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A Study of the Application of Comparative Theory in the Igbo 

Translation of Motherless Baby 

 

Victor C. Asadu1, Emmanuela U. Asadu2 

University of Nigeria, Nsukka 

victor.asadu@unn.edu.ng1  emmanuela.asadu@unn.edu.ng2 

 

 

Abstract 

The linguistic and cultural multiplicities all over the world lead to 

some communication problems which hamper the transmission of 

socio-cultural ideas among nations. The quest to address these 

problems in order to fill these gaps in human communication and to 

ensure a continuous development of the existence of man resulted in 

the introduction of the services of translators and interpreters. 

Translation studies in West African Languages have come of age. 

Here, we undertook a translation of Cyprian Ekwensi’s novel, 

Motherless Baby, into Igbo language as Nwa enwe nne. This study 

stresses the need to be faithful to the original author in the course 

of translating a text as well as ensuring that the said translation is 

done in such a way that the target audience will easily understand 

the meaning of the text. In the translation, we adopted the seven 

technical procedures of translation recommended by two 

Canadians, J.P. Vinay and J. Darbelnet, who are well known 

propagators of the comparative theory of translation. The result of 

the study is that the comparative method of translation was found 

suitable for the re-expression of both the linguistic and extra-

linguistic elements encountered in the said novel. In addition, we 

realized an Igbo text that not only promote Igbo language and 

culture but also inculcates the dangers of unwanted pregnancy in 

mailto:victor.asadu@unn.edu.ng1
mailto:emmanuela.asadu@unn.edu.ng


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the young and unmarried ones as reflected in the theme of the novel, 

Motherless Baby. 

Keywords: language, translation, interpretation, culture, literature, 

communication  

 

1. Introduction     
The primary reason for translation is communication. Two steps are 

involved in translation: understanding and re-expressing. According 

to Delisle, “translation can therefore be defined as the operation by 

which the relevant signification of linguistic signs is determined 

through reference to meaning as formulated in a message which is 

then fully reconstructed in the signs of another language” (53). 

 Translation is playing a key role today during bilateral talks 

between different countries of the world. According to Bassnet-

McGuire, “… translation came to be used as a weapon in both 

dogmatic and political conflicts as nation states began to emerge …” 

(47). Many other human activities such as tourism, international 

trade, and cultural exchanges cannot be carried out effectively 

without translation and interpretation.  

 The art of translation is evolving tremendously since the 

introduction of pedagogical translation in the academic world. 

Marianne Lederer buttresses this assertion in her book, La 

Traduction aujourd’hui, where she opines thus: “Plus l’on traduit, 

et plus on écrit sur la traduction. Il n’est pas de jour sans que 

paraissent de nouveaux ouvrages” (9). [“The more we translate, the 

more people write about translation. No day passes without new 

publication on translation.” (our translation)]. 

Meanwhile, given the fact that our study borders on literary 

translation, it is pertinent to know that culture is always embedded 

in literary works. According to Nida “Linguistic features are not the 



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Baby- Asadu & Asadu 

 

142 

 

only factors which must be considered. In fact, the cultural elements 

may be even more important” (130).This implies that any literary 

text is a product of the culture of a particular group of people. So, a 

translator is expected to penetrate the spirit and culture of the author 

of the original text to be able to produce a reliable translation. In 

other words, the translator should put self in the same atmosphere 

that the original author found self while writing the text to be able 

to get the same inspiration vis-à-vis the creative capacity needed to 

adequately transmit the author’s thoughts. For instance, there was a 

situation in the novel, Efuru, where two friends were drinking wine 

together and one said: “If I take another glass, it will enter my eyes” 

(208). It is unfortunate that a French woman named Marie-Jo 

Demoulin-Astre translated the statement to her French readers as “Si 

j’en prends un second verre, il pénétrera mes yeux” (228). Although 

the translation literally means “If I take a second glass, it will enter 

my eyes”, it is important to note that the French people may not 

understand that the meaning of the statement is that Ajanapu, the 

woman that made that statement, would become intoxicated if she 

took another glass of wine. So, the translator could not convey 

correctly the meaning of the statement because of cultural barrier. 

