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Language and Framing of Insecurity on Social Media: A 

Content Analysis of Posts 

 

Eberechi Chinenye AmadI1 Chioma Deborah Onwubiko2 

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka1 Federal University of 

Technology, Owerri2 

ec.amadi@unizik.edu.ng1  chioma.onwubiko@futo.edu.ng2 

 

Abstract 

The social media (SM) platform has become a news breaking centre 

for information of any sort.  It has reengineered social awareness, 

political discourse, and mobilization, advancing social and national 

insecurity in Nigeria. For some years now, individuals and groups 

have used social media to disseminate information on terrorism, 

agitation and propaganda, using various forms and language to 

facilitate their course. This study sets out to identify the connection 

between language and social media frames by examining how 

Facebook frames security issues, and the influence of such news to 

public attention and perception of readers. The study also identifies 

frames adopted by social media users in reporting security issues. 

About four social media accounts were picked. Posts on security 

matters were analysed to find out their language use, context, frame 

types; their link to insecurity in Nigeria were examined using frame 

theory. The research method is qualitative. The data were collected 

from Facebook account of four individuals. Findings indicate there 

are frame effects of fear, panic and uncertainty seen from the 

comments of readers.  

Key words: language, framing, frame effect, insecurity, social 

media.  

 

 

mailto:ec.amadi@unizik.edu.ng
mailto:chioma.onwubiko@futo.edu.ng


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1. Introduction 

The challenge of insecurity has in recent times witnessed an upsurge 

and assumed a more dangerous dimension which unfortunately, has 

become part of the daily happenings in Nigeria. Hardly will one 

listen to the news of the day, go to social media or read the dailies 

without coming across the issue of insecurity. It has become such a 

menace that it forms the major news headline in various online 

platforms, local and national dailies and television channels. The 

social media is not left out in disseminating this discursive subject. 

Being a tool to stamp one’s stance, social media has engendered this 

subject and presented it to the public using various frames. These 

frames are portrayed with language, which is the most fundamental 

medium of communication in any social environment (Eggins, 

2004). According to Yule (1996), language is a dynamic entity 

which performs several functions including building, destroying and 

creating the society. 

In the view of Bamidele and Adama (2019), insecurity is the 

inability of a particular country to ensure absence of violence, 

lawlessness, civil disorder and insurgency. Also, Adejumo (2011) 

defines insecurity as the inability of a country to keep peace within 

her governing territories. Some of the security issues challenging the 

country include terrorism, religious and ethnic crisis, attacks on oil 

installations, kidnapping, armed robbery, extra judicial killings, 

attacks by herdsmen, hoodlums, bandits, unknown gunmen and the 

likes. Government in attempt to tackle and eradicate this menace 

(insecurity) and restore peace and security in the country for 

sustainable development, has adopted the strategic security 

partnership on intelligence sharing with her borderline neighbours – 

Cameroun, Niger, Mali and Chad. Efforts of the law enforcement 

agents and the millions annually budgeted by the government as 

security votes are notable in combatting this threat. 



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Insecurity in Nigeria is a threat to life, property, national 

development and investment, both for local and foreign investors. It 

seems that all efforts by the government to nip this hydra-headed 

monster in the bud, has been defied. The masses insinuate that the 

process of getting a solution to this national issue has been 

compromised. This is because corruption has penetrated the 

Nigerian system which makes it difficult for them to trust the 

government thus, breeding social unrest. The masses have therefore, 

taken to social media especially, Facebook to express their stance 

on the issue of insecurity. The growing readership on Facebook calls 

for attention on the relationship between language, social media, and 

insecurity. This study attempts to fill this gap by carrying out an in-

depth study of the language use on Facebook as it concerns 

insecurity using the frame theory. The present study investigates the 

various ways language is being deployed in the discourse of 

insecurity in Nigeria using different linguistic frames and audience 

reaction to information and, to understand how social media frames 

and language use draw public attention and affect the perception of 

online community. 

