




































 

 
  

Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol. 16, September 2023 

335 

INFLUENCE, STYLES AND WAYS OF CHORAL MUSIC IN 

NIGERIA: THE CASE OF IBIBIO MUSIC 
 

Precious Kufre Udoh 

Email: Preciouskudoh@gmail.com 

 

Abstract 

Music in Nigeria is a very significant aspect of life of any group of people. It is embedded 

in the cultural life of the people as expressed in their norms and values in terms of their 

culture, social, and moral values. Choral music amongst the Ibibio is socially controlled 

and normally associated with important social, religious or political events. The music is 

unique in styles ranging from the voice texture, traditional make-up of the attire, musical 

instruments, dance and also themes. This styles and moods bring about communication 

link between the singers and the listeners (audience). The writer in this paper discusses 

some styles and ways of choral music, its influence on different eras, and Nigeria; as well 

as some elements and patterns in Ibibio choral music. 

 

Introduction 

Choral music is one of the several musical genres subject to misunderstanding because 

of false historical perspectives and misinterpretation cause by the confusion endangered 

by unresolved semantics problems. Choral, Chorale, Choir, and Chorus are all related to 

one another and are in some aspects used interchangeably; and also written with two or 

more different parts. The parts, though equally important are usually independent from 

one another, and mesh together during performance. Choral music comprises basically 

four parts and they are: the Soprano, Alto, Tenor, and Bass. These parts are often 

written in either open or close score during composition. Some of the types of choral 

music are – Anthems, Oratorio, Motet, Cantata, and A Capella to mention a few.  

   

Choral Music 

The origin of choral music which can be traced back over a thousand years, has its 

popularity soared during the Renaissance period of the 1500s, and has remained a popular 

style of music ever since. It is one of the forms that have promoted the use of Tonic 

Solfa Notation more than Staff Notation among black composers of African 

descendants. Several western educated African composers have shared their 

compositions with millions of people through annual competitions and festivals which has 

become an important facet in the musical life of several African countries like – South 

Africa, Kenya, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania and so on. The music has interested a number of 

African musicians trained in western classical music institutions. Some celebrated 

composers of choral music based on the principles of four part singing common in hymns 

are - Ayo Bankole, Rueben Caluza, Lazarus Ekwueme, Akin Euba, Alfred Assegai Kumalo, 

Joseph Kyagambididwa, Gideon Mdelgella, John Mgandu, Okechukwu Ndubuisi, J. H 

Kwabena Nketia, Mbeki Nzewi and Fela Showande (Groves Dictionary of Music and 

Musician, 2001). Choral music is a popular traditional form that has interested a number 

of young African student to study music formally at colleges and universities. It has also 



 

 
  

Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol. 16, September 2023 

336 

made it easier for Africans to relate to western art music, especially compositions of 

the Baroque and the Romantic periods; with choral parts. Choral works of foreign 

composers such as: Handel, Mandelson, Braham and Schumann’s, just to mention a few, 

are the most commonly sung works by African choirs; as a number of choral composers 

have also learned staff notation too. Many still continue to write in tonic solfa as most 

individuals who participate in church and communal choirs are school children and 

uneducated parents who have not mastered staff notation. While debate on the 

suitability of staff notation for musical idioms continues, tonic solfa remains the most 

widely used and understood notational medium for many Africans who are music 

enthusiasts. Traditional music and dance in Africa are the media that have remained 

immunized to the Western notational debates, they are largely taught and transmitted 

from one person to the other orally. 

 

Influence of Choral Music of the Different Eras 

- Antiquity  

The origin of choral music is found in traditional music, as singing in the big groups is 

extremely widely spread in traditional cultures (both singing in one part or in unison, like 

in Ancient Greece, as well as singing in parts, or in harmony, like in contemporary European 

choral music). The oldest unambiguously choral repertory that survives is that of ancient 

Greece of which the 2nd century BC Delphic hymns and the 2nd century AD hymns of 

Mesomedes are the most complete. The original Greek chorus sang its part in Greek 

drama and fragments of work by Euripides (Orestes) and Sophocles (Ajax) are known 

from papyri. The Sei kilos Epitaph (2nd century BC) is a complete song (although possibly 

for solo voices). One of the latest examples - Oxyrhynchus hymn (3rd century) is also of 

interest as the earliest Christian music of the Roman drama’s music a single line of 

Terence surfaced in the 18th century. However, musicologist Thomas J. Mathieson 

comments that it is no longer believed to be authenticated. 

