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The Use of Drum Language for Security Education and 

Awareness in Tiv 

Esther I. Shagba1, Terver Udu2, Christopher O. Erenje3, 

Elizabeth Ugechi4 

Benue State University, Makurdi 

shagbaesther@gmail.com1 goldudu2013@gmail.com2  

elizabethugechi@gmail.com3  erenjechristopher@yahoo.com4 

 

Abstract 
Insecurity is a global menace, which has escalated to such a worrisome level that 

certain measures have to be put in place in order to checkmate it. The fact that 

there are security challenges in Nigeria and West Africa as a whole and indeed 

the world at large is no longer news to anyone. In this study, the research seeks 

to explore the use of drum language in Tiv as a means of security awareness and 

prevention of crime and violence in the society. Drum language in Africa served 

as a means of communication long before the wireless cell phones were invented. 

In those days, drums were used to send detailed messages from village to village 

much faster than a person could walk in an era where there were no vehicles. 

Even in contemporary times, the drum language is still being explored. The 

research has used the Gratification Theory propounded by Blumler, Katz, and 

Gurevitch in 1974 to explicate on the effects of drums on the audience. It is 

gathered that drums are cheaper and more easily accessible by the natives. Also, 

for security reasons, the use coded language that is no easily deciphered by 

strangers.  Data for this research was collected from both primary and secondary 

sources. Oral interviews were conducted and the authors also used their intuitive 

knowledge to gather information. These gave credence to the work.  The study 

finally established that the appropriate use of drums serves as preventive 

measures as well as mobilization and awareness creation to dispel insecurity. The 

aesthetic values of drums also instill peace in the hearts of the audience thus 

causing warring parties to lay down their arms. The research established that 

drum language, if effectively used, will curb insecurity and easily create 

awareness and sensitize the populace and impending security challenges. 

Keywords: communication, drum language, gratification, insecurity, security 

awareness  

mailto:shagbaesther@gmail.com1
mailto:goldudu2013@gmail.com2
mailto:elizabethugechi@gmail.com3
mailto:erenjechristopher@yahoo.com4


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1. Introduction 

Insecurity is the state of being vulnerable, unguarded, defenseless, 

undefended and unsafe. The period of insecurity makes it difficult 

for people to sleep with both eyes closed. The state of insecurity 

makes things unpredictable by both the government and the masses. 

In Nigeria, West Africa and indeed the world at large, there is so 

much insecurity that there is never a day one wakes up without 

hearing about one security challenge or the other. This is prevalent 

both in the rural and urban areas. This paper seeks to bring to bear 

some of the security challenges as well as methods to tackle them. 

The use of the drum language is the measure that is being advocated 

to ensure security education and awareness creation to curb 

insecurity. 

 Before the advent of the telephone and other Western based 

channels of communication in Africa, there was a medium of 

communication, which allowed Africans to relay messages from one 

village to another without any worry of interception. This channel 

of communication was the drum; it enabled people to communicate 

at a distance of ten miles and sometimes greater, depending on the 

time of the day and the activities in the village. 

In traditional African society, drums are essentially 

significant mediums of communication, which serve as a voice of 

the whole community and communicate their desires and wishes. 

Although, drum messages are not languages in their own right, they 

are however, based on actual natural languages. Sounds produced 

by drums are idiomatic signals based on a particular speech pattern 

with fixed context dependent messages. This makes drum languages 

culturally defined, depending on the linguistic boundaries of that 

particular culture. Sometimes misinterpretation could occur in 

decoding the message and sometimes it could be interpreted 



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correctly. The message is usually exclusively understood by those 

that share the same cultural background because it is usually passed 

with cultural precision. 

In the Tiv cultural environment, drums were used to 

communicate from village to village, community to community 

among others across the length and breadth of Tivland as well as 

communicating with the supernatural world. Drums were fashioned 

to enhance grassroots mobilization for developmental needs of the 

society. Drum messages were meant for formalized announcements 

about impending danger, birth, death, marriage, forthcoming hunt or 

wrestling contests for instance. Drums were played at the death of 

important community leaders to announce, give alert or signal the 

members of the community concerning the news of such death. 