 

2. Literature Review 

Okeke (2012) examines effective use of language in ensuring 

national security and avers that appropriate choice of words in 

communication is more powerful and subtle than military force in 

tackling the issue of national security. He claims that words that do 

not constitute threats, anxiety or danger for human existence will 

contribute more to the development of a nation and at the same time 

engender development. He concludes that the problem of national 

security should not be left for government alone rather, Nigerians 

should collaborate with government to ensure national security by 

strategically figuring what and how to say things while 



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understanding other people’s opinion. This, he believes is a 

comprehensive measure to tackle Nigeria’s insecurity challenges.  

Oluwadoro (2017) explores language-based solution to the 

problem of insecurity in Boko Haram dominated North Eastern 

Nigeria, he notes that indigenous languages like Arabic, Kanuri, 

Hausa and Fulfulde should be deliberately promoted by the 

government in administration, education among others especially, 

in the North Eastern states. Also, language of immediate 

environments should be incorporated into the trainings of the 

security forces (the police, the military and other related personnel) 

and be considered during their postings. Alabi (2018) examines 

Nigeria’s security challenges from a sociolinguistic approach and 

asserts that government should assign more roles to the indigenous 

language in order to use them to tackle the issue of insecurity. He 

observes that the use of indigenous language in disseminating 

security information will enable proper sensitization of the public 

against security threats. Also seen as helpful is exchange of security 

information between government agencies and the public, especially 

those who do not understand English on the activities of suspected 

criminals, kidnappers and terrorists in their communities. 

Bamidele and Adama (2019) investigate the role of language 

in addressing Nigeria’s multifarious challenges and observe that it 

is needful to deploy security agents to their state of origins. This, 

they opine, will enable them communicate intelligibly with the 

people in their indigenous languages, which will enhance proper 

investigation that will curb crime and incessant killings and 

kidnapping. 

 

3. Theoretical Framework 

The theory adopted in this work is frame theory. The theory was first 

used by Erving Goffman in his book Frame Analysis (1974). 



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Goffman attests that audiences interpret situations around them 

through their primary framework. Framing theory tells how 

something is presented to audience “the frame”, through 

‘‘metamessage’’. Text, utterances are framed to influence the 

choices people make in line with how they digest their information. 

Agreeably, the objective of framing lies on the ability to interpret 

the metamessage and context that identify the frame-how the words 

are meant, and the meaning in the context. Terkildsen and Schenell 

1997:881 as cited in Linstrom and Maris (2012) suggest that framing 

is important whenever an issue is presented in multiple ways which 

may potentially influence how people think about the issue. In this 

case a frame refers to the way social media as the information house 

presents topics, ideas, and event online. Frames as an ‘‘implicit 

answer as to what should be done about an issue’’ is important in 

influencing individuals’ judgement and disseminating information. 

Framing assumes that how an issue is characterised in news reports 

can have an influence over how it is comprehended by audiences 

(Scheufele and Tewksbury, 2007).  

3.1 Social Media and Framing Effects  
Social media is a web-based platform also known as digital media, 

aids in spreading information on crises situation and violence. Their 

news breaking role is becoming more ground breaking and 

acceptable just like print media. Digital technology has ushered in a 

communication revolution that has fundamentally changed the 

nature of media and power relations among an organizational and 

grassroots communicators Hon (2015). It’s no stranger to reporting 

of events as they unfold and aptly the opinions and decisions of 

readers. According to Matthes (2009), framing implores effective 

tools like metaphors, messages and images to examine the salience 

of specific topic and events. This definition given by Matthes (2009) 

explores the context in which framing is effective and further 



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observes that there are certain tools or languages that the social 

media use to influence the opinion of their audience. Iyengar (2019) 

supports this definition by going further to state that framing occurs 

when opinions on an issue is altered by placing emphasis on parts of 

the issue. Nwofe (2016) noted that much of the power of framing 

comes from its ability to define problems – articulating cost and 

benefits - specifying causes, make moral assessments, and 

recommend solutions. 