 

- Medieval Era 

The earliest notated music of Western Europe is Gregorian chant, along with a few other 

types of chants which were later subsumed by the Catholic Church. This tradition of 

unison choir singing lasted from sometime between the times of St. Ambrose (4th 

century) and Gregory the Great (6th century) up to the present. During the later middle-

ages, a new type of singing involving multiple melodic parts called organum became 

predominant for certain functions, but initially polyphony was only sung by soloist. 

Further developments of this technique included Clausulae, Conductus and Motet (most 

notably the isorhythmic motet, which unlike the Renaissance motet describes a 

composition with different texts sung simultaneously in different voices. The first 

evidence of polyphony, with more than one singer per part, comes in the Old Hall 

Manuscript (1420, though containing music from the late 14th century) in which there 

are apparent divisi, one part dividing into two simultaneously sounding notes. 

  

- Renaissance Era 

During the Renaissance, sacred choral music was the principal type of formally notated 

music in Western Europe. Throughout the era, hundreds of masses and motets (as well 



 

 
  

Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol. 16, September 2023 

337 

as various other forms) were composed for a cappella choir, though there were some 

disputes over the role of instruments during certain periods and certain areas. Some of 

the better-known composers of this time include - Guillaume Dufay, Josquin Des Prez, 

Giovanni Pierluigi Da Palestrina and William Byrd; the glories of Renaissance polyphony 

were choral, sung by choirs of great skill and distinction all over Europe. Choral music 

from this period continues to be popular with many choirs throughout the world today. 

The Madrigal, a part of song conceived for amateurs to sing in a chamber setting 

originated at this period. Although madrigals were initially dramatic settings of 

unrequited love poetry or mythological stories in Italy, they were imported into England 

and merged with the more dancelike Balletto, celebrating carefree songs of the seasons 

or eating and drinking. To most English speakers, the word Madrigal now refers to the 

latter, rather than madrigals proper which refers to a poetic form of lines consisting of 

seven and eleven syllables each. The interaction of sung voices in Renaissance polyphony 

influenced Western music for centuries. Composers are routinely trained in the 

‘Palestrina style’ to this day, especially as codified by the 18th century music theorist - 

Joseph Fux. Composers of the early 20th century also wrote in Renaissance style and 

inspires styles. Herbert Howells wrote a Mass in Dorian mode, entirely in strict 

Renaissance style and Ralph Vaughan Williams’s Mass in G minor is an extension of this 

style. Anton Von Webern wrote his dissertation on the Choralis Constantinus of Heinrich 

Issac and the contrapuntal techniques of his serial music may be informed by his study. 

 

- Baroque Era  

Around 1600 of the figures Bass was said to be associated with the Baroque period in 

music, it came with the dramatic implications in the realm of solo vocal music such as the 

monodies of the Florentine Camerata and opera. This innovation was in fact an extension 

of established practice of accompanying choral music on the organ either from a skeletal 

reduced score (from which otherwise lost pieces can sometimes be reconstructed) or 

from a Basso Seguente, a part on a single staff containing the lowest sounding part. A 

new genre was the vocal concertato, combining voices and instruments; its origins may be 

sought in the polychoral music of the Venetian school. Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) 

brought it to perfection with his vespers and his English book of Madrigals, which calls 

for great virtuosity on the part of singers and instrument alike. His pupil - Heinrich 

Schutz (1585-1672), who had earlier studied with Giovanni Gabrieli, introduced the new 

style to Germany alongside the new music of the seconda pratica. Contrapuntal motets in 

the stile antico or old style continued to be written well into the 19th century. It should 

be remembered that choirs at this time were usually quite small that singers could be 

classified as suited to church or to chamber singing. Monteverdi himself, a singer, is 

documented as taking part in performances of his Magnificat with one voice per part. 

Independent instrumental accompaniment opened up new possibilities for choral music. 

Verse anthems alternated accompanies solos with choral sections; the best-known 

composers of this genre were Orlando Gibbons and Henry Purcell. Grand motets (such as 

those of Lully and Delalande) separated these sections into separate movements. 