Aside from announcement and messages; drum languages were used 

as the most common form of expression and were understood very 

well by the populace.  

As important as drum language is to the dissemination of 

information, very little concern and attention has been given to 

address the phenomenon of this language among the Tiv people of 

recent. As a general information tool, it has been neglected not to 

talk of using it for a highly needed purpose like security education, 

and the governments of West Africa have also done very little or 

nothing concerning security education and emergency preparedness. 

It is against this backdrop that this paper seeks to advocate for the 

revival of the drum language, not just as a form of communication 

by which to impart security education and create awareness among 

the members of the community to arise to security consciousness in 

the wake of so many security challenges. The major aim of this study 

is to advocate for the use of drum language for security education 

and awareness among the Tiv populace.  
 



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2. Literature Review 

In this segment, a brief review of some related literature is done. The 

concepts reviewed are as follows: 

2.1 Drums and Drum Languages 

The drum is a member of the percussion group of musical 

instruments, technically classified as the membranous. The drum 

consists of at least one membrane called a drumhead or drum skin. 

The skin is stretched over a shell and struck either directly with the 

player’s hands, or with a drumstick, to produce sound (Grove, 

2001:26). According to Uzukwu (1997:17), the drum is a unique 

symbol or instrument of communication in Black Africa and is 

comparable to the Bible and the Koran because it carries the 

primordial word which is identical to the primordial word of these 

books. Uzukwu (1997:19) again opines that human beings 

experience life in Africa through rhythms of sound created by drum 

languages. 

Fabre (1996:31) states that the drum is the symbol of African 

culture where the sound of drums forms the acoustical writing in the 

culture of Africans than any other culture; hence, drums have played 

a more important role in writing in most African cultures, making 

them a cultural matrix through which messages pass. Drums are 

found in nearly every culture in the world and have existed before 

6000BC. They have had ceremonial, sacred, symbolic functions and 

take a more prominent role in tribal ceremonial gatherings where 

they accompanied ritual dancing and celebration. 

According to Wikipedia 

(http:www.wikipedia/drumseNotes.com), drums can be classified 

into two main types, namely the slit gongs and pressure drums. The 

slit gongs, also known as message drums are larger all-wood 

instrument hollowed out from a single log. Slit gongs have long 

narrow openings with hollow chambers that resonate when struck 



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with a stick. The tone of the sound largely depends on the wall 

thickness of the log. Hence, the bigger the log, the louder the sound 

generated as well as the distance covered. Moreover, the slit gong is 

given a stand at each end of the log to enhance the tone of the sound 

created. Slit gongs are either crafted with intricate designs or made 

simple. The slit gong can send messages over a distance of 8 

kilometres. 

Johnson (2011:29) states that the drum is the oldest 

instrument in the world dating back to 4000BC in Kemet, North-

East Africa. He (Johnson, 2011) further describes the drum as a tool 

for telegraph type of communication in Africa. He also maintained 

that the drum was used by our ancestors to communicate from 

village to village, community to community among others across the 

length and breadth of Africa as well as used to communicate with 

the supernatural world. The drum set the pace for dance and 

worship, ritual and rites. Other practical uses include signaling the 

start of the day, to lead celebrations and notify the people as well. 

Each drum language according to him (Johnson, 2011:34) is 

influenced by the geographical location, the size of the drum, the 

drum style, number of drums and the rhythm or beat pattern. 

Moreover, drums are instruments widely used in the Tiv 

community and have survived through decades in relation to other 

instruments such as Toho u nanden (bush burning) and others which 

are rarely being used in recent times in the Tiv socio-cultural 

communities for communication. 

2.2 Communicative and Cultural Significance of Talking 

Drums 

Without communication, members of a society may not be able to 

transfer knowledge of their norms and values among themselves. 