She does not know much about Igbo culture, especially as it 

concerns manipulations of language. According to Ajunwa, 

“Translation has become a significant instrument for the spreading 

of culture: material, linguistic, political, economic, and religious as 

well as other forms of culture.” (10). 

Meanwhile, apart from those words and statements that 

border on culture, it also behoves the translator to look out for 

polysemous words in the course of translation. This is because a 

word could have two or more meanings and if not properly handled, 

could mar the translation process. For instance, one observed that 

the statement, “Chukwu tochie ego”, used by Nkoli, a character in a 



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Nigerian home movie entitled Nkoli Nwa Nsukka, to show 

appreciation to a man who gave her some money gratis was 

misinterpreted by the man as “May God block the source of the 

money”. This is simply because the man is unaware that the verb, 

“tochie”, has two meanings in Nsukka dialect, namely: replace and 

block. So, in the event of encountering polysemous words, a 

translator or interpreter is expected to possess contextual 

competence in addition to linguistic competence to be able to 

determine which of the words is suitable in that situation. 

We, therefore, undertook this work in order to show the need 

to make understandable to foreigners, the literary and cultural facts 

of the Igbo tribe. In addition, we also intend to show the need to be 

faithful to the original author in the course of translating a text as 

well as ensuring that the said translation is done in such a way that 

the target population will easily understand the meaning of the text. 

It is worthy of note that translation is not a work on language and 

words, but a work on the message, which in other words implies the 

meaning. Every translator must possess some knowledge adjudged 

very important and necessary for the success of any translation 

work: knowledge of the language of the source text, understanding 

of the subject, and mastery of the target language. These qualities 

are needed to achieve a good translation because a translation that is 

not clear to the reader is not faithful to the meaning. 

The problem that necessitated this study is that some 

translators who are alien to the culture of the target language, for 

instance, Igbo, always make cultural mistakes and end up 

misleading others as a result of these mistakes. Onuko cites 

Gerding-Salas’ emphasis on the negative impacts of lack of the 

necessary qualities expected of a translator thus: Through 

experience I have learned that the consequences of wrong 

translations can be catastrophic especially if done by lay persons and 



Study of the Application of Comparative Theory in the Igbo Translation of Motherless 

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144 

 

mistakes made in the performance of this activity can obviously be 

irreparable. Just think of what could happen in cases of inadequacy 

in knowledge areas such as science, medicine, legal matters, or 

technology … It is quite clear that a poor translation cannot only 

lead to hilarity or to minor confusion, but it can also be a matter of 

life and death (13). In a similar vein, Ajunwa cites Ekundayo 

Simpson as saying thus: … the translation of scientific and technical 

texts demands precision as certain errors on the part of the translator 

could bring about tragic consequences. The translator of directions 

for use of machines and instruments of any type, of methods of 

repairing aircrafts or complicated machines finds himself entrusted 

with the responsibility of attaining a level of exactitude which is 

higher than that required of a literary translator, for example. To say 

then that scientific / technical translation is often a matter of life and 

death is nothing but an undisputable truth (92). 

The objective of this study is to translate the novel, 

Motherless Baby, into Igbo language while paying attention to those 

statements that have Igbo cultural coloration. This study also aims 

at showing that a literary text is a product of the culture of a given 

people. In addition, another reason for translating this text into Igbo 

is because Igbo language is disappearing gradually as warned by 

UNESCO. One finds out that today’s young parents of Igbo 

extraction hardly speak Igbo to their children while at home. So, we 

are of the view that this translation will contribute immensely in 

sustaining the existence and survival of Igbo language. Lastly, this 

study aims at counseling the youths on the consequences of 

unwanted pregnancy. The study addresses the following questions:  

1. In event of running into polysemous words or expressions in the 

course of translation, what can be done to find the exact message? 

2. How can one translate the expressions that contain Igbo cultural 

elements? 



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By the time these questions are addressed, the students of 

translation, especially the foreign ones, will definitely know how to 

translate works that have African cultural background. 

The significance of this study is that apart from being beneficial to 

the students of translation in widening their knowledge horizon as 

it concerns the task of literary translation, many other researchers 

around the world who are interested in African literature stand to 

benefit from this study because the novel, Motherless Baby, used as 

the tool for this study contains many African cultural facts. In 

addition, this study not only promotes Igbo language and culture 

but also inculcates the dangers of unwanted pregnancy in the young 

and unmarried ones as reflected in the theme of the novel, 

Motherless Baby, which we translated as Nwa enwe nne. 

