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MUSIC OF OTHER WORLD CULTURES IN A DIGITAL-AGE: SYNOPSIS OF FOUR 

COUNTRIES AS STUDIED IN THE DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC, NNAMDI AZIKIWE 

UNIVERSITY, AWKA 

 

Umeojiaka, David Sopuluchukwu, PhD 

Department of Music Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka 

sd.umeojiaka@unizik.edu.ng 

 

Abstract  

This study examined the Music of Other World Cultures as studied in the Department of Music, 

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria. The Departmental Handbook captures 

Music of World Cultures as a first semester course in year three for the undergraduate regular 

academic programme. Prior to exposing students to this course of study, they had earlier been 

exposed to courses such as African Music studies I and II as well as some courses in Western Music 

History ranging from Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical and Romantic periods. Studies in 

African cum Western music taught within the first two years serve as foundation to the Music of 

World Cultures which is later taken just once in the first semester of year three. In as much as 

African American Music as complimentary to Music of World Cultures is also taught in the second 

semester of year three, it is not enough compared to the enormous number of courses offered in 

African and Western music which run from year one to the final year. In his contribution towards 

proffering solution to the above academic gap as well as to provide an accessible teaching material in 

that regard, the researcher discussed the music of four countries cutting across the Americas and 

Asia . Data collection was based on both digital and analogue literature research methods. The 

outcome of the findings shows that music of various countries of the world are borne out of their 

resource materials which range from geographical, agricultural, ecological, occupational and religious 

features etc. Conclusively, the study discovered that through acculturation and inculturation, various 

countries of the world are musically intertwined. The study recommends the extension of the present 

inquiry to other countries of the world which are not mentioned in this research hence the extant 

investigation could not accommodate the whole truth envisioned to be addressed in the study.  

Key Words: Music, World Cultures, Digital-Age and Synopsis. 

 

Introduction 

Music of World Cultures has to do with exploration of music of various countries of the world. This 

means that the study exposes the students to understand various continents of the world using the 

world atlas in pointing out the locations of these countries in their independent continents. The study 

captures among other factors how the geography, occupation and religion of a people can influence 

their kind of music.  In a broader sense, the study educates the students and musicologists on how 

natural features such as ecology, climate, rivers and mountains found in a particular area determine 

the availability of their instrumental resource materials as well as the kind of music genre performed 

by them.  This means that the link between nature and music is evident based on the fact that 

different types of music often use location or geography as part of their lyrical/instrumental 

resources. 

  

Taking the African music as an example, among other benefits, the study of African Music is designed 

to expose undergraduate music students and music scholars in general to the major classifications of 

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Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol 17 June 2024 

African musical instruments especially by Sachs and Hornbostel who classified African musical 

instruments into four broad groups in (1983) namely: Idiophone, Membranophone, Aerophone and 

Chordophone. These instruments are constructed with available resource materials within the African 

localities. In addition to the above classification of musical instruments, there are five groups of 

Sub- Saharan African musical instruments: membranophones, idiophones, chordophones, aerophones, 

and percussion. (https://en.m.wikipedia.org.wiki accessed 29th May, 2023). Western musical 

instruments in the other hand are classified under the string, woodwind, brass and the percussion 

families. (https://classhall.com/lesson/classifications-western-musical-instruments accessed 8th 

June, 2023). Synoptically, this study investigated the music of the Hebrews, Americas, Arabs and 

Chinese. 

 

Statement of the Problem  

The researcher noticed a deficiency in allocation of space in studying “music of other world cultures” 

in the Department of Music Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. Considering the number of countries 

and topics to be covered under the course,  the researcher noticed an academic gap that needed to 

be filled. He also noticed lack of a handy lecture material in the teaching and learning of the course. 

To solve the above problem, he deemed it beneficial to delve into this study to come up with a 

harnessed and accessible material for studying the course. The study discussed the music of four 

countries cutting across three continents of the world.  

