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A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Nwa and Ụmụ in Igbo 

Aloysius Umeodinka1 Ifeoma Nweze2 

Nnamdi Azikiwe University1 Alex Ekwueme Federal University2 

maloyudo@gmail.com1 ifeoma.nweze@funai.edu.ng2 

 

Abstract  

There are Igbo words that seem so common, but when their use in 

social situations is considered, it reveals a rich endowment with 

multi-dimensional meanings. Against this backdrop, this study 

offers a sociolinguistic analysis of the Igbo terms: ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’. 

The study’s objectives are to explain the sociolinguistic uses of 

‘nwa’ and ‘umu’ and the implications of their usage analysis. The 

method of the study is descriptive. The theory adopted in the analysis 

of data is the Use Theory of Meaning. The data for the study is 

sourced primarily, because the researcher is an intuitive speaker of 

the Igbo language. The study finds out that in some social situations, 

‘nwa’ is used to denote relationship type, singularity, negligibility, 

offspring and parent, derogatory reference, child of a shrine, title 

name etc. The findings also show that ‘ụmụ’ is applied in some 

social circumstances to depict plurality, children and their parents, 

negligibility, a set of people, trainees or servants, disparagement 

and relations. In terms of the implications of the analysis, it is 

discovered that ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’ share some semantic similarities 

in their contextual usage to refer to child and children, respectively. 

Also, ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’ are found to express oppositeness, especially 

when they refer to singularity and plurality, respectively. That 

notwithstanding, the analysis has exposed us to the knowledge of the 

way the Igbo language assigns comprehensible descriptions to 

attitudes, professions and disabilities which have no names in Igbo.  

Keywords: sociolinguistics, plurality, Igbo terms, contextual usage 

mailto:maloyudo@gmail.com1


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1. Introduction  

There are social roles language plays in a community.  In other 

words, language tries to make itself suit and meet up with the needs 

of society. The discipline under which language does all these is 

sociolinguistics. The study of sociolinguistics engages in the process 

of blending sociology with linguistics. This explains why 

sociolinguists busy themselves with finding out what real speech 

actually is, within and among communities’. Their major concern is 

to study the way in which language changes according to not only 

the social context but also the social group that uses it.  

The social group of concern for this paper is the Igbo, whose 

language is spoken in Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, Imo, and 

some parts of Akwa Ibom, Cross River, Delta and Rivers States. In 

these areas, Igbo language performs some specific functions. It is, 

however, not certain how the language uses these functions to 

convey social meanings. Based on this, the topic of study here is “A 

Sociolinguistic Analysis of ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’ in Igbo”. 

The objectives of the study are to explain the sociolinguistic uses of 

nwa and ụmụ and analyse their uses. The study will also draw out 

the implications of their usage analysis. The research method for the 

study is descriptive. The theoretical frame work is the Use Theory 

of Meaning propounded by Wittgenstein in 1953. The data for the 

analysis are primarily procured, because the researcher is an 

intuitive speaker of the Igbo language. For the purpose of organised 

research presentation, the work is divided into four sections: the 

introduction, literature review, data analysis and conclusion. These 

sections are dealt with in sequence. The study is expected to be of 

immense benefit to researchers, the Igbo language, linguists and 

Igbo language learners both at home and in the diaspora.  



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2. Literature Review 

According to https://www.meriam.webster.com, “speech 

communities are groups that share values and attitudes about 

language use, varieties and practices”. They have recognised beliefs 

and value systems regarding forms and styles of communication. 

McGregor (2009) defines it as a coherent group of people that have 

a language or languages common to them with more or less the same 

norms of language use. This group of speakers constitute a network 

of interacting individuals that linguistically communicate with one 

another in a more frequent and intensive way than they engage with 

outsiders. Hudson’s (1980: 26) definition of community is “the 

whole set of people who communicate with one another, either 

directly or indirectly, via the common language”. The understanding 

in all these views centres around three major things: a speech 

community has to share a common language, the group has to be 

interacting frequently and have common norms of language use. 

This directly means that Igbo is a speech community.  

2.1 Language  

Language, according to Sapir (1921), is a method that is not 

instinctive, but precisely human, and human beings make use of it 

to share ideas, emotions and desires through the process of 

communication and use of symbols produced intentionally by the 

same human beings. Related to this definition is that of Trager 

(1949) that sees language as a non-concrete system of symbols 

generated vocally by means of which societal members interact in 

accordance with their whole culture. Okwudishu, in Okolo (2010) 

describes language as something that is as important as the soul of a 

people; a system of communication which the people of a specific 

community, region or country employ through its symbols in their 

speech and writing. Supporting the view, Maduagwu (2008) 

emphasizes that a people’s history is kept alive through language, 

https://www.meriam.webster.com/


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even as it is a means of transmitting a people’s culture. In fact, once 

language is affected in any way, the owners of such a language will 

also be affected in one way or the other.  