Meanwhile, our scope of study in this work is literary translation 

with special reference to linguistic translation as proposed by Vinay 

and Darbelnet. 

 

2. Methodology 

For our data collection, we studied the original text, Motherless 

Baby, and had it translated into Igbo language as Nwa enwe nne. The 

seven technical procedures in translation propounded by J. P. Vinay 

and J. Darbelnet were employed in the translation of the work. These 

seven technical procedures are embedded in the comparative theory 

of translation. 

 

3. Presentation of Excerpts of the Application of 

Comparative Approach in the Igbo Translation of Motherless 

Baby 

The seven translation techniques propounded by two Canadians, J.P. 

Vinay and J. Darbelnet, were adopted in the translation of this work. 



Study of the Application of Comparative Theory in the Igbo Translation of Motherless 

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These seven translation techniques belong to the comparative 

approach in translation. They are as follows: loaning, carbon 

copying, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence, 

and adaptation. 

In this section therefore, we discussed the meanings of each of these 

seven technical procedures of translation with some examples culled 

from our translation into Igbo of the novel, Motherless Baby. Here 

are some examples and few comments made in support of the 

methods applied: 

 

3.1 Loaning 

This is one of the seven technical procedures of translation. It means 

borrowing of words or expressions from one language and applying 

them in another language. Proper nouns, geographical names, 

figurative expressions, and those special words that are non-existent 

in the target language belong to this category. Here are some 

examples of loaning which we applied in the course of translating 

the novel, Motherless Baby, into Igbo language:  

Extract 1. 

Motherless Baby  Nwa Enwe Nne 

The Pedrolites played reggae 

and they were the only band to 

challenge Sonny Okosun on 

Sthe charts. One of their 

records “Go, Go, Baby” made 

the gold disc and it was still 

climbing. Whenever they came 

to town to play, they advertised 

in the newspaper and put 

Ndị Pedrolites na-agụ reggae, 

ha bụkwa naanị òtù egwu mara 

Sonny Okosun aka. Otu n’ime 

egwu ha, “Go, Go, Baby” gara 

ahịa, ọtụtụ mmadụ ka na-azụ 

ya. Mgbe ọ bụla ha bịara 

n’obodo mepere emepe ịgụ 

egwu, ha na-agbasa ozi 

n’akwụkwọ mgbasa ozi bịazie 

manye posta n’obodo … 



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posters around the town … 

(11) 

 

 

 

Comments: 

In this extract drawn from page 11 of the original text, one notices 

few examples of loaning of words like Pedrolites, reggae, and 

posters in the target text as were presented in bold characters. 

Meanwhile, it is observed that in the Igbo version, the spelling of 

one of the loaned words, posters, underwent a kind of modification 

and was resultantly changed to posta. This particular action reminds 

us according to Ajunwa, that “ … the loan words as they are called, 

more often than not, undergo some changes in their form, spelling 

and pronunciation.»(47). 

 

Extract 2. 

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

The speaker had come to eat 

akara that morning and to drink 

akamu from the woman who 

sold food to early traders. (18) 

Onye na-ekwu okwu bịara ịta 

akara na ịṅ ụ akamụ n’ụtụtụ 

ahụ na nke nwaanyị na-eresi 

ndị ahịa ụtụtụ nri. 

 

Comments: 

Still as it concerns loaning, the words, akara and akamu, presented 

in bold characters were retained in the Igbo version. The names of 

these two local dishes were retained in the Igbo version just as they 

reflected in the source text in order not to betray the style of the 

author and to create local effects. Akara is a local delicacy of fried 

balls which is common in Igbo culture. It has no other name in Igbo 

but akara. On the other hand, akamu is another local delicacy known 



Study of the Application of Comparative Theory in the Igbo Translation of Motherless 

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as pap in English language. It has no other equivalent name in the 

Igbo dictionary, and this is the reason for the loaning.  