Oratorio, pioneered by Giacomo Carissimi, extended this concept into concert length 

work, usually loosely based on Biblical stories. The pinnacle of the oratorio is found in 

George Fredrick Handel’s works, notably Messiah and Israel in Egypt. While the modern 



 

 
  

Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol. 16, September 2023 

338 

chorus, hundreds had to await the growth of choral societies and his centennial 

commemoration concert; Handel was found already using a variety of performing forces, 

from the soloist of the Chandos Anthems to larger groups (whose proportion are still 

different from modern orchestra choruses). More accessible styles of choral music 

include - Benjamin Britten, his War Requiem, Five Flower Songs and Rejoice in the Lamb; 

Francis Pauline’s motets pour te temps de noel, Gloria and Mass in G are often performed. 

A primitive approach is exemplified by Carl Orff’s widely performed Carmina Burana. In 

the United States - Aaron Copland, Samuel Barber and Randall Thompson wrote signature 

American pieces; in Eastern Europe - Bela Bartok and Zoltan Kodaly wrote a small amount 

of music for choirs. Frank Martin’s mass for double choir combines modality and allusion 

to Medieval and Renaissance forms with a distinctly modern harmonic language and has 

become the composer’s most performed work. 

 

- Classical Era  

At the turn of the 21th century, choral music has received a resurgence of interest 

partly due to a renewed interest in accessible choral idioms. Multi-cultural influences 

were found in Osvaldo Golijov’s St. Mark passion, which melds the Bach’s style passion 

form with Latin American street music, and Chen Yi’s Chinese Myths Cantata melds atonal 

idioms with traditional Chinese melodies played on traditional Chinese instruments. Some 

composers began to earn their reputation based foremost, on their choral output 

including the highly popular John Rutter and Eric Whitacre. The large-scale dramatic 

works of Karl Jenkins seem to hearken back to the theatricality of Orff, and the music 

of James MacMillan continues the tradition of boundary-pushing choral works form the 

United Kingdom begun by Britten, Walton and Leighton. Meanwhile, primarily media music 

composers such as John Williams and Kentaro Sato and prominent concert orchestra 

composers such as Augusta Read Thomas, Sofia Gubaidulina, Aaron Jay Kernis and 

Thomas Ades also contribute vital addition to the choral repertoire. A number of 

traditions originating outside of classical concert music have enriched the choral 

repertoire as well as provided new outlets to composers: 

- At the end of the 19th century, male voice choir became popular with the coal miners 

of the South Wales and numerous choirs were established including the Treorchy Male 

Choir, Morriston Orpheus Choir and Cor Meibion Pontoporiid Male Voice Choirs. Although, 

the mining communities which gave rise to these choirs largely died out in the 1970s and 

1980s with the decline of the Welsh coal industry, many of these choirs continue and are 

seen as a traditional part of Welsh culture and performed worldwide. Not all of these 

choirs were based on coal, some started in the rugby clubs such as Cardiff Arms Park 

Male Choir and Morriston Rugby Choir, while others such as Pantagruelian Male Choir 

were formed out of a youth choir. 

- Black Spirituals entered the concert repertoire with the tours of the Fisk College 

Jubilee Singers and arrangements of such spirituals are now part of the standard choral 

repertoire. Notable composers and arrangers of choral music in this tradition include: 

William Dawson, Jester Hairston and Moses Hogan. 

- During the mid-20th century, Barbershop Quarters began experimenting with 

combining larger ensembles together into choruses which sung barbershop music in four 



 

 
  

Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol. 16, September 2023 

339 

(4) parts, often with staging, choreography and costumes. The first international 

barbershop chorus contest was held in 1953 and continues to this day. 

- African and African American choirs have a distinct and passionate sound. They 

incorporate their culture into the music with a more upbeat tempo and make use of 

traditional instruments. They are also very good at singing slow and soulful renditions. 