From the definitions of language by Sapir (1921), Trager 

(1949), Okolo (2010) and Maduagwu (2008), it is easy to point out 

some areas of sameness and divergencies. For instance, Sapir (1921) 

and Trager (1949) agree that language functions as a system. In this 

system, both of them particularize the use of symbols. And they 

agree that the use of these systematic human vocal symbols is for 

the purpose of interaction or communicating ideas, emotions or 

desires. Where both of them differ is that Trager (1949) specifies 

that it is the members of a common society that use language. 

Okolo’s (2010) concern is on the importance of language to human 

beings, an idea which Maduagwu (2008) shares with him. They 

agree that language is mainly for the purpose of communication in 

a community or a region, and that symbols are used systematically. 

Following this analysis, language is obviously systematic and 

involves the use of systematic symbols for communication in a 

community which views their language as an indispensable 

instrument in their collective life.  

2.2 Igbo Language  

In the words of Ohiri-Aniche (2013: 17):  

Igbo language is spoken homogenously in five south-

eastern states of the country, namely, Abia, 

Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. Sizeable numbers 

of Igbo speakers are found in Delta and Rivers States, 

while they are also found in one or two communities 

in Edo and Akwa Ibom States.  



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Onwuejeogwu (1975: 1) also captures the area where Igbo language 

is spoken. He maintains that the area is delimited by an:  

imaginary line running outside the settlements of 

Agbor, Kwale, Obiaruku, Ebu (West Niger Igbo 

area), Ahoada, Diobu, Umuagbai (Port Harcourt 

area), Arochukwu, Afikpo, Ndinioafu, Isiogo 

(Abakaliki area) and Enugu Ezike (Nsuka area and 

Nzam).  

According to Ohiri-Aniche (2013), the people who share boundaries 

with the Igbo are as follows: Igala, Tiv, and Idoma to the north; the 

Anaang, Ibibio, Efik to the South-east. Then, to the South-west, are 

the Urhobo, Isoko and Edo. On the side of South-South are Delta 

areas with Ijaw and Ogoni.With these geographical descriptions by 

Ohiri-Aniche (2013) and Onwuejeogwu (1975), it becomes clear 

that the words ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’ of the Igbo language are used in 

these areas of Nigeria. 

2.3 Linguistics  

As Gleason (1961: 2) puts it through Anozie (2007: 27), “linguistics 

is the science which attempts to understand language from the point 

of view of its internal structure”. As is explained by Anozie (2007), 

the target of general linguistics is to present language as an activity 

and instrument used by human beings and not by the lower animals 

in the world. Linguistics aims at scientifically comprehending the 

position language occupies in human life, how language is 

organized to enable it satisfy the needs it serves and the roles or 

functions which language performs for human beings.  

Finch (2000: 1) gives a stage-by-stage explanation of the work of 

linguists, thus:  



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Linguists begin their work by observing the way in 

which people use language, on the basis of which 

they provide a description of language use, and 

finally, when all the data has been analysed, an 

explanation. Explanations of language use are the 

stage at which linguists endeavour to establish the 

underlying rules which speakers are following.  

According to Prasad (2012), the work which linguistics does is to 

describe the nature, scope, structure, production, perception and 

how to transmit language independently. Linguistics also does the 

work of establishing a theory of language, studies the components 

of a language system and tries to arrive at an explanation of how 

language works. The work of linguistics is, therefore, mainly 

descriptive, even as it also engages in historical and comparative 

investigations about language.  

In all these explanations, Gleason’s (1961) focus is on the 

linguistic study of the internal structure of language. Anozie’s 

(2010) concern is about how linguistics sets to differentiate 

language as a human behavioural aspect reserved for human beings 

alone. Other roles he (2010) recognizes are that linguistics arranges 

language to satisfy human needs and also perform some functions. 

Finch’s (2000) description of linguistics is centred on its scientific 

functional modalities, which, summarily, are empiricity, 

observation description and explanation. It is from Prasad (2012) 

that the things linguistics describes are shown: nature, scope, 

structure, production, perception and transmission of language.  

Based on all these, the position of this study is that linguistics 

is a scientific study of language as an aspect of human behaviour. In 

this study, linguistics descriptively explains the nature, scope, 



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structure, production, perception and how language is transmitted to 

satisfy the needs of humans in various ways.  

2.3.1 Descriptive Linguistics  

Anagbogu, Mbah and Eme (2010) maintain that descriptive 

linguistics involves making effort to describe or show how language 

existed at a specific time. This calls for analysing language precisely 

the way it is found, without additions or changes. Prasad (2012: 5) 

obviously agrees with the above view from Anagbogu, Mbah and 

Eme (2010) when he says that “descriptive linguistics deals with the 

description, and analysis of the ways in which a language operates 

and is used by a given set of speakers at a given time”.  

These authors also agree that descriptive linguistics involves 

phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. What this 

implies is that it is through these branches that any language is 

described according to how it works at a particular point in time.  

2.3.2 Syntax  

Syntax is “the study of grammatical relations between words and 

other units within the sentence” (Matthews, 2007: 397). Finch 

(2000) defines syntax as a reference to the rules that determine how 

words are combined to generate sentences. To him, it is about 

arranging words in a particular order. On his part, Echebima (2015) 

maintains that syntax is about how different words are arranged so 

that they be in agreement with other words to deliver a meaningful 

expression.  