 

3.2 Carbon Copying 

Vinay and Darbelnet used this idea to describe the word-for-word 

translation of compound words. This simply means borrowing the 

structure or the constituent elements of a particular sentence from 

one language and translating same word-for-word in another 

language. Ajunwa posits that carbon copying (calque) could simply 

be referred to as loan or compound word translation (49). 

In the course of our translation, we applied carbon copying. 

Here are some examples culled from our work: 

 

Extract 3. 

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

I shall return it to the water 

people, the Spiritual Church. 

(76) 

Aga m ewegara ya ndị ụka 

mmụọ nsọ, ndị mmiri. 

 

Comments: 

In this extract, the phrase, ‘the Spiritual Church’ is a compound noun 

loaned into Igbo, which is the target language, and translated 

literally as ‘ụka mmụọ nsọ’. This is simply the technique of carbon 

copying at work especially given the fact that we see carbon copying 

as a translation of compound nouns or loaned words. 

 

Extract 4. 

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

She asked cautiously about the 

man, and she was told that his 

name was Diri, an Assistant 

Ọ kpachapụrụ anya jụọ ajụjụ 

banyere nwoke ahụ. A gwaraya 

na aha ya bụ Diri, osote onye isi 



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Manager, and that he had just 

come on transfer from the Kano 

Branch. (64) 

nke e si na ngalaba dị na Kano 

wedata ebe ahụ. 

 

 

Comments: 

The phrase, ‘an Assistant Manager’, is a compound noun. This is 

the reason we resorted to carbon copying as a suitable method of 

transmitting the meaning implied in the source text into the target 

language. As a result, we arrived at ‘osote onye isi’ as a suitable 

translation in Igbo language. 

 

Extract 5. 

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

He swam ashore and lived 

among hunter-fishermen for a 

long time. (88) 

O gwufere oke osimiri ga 

binyere ndị na-achụ nta akụ 

azụ ogologo oge. 

 

Comments: 

This extract also contains a compound noun ‘hunter-fishermen’ 

carbon copied as ‘ndị na-achụ nta akụ azụ’ in the Igbo version. It is 

worthy to remember that carbon copying implies the re-expression 

of compound words. 

3.3 Literal Translation 

Literal translation is simply a word-for-word translation of a 

complete sentence from one language (source language) to another 

(target language). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 

describes literal translation as “a translation that gives a single word 

for each original word instead of giving the meaning of the whole 

sentence in a natural way” (828). Here are few excerpts culled from 

the translation of Motherless Baby into Igbo language: 



Study of the Application of Comparative Theory in the Igbo Translation of Motherless 

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Extract 6. 

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

Pedro awoke in the hospital. (55) 

 

Pedro tetara n’ụlọ ọgwụ. 

 

 

Comments: 

Literal translation normally takes place where there is a simple 

sentence. A simple sentence has a conjugated verb and gives only 

an idea as a result. So, the Igbo version above has just a verb. 

 

Extract 7.  

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

They came into her office. (26) Ha batara n’ụlọ ọrụ ya. 

 

 

Comments: 

This extract exhibits once again a literal translation. It is because the 

original text is a simple sentence that we were able to translate it 

literally. 

3.4 Transposition 

In the following extract, we showcased transposition which is one 

of the seven technical procedures propounded by the theorists, J.P. 

Vinay and J. Darbelnet. Ajunwa posits that “transposition refers to 

a translation technique by which a particular part of speech 

(grammatical category) in the source language is replaced by 

another in the target language, without altering the meaning of the 

source language sentence”(57). Simply put, it implies a change of a 

grammatical category without altering the meaning of the message. 

Here is an extract from our work showing the application of 

transposition: 



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Extract 8.  

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

Hearing the words of the 

medicine-man, she felt suddenly 

lonely and in need of her 

mother. (65) 

Ka ọ nụrụ okwu ndị a, ahụ jụrụ 

ya oyi, ọ chọwa nne ya. 

 

Comments:  

In this translation, the phrase, ‘in need of’, is a group noun while the 

word, ‘chọwa’ that was adopted in the Igbo version is a verb. So, the 

sentence, “Hearing the words of the medicine-man, she felt 

suddenly lonely and in need of her mother.” underwent a noun/verb 

transposition when it was translated as “Ka ọ nụrụ okwu ndị a, ahụ 

jụrụ ya oyi, ọ chọwa nne ya.” in Igbo language. 