According to Entman (1993), framing involves selection and 

salience. To frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality 

and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way 

as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, 

moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation for the item 

described’’ (Entman, 1993). This is why social media focuses 

attention on certain events and places them within a particular 

linguistic frame, inevitably to influence perceptions and 

interpretation of issues and these representations are adopted by 

their audience.  

Papacharissi and Oliveira (2008) summarise that the media 

is in position to frame what the general public sees, knows and 

understands about the violence perpetrated by insurgent groups. 

Importantly, framing cannot only provide a foundation for choosing 

images and texts that can be used to reinforce key idea (the 

sociological aspect) but can also provide the basis for how people 

should take action (the psychological aspect), Li (2008). This work 

investigates the relationship between language, Facebook frames 

and effect on readers. 

 

4. Methodology 

This study employs a qualitative content analysis. Lasswell, Learner 

and Pool (1952) see content analysis ‘‘as a technique which aims at 



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describing, with optimum objectivity, precision, and generality, 

what is said on a given subject in a given place at a given time’’ (p. 

34). The qualitative content analysis describes the language use, and 

interprets meaning from the content of text data. In line with other 

views, Weber (1990) agrees that content analysis is a research 

method that uses a set of procedures to make valid inferences from 

text (p.9). 

Pan and Kosicki (1993) describe framing analysis as a 

specific technique for content analysis to explain how the media 

promotes certain aspects of a perceived reality.  The research design 

for this study embraced qualitative content analysis. Wimmer and 

Dominick cited by Linstrom and Maris (2012) explain that news 

frame analysis, as a form of qualitative content analysis, could be 

conducted for media research purposes: 

 Describing communication content; 

 Comparing media content to the ‘‘real world’’; and  

 Establishing a starting point for studies of media 

effects. 

In this case, qualitative content analysis involves explaining the 

issue, describing, analysing and interpreting data on security frame, 

and also to understand the relational messages from social media 

post. Therefore, posts that address security issue on internet were 

looked into, using purposive sampling method; picking desired 

sample elements that conform to the predetermined characteristics 

(Dode 2002). Researchers went through 1207 posts to select a total 

of 60 Facebook posts. Selection of posts was done manually from 

January 2020 to January 2021. The sample size for this study 

comprises of posts from four Facebook accounts. The study 

considered accounts with visibility, that is, accounts with more than 

5,000 active following, reason is that they are opinion shaper on 



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Facebook. We chose not to disclose real identity of selected 

Facebook account holders because opinion for disclosure was not 

sought. We identify them as Anonymous A, B, C and D. Anonymous 

A, is a known voice and opinion shaper on SM, his Facebook 

account is verified, with about 120k followers, followership, 

relevance and strong online presence. Anonymous B is an opinion 

shaper with large following, Anonymous C is an IPOB sympathizer 

and defender, with strong support opinion on activities of the sect. 

Anonymous D is neutral journalist that updates his follower on 

current news and trends. The selections were based on their wide 

followership, relevance and strong online presence. 

 

5. Results Analysis  

5.1 Analysis on Language  
There was contextual use of linguistic metaphor on Facebook post 

to characterize event of violence to the audience, creating fears in 

people and playing with their emotion. This is seen in posts that has 

metaphor like ‘‘smashed’’ and ‘‘gunned down’’, the metaphors are 

based on the horror of the insecurity event, ‘‘smashed’’ and 

‘‘butchered’’ represent intense violence, ‘‘gunned down’’ is 

metaphorically viewed as death, they embed meaning in language. 

In using this linguistic metaphor reader get to understand what is 

going on, the level of insecurity and the situation at hand. Another 

instance is ‘‘shot at point blank’’; ‘‘left barren’’, the first metaphor 

was used to express loss of life. All show violence and crime rate. 

These metaphors have a way of stretching meaning of a subject 

matter. Many context-induced metaphors are seen running in some 

of the posts. There is persuasive language and tone of horror and 

pains observed. 