From the views of Matthews (2007), Finch (2000) and 

Echebima (2015), it becomes clear that syntax involves putting 

words in an acceptable order to produce the sentences we use in 

speech. It is about sticking to the rules of a language to use the words 

from morphology to form sentences.  



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2.3.3 Semantics 

What we study in semantics is meaning. It has to do with the 

meaning of the sound of the word, structure of the word and the 

arrangement of the words. This is because language is 

communication by human beings, and this communication conveys 

meaning plus message (Echebima, 2015). Quoting Lyons (1977), 

Anagbogu, Mbah and Eme (2010: 215) maintain that “semantics is 

the study of meaning”. According to Ndimele (1999: 1), “Semantics 

is an area of linguistics which studies the meaning of words and 

sentences in language”.  

What is to be learnt from the above definitional attempts is 

that semantics is about the meaning which words and sentences 

convey in language. In other words, it is about the purpose of a piece 

of communication, which is passing information and delivering an 

actual message.  

2.3.4 Sociolinguistics  

Sociolinguistics, in the view of Hudson (1980) studies language in 

relation to society. The study believes there are relations between 

word-meaning and culture. Through it, one has to learn the nature 

of language and the nature of society. It is through sociolinguistics 

that social contexts in language are learned and used. 

Sociolinguistics shows that speech is clearly a social behaviour; it 

enables us to realise that speech has a social function, can serve as 

both a means of communication and the identification of social 

groups. Prasad (2012) explains that sociolinguists indicate that one 

learns language in the society and that language follows social 

structure and culture. Language remains a reflection of social 

structure. According to Prasad (2012), sociolinguistics includes 

phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, vocabulary, proverbs 



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and sayings. In all these, language, being social, is always identical 

from one member of a speech community to another.  

Anozie (2007), in explaining sociolinguistics, maintains that 

it accounts for the social backgrounds of both the speaker and the 

addressee, the relationship between the speaker and the addressee 

and also the context and manner of the interaction. All these will 

help in comprehending both the structure and function of the 

language used in a situation. It is easy to learn from all these views 

that sociolinguistics involves relating word-meaning to culture, 

social contexts and the social function of speech. In sociolinguistics, 

the background, relationship and the manner of the interaction 

between the speaker and the addressee have to often be considered.  

2.4 Stylistic or Social Meaning  

Ndimele (1999) defines stylistic or social meaning as that which is 

as a result of a word producing a meaning which is characteristic of 

a specific speech pattern, a linguistic variety or a social situation, 

social meaning obtains when a person’s diction reveals his 

background. Ogbulogo (2005: 22) is of the view that “when a 

particular pattern of speech, language variety or speech form is 

associated with a specific social context, stylistic or social meaning 

is achieved”.  

Emenanjo (2015) mentions ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’ as Igbo words used as 

singular and plural markers, respectively. He (2015: 14) gives the 

following as examples of where ‘nwa and ‘ụmụ’ are used to mark 

singular and plural, respectively.  

 

(a) Nwa (child)   ụmụ (children) 

(b) Nwa nne (brother/sister)   ụmụ nne 

(brothers/sisters) 

(c) Nwa akwụkwọ (pupil/student)  (ụmụ akwụkwọ 

(pupils/students) 



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Also, Emenanjo (2015) goes ahead to stress the meaning of 

“insignificance” in the use of ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’, thus:  

(d) ụmụ ihe little things  

(e) ụmụ osisi shrubs  

On treating “components with clear and independent meanings and 

genitival relationships”, Oruchalu (1979: 67) points out the meaning 

of ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’, thus:  

(f) nwa agbọghọ (Lady). In this case, ‘nwa’ stands as 

‘offspring’ while ‘agbọghọ’ means ‘Lady’. 

(g) ụmụ nwaanyị (women): This is as plural.  

(h) ụmụ okorobịa (youths): This is as plural. 

(i) ụmụ ntakịrị (children): This is as plural also.  

The above studies of Emenanjo (2015) and Oruchalu (1979) make 

it known that ‘nwa’ is actually used to express singularity whereas 

‘ụmụ’ is used, in Igbo to establish plurality in a construction. 

Through the manner of their written forms, both of them have shown 

that both ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’ play qualificative roles in Igbo. In the 

words of Uba-Mgbemena (2011: 43), “in Igbo orthography the 

writing of ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’ deserves special attention. This is 

because each of these two items has three distinct semantic 

readings”. The three different meanings he is talking about for ‘nwa’ 

are: (i) child (ii) insignificant and (iii) one or not more than one.  

The examples of each are as follows:  

(j) Nwa Okeke bịara (‘nwa’ as child)  

(Okeke’s child came) 

(k) Ọ bụ nwa ụlọ ahụ na-eko ya isi? (nwa as insignificant)  

(Is it that insignificant house that swells his head?)  



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(l) Nwa akwụkwọ gị ahụ alaala (that student of yours is 

gone)‘nwa’ as singular marker). 