 

Objectives 

This study which presents a survey of music in selected four countries of the world drawing from 

areas including the Hebrews, Americas, Arabs and Chinese has its objective as enabling 

students/scholars to develop the ability to read and understand, identify, and work conceptually with 

elements of music such as rhythm, melody, harmony, timbre, texture and form of world music 

cultures. Musicologists through this study will develop an understanding of and the ability to read and 

realize a range of musical styles and genres prevalent in the cultural, historical and theoretical 

analyses of the countries discussed in this paper.   

 

Methodology 

Data collection was based on a hybrid method using both the digital library/analogue library 

approaches hinging  on both online sources and the analogue literature reviews/findings.  

 

Theory 

The Theory of ‘Adaptive Musicology’  

Okeke (2020) in his theory of adaptive musicology posits: 

The potentiality to excel in a given musical instrument is traceable to the individual’s adaptive 

features. That is, the capacity to adapt successfully to the learning and mastery of a given 

musical instrument is native to the individual. Because every musical instrument poses peculiar 

challenges in learning, it becomes necessary for the learner to be prepared for peculiar 

demands and to choose the musical instrument/s that he or she can naturally adapt to. The 

piano demands long, thin, and strong fingers and learners with shallow and short breaths, 

under-bite, and cleft tongue should be guided away from brasses and woodwind because of 

their demands for good breathing, tonguing, and embouchure. (p. 86).  

 

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Drawing from the above theory, it is arguable that the ability to excel in one area of musicology or 

the other is innate to any prospective student of music. This translates to the fact that it is counter-

productive to expect every music student to excel in all aspects of musicology when they can excel in 

a given area. Students who find it difficult to adjust to practical music can still excel in other areas 

that are not mostly practically demanding like historical musicology, ethnomusicology, music therapy, 

music education etc. This means that students who lack knowledge in psycho-motor ability could be 

guided to explore opportunities in theoretical courses like the ‘Music of Other World Cultures’ which 

the researcher considers as a gray area that needs to be given a rightful place in the curriculum.  

 

Music in a Digital Age  

The book Merchant of Venice… as cited by Okafor (2019) has it that:  

There is hardly a universally satisfactory and acceptable definition of music. This is because 

music deals with emotions and consequently affects not only individuals but even groups and 

sub-groups of people differently. Technically, music is a system of expression which uses 

sound, rhythm and time. Its effect is perhaps its most important feature and the very reason 

for its existence. (p. 1).  

He further cited Shakespear who opines: 

The man that hath no music in himself, 

Nor is not moved with the concord of sweet sounds, 

Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils; 

The motions of his spirit are dull as night, 

And his affections dark as Erebus, 

Let not such man be trusted. Mark the music. (p. 1).  

Blacking in Okafor (2019) notes: 

People compose or make music to achieve certain emotional ends. That is partly why it is 

 described as a humanly organized sound. We may appreciate or recognize music in the 

 sounds of birds and some animals, but it is only in a human being who can consciously  and 

intellectually organize sounds to produce music intended to effect other human  beings in a 

particular way. (p. 1).  

 

Looking at the above definitions of music, one will understand that animals and human beings are 

musically inclined. In some world cultures there are animals that are notably known for their 

musicality. For instance, a specie of bird popularly called “nightingale” is endowed with the ability of 

making sweet songs, mostly singing at nights. In agreement with the above, Kwakpovwe (2023) noted: 

The nightingale bird also called numinous nightingale is a small bird best known for its powerful 

and beautiful song. Nightingales are able to produce over 1000 different sounds, compared 

with just 100-340 by other birds. This is because the part of the brain responsible for 

creating sounds is bigger in the nightingales than in most other birds…those who have studied 

this bird, say it continues to sing even after the sun has gone down why other birds are quiet 

because of the night, it sings. (p. 63).  