The talking drum is an important cultural instrument in the African 

society. It is a functional communication instrument used for 



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disseminating information from one African community to the 

other. 

In many African societies, the talking drum serves as a 

potent channel of traditional communication. It is one of the most 

efficient communication methods used in villages and rural areas to 

enhance grassroots mobilization for societal development. The real 

significance of the talking drum lies in the role it plays in 

communication. In its earliest form, the talking drum served as an 

aid to ancient storytellers. These traveling poets and musicians 

would use the talking drums to carry on the oral traditions of their 

culture. Talking drums were used as a means of inter-village 

communication by themselves rather than any accompaniment. 

Instead of hand-delivering a summons or warning from one 

village to another, a message could be sent directly and instantly via 

drum language. Players were taught the corresponding drum phrase 

for any given word. Messages would then be sent through drum 

players beginning with the name of the recipient, followed by the 

name of the sender, and then finally the message. When danger 

approached a village, the talking drum was used to warn villagers 

using sounds plucked from the beat in tones that matched the speed 

of the approaching danger. The drum beats travelled across the air 

with clarity and, faster than a horse rider would, and thus, saved 

time. This postulation is according to Akume (2021: 18-19). 

The talking drum is a means by which Nigerians 

communicate with their identity. It is used in different cultures and 

has different names. The Bambaras (Mande people of Mali) call it 

Odondo or Dondo; the Yoruba (Western Nigeria) call it Gangan or 

Dundun, the Hausa (Northern Nigeria) call it Kalangu or Dan 

Karbbi, and Songhai (Central Mali) call it Doodo, the Tiv people 

call it Gbande (singular) or Agbande (plural), to name a few. They 



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all reflect the cultures and identities of the various people that use 

them. 

Culture is the way of life of a people in a particular society 

and the talking drum serves as an instrument to celebrate and 

promote the cultural heritage of people of a particular society. 

Talking drums have been the most effective means of 

communication and information dissemination, not only in Tiv land 

but its informational value spreads across Sub Saharan Africa. The 

talking drums are employed not only in social gatherings among Tiv 

people but they are also used in the traditional festivals such as 

Dance festivals and New Yam festivals. The talking drum served as 

an important function in West African culture and had a language 

specific to each region. It was used to assist in storytelling, used to 

relay an important message as summon to a ceremonial dance or as 

an aid in telling fables that taught important life lessons.  

When people hear of the talking drum, they believe it is just 

an instrument to be drummed for people to dance but it is not just 

that, it is also used as a means of conveying messages. Messages can 

be conveyed in diverse forms. One can convey messages in a long 

or short distance depending upon the situation at hand. Drums are 

also used in places of worship like the church. 

2.3 Types of Drums in Tiv 
The Tiv people have different types of drums as earlier mentioned; 

but due to time and space constraint, only three (3) are being 

discussed here. The three types are: 

There are certain contexts in which plurality is marked in Etulo by 

means of reduplication. The noun stem is fully reduplicated to mark 

entities that are more than one. However, for inanimate nouns, plural 

marking using the reduplication strategy is optional. Below are some 

examples: 



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i. The Tiv Indyer: The Indyer is a heavy wooden instrument 

carved out of mahogany trunk. Ugbagir and Cuttings 

(2013:18) describe the Indyeras “a Tiv indigenous ritual slit 

wooden hollow log instrument for communication used to 

be the most potent communication device in the Tiv-fold. 

Apparently, ownership of Indyer was vested in the hands of 

Agnate Kinsfolk (ityô) and matrilineal kinsfolk (igbya); and 

owners of Indyer were noble men in the Tiv society and 

communicant members of the Tiv indigenous religion. 

Anyone desiring ownership of Indyer was required to inform 

his Ityo and Igbya to get permission, after which he 

consulted the Indyer carver (or gban indyer) to carve it for 

him. 

 
 

Fig.1: Showing a picture of the indyer drum. 