Uba-mgbemena’s (2011: 44) examples on ‘ụmụ’ and its three 

distinct meanings are these:  

(m) Ụmụ Okeke bịara (ụmụ used as ‘children’).  

(Okeke’s children came) 

(n) Ọ bụ ụmụ ụlọ ahụ na-eko ya isi? (insignificant) 

(Is it those insignificant houses that swell his head?) 

(o) Ụmụ agbọghọ ahụ bịara (‘ụmụ’ as plural marker) 

(Those maidens came) 

The clear point here is that both ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’ have three varying 

meanings each. If there are other meanings beyond these, we shall 

see that in the data analysis.  

2.6 Theoretical Framework  

The theory that guides this study is the Use Theory of Meaning 

founded by Wittgenstein in 1953. This theory is also known as the 

contextual or operational theory of meaning (Ogboluogo, 2005).  

2.6.1 Objective of the Theory 

The objective of the theory is to see that the meaning of a word is 

determined by the context under which such a word is used. What 

this means is that it is the effect which a word creates within a 

specific situation that stands as the full meaning of that word. By 

extension, the theory is saying that words should not be seen as 

entities, that is, as things that exist separately from other things. It is 

the decision and its accompanying effects that bestow a meaning on 

a word. Words do not just mean what is said, but their meaning lies 

in the way such a thing is said and the condition under which it is 

said.  

 



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2.6.2 Application of the Theory 

By implication, the application of the use theory of meaning requires 

finding out what is said, how it is said and under what type of speech 

situation the word is used. The expression being considered must be 

some data from a competent user of the language 

(https://link.springer.com).  

 Following the explanation, in order to apply use the theory 

of meaning on any data, it requires finding out the words and the 

manner of their use and then using the situation of usage to draw out 

the meaning of the words. The social meaning of such a word is 

always key in determining the intended understanding of it.  

2.7 Empirical Review  

Odo (2018) conducted a research on “A Sociolinguistic Analysis of 

Youth Language in Igbo”. The sole objective of the study is to 

investigate the Youth language so as to highlight the language used 

by youths. The theory which is used in the research is systemic 

functional grammar (SFG). The findings of the study are that youths 

use language to express love, dislike and to achieve other goals. It 

also includes that total desires are expressed through language. 

Considering the topic, objectives, theoretical framework and 

findings of the study, it becomes obvious that this research of ours 

is free for continuity; as both have no area of relationship. The only 

similarity is that both are sociolinguistic analysis, but in varying 

areas of the Igbo language.  

Madueke (2020) carried out a research on “The 

Sociolinguistic Analysis of Binomials in Igbo”. The objectives are 

to explain sociolinguistics and binomials and their types in Igbo. 

Another objective is to analyse the varieties of binomials. The 

research is guided by the use theory of meaning by Wittgenstein 

(1953). The findings give the explanation of sociolinguistics and 

https://link.springer.com/


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declare the existence of only two types of binomials, the reversible 

and irreversible. It also finds out that binomials can be categorized 

in many ways based on context.  

From this review, the only similarity her work has with this one is 

the use of the same Use Theory of Meaning. Outside that, both do 

not have the same topic, objectives and findings. What this implies 

is that these researches cannot prevent the continuity of this one.  

3. Data Presentation and Findings 

What is to be done in this section is the presentation of the data 

generated by the intuitive researcher carrying out this study. The 

various data have to be classified and analysed along the line of their 

contextual meanings as stipulated in the research objectives.  

3.1 Explaining the Sociolinguistic Uses of ‘nwa’ 

In sociolinguistic analysis, the modus operandi is to survey how 

social factors affect or even determine the use of language in the 

society. In this light, the word has to be brought out as data for 

analysis. After that, the context of usage of the word has to be stated. 

It is now from the context that the real meaning of the expression 

has to be defined, as this table portrays:  

 

Table 1: ‘Nwa’ as singular (One Unmarried Person) 
Words  Sentence 

Type 

Content of Usage  Meaning  

(1) Nwa 

okorobia (a 

youth)  

(2) Nwa 

agbọghọ (a 

spinster) 

Ikenna bụ 

nwa 

okorobia 

(Ikenna is a 

youth) 

Where the 

occasion 

requires 

stating the 

status of 

Ikenna and 

Adaku.  

(1) It shows that 

Ikenna is one 

person, not 

more than on.  

(2) It also means 

that Ikenna is 

not yet 

married.  
 



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Table 2: ‘Nwa’ as insufficient or insignificant (very little)  

Words  Sentence 

Type  

Context of 

Usage  

Meaning 

Nwa oge (a little 

time/insufficient 

time)  

(1) Ọ nọrọ nwa 

oge tupu ọ 

laa. (He 

stayed a 

little time 

before he 

left) 

When 

emphasis is on 

how long he 

stayed  

He stayed 

for a short 

time.  

Nwa ofe (a little 

soup)  

Ọ bụ nwa ofe 

ahụ I kunyere 

m ga-ezuru m 

nri a? (Is it that 

small soup 

you put for me 

that will be 

enough for 

this food?) 