 

Styles and Ways of Choral Music 

- Hymn Style 

Hymn style is a type of song that is usually religious, specifically written for the purpose 

of praise, adoration and prayer. The word ‘hymn’ is derives from Greek, which means – a 

song of praise. One definition of hymn is, ‘a lyric poem, reverently and devotionally 

conceived, which is designed to be sung and which expresses the worshipper’s attitude 

toward God or God’s purpose in human life’. It is usually simple and metrical in form, 

genuinely emotional, poetic and literary in style, spiritual in quality and in its ideas so 

direct and so immediately apparent as to unify a congregation while singing it. The 

collections of hymns are known as Hymnals. Its origin includes ancient hymns composed 

by Pharaoh Akhenaten. The western tradition of hymnody began with the Homeric 

Hymns, a collection of ancient Greek hymns, the oldest of which were written in the 17th 

century BC, praising deities of the ancient Greek religion. Surviving from the 3rd century 

BC is a collection of six literary hymns by the Alexandrian poet Callimachus. The meter 

indicate the number of syllables for the lines of each stanza of a hymn. This provides a 

means of marring the hymn’s text with an appropriate hymn tune for singing. In practice, 

many hymns conform to one of a relatively small number of meters (syllable count and 

stress pattern). Care must be taken, however, to ensure that not only the meter of words 

are tune match, but also the stresses on the words in each line. Technically speaking an 

iambic tune for instance, cannot be used with words of, say, trochaic meter. The meter 

is often denoted by a row of figures besides the name of the tune, such as “87.87.87”, 

which would inform the reader that each verse has six lines, and that the first line has 

eight syllables, the second has seven, the third line eight, etc. the meter can also be 

described by initials; L.M., which indicates – long meter, which is 88.88 (four lines, each 

eight syllables long); S.M., which indicate a – short meter (66.86); C.M. which indicates – 

common meter (86.86); while D.L.M., D.S.M., and D.C.M., (the D, stands for ‘double’), are 

all similar to their respective single meters except that they have eight lines in a verse 

instead of four. Today, except for choirs, more musically inclined congregation hymns 

are typically sung in unison. While in some cases, complementary full settings for organ 

are also published, hence organists and other accompanists are expected to transcribe 

the four-part vocal score for their instrument of choice. Some of the composers of hymn 

style were: Thomas Aquinas, Isaac Watts, Martin Luther, Charles Wesley just to mention 

a few.  

 

- Anthem Style 

The word – ‘Anthem’, is commonly used to describe a celebratory song or composition for 

a distinct group, as in the term ‘nation anthem’. Generally, composition of celebration is 

usually acting as a symbol for a distinct group of people. It is often refers to any short 

sacred choral work presented during the course of a worship service. Many anthems have 



 

 
  

Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol. 16, September 2023 

340 

been composed since this time, generally by organist rather than professional composes 

and often in a conservative style. Major composers have usually compose anthems in 

response to commissions and for special occasions. An example of such composition is – 

Edward Elgar’s ‘Great is the Lord (1922) and ‘Give unto the Lord’ (1914), both with 

orchestra accompaniment; Benjamin’s ‘Rejoice in the Lamb’ (1943), a modern example of 

a multi-movement anthem but today, it is heard mainly as a concert piece. And Ralph 

Vaughan William’s ‘O taste and see’ (1952), written for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth 

II. 

 

- Neo-Palestinian Style 

Palestrina came of age as a musician under the influence of the northern European style 

of polyphony, which owed its dominance in Italy primarily to two influential 

Nertherlandish composers; which are – Guillaume Dufay and Josquin des Prez, who had 

spent significant portions of their careers there. Italy itself had yet to produce anyone 

of comparable fame or skill in polyphony. Palestrina’s style arises from several technical 

sources. His music was vocal, no parts are written specifically for instruments. All the 

voice parts have a similar character, producing a homogeneous sound. The music is almost 

always contrapuntal, with simultaneously sounding equally important melodic lines. 

Although Palestrina used only a few chords in any one composition, he altered the manner 

in which the individual tones of each chord were spaced among the various voice parts. 

He thus achieved subtle changes while maintaining a general feeling of constancy. In 

rhythm, he avoided the feeling of a strong pulse by allowing each voice part to have its 

own accent patterns independent of the other parts. He created a subtle pulse by 

confining dissonant, or unstable tones to weak beats within a measure and always placing 

consonant, or stable tones on strong beats. Finally, his melodic lines unfold in long, subtly 

curve in which any large leaps upward or downward are balanced by a return to the center 

of the curve. 