 

Oral history has it that the making of Indyer required series 

of blood sacrifices. The blood needed for sacrifice for the 

making of Indyer was that of human and the Tiv native cow 



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(Bua Tiv). The costs and sacrifices involved, 

notwithstanding, it was a potential tool for communication 

among the Tiv people. The ilyu and Indyer, according to 

Gbenda (2005:39) are also used in communicating with the 

ancestral world. 

ii. The Ilyu: The ilyu is a light wooden instrument which was  

used to pass messages to people in the villages. This was 

either for the invitation of the people for a particular meeting 

of the elders at the king’s palace or for the people to gather 

at the market square for a message from the king. Akume 

(2021:24) posits that the ilyu is now used as an instrument to 

indicate the death of someone. It is also used during marriage 

ceremonies to announce the marriage of important 

personalities. 

 
Fig. 2: Showing the picture of the ilyu drum 



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However, the ilyu is smaller than the indyer. It is used for 

marriage ceremonies along with the Agbande and Kwen. In 

places of worship (churches) too some smaller versions of 

ilyu are used alongside with Agbande to give beautiful 

rhythms that accompany the spiritual songs. 

iii. Gbande: The gbande is a memberanophonic wooden  

musical instrument made of artistically carved wooden 

pipetry and is covered with animal skin. According to 

Akume (2021:25), the Tiv gbande is “a hollow cylinder of 

wood or in advanced Tiv technology, metal, with skin or 

vellum stretched on ring-like frames fitted over one end, kept 

with hook and cords.” It is played by beating the head or the 

heads if it is double-sided with ave (hands) or asavagbande 

(drum sticks). 

Fig. 3: Tiv Gbande (Talking drum) 

 

 



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The construction of gbande is a highly technological process 

that demands skill and training to make it perfect. The 

history of gbande making or construction dates back to 

1758AD under a renowned stone mason and blacksmith 

called Gyar Anyi. The gbande belongs to the African 

instruments category called the membranophones. A 

membrane material is stretched over a frame and it is 

attached through pegs or hides strips. Drums are the most 

common membranophones and are the most popular musical 

instruments in the Tiv nation and the entire Nigeria. 

Invariably, the sizes of agbande (drums) vary from ichorugh 

to birim (abirim plural) and indyergenga which means from 

very small ones to the ones that reach 11 to 13 feet; and their 

shapes vary from cylindrical to cask, and in x-shape form. 

The position of playing agbande essentially depends on the 

size, combination and shape. Some of the agbande are 

placed on the ground, between the knees or simply slung 

over the shoulder of the player. The position depends on the 

size and weight of the drums. In some cases, two or more 

agbande are combined and laid on a platform for a player 

who is dexterous in managing the beating and tone of the 

respective drums. Akume (2021:26) further reiterates that in 

the Tiv traditional technology, the purpose for which a drum 

is made and the meteorological conditions of the 

geographical location where it is to be played are the 

fundamental determining factors for choosing the type of 

materials that will be used in constructing the agbande. The 

best wood used in carving the gbande frame is Gbaaye tree, 

which moth and other insects as well as water cannot 

destroy. In terms of imande (peg – singular) or amande (pegs 

plural), the trees used for making them are: ikpine, 



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ikpikyegh, baverkpua and the like. The ikyôvor (hides, 

membrane or skin) is made from goat, sheep, electric fish, 

deer or other animals’ skin. The rope for slinging the drum 

over the shoulder is extracted from the skin of antelope. The 

gbande is of different sizes ranging from big, medium and 

small. 

2.4 The Drum Chief (TOR-AGBANDE) 

The concept of executive chieftaincy was alien to the Tiv until when 

the British colonialists came to establish the indirect rule system of 

governance in Nigeria during the colonial era. It was then that the 

British insisted that the Tiv should also have some chiefs through 

which they (British) would be ruling them (Tiv). This was what gave 

rise to the selection of the first set of chiefs in Tiv land known as 

Tor-agbande (drum chief). This is aptly captured by East (2003:406) 

thus: 

The arrival of the chief was announced by the blowing of a 

wooden trumpet and the beating of cone-shaped drums 

(hence the title “drum chief”). The chief was not allowed to 

sit down until a specially appointed official had set him 

down with a bed set for him, on which was spread a leopard’s 

pelt. 