When 

emphasis is on 

whether the 

soup is big 

enough for the 

whole food  

He was 

given an 

insignificant 

amount of 

soup.  

 nwa xlq (Nwa 
xlq) 
(insignificant 

house)  

Ọ bụ nwa ụlọ 

ahụ na-eko ya 

isi? (Is it that 

insignificant 

house that 

swells his 

head? 

When 

somebody is 

unnecessarily 

so proud of 

the house he 

built.  

He is not 

supposed to 

be laying 

excessive 

emphasis on 

the house he 

built.  
 

 

 

 



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Table 3: ‘Nwa’ as an indicator of offspring and parent 

Words  Sentence Type Context of 

Usage  

Meaning  

‘Nwa’ Uche 

(Uche’s child) 

nwa Uche 

(Uche’s child)   

Udoka bụ nnwa 

Uche (Udoka is 

Uche’s child) 

 

When 

emphasis is on 

the parent of 

the child  

Uche is 

the 

parent of 

Udoka 

and 

Udoka is 

the child 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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Table 4: ‘Nwa’: Naming persons in accordance with their Igbo 

market day of birth  

Words  Sentence 

Type  

Context of 

Usage  

Meaning  

Nwa + Orie - 

Nworie/Nwoye  

(a name/ born on 

Orie day)  

(Nwafọ (name/ 

born on afọ day) 

Nwankwo na 

Nweke bịara 

ebe a 

(Nwankwo 

and Nweke 

came here).  

When it is 

necessary to 

say the name 

of a person 

that came. 

Nwakwo, 

Nweke 

And 

Nwoye are 

persons 

named 

against the 

Igbo 

market 

days in 

which they 

were born.  

Nweke 

(name/born on 

eke day 

Nwankwo 

(name/born on 

nkwọ day). 

Nwoye gara 

ahịa afọ 

(Nwoye 

went to afọ 

market). 

When it is 

necessary to 

mention the 

name of the 

person.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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Table 5: ‘Nwa’ as a revealer of relationship type  

Words  Sentence 

Type  

Context of 

Usage  

Meaning  

(1) Nwanne 

(brother/sister)  

 

(2) Nwanna 

(paternal 

relation) 

Onyinye bụ 

nwanne m 

(Onyinye is 

my sister).  

Ikenna bụ 

nwanna anyị 

(Ikenna is 

our paternal 

brother). 

When there is 

the need to 

specify 

relationships 

shared  

It shows the 

type of 

relationship 

Onyinye and 

Ikenna have 

with the 

concerned 

person.  

 

Table 6: ‘Nwa’ as indicating an afflicted child  

Words  Sentence Type  Context of 

Usage  

Meaning  

Nwa nzuzu (a 

foolish child)  

Ọfọma bụ nwa 

nzuzu (Ọfọma is 

a foolish child)  

Ọfọma is a 

foolish child 

when a 

person’s 

behavior calls 

for question 

 

 

It means 

that the 

behavior of 

such 

persons are 

not normal. 
Nwa Ọgbanje 

(a 

reincarnated 

child) 

Agwa ya bụ nke 

nwa ọgbanje 

(Her behavior is 

that of a 

reincarnated 

child). 

It arises when 

a child’s 

behavior 

appears 

strange. 



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Nwa enwe nne 

enwe nna 

(child not 

having mother 

or father an 

orphan) 

Qbxm bụ nwa 

enwee nne enwe 

nna (He is an 

orphan). 

When 

someone is 

expected to 

call his/her 

parents.  

It shows 

that the 

child has no 

parents still 

alife.  

 

 

Table 7: ‘Nnwa’/ ‘nwa’ as a child belonging to a group  

Words  Sentence Type  Context 

of Usage  

Meaning  

(1) Nwa 

akwụkwọ (a 

child of a 

school 

pupil/student

). 

(2) Nwa 

Umuchu (a 

child from 

Umuchu) 

(3) Nwa Aro 

Ndizuọgụ (a 

child from 

Arondizuọgụ

)  

(1) Chinedu bụ 

nwa 

akwụkwọ 

(Chinedu is a 

pupil/student

)  

(2) Nwa 

Umuchu ahụ 

bịara ebe a, 

ya na nke 

Arondizuọgụ 

(that 

Umuchu 

child came 

here together 

with the 

Arondizuogu 

child 

When the 

group or 

communit

y one 

belongs to 

needs to be 

identified. 

(1) It shows that 

Chinedu 

belongs to 

the school 

community 

and that 

Okeke 

belongs to 

Umuchu 

community. 

It means 

also that a 

child that 

belongs to 

Arondizuog

u 

community 

also came.  

 
 

 

 



A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Nwa and Ụmụ in Igbo – Umeodinka & Nweze 

 

222 

 

 

Table 8: ‘Nwa’ as a derogatory expression 

Words  Sentence 

Type  

Context of 

Usage  

Meaning  

Nwa Nsụka 

(Nsụka child) 

nwa 

Abakaliki 

(Abakaliki 

child) nwa 

ohụ (a slave 

child). 

(1) Leenụ nwa 

Nsụka a ka ọ 

na-agwa m 

okwu (Look at 

this ordinary 

Nsụka child 

talking to me).  