3.5 Modulation 
This translation technique simply means a change of point of view. 

It consists of transforming the structure of a statement made in the 

source language into a different structure altogether in the target 

language without affecting negatively the meaning of the message. 

In doing so, the message becomes much clearer to understand and 

direct to the point. Here are examples drawn from our work: 

 

Extract 9. 

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

Sleep suddenly overtook her 
and when she opened her eyes 

she was surprised to see that it 

was morning. (14) 

Ụra buuru ya, ma mgbe o 

meghere anya ya, ọ tụrụ ya 

n’anya ịhụ na chi efola. 

 



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Comments: 

Given the fact that the essence of modulation is to make clearer an 

idea, we are of the opinion that “Sleep suddenly overtook her …” is 

better understood if it is rendered as “Ụra buuru ya…” instead of a 

literal but nonsensical rendition as “Ụra gafere ya …”. Meanwhile, 

‘Ụra buuru ya…’ is a very popular expression in Igbo language and 

constitutes a suitable modulation in relation to the English version 

above. 

 

Extract 10. 

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

Ever since that attack in the 

sitting room after Ogbuka had 

left, she had never been herself 

again. A kind of illness had 

begun to eat her up. (77) 

O nwetachaghịzi onwe ya n’ihi 

na o nwere ụdị ahụ malitere 

ịrịa ya kemgbe ihe ahụ merenụ 

mgbe Ogbuka bịara n’ụlọ ya 

mechara. 

 

Comments: 

Ascribing human characteristics to ‘illness’, which is abstract and 

inanimate makes this excerpt, “A kind of illness had begun to eat 

her up.”, drawn from the English version, very complex. This 

informs the reason for the application of the technique of modulation 

in the Igbo version. By so doing, the message becomes much easier 

to understand for the target population. 

 

3.6 Equivalence 

This translation technique is applied in the translation of proverbs, 

idioms, and clichés which are usually fixed expressions by nature. 

According to Eke, “It is not always that two languages correspond 

structurally and semantically. Culture is one factor that plays on 

translation. When culture inhibits a word-to-word translation, 



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153 

 

translators find equivalent statements that can satisfy the same 

context”. Here are examples of equivalent translations drawn from 

the English and our Igbo version of Motherless Baby: 

 

Extract 11. 

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

His voice had the sharpness of 

a razor. His eyes were so red 

that Ngozi felt sure he was 

drunk. (73) 

Olu ya na-ada ka ogene, anya 

ya kpụ ọkụ n’ọnụ nke na Ngọzị 

chere na mmanya na-egbu ya. 

 

Comments: 

Given the fact that in applying the technique of equivalent, it is 

expected of the translator to find the same contextual situation while 

applying stylistic and structural means that are completely different, 

we rendered the sentence, ‘His voice had the sharpness of a razor’, 

in Igbo with consideration to the Igbo culture. For instance, in the 

English culture, a sharp tone is compared to the sharpness of a razor. 

Meanwhile, in Igbo language, it is with the music instrument called 

‘ogene’ that such a comparison is made, hence the translation, ‘Olu 

ya na-ada ka ogene’. Meanwhile, it would have been out of order to 

render it as ‘Olu ya dị nkọ ka agọba’. 

 

Extract 12 

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

Chief Mbaju christened him 

Amaechi, which means in Igbo, 

“Who knows tomorrow?”(93) 

Ichie Mbaju gụrụ ya 

Amaechi, nke pụtara, “Echi 

dị ime”. 

 

 

 



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Comments:  

In this extract, the clauses presented in bold characters are all 

proverbs. The statement, ‘Who knows tomorrow?’ is a common 

adage all over the world. So, given the fact that equivalent, as a 

translation technique, is applied mainly in the translation of 

proverbs, idioms and clichés, we had to search for the equivalent of 

this English version in the Igbo cultural milieu and arrived at ‘Echi 

dị ime’, which also means ‘Tomorrow is unpredictable’.  