It can be deducted from this extract that the drum chiefs were so 

named because of the drums that were beaten to announce their 

arrival. They were not the drum players. 

2.5 Security 

The word security has been defined by different scholars in different 

ways. It is derived from the old French word securite (meaning 

safety) and Latin securitas (meaning freedom from care; 

carelessness; safety) etc. The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary 

(2006:063) defines it as the activities involved in protecting a 



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country, building or person against attack, danger or protection 

against something bad that might happen. All these definitions have 

a central focusthat is protectionand safety. For the purpose of this 

research, the definition by Har (2018:5) below is very essential. He 

considers security as: 

The development and implementation of mitigating 

measures by an individual, organization or a nation to protect 

lives, properties, image, reputation, procedures, policies and 

information from threat, harm or any form of danger by the 

adversary (enemy) category (sic) after a careful conduction 

of a Risk Assessment. 

He further defines Risk Assessment as the process of determining 

what type of measures or security controls to be selected and the 

cost of such security measures presented to management for 

approval (Har, 2018:5). 

In this study, we are taking a careful look at security 

awareness and education. Security education is the awareness 

creation of the presence or imminence of danger and ways to protect 

and safeguard lives, properties and places. The absence of security 

which is insecurity is closely related to crimes. 

2.6 Crime 
A crime is an illegal action or activity for which a person can be 

punished by law, an act committed in violation of a law prohibiting 

it, or omitted in violation of a law ordering it; often specific such as 

an act of felony. Crimes are variously punishable by death, 

imprisonment or imposition of certain fines or restrictions. The 

range of crime includes felonies and misdemeanors, but not petty 

violations of local ordinances. In the legal parlance, crime is also 

known as offence but not all offences are criminal. On the other 

hand, all crimes are offensive. Har (2018:31) defines crime as: 



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Any action or omission that is punishable by law which is 

committed against an individual and/or the state. There must 

be reasonable evidence that an action or offense was 

committed for it to be considered and treated as a crime. 

The last sentence, in essence, means that even if one commits a 

crime and there is no evidence to convict him, he can go free. 

There are different types of crime in our society. Among 

them are; theft, armed robbery, burglary, kidnapping, drug addiction 

and abuse, human trafficking, arson, fraud, rape, cultism, murder, 

pilfering, sale of fake drugs, workplace violence, ritual killing, cattle 

rustling, herdsmen attacks, banditry and terrorism. The presence of 

these and many more not mentioned here make the society so 

insecure that people cannot sleep with both eyes closed. Something 

needs to be done in order to curb them. 

 

2.7 Theoretical Framework 

This study is analyzed using the Uses and Gratification Theory 

(UGT) otherwise simply known as the Gratification Theory. The 

theory was propounded by Jay Blumler, Elihu Katz and Michael 

Gurevitch in 1974. It states that people choose to consume certain 

kinds of media because they expect to obtain specific gratifications 

as a result of those selections. According to Wikipedia (2022), the 

Uses and Gratification Theory is an approach to understanding why 

and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific 

needs. UGT is an audience-centered approach to understanding 

mass communication. Uses and Gratification Theory is a well 

utilized theoretical framework for explaining the different motives 

and reasons behind the use of any given communicative medium. 

The users usually preferred the messages from the talking drums for 

security reasons. According to them, the talking drums have a 

peculiar and secretive way of passing information to the natives that 



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is not easily decipherable by strangers. This gives them a sense of 

security such that they feel they have an edge over their enemies. 

They also argue that drums are part their culture; also they are 

cheaper and less technical to operate than other communication 

gadgets.  