(2) Chidi bụ nwa 

ohụ (Chidi is a 

slave child). 

When 

civilization and 

enlightenment 

are being 

discussed people 

from a less 

developed Nsụka 

& Abakaliki are 

ridiculed (nwa 

ohụ - a slave 

child is always 

ridiculed).  

It means 

that the 

use of nwa 

Nsụka or 

nwa Aba 

or nwa 

ohu is a 

derogatory 

reference.  

 

Table 9: ‘Nwa’ as a child of a shrine 

Words  Sentence Type  Context of 

Usage  

Meaning  

(1) Nwaogwugwu 

(a child of 

ogwugwu 

shrine)  

(2) Nwa Agbara 

(a child of 

Agbara 

shrine)  

(3) Nwa Ngwu (a 

child of Ngwu 

shrine) 

(1) Ikem jere 

ikpesara 

nwa 

Ogwugwu 

(Ikem went 

to complain 

to nwa 

ogwugwu) 

(2) Nwa Agbara 

kpọrọ Dike 

oku (Nwa 

Agbara 

(1) When 

there is a 

case to 

be 

decided  

(2) A 

situation 

where 

the 

attention 

of Dike 

is 

(1) Ikem can 

report a 

matter to a 

shrine god.  

(2) It shows 

that the 

shrine can 

invite any 

of its 

worshippers 

to come and 



          Awka Journal of Linguistics and Languages, Special Edition 1,  2022 

 

223 

 

shrine 

summoned 

Dike)  

needed 

over a 

case.  

answer to a 

case.  

 

 

Table 10: ‘Nwa’: As the Qualified, Underlying Form, ‘Nnwa’ 

Words  Sentence Type  Context of 

Usage  

Meaning  

(1) Uru nnwa 

(a child of 

profit) 

(1) Obiageli bụ 

uru nwa 

(Obiageli is a 

child born 

out of 

wedlock)  

When the 

status of 

children in 

the family is 

being 

defined.  

It shows 

that every 

child has a 

known 

status in 

his/her 

family.  
(2) añụrị nwa 

(child birth 

celebration)  

(2) Ha na-eje 

añụrị nwa. 

(They are 

going for 

child birth 

celebration).  

In the case of 

stating one’s 

destination  

One can 

specify 

his/her 

destination.  



A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Nwa and Ụmụ in Igbo – Umeodinka & Nweze 

 

224 

 

(3) Akwa nwa 

(Cry  for 

childlessness)  

(3) Akwụla na-

ebe akwa 

nwa n’ụla 

nka. (A 

prostitute 

cries for 

childlessness 

at old age)  

When 

expressing 

the regrets of 

a prostitute 

or the 

disadvantage 

of 

prostitution.  

Every bad 

profession 

or attitude 

has its 

adverse 

effects in 

the long 

run.  

(4) ụkọ nnwa 

(child 

scarcity) 

 

Table 11: ‘Nwa’: As Title Names  

Words  Sentence Type  Context 

of Usage  

Meaning  

(1) Nwa + ka ibe ya 

(Nwakaibeya) (a 

child bigger than 

others  

(2) Nwa + ka nnwa 

(Nwakannwa) 

(Same as above) 

(3) Nwa + 

Ezeefunamba --> 

Nwaezefunamba 

(A king’s son 

never gets lost) 

(1) Aha a na-etu ya 

bụ Nwakaibeya. 

(His title name is 

Nwakaibeya) 

(2) E chiri ya 

Nwaezefunamba 

(He was given 

the title 

Nwaezefunmba)  

When 

persons 

take 

titles to 

enhance 

their 

social 

status. 

It means 

that 

those are 

names 

with 

which 

they are 

honoured 

in public. 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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225 

 

Table 12: ‘Nwa’ in figurative expressions  

Words  Sentence 

Type  

Context of 

Usage  

Meaning  

(1) The formula --

> nwa + an 

expression  

Nwa eyinne, 

eyinna 

Udoka bụ nwa 

eyinne eyinna.  

(Udoka has a 

queer 

behaviour)  

During 

character 

assessment  

Udoka’s 

behaviour 

resembles 

neither the 

father’s or 

mother’s.  
(2) Nwa si owere 

ba nne ya 

n’afọ 

(A child that 

entered the 

mother’s 

womb through 

unknown 

means.  

Nweke bụ si 

owere ba nne 

ya n’afọ.  

(Nweke is a 

strange child)  

When a child 

keeps 

manifesting 

an aberrant 

behaviour 

The child 

keeps 

behaving in 

an unusual, 

unacceptable 

way.  

(3) Nwa ka ọ 

mụrụ, ọ bụghị 

ụmụ 

(He gave birth 

to a child and 

not children)  

N’ebe Obiọma 

nọ, nne ya 

mụrụ nwa ọ 

bụghị ụmụ.  

(In Obiọma, 

his mother 

gave birth to a 

child and not 

children)   

When a child 

exhibits 

appreciable 

behaviour 

always. 

The child is 

a well-

behaved one 

and not like 

the badly -

behaved 

ones.  

(4)  Nwa e ji a]ụ 

m ihe (a child 

of 

recompense). 