 

3.7 Adaptation 

This translation technique is simply a re-creation in context. In other 

words, it means to change the context of the message in such a 

manner that it will make sense to the target population in relation to 

their culture. This technique is applied when a particular situation 

that obtains in the source language does not exist in the target 

language owing to cultural differences. Here are examples of 

adaptation culled from our translation: 

 

Extract 13. 

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

She had achieved her ambition 

to become an accountant, had 

done her Youth Corps and 

was now an employee of the 

African Continental Bank as a 

cashier. (57) 

 

Echiche ya ịbụ onye ndekọ ego 

n’ụlọ akụ abịala na mmezu. O 

feela ala nna ya ma nweta ọrụ 

n’African Continental Bank dị 

ka onye na-agụ ego. 

 

 

Comments:  

In this excerpt, the term ‘Youth Corps’, alludes to an obligatory 

service to fatherland which every Nigerian graduate under the age 



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155 

 

of thirty is expected to render. It is a one year service whose aim is 

to inculcate the spirit of patriotism and loyalty to the nation on the 

participants as well as train them to become disciplined compatriots. 

Meanwhile, within the first month of this service, the participants 

receive some basic military training. So, we adapted ‘ife ala nna’ as 

an adequate expression for this subject in Igbo language. 

 

Extract 14. 

Motherless Baby Nwa Enwe Nne 

“Come home, Pedro. What have 

we done to you that you thus 

forsake us? Your teachers are 

worrying. You’re now in Class 

Two Secondary. Three years 

and you will take your School 

Certificate and start looking for 

university”. (53) 

 

"Pedro, lọta. Ọ bụ gịnị ka anyị 

mere gị mere i jiri gbakụta anyị 

azụ? Obi erughị ndị nkụzi gị 

ala. Ị nọzi n’ogo nke abụọ n’ụlọ 

akwụkwọ Sekọndịrị. Ọ fọdụrụ 

afọ atọ ka i lee ule ngwụcha 

Sekọndịrị gị ma malite ịchọ 

mahadum ị ga-aga. " 

 

Comments: 

According to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English: NEW 

EDITION FOR ADVANCED LEARNERS, certificate “is an 

official paper stating that you have completed a course of study or 

passed an examination: a degree certificate” (261). The ‘School 

Certificate’ is the certificate awarded to students at the end of their 

secondary education in Nigeria and in other English speaking 

nations of West Africa. Meanwhile, given the fact that examinations 

are implied in the English version of the extract, ‘ule ngwụcha 

Sekọndịrị’ is adjudged to be a veritable adaptation of the subject in 

Igbo language. 

 



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4. Conclusion 

In conclusion, to translate a text means to render the message 

contained in that particular text in a manner that it will be 

comprehensible to the people who speak the target language. More 

so, literary translation does not ignore cultural dimensions. There is 

always a link between language and culture. Inasmuch as the 

translator should know the linguistic aspects of the two languages 

concerned, he is also expected to know the culture of the owners of 

the target language because ignorance of any of these two conditions 

can render the translated work meaningless. 

Meanwhile, at the end of our study, we produced an Igbo 

version of the novel, Motherless Baby, entitled Nwa enwe nne, 

which took into cognizance the exigencies imposed by the 

characteristics of a Nigerian novel, so that it could produce on the 

readers the same effects as it concerns information, beauty and other 

traits that the original text possesses. To date, most translated 

African novels were translated to other languages of the world by 

the Europeans who are alien to African culture. It is worthy of note 

that literary works normally have cultural colorations. Most of the 

time, they showcase the culture of a particular group of people. This 

is the reason why we recommend that a translator of a literary text 

should always penetrate both the spirit and the culture of the original 

author to be able to realize a worthy translation. 

Also, the UNESCO warning that Igbo language will go into 

extinction by 2025 if something is not done timely ought to be taken 

seriously by all and sundry of Igbo extraction. We recommend 

therefore that Igbo parents should encourage their wards to speak 

Igbo at least while at home.  

 

 

 



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Asadu, V. C. (2019). Traduction française et igbo de Motherless  

Baby de Cyprian Ekwensi, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Nnamdi 

Azikiwe University, Awka. 

Bassnet-McGuire, Susan. (1980). Translation Studies. London:  

Metheun. Demoulin-Astre, M. (1988). EFURU roman nigérian. 

Editions L’Harmattan. 

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