5.2 Categorization of Frames  



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As a major source of information, social media places certain events 

within a particular linguistic frame, using words to characterize the 

violence, social unrest and insecurity that invaded South East. We 

identify five categories of frames depicting insecurity in South East. 

Each frame is defined by a set of consequences of insecurity in 

South East of Nigeria, characterising what each frame category 

describes. The frames are ‘violence’, ‘protest’, ‘threat’, ‘crime’ and 

‘economic and social disruption’. 

5.2.1 Violence Frame  

Violence frame consist of three main themes: destruction of lives, 

destruction of properties and destruction of the future of Igbo 

people. Destruction of lives included languages that convey loss of 

lives. Some of the language and frames in this theme that depicted 

physical violence are; shooting sporadically, burning of properties, 

gun down, bombing of places, declared dead, barbaric cutting of 

human body, beheading, self-inflicting injury, 6 cars set ablaze, 

were reported predominant theme in the posts that coded violence. 

These words synced with tense tone style to capture and identify 

violence frame. Violence frame is projected in the way armed and 

cult groups were going about killing of citizens, destroying 

properties. The extra judicial killing of youths by police men, 

violence between Unknown gunmen and Nigerian police, the 

burning of government institutions, incidence such as unlawful 

killing and burning of properties, bombing of places, burning of 

vehicles, arbitrary arrest, ill-treatment and torturing. This frame 

talked about the impact of violence on people and also included the 

recommendation people made to call attention of the general public 

to the level of insecurity and unrest in the South East. 

5.2.2 Protest Frame 
Protest refers to reactions and disturbances. This frame type focused 

on the action expressing an objection to something by the aggrieved 



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people. Frame themes like demonstration, sit-at-home, no election 

order, agitation, banning, and dissent were the themes captured in 

protest frame category posts. Protest was described by both 

Anonymous A and B as a demonstration of their unhappiness and 

marginalisation from the federal government, it is believed the 

government has been partial in appointment of people in key 

positions from South East, this informs the protest. This frame 

demonstrated uncertainty by the people, disturbance and ban action 

showing unhappiness were relatively evident in the actions of the 

aggrieved people in south East. Anonymous A and B captures posts 

around the incidents stating that ‘‘people are angry and don’t like 

the actions of the government’’.  

In a bid to cause tension at all cost, aggrieved groups 

declared sit at home, no movement, banned movement of human, 

animal or vehicle to further heighten the insecurity situation in the 

region. This frame registers disapproval and consequences.  

5.2.3 Threat Frame  

This frame refers to the fear put on people, to control their mind, and 

achieving their objective.  It is another predefined frame identified 

from the reviewed studies, Anonymous B and C, structures their 

post to convey message of fear, public panic, threats to the lives of 

the defenceless citizens of the country and a peaceful region. The 

post in this category had a negative sentiment, for instance, killing 

of people that went about their daily activities, pictures of wounded 

people and dead bodies conveyed threat frame, depicting security 

situation. Open statement like every Mondays is a sit-at home – 

made people to avoid activities on Mondays. Every uniform Igbo 

man should resign from uniform job- order for every uniform 

personal from Igbo extraction to resign immediately was given. 

Don’t buy Fulani’s cow –People were forced to stop buying and 

eating cows from northern Nigeria. Avoid anything from north: 



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disobey IPOB order and die – this was used to make people to 

adhere to IPOB to totally avoid items from north. These statements 

were used to convey threats and to frighten the people in the region. 

Citizens lives were threatened, even all-security apparatus in states 

were threatened to leave their duty post and southeast land. IPOB 

group threaten people to support IPOB, because according to them 

they are acting to liberate the Igbo land. Many became victims; 

people and uniform personnel. In fact, it was the second highest 

frame through which fears and uncertainty were displayed.  