Ibekwe bụ 

nnwa e ji añụ 

ihe 

When a 

specific 

child’s 

conduct is 

He/she is a 

child that has 

come to pay 

his/her 



A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Nwa and Ụmụ in Igbo – Umeodinka & Nweze 

 

226 

 

(Ibekwe is a 

requital child) 

always in the 

negative. 

parents back 

for the bad 

things they 

did.  

3.3 Explaining the Sociolinguistic Uses of Ụmụ 

Table 13: ‘Ụmụ’ denoting plurality  

Words  Sentence Type  Context of 

Usage  

Meaning  

 
(1) Ụmụ 

nwoke 

(men)  

(2) Ụmụ 

nwaanyị 

(Women) 

(3) Ụmụ 

agbọghọ 

(Spinsters) 

(4) Ụmụ 

okorobịa 

(Youths) 

(5) Ụmụ nkịta 

(dogs) 

(1) Ụmụ nwoke na 

ụmụ nwaanyị 

bịara 

(Men and women 

came) 

 

(2) Ha bụ 

ụmụokorobịa na 

ụmụagbọghọ 

(They are youths 

and spinsters). 

(3) Ụmụnkịta ahụ na-

ata ọkpụkpụ. 

(Those dogs are 

chewing bone). 

When there 

is the need 

to specify 

the 

attendees.  

That those 

who came 

were men 

and women 

 

Specifying 

that the 

people are 

unmarried 

young boys 

and girls.  

 

 

 

Explaining 

the action 

of many 

dogs, 

masticating 

bones.  



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227 

 

 

Table 14: Ụmụ: denoting offsprings 

Words  Sentence Type  Context of 

Usage  

Meaning  

(1) Ụmụ 

Ọgọnna 

(Ọgọnna’s 

children)  

(2) Ụmụ ọkụkọ 

(Chickens)  

(3) Ụmụ ewu 

(Offsprings 

of goat)  

(1) Chika na 

Amaka bụ ụmụ 

Ọgọnna.  

(Chika & 

Amaka are 

Ọgọnna’s 

children) 

Ụmụ ewu ojii 

ahụ na-anụ ara. 

(Those kids are 

sucking 

breast). 

A situation 

where the 

parents of 

some children 

are to be 

specified.  

Where the 

goats sucking 

breast need to 

be defined as to 

whether they 

are the 

offsprings of 

the goat.  

It means 

that the 

subjects 

of 

discussion 

are the 

offsprings 

of a 

parent.  

 

Table 15: ‘Ụmụ’ used in derogatory remarks for ‘many’  

Words  Sentence Type  Context 

of Usage  

Meaning  

(1) Ụmụ ọgwụgwụ 

oge (end time 

children)  

(2) Ụmụefurefu 

(Good for 

nothing 

children)  

(3) Ụmụ iberibe 

(Misbehaving 

children)  

(1) Esokwala ụmụ 

ọgwụgwụ oge a 

n’agwa ha na-

akpa.  

(Don’t join the 

end time children 

in their 

misbehaviour) 

(2) Agwa ha bụ nke 

ụmụ efurefu 

When acts 

of bad 

conduct 

are being 

discussed.  

It means 

that the 

person in 

question 

is very 

badly 

behaved.  



A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Nwa and Ụmụ in Igbo – Umeodinka & Nweze 

 

228 

 

(Their behaviour 

is that of end time 

children). 

 

 

Table 16: ‘Ụmụ’ showing negligibility and littleness  

Words  Sentence Type  Context of 

Usage  

Meaning  

(1) Ụmụ ehi Igbo  

(Igbo cows) 

(2) Ụmụ 

nghangha 

akwa 

(good-for-

nothing 

clothes)  

(1) Ọ bụ umu ehi 

Igbo ndị ahụ o 

gburu ka o ji 

eme ọnụ?  

(Is it those Igbo 

cows that he is 

proud of?) 

(2) Ọ bụ umu 

nghangha akwa 

ya ahụ ka o ji eje 

ụka? 

(Is it those 

good-for-

nothing clothes 

that he wears to 

the church).  

When what 

a person is 

proud of is 

dimunitive 

and 

negligible.  

 

 

When the 

cloth 

somebody 

is putting on 

is not fit for 

a formal 

outing.  

It means 

that 

somebody 

is laying 

emphasis 

on things 

worthy to 

be 

ignored.  

 

It means 

also that 

the time 

for a good 

thing is 

being 

wasted on 

a bad 

thing.  
 



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229 

 

 

Table 17: Ụmụ used in describing a set of trainees 

Words  Sentence 

Type  

Context 

of Usage  

Meaning  

(1) Ụmụ ọrụ 

(apprentices) 

(2) Ụmụ 

akwụkwọ 

(Pupils/stude

nts) 

(3) Ụmụ odibo 

(Servants) 

 

(1) Ha bụ 

umu ọrụ 

yá.  

(They are 

his 

apprentice

s). 

(2) Ụmụ 

odibo ya 

na-asa 

afere 

(His 

servants 

are 

washing 

plates). 