 

- Neo-Madrigalism Style 

Madrigalism was the common Renaissance practice of using ‘word painting’ (that is, 

altering mood and tone). In madrigals, a musical form where the accompaniment is design 

to highlight the poetic verses. Madrigal is a secular vocal music composition, usually a 

part song of the Renaissance and early Baroque eras. Traditionally, polyphonic madrigals 

are unaccompanied, and the number of voices varies from two to eight and most 

frequently from three to six. It originated in Italy during the 1520s. Unlike many 

strophic forms of the time, most madrigals were through-composed. In madrigal, the 

composer attempts to express the emotion contained in each line, and sometimes 

individual words of a celebrated poem. It also originated in part from the frottola, and 

in part from the resurgence in interest in vernacular Italian poetry; and also from the 

influence of the French chanson and polyphonic style of the motet as written by the 

Franco-Flemish composers who had naturalized in Italy during the period. A frottola 

generally would consist of music set to stanzas of text, while madrigal, while madrigals 

were through-composed. However, some of the same poems were used for both frottola 

and madrigals. 

 



 

 
  

Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol. 16, September 2023 

341 

 

 

- Neo-Folklorism Style 

Folk music are traditional songs passed from one generation to another. It is the music 

of a people within a particular ethnic group with common language sharing the same 

dialect and cultural norms and values. These songs are usually learnt by hearing and 

through performance, considering the simplicity involved which is embebed in their 

spoken dialect. Folk music is majorly influenced by language, dressing, culture, and 

geographical location of the group. It is generally simpler and much more compact and 

distinct in style compared to classical or art music because it exist in different forms 

and under a variety of social and cultural conditions. They are invariably cast in verse-

repeating forms, in which a single melody is used again and again as the setting for each 

of a number of stanzas of verse. 

 

Influence of Choral Music in Nigerian 

Choral music being a popular traditional form of music has remained the pedestal of 

Nigerian cultural identification. The music has been in existence from the emergence of 

the nation and is still upheld by its practitioners as well as the chief custodian and conduit 

of Nigerian cultural heritage. In a nutshell, traditional music encapsulates the world-

view, philosophy, aspiration, religion, history, lineage, social, economic and political 

systems of the nation. Music in Nigeria has never been static, but has consistently been 

undergoing a process of metamorphosis through a continued exposure to diverse musical 

styles from foreign cultures. This process of assimilation and integration has left a long 

trail of musical synthesis between Nigeria and musical idioms from countries such as 

America, Brazil, Cuba, Europe and other African nations. The root of the new idiomatic 

expressions could be traced back to the mid-nineteenth century with the arrival of 

American and European missionaries, and the centenary reign of the colonial 

administration. These two imperial forces were responsible for the introduction of 

western classical music to Nigerian indigenes through churches, mission and colonial 

schools established during this era. Nigerians were exposed to western musical 

instrument such as – the piano, harmonium and organ. They were also taught how to read 

and notate music, while in addition, indigenous composers/performers received private 

lessons in music theory, piano and organ at homes of European musicians and from the 

organists and choirmasters at their local churches. These efforts eventually led to the 

emergence of “Neo-African School of Music” that ultimately produced some of the finest 

modern Nigerian composers. Prominent Ibibio composer of such is Samuel Akpabot.  

 

Some Elements and Patterns in Ibibio Choral Music 

- Structure 

The way Ibibio songs are organized is dependent on the context performers and also, 

the interpretation given to it by the same performers. It allows individual composer to 

share different methods other than the given musical constructions. The music just as 

other African music is flexible and not rigid as it is passed down orally. It is arranged so 

as to afford a focus on the expression of individual composer within the context of a 

given tradition. In Ibibio music, a call and response organization are one of the most 



 

 
  

Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol. 16, September 2023 

342 

common in the music structures, a form which is typically designed for a lead singer or a 

group of lead singers, and a chorus (response). In African music there are three standard 

processes used in responsorial singing: The first and simplest method is one in which the 

lead singer sings the entire verse and the chorus, repeats the same material immediately 

and exactly. The second call and response structure has clearly defined sections for the 

lead singer and the chorus. For example, each portion of the songs consist of a single 

phrase sung by the lead singer and answered by the chorus with a set of response. The 

choral responses may be similar to the lead phrase in melodic and rhythmic form or it 

may be a continuation of it. Either section of the song, the call and response, may be sung 

in parts, often using simple chordal harmonies. The lead singer may sometimes overlap 

with the choral response. The overlapping allows the lead singer to select a convenient 

point before the end of response phrase on order to introduce a new call, while the chorus 

will then respond in the correct phrase. The call and response are usually rounded off by 

a concluding section or a refrain sung by both the lead and the chorus. The third 

arrangement of call and response singing incorporates a third element for a slightly more 

elaborate form. Often times, in Ibibio music ostinato is employed in addition to or as a 

substitute for drumming. The ostinato element, coupled with the call and response form 

magnifies the response the structural shifts pattern; and the addition of vocal repetition 

is used to reveal rhythmic complexity in the musical structure. Each note making up the 

scales of the melody are not of equal temperament, as correlation of speech tone and 

melodic leap in tonal languages retains as much as possible, the linguistic implication or 

meaning of the text. 