The drum is a traditional medium of communication that can 

be used for various purposes. Each type of drum depending on the 

culture, has its peculiar purpose. Some drums are used for 

ceremonial purposes like festivals; others are used to communicate 

messages such as the death of a king, the birth of a child, 

annunciation of war, appointment of a new king and so on. 

The Gratification Theory suggests that peoples’ needs 

influence what media they choose. It differs from other theoretical 

perspectives in that it regards audiences as active media users as 

opposed to passive receivers of information. While other traditional 

media theories focus on “what the media do to people” and assume 

audience as homogeneous, the Uses and Gratification Theory is 

more concerned with “what people do with media”. The 

Gratification Theory discusses the effects of the media on people 

and in this case, the drum language. In other words, it can be said 

that the theory argues what people do with the media rather than 

what the media do to people. In relation to this study, the theory 

explains that the cultural and communicative benefits or lack 

thereof, derived by the Tiv people while using the drum as a medium 

is dependent on how they use the drum to attain their needs such as 

information, entertainment and in this case caution and security 

awareness. This theory is very relevant as it advocate for proper use 

of drum language to sensitize the populace on security matters. 

 

 

 



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3. Methodology 

Data for this research were collected chiefly through primary 

sources. The unstructured interview method was used to elicit 

information from the informants. The target population was wood 

carvers of drums and some traditional drummers. Observation and 

recording of some drum languages were also done. 

 

3.1 Messages Imbued in Tiv Drum Languages 

In this segment, the day to day use of the drum language is 

discussed. After that, the aesthetic qualities of drum language are 

presented and analyzed, and in addition, how to use the drum 

language for security education and awareness is the highlight of 

this segment. The following are the various purposes for which the 

drum language is used: 

WAR; 

TIV GLOSS 

Kabera utya kabera utya kabera 

utya (3x) 

 

I kase gborototo 

 

Kwagh ngu van u bo 

 

Kembera kembera kembera 

Sound of war 

People should gather at once 

 

A bad thing is coming 

 

All together all together all 

together 

 

 

DEATH; 

TIV GLOSS 

Kpe! or kpe! gidiya! gidiya!! 

gidiya!!! 

Died (Rhythm) 

Tiger-lord 

God bless the king (3x) 



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Takuruku Takuruku 

anyamazenga 

Aondo A ver Tor (3x) 

Tor tile jighjigh 

Keghen waningyo (3x) 

Waningyo ngu van  

Sha kumun kumun  

Kumun utamen (3x) 

Karen nen akar (iti) kpe 

Do royally stand upright 

And await the passage  

Of your brethren transiting 

On the ancient broad-way 

Of the great beyond (Yina 

2011:95) 

Come over quickly (name) has 

died 

Somebody has died! Somebody 

has died! 

 

MARRIAGE; 

TIV GLOSS 

Kun kun kun kun 

Akpera kwase 

Iyar kwase 

Kwase zende kpilidididi 

Kwase doo kwase doo 

Kwase u he nyor ooo 

Rhythm 

Mortar woman 

Buffalo woman 

Woman walks majestically 

Woman is beautiful (2x) 

The bride has arrived oo 

 

These were gotten from both primary and secondary sources. The 

primary sources are from Mr Akua Ugbede the oldest man in 

Mbayogo district in Vandeikya Local Government Area in Benue of 

Benue State and others. The unstructured questions are at the end of 

the references as appendix 1 

Apart from the above purposes, drums are used during 

traditional dances and cultural festivals. With the advent of the 

Christian religion, drums are also used by Christians in their places 

of worship to accompany the songs of worship. 

 



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3.2 The Aesthetic Effects of Drums on the Audience 
The rhythm of drums has not just a communicative effect but other 

spiritual and cultural effects on the listeners. When the Tiv drums 

are played, all the listeners present, whether they understand Tiv or 

not, are moved to dance to the rhythms. As for the warning signals, 

those that understand them are alerted and act immediately. 