 

Human beings found in different countries of the world are also gifted with the ability of performing 

music in line with their music cultures. For example, scholars have noted that those who live by the 

river sides perform water-music, those who live near very tick forests produce their musical 

instruments using logs of woods, those who are mainly warriors perform war music, those who engage 



 

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Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (AJRMA) Vol 17 June 2024 

in fishing perform music in line with their occupation, the various religions of the world are mostly 

influenced with music genres prevalent in their domains. This is why the music of the Arabs dominate 

the Islamic religion, western music dominates the Christendom while Chinese/Indian music mostly 

influence Shintoism and Hinduism. There are pockets of religious practices like the African 

Traditional Religion among others that basically carryout their worships using the music of the people 

who dominate their religion. Looking at the above definitions, one would simply understand that no 

culture of the world prohibits music because music serves as a major culture indicator. The identity 

of a people is easily determined from their kind of music. The above argument is not far from the 

definition of music which says “music is a universal language of the soul.”  

 

On the foregoing however, scholars agree that not every individual appreciates music but it is 

difficult to say that there is a culture that completely detest music. For any music culture to stand 

the test of time in this 21st century, it must be digital. Tunde Adegbola during his keynote address 

to the Association of Nigerian Musicologists (ANIM) in her conference held in 2023 at Ibadan, he 

said “digital approach to the ways of doing things has brought changes in human understanding. 

Revolution is gradually taking place in all human endeavours because man is gradually replacing the use 

of analogue to the digital, music education inclusive. He climaxed his argument by saying “as you plan 

for food, you also plan for data, this is to enable you suit and be useful in the new ecosystem.” An 

unpublished paper presented by Onuora-oguno during the 2023 ANIM conference at Ibadan captured 

Gabriel Marcel’s theory of the “Broken World” who observes that science and technology are both 

useful and even destructive depending on the use. Gartner (2003) states “digitalization is the use of 

digital technologies to change business models and provide new revenue and value-producing 

opportunities” (Accessed 10th August, 2023 from https://www.gartner.com/en/information-

technology/glossary/digitilization ).  

 

In this 21st century, digitization has become a transformative force in changing virtually all the 

activities of man such as agriculture, administration, economies, entertainment, industries, modes of 

worships as well as education. This means that the potential for a digital world is vast. Narrowing it 

down to music education with regards to the study of “music of other world cultures”, students could 

easily access lecture materials online through the means of digitilization.  

 

Music of World Cultures 

According to Merriam (1964), a music-culture ultimately rests in the people themselves-their ideas, 

their actions, and the sound they produce… (pp. 32-33). Titon (2008) et al opined that a component 

model of a music-culture is divided into four parts: ideas about music, activities involving music, 

repertories of music, and the material culture of music. (p. 18). In furtherance of the above, Titon 

et al discussed six basic repertory parts of music when they wrote: 

Style which includes everything related to the organization of musical sound itself: pitch 

elements (scale, melody, harmony, tuning systems), time elements (rhythm, meter), timbre 

elements (voice quality, instrumental tone color), and sound intensity (loudness/softness) all 

depend on a music-culture’s aesthetics… genres are named, standard units of the repertory, 

such as “song” and its various subdivisions… most music-cultures have a great many genres, 

but their terms do not always correspond to terms in other music-cultures…. The words (or 

lyrics are known as its text. Any song with words is an intersection of two very different and 

profound human communication systems: language and music…. The composition of music, 

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whether planned or spontaneous, is bound up with social organization…some music cultures 

divide songs into those composed by the people and those “given” to people from deities, 

animals, and other nonhuman composers…. How is music learned and transmitted from one 

person to the next, from one generation to the next? …some music-cultures transmit music 

through apprenticeships lasting a lifetime…. Movement involves a whole range of physical 

activity accompanying music. Playing a musical instrument, alone or in a group, not only creates 

sound but also literally moves people-that is, they sway, dance, walk, work in 

response…sometimes the movement is quite loose, suggesting freedom and abandon, and at 

other times, as Balinese dance, it is highly controlled, suggesting that in this culture 

controlling is beautiful and admirable. (pp. 26-29).  