Similarly, in African music, especially in singing, the formal structure may really not be 

the property of any individual though the process of individual expression within a 

communal activity is important. 

 

- Forms   

The forms are usually antiphonal (music sung in alternating parts) in structure which 

often times it is in ABA with the elements of repetition, variations, and contrast or in 

through-compose; which is simply emphasized in patterns. Ibibio music usually features 

solo, duet, and chorus with the lengths of phrase varying from one song to another. The 

form of vocal music in Ibibio music is in consonance with pathogenic and melogenic 

concepts which are the melodies common with a non-ritualistic music, and it is also 

emotion-borne. The style and concepts are influenced by Ibibio folklore. Abraham and 

Foss (1976) defined folklore as being: orientated more strongly towards the continuity 

of a tradition. In the same vein, Amos (1971) posits that: folklore is a ‘communicative 

process’. Given all the aforementioned definitions, the oral tradition of Ibibio music is a 

custom, opinion or belief handed down for posterity hence, its oral poetry is found in the 

song text, as language and music are interrelated.     

 

- Tonality 

Ibibio music is tonal, meaning that the language and text are interrelated. They influence 

the pitch and rhythmic elements of the songs to a large extent. Agu (1999) states that: 

a word can mean more than one meaning depending on its intonation and of course, its 

function in a sentence.  



 

 
  

Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol. 16, September 2023 

343 

Just like other ethnic music, there are three primary levels of tone in Ibibio language - 

low; medium; and high. Hugh (1963) observed that: measuring the incidence of and the 

distance between pitches of African scales without prematurely attempting to 

generalize, is difficult. This is especially the case when compared to western measuring 

criteria. Within any African scale, typically having from 4 to 7 pitches. One may find a 

greater tolerance of pitch variation for specific steps of the step, let alone equal 

temperament. It is believed that any assertion that African melodies are exclusively 

pentatonic is in-accurate. A more accurate description of most African melodic structure 

is that they are based on the controlled used of selected interval sequences. Thus, it is 

more effective to think of Ibibio music in terms of reoccurring sequences of interval as 

opposed to scales when examining the melodic constructs. The Ibibio music maintains a 

distinct tonal system and it is often constructed on heptatonic scale (7tones).  The 

inflectionary nature of African language and the presence of percussive instruments 

have been found to be more effective in the formation of melodic and rhythmic pattern 

in African music. The rhythm of a song is governed by the inflection of the words whose 

rise and fall results to melodic and speech rhythm. The standard pattern played by 

instruments in a hocket or ostinato manner which is most times imitated by the voice 

parts give rise to the percussive rhythm. 

 

- Melody  

The melodic and rhythmic components of the lead singer’s call and the chorus response 

sometimes include variations, especially if there are significant changes in text. For 

example, the lead singer may alter the call but the choral response remains the same, 

resulting in an A-B-C-B form. Other songs have a different response to each call, 

resulting from A-B-C-D, where A and C are sung by the lead singer, and B and D by the 

chorus. The lead singer may even improvise above the choral responses. Variations on the 

call and response structure most times generate uneven phrase structures providing long 

sections for either the lead singer or the chorus. The melodies are sometimes, also short 

and repetitive; and not rigidly structured on one syllable like other ethnic music. Ibibio 

melodic form also make use of the dynamic qualities from the rhythmic framework 

already used to organize their sound materials as their melodic lines are guided by words 

(lyrics). It be noted here that in Ibibio music changing the pitch of a syllable to fit a 

melodic contour will alter the meaning of the word. This also have a great effect on 

percussion section of Ibibio rhythmic patterns. Most importantly, on the Eka Ibid Isong 

(drum), and this cannot be over emphasized. The melodic patterns are also restricted to 

phrases because the Ibibio music, in a general phenomenal are controlled either by 

speech pattern or by their traditional instruments because of the limited ranges of the 

instruments, and is often combined (that is the melody and instruments), so as to allow 

for a portion of the entire melody be felt. The process is known as - Hocket Technique. 