(3) Ụmụ 

akwụkwọ 

ahụ na-

amụ 

akwụkwọ 

(Those 

students 

are 

studying). 

Used 

when the 

people 

concern

ed are 

still 

learning 

a 

particula

r art, job 

or 

business

.  

It 

mean

s that 

the 

perso

ns in 

quest

ion 

are 

still 

being 

taugh

t 

what 

they 

are 

doing

.  

 

 

 

 



A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Nwa and Ụmụ in Igbo – Umeodinka & Nweze 

 

230 

 

 

Table 18: ‘Ụmụ’ signifying relations  

Words  Sentence Type  Context of 

Usage  

Meaning  

(1) Ụmụ ada 

(daughters) 

(2) Ụmụ nne 

(maternal 

relations)  

(3) Ụmụ nna 

(Paternal 

relations) 

(1) Ọgọọ bụ 

nwanne m. 

(Ọgọọ is my 

maternal 

relation)  

(2) Ụmụ ada nwere 

nzụkọ 

(The daughters 

of the land have 

a meeting).  

When 

specifying 

blood relation 

is necessary.  

It means 

that one 

form of 

blood 

relation or 

the other is 

shared by 

them. 

 

3.4 Implications of the Analysis 

The analysis of the data gathered for ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’ has enabled 

the researcher to check, reorder and present the available data in the 

form of applicable and understandable information. One of the 

implications of the analysis is that the researcher should now be able 

to make meaningful deductions and conclusion from the data. Of 

course, through it, the results can be properly used and applied. 

From the analysis, it comes out clearly that one thing is to know the 

meaning of ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’, another thing is to know their multiple 

dimensions of meaning in a social setting.  

Again, it is now a common knowledge, through this 

research, that different sentence types have their different contexts 

and interpretations in the use of the words ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’. The 

analysis has made the revelation that ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’, in their social 

contexts, are similar in being used not only to refer to singular and 

plural, child and children, but also to make derogatory references, 

figurative expressions and to refer to applications.  



          Awka Journal of Linguistics and Languages, Special Edition 1,  2022 

 

231 

 

Another implication of the analysis is that it will help the 

Igbo language to have improved linguistic performance in several 

social situations. Also, the analysis has the implication of pointing 

towards how language mirrors social reality. In a final note, the 

analysis shows how the Igbo language assigns comprehensible 

descriptions to positions, attitudes, professions and disabilities 

which have no known name in Igbo.   

4. Summary of Findings and Conclusion 

4.1 Findings 

The task of the sociolinguistic analysis of ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’ has been 

started, done and concluded. The first objective has been to explain 

the sociolinguistic uses of ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’. On the part of ‘nwa’, 

summarily speaking, the findings of its sociolinguistic uses include 

being applied in certain social circumstances to mark relationship 

type, singularity, insignificance, offspring and parent, child 

affliction, membership of a group, derogatory reference, child of a 

shrine, and title name. It is also used in figurative expressions. As 

for ‘ụmụ’, its sociolinguistic applications in varied social situations 

have to do with denoting plurality, children, negligibility, a set of 

people, trainees or servants, parents of children, disparagement and 

relations.  

In the area of the implications emerging from the analysis of 

the sociolinguistic uses of ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’, the study finds out that 

‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’ share some similarities and oppositeness in some 

contexts of usage in Igbo. In the aspect of similarity, they both 

designate parenthood and offspring, derogatory reference and 

belittling. Then, in oppositeness, ‘nwa’ is for singular where ‘ụmụ’ 

is for plural, especially in situations of talking about parenthood or 

products of marriage. Where ‘nwa’ is about singular, ‘ụmụ’ is used 

there to refer to the opposite, which is plural.  



A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Nwa and Ụmụ in Igbo – Umeodinka & Nweze 

 

232 

 

The analysis of the data has made it easy for meaningful 

deductions and conclusion to be made about the use of the words, 

their contexts and sentence types. It is easy to draw out these pieces 

of knowledge from examining the sets of data. From the analysis, 

there is an obvious lesson that different sentence types vary in their 

interpretations as informed by their contexts. The analysis has the 

implication of helping to showcase how the Igbo language is used 

to reproduce social reality.  

 

4.2 Conclusion  

This research has revealed the hitherto hidden advantages of 

studying the discipline of sociolinguistics. If not for this study, how 

could it have been imagined that such seemingly disregarded words 

as ‘nwa’ and ‘ụmụ’ would have such multi-dimensional meanings 

in social language usage as we have seen? What it translates to is 

that this study has brought to the fore a lot of issues of significance 

in language study.  

Firstly, it is now certain that theoretical linguistics is not of 

much use without sociolinguistics. One thing is to construct 

language structure, and another thing is to understand the social 

structure of their application. Secondly, it is now obvious that there 

are many variables that facilitate any comprehensive understanding 

of both structure and the language used in a situation.  

Thirdly, it is no longer a hidden fact that it is the society that 

determines the said choice of language use. Fourthly and finally, 

with this study, the Igbo can afford to increase their knowledge of 

what is common across our various communities of communication.  

 

 

 



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233 

 

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