language learners. Giving away a learner 

with a speech dysfunction should be managed by significant attempt 

in creating specific activities that would relate to the cognitive 

functioning of the brain. This is as reported in earlier literatures and 

the observation of this present study that there are neural stems in 

the brain that can affect a wide range of developmental processes. 

Therefore, there should be an acknowledgment on the 

functioning of the neural stems in enhancing the efforts of teachers, 

parents and linguists on improving the child and activities would be 

frequent, intensive and specific and tailored towards activation of 

the neural sockets than an attempt on strengthening the weak 

muscles. In all, it can be stated that among typical learners, there are 



Speech Therapy and Its Significance to Dyslexics - Ansa & Anurudu 

 

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atypical learners. In homes and schools, low interest on their 

differing speech levels has left the atypical child unconcerned about 

learning. This study has noted the significance of the concept of 

neuroplasticity in speech recovery for dyslexics and by its 

investigation recommends a multisensory linguistic tool for 

language teaching in order to meet the specific needs of each 

dyslexic- be they visual, auditory, developmental, etc as informed 

by Perlstein (2020). 

 

 

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