 5.2.4 Crime Frame 

The crime category focused on violent activities that frightened 

people, attack by state-actors, armed attacks, violence crime such as 

kidnapping, robbery, cultism, assassination, rape, burglary, 

beheading, gun-battle with security forces. This frame also consisted 

of writing expressing the damage done by the criminals and call for 

help from the government. For instance, 4 killed, students abducted 

by gunmen in south east Nigeria, we voted a government that stays 

to watch her people killed, gallant soldiers, four IPOB members 

killed in Anambra. Military engages gunmen in shootout. Police 

final bust the hideouts of those criminal element terrorising Orlu 

people. These tweets frame southeast as unsafe place, a region 

criminal element have taken over and causing serious harm to the 

people, it shows the level if criminal activity besieging southeast. 

5.2.5 Economic and Social Disruption  

This frame refers to the instability in people’s daily activities, the 

disruption of business and change in social lives. This theme 

focused on the negative impacts that caused changes in social and 

economic lives of South East people. The post is structured to 

narrate how businesses are packing up, people closing up shops 

before 7 pm for fear of attacks, people living in fear, busy places 



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becoming deserted.  Economic and social disruption set the region 

backward economically, having enjoyed relative peace over time.   

5.3 Measuring Media Frame Effect 

This study adopted cognitive bias approach where people are 

influenced by positive or negative connotations.  Following Plous 

Scott (1993), this study defined cognitive bias as framing effect 

where people decide on options based on whether the options are 

presented with positive or negative connotations; e.g., as a loss or as 

a gain.  The media frame effect was measured by the readers’ 

engagement on security issues in South East. Media effect was 

measured by the reaction of readers on positive and negative words 

and phrases. Positive post got little reaction while negative post got 

emotional comments and reaction. Context factor such as position 

and credibility of writer affects the way readers take information.   

5.4 Discussion  

This research identified language techniques and frames use by 

selected Facebook account holders in framing insecurity in South 

East. Observations are made on the use of tense tone, contextual use 

of linguistic metaphors on post to characterize a mental event of 

insecurity to the audience, creating fears in people and playing with 

their emotion. Most importantly, the Facebook posts select 

particular language to pass a message of insecurity ‘‘smashed the 

windscreen’’, ‘‘gunned down’’, ‘‘we closed down’’. The metaphors 

are based on the horror of the insecurity event. The term smashed 

represents violence, gunned down is metaphorically viewed as 

death. Many context-induced metaphors are seen to be embedded in 

some of the posts made.  

Drawing attention to the online community, there are 

sensational post and misleading information spread online. 

Importantly, there were also subjective analysis of events that 

characterized the security situation in southeast compared to the 



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reality on ground. It reflects in the language and choice of frames 

presented, that manipulate and amplify incidence, distorting 

information and heightened fear and panic among inhabitants of 

South East and outsiders.  

 

6. Conclusion  
The media landscape in Nigeria is one filled with vigour Jinmi-

Ahisu and Osah (2021), where users use language to frame their 

messages; however, the messages convey certain meaning to 

readers. Users carefully word their posts in order to control public 

perception and shape public opinion on specific topics. In the bid to 

understand how social media framed insecurity in South East of 

Nigeria, and how people view the region, the framing theory was 

used, and five frames were picked to enhance understanding of 

language employed by the social media to frame violence, unrest 

related issues in the region. A common practice amongst social 

media is presenting matters in a way to catch attention (readership) 

and reaction, they do so by carefully choosing words to influence 

minds, and pass message. However, the extent to which these 

influences affect readers remains insufficiently investigated. Four 

Facebook accounts with constant updates on security matters were 

used and analysed. We observed social media such as Facebook has 

significant impact and brings about public awareness on trending 

issues. There is no direct link or relation of security updates on 

Facebook and insecurity in SE. What we observe is presentation of 

sensitive topic with subjective views that makes readers form 

opinion, accept every narrative as authentic. Information gotten 

from Facebook create fear, panic and uncertainty in the minds of 

readers.             

 

                                    



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