All these processes are in no way different from what is generally obtained in African 

music as a whole, except for the melodic patterns and also Ibibio contours embedded 

within its song texts; it can also be compared to the western music in terms of the use 

of basso-ostinato, which controls the harmonic shape of western music. But in African 

music, it creates alternative harmonies along its contrapuntal movements despite the 

series of changes. The harmonies are basically in seconds, thirds, sometimes in fourths 



 

 
  

Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol. 16, September 2023 

344 

and fifths because the music is a speech pattern inflection. The style which is often a 

call and response between the cantor and the chorus is sometimes without 

accompaniment.    

  

- Speech-Tone  

Ibibio music is naturally phrased from the spoken Ibibio language with emphasis placed 

on words; so also, the music of Africa. Speech and register relationship are of Ibibio 

native language which influences the musical form of Ibibio songs. The interrelation of 

melody and language is further complicated by the function of speech-tones within native 

African languages. Ibibio speech-tones also known as tone language, assign each syllable 

to its own pitch, intensity and duration beyond the vowel and consonant. In Ibibio music, 

attention is usually given to the intonation of the text and not sound. This is because 

when texts in tone languages are sung, the relationship between higher and lower 

intonations is maintained in the contour of the melody. The relationship between music 

and language facilitates composition and performance appropriate to the community 

context. The manner in which a specific text is treated evolves not only from the 

phonemic features of the language, but is inspired by the importance of the song as an 

avenue to for verbal communication. African rhythms are generally governed by the 

syllable length and stress placement of the text in much the same way melodic intervals 

are influenced by speech-tones.  

 

- Song-Text 

In Ibibio music, the voice parts maintain the meaning of each word of the song text by 

imitating the melodic leaps of the first voice strictly, as a derivation; and other parts 

singing two different things. It always employs the use of counterpoints, a style of 

singing which is most common among the Ibibio, Igbo and Ijaw ethnics of Nigeria. Each 

voice part is conceive to have independent existence and also, it is conceptually linear 

but supports the vertical unity and intervallic concords of the parts. Some of these 

attributes are intuitively acquired. In essence, the harmonic texture of Ibibio music is a 

combination of heterophonic, polyphonic and homophonic, and it sometimes uses unison 

for variation purposes with strictly Ibibio idioms. The song text is a medium for creative 

verbal expressions that reflects both personal and social experiences. Akpabot (1998), 

in looking at style and content of Yoruba and Hausa music states that: Ibibio oral poetry 

is most commonly found in song texts and invocations during ritual or non-ritual 

ceremonies. Furthermore, he also highlighted 14 categories of song texts easily 

recognizable in African music, and they are - historical, communication, social, insult, 

obsessed, praise, children, funeral, work, war, humorous, women, philosophical, and ritual. 

All which he said can be grouped under three main headings: Praise Songs; Songs of 

Insult; and Songs for Entertainment. 

 

- Rhythmic Structure 

Generally, the rhythmic structure of Ibibio music is often slow and danceable reflecting 

their culture, idioms, and concepts. The rhythm of the Ibibio music is a natural rhythm 

phrased from the spoken Ibibio language with emphasis placed on some words like - /Ͻŋ/ 

as ‘orng’, as in (isϽŋ) as (isong). This simply means that Ibibio music is built on speech 



 

 
  

Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol. 16, September 2023 

345 

rhythm of a compound time. The distortions of syllabic length and offbeat, which is 

described as a form of syncopation, placement characterizes much of Africa’s songs 

including that of the Ibibio. This offbeat phrasing of melodic and textual accents is used 

to give the impression of a natural speech rhythms. Other voices enter independently 

with contrasting rhythmic phrases thus, creating cross-rhythmic relationships. The 

rhythmic interest of African songs lies in the cross-rhythms created by vocal offbeat 

phrasing and any repetitive, underlying pulse. Usually, slight changes in the rhythmic 

repetition typically coincide with changes in the text of Ibibio music. The complexity of 

the rhythmic structures is reaffirmed through repetition because the participants and 

audience are encouraged to listen to and respond to each layer of the rhythmic 

relationship. The tension of African cross-rhythms is not only captured by repetition, it 

is magnified. A careful selection of rhythm by controlling the duration of a rhythm, and 

by timing the introduction of discontinuity, the musicians are in command of the tension 

and the resolution. Indeed, it is the quality of these rhythmic relationships and the 

tensions they generate that represent stylistic African cross-rhythms. Creative and 

unique progressions of rhythmic relationships are considered pleasing and serve to 

enhance the occasion. Akpabot (1975) observed that: the drum is the foundation of most 