As for how the drum language can be used to give security 

education and awareness, this can be done by summoning the 

villagers together in the market place or village square to pass the 

information across to them. In times of emergency, the indyer can 

be used to pass across messages to the villagers to alert them of the 

danger that is looming ahead. For example, the drums can be beaten 

to inform the villagers of strange faces in their village and warn them 

to avoid following some routes that are not safe. In fact, drum 

language can be used to prevent or forestall criminal attacks on the 

Tiv communities as well as a way of apprehending criminal 

elements. 

4. Recommendations 
Having looked at the importance of drum language in the society, it 

is also observed that there is less use of the drum language in the Tiv 

society of recent especially for communicative purposes. This 

research, therefore, recommends that: 

i. The use of drum language should be revived and 

modernized so as to check-make the insecurity in the 

society. 

ii. Drum language should also be taught as a course unit in 

the Department of Languages and Linguistics. 

iii. The younger generation does not really comprehend 

drum language as much as the older ones. The drum 

language, especially the talking drum should be used 



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side by side with modern communication gadgets so that 

the younger generation will also grasp it. 

iv. Drums and drum languages should be properly 

documented for future references.  

 5. Conclusion 

This study has taken a critical look at the spate of insecurity in 

Nigeria and the world at large and advocated that drum language 

should be used as an effective tool for security education and 

awareness. In doing this, the Uses and Gratification Theory has been 

used to analyze what people do with the drum medium of 

communication. The prompt response of the listeners to the 

warnings and promptings by the messages from the drums will 

improve the security of the society and reduce criminality to the 

barest minimum 

This study has succeeded in bringing to the front burner the fact that 

drum language is very important as it can be used for security 

education and awareness creation. The work has also suggested for 

the modernization of drum language in the age of technological 

advancement to suit the hi-tech and high profile security challenges 

in Nigeria and the world over. 

 

References 
Akume, D.J. (2021) Analysis of Drum Languages among the Tiv people. 

A B.A   Project, Benue State University, Makurdi 

East, R. (2003). Akiga’s Story: The Tiv Tribe as seen by one of its 

members. Ibadan, Caltop Publications (Nigeria) 

Fabre, G. (1996). Drumbeats: Mask and Metaphors. London:  

Contemporary Afro- American  Theatre, Harda University Press 

Gbenda, J.S. (2003). Escathology in Tiv Traditional Religious  

Culture: An  Interpretative  Enquiry. Enugu: Chuka 

Educational Publishers 



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41 

 

Grove, G. (2001). The New Grove Encyclopedia of Music and  

Musicians. 2nd ed.   Grove’s Dictions of Music, Vol. 3 

Har, J.T. (2018). Security Education/Awareness and Emergency  

Preparedness. Port Harcourt: Zetus Integrated Concept 

Hornby, A.S. (2006).Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. New  

York: University Press 

Johnson, R. (2011). The Drum as an indicator of Cultural Unity in the 

AfricanWorld:  From hip hop to  Africa. Academic 

articles Black Voice on the Hills.  Retrievedin September 2021 

from http:www.ourlegacycontemporaryarticle.com 

Ugbagir, N.N. & Cuttings, A.T. (2013). Tiv Technology Education  

and Economic   Development of African States. Being a paper 

presented at the 2nd international   conference of Global 

Education, University of Sierra Leone, Free Town on the  

 11th to 15th Nov, 2013 

Uzukwu, E.E. (1997). Worshippers’ Body Language: Introduction  

to Christian   Worship.  Minnesota; African orientation 

Liturgical Press 

Yina, G. (2011). The Semiotics of Tiv Oral Poetry. Makurdi: Aboki  

Publishers http//:www.wikipedia.org (retrieved on the 18th of 

March, 2022) 

 
Appendix I 

Unstructured Interview Questions  

1. What is the importance of drum language? 

2. What types of drums do the Tiv use chiefly for communication? 

3. What are the other purposes for which drums are used? 

4. Why do you prefer the use of the talking drum to other 

communication gadgets? 

 

 