African music ensemble and it fits into both the percussive and the melodic rhythm. The 

rhythm of a song is governed by the inflection of the words whose rise and fall results 

into melodic and speech rhythm. While the standard patterns played by traditional 

instruments in a hocket or ostinato manner sometimes, imitated by the voice, gives rise 

to the percussive rhythm. The percussive and rhythmic instruments also contribute 

extensively to the song as they function collectively as member of an ensemble providing 

a standard rhythm in the music, as the rhythm generally is free. Akpabot (1967) affirms 

this statement when he said: All the rhythmic patterns found in African music can be 

classified primarily under three headings - Percussive Rhythm; Melodic Rhythm, and 

Speech Rhythm. 

- The percussive rhythm is provided by idiophone (self-struck) instruments and 

  membranophone (hand-stricken) instruments 

- The melodic rhythm is provided by aerophone (air-blown) instruments, chordophone 

  (stringed) instruments and tuned idiophones. 

- The speech rhythm is provided by the syllabic cadences of human speech like the 

rhythm 

  from the words of a song 

 

Conclusion 

This paper has literarily discussed some related styles and ways starting from the origin 

in relation to its influence of the different eras which are inexhaustible. Ranging from 

the non-Africans to the Africans, and then Nigeria and of course Ibibio, whose culture 

and idioms have influenced the styles and ways of Ibibio music. Choral music in Ibibio is 

essentially built on their language and speech-pattern, and it is often reflected in their 

tonal inflections during composition. The traditional make-up of the Ibibio music 

compared to other tribes in Africa are similar in terms of styles and ways, which consist 

of song-text, melody, structure, rhythm, form, tonality and all the various style available 

in choral music especially as peculiar to the Ibibio.    



 

 
  

Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol. 16, September 2023 

346 

 

References 

Abraham and Foss. (1976). Anglo - American Folk song style, p.4 (Quoted by R. P.) 

 Elbourne in Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council. Vol. 7, p. 18. 

Agu, D.C. (1999). Forms and Analysis of African Music. New Generation Books Enugu. 

  Nigeria. P. 194. 

Akpabot, S.E. (1998). Forms, Function, and Style in African Music. Ibadan: Macmillan 

Nigeria. 

__________. (1975). Foundations of Nigerian Traditional Music. Ibadan: Spectrum 

Books; Channnel Islands, UK: Compendium House. 

__________. (1967). Ibibio Music in Nigeria Culture (Michigan State University Press), 

pp. 25-36.  

Amos, B. D. (1971).  Towards a Definition of Folklore in Context. Journal of American 

Folklore, 84, p. 63. 

Groves Dictionary of Music and Musician, (2001)    

Hugh, T. (1963).  The Development of music. (African Music, 111/2), p. 36. 

Udoh, P.K. (2014). A Study of The Styles of Contemporary Choral Art Music in Ibibio  

 Land. An Unpublished MA thesis. University of Lagos, Akoka. Lagos. Nigeria. 

________.  (2021). An Appraisal of Three Selected Composers/Arrangers of Ibibio 

Vocal Music. 

  Ogirisi: a new journal of African Studies Vol. 17. doi:10.11648/j.ijla.20190701.11.  

________. (2022). EMEM KE NIGERIA: A Didactic Ibibio Choral Music Composition. 

Festchrift in Honour of the Music Maestra Professor Young-sook Onyiuke, Chapter 

Forty-Six. http://ojadilipublishing.com.ng/onyiuke/. All Right Reserved.  

 

Profile 

Udoh, Precious Kufre: 

 

Udoh, P.K. holds a Bachelor of Arts Degree in music (BA in music) from Lagos State 

University, Ojo, Lagos State in 2011; he further bagged a Master of Arts Degree in 

Music (MA in music) from University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos State in 2014. He is currently 

a PhD student of music in the department of music of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. 

Anambra State. 

 

http://ojadilipublishing.com.ng/onyiuke/