The above suggestions depict that various cultures of the world hardly perform music without the 

elements of music coming into play. These elements of music were encapsulated summarily on the 

above citation. On the light of exploring the music of several ethnic groups in their cultural contexts, 

students and music scholars should be made to understand major world cultures through music. In 

view of the above, the synopsis of the music of the following peoples of the world are discussed thus:  

 

The Hebrews (Israel): 

Israel stands at a crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa. Geographically, it belongs to Asian continent 

and is part of the Middle East region. 

(https;//embassies.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Maps/Pages/Israel-and-the-Region.aspx#:~:text= 

Accessed July 17, 2023). According to Worldmeter.info “the current population of Israel is 

9,065,266 as of Saturday, July 15, 2023, based on World meter elaboration of the latest United 

Nations data.” (Accessed July, 22, 2023 from https://www.worldmeters.info/world-

population/israel-popupulation/). 

  

Scholarly, the music of a people is hardly studied independent of their geography and population 

hence the above analogy. Historically, the music of Israel is an amalgamation of both Jewish and non-

Jewish music traditions that have come together over the course of a century to create a well-

defined musical culture. To seek original stylistic elements that would define the emerging national 

spirit of the Israeli music, reference must be made to the biblical era which credits the psalms as 

the major book of the writings that contains the Jewish music genres.  In psalm 121 for instance, 

David said “I will lift up my eyes unto the hills from where cometh my help…” (Bible encyclopedia). In 

psalm 23:1, David said again: 

The lord is my shepherd, I shall not want. He makes me lie down in green pastures; He leads 

me beside the still waters. He restores my soul; He leads me in the paths of righteousness 

for His name’s sake. Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death I will fear 

no evil; For You are with me; Your rod Your staff, they comfort me. You prepare a table before 

me in the presence of my enemies; You anoint my head with oil; my cup runs over. Surely, 

goodness and mercies shall follow me all the days of my life; And I will dwell in the house of 

the Lord forever. NKJV, (Maxwell Leadership Bible, 2nd edition). 

 

The above psalm shows how geography, occupation and the Jewish religion influenced David’s 

compositions. It is important to note that the psalms serve as the hymn book of Judaism hence David 

as the chief composer of his time was greatly moved in using the natural and occupational features 

of his locality in his compositions. Psalm 150 is another good example that depicts that the Hebrews 

https://www.worldmeters.info/world-population/israel-popupulation/).
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of Davidic era produced their musical instruments using the available resource materials in their area 

by capturing: 

…praise Him with the sound of the trumpet; Praise Him with the lute and harp! Praise Him 

with the timbrel and dance; Praise Him with stringed instruments and flutes! Praise Him with 

loud cymbals; Praise Him with clashing cymbals... (ps. 150; NKJV).  

The music of the Hebrews has its origins in the biblical tradition which shows the existence of 

religious music sung at the synagogue and domestic prayers, and of secular music. While some 

elements of Jewish music may originate in the bible (biblical music), differences of rhythm and sound 

can be found among later Jewish communities that have been musically influenced by location. 

(en.m.wikipedia.org).  

 

The use of cultural features, locations, and occupations etc. as part of music lyrics or practices was 

found to be true in a variety of countries and styles of music.  (For example, a geologist plays the 

guitar near a river. (https://www.geographyrealm.com). As has been said above, David as the major 

composer of psalms centered on the geographical and occupational features of Israel and other 

resource materials around his locality in his compositions.  

Summarily, Jewish music has a distinct Middle Eastern sound, with the use of modes, quarter tones, 

ornamentation, and increasing/rapid tempi. Religious music is mostly unaccompanied vocal 

singing/chanting. (https://www.rachehocking.com.au/music-of-a-culture-jewish-music,html accessed 

8th June, 2023).  

 

Jewish Contemporary Musicians 

According to Edubirdie.com: 

Beginning in early biblical times, Jewish music was traditional religious cantors that were sung in 

synagogues. Then Jewish music evolved into more secular music such as  Klezmer, Classical or 

Israeli Pop Rock of today. Jewish music has been evolving with  new musicians rising and 

sharing their music with a new generation of fans, most  modern-day Jewish musicians were 

heavily influenced by the Jewish musicians of the  past. Of the many Jewish musicians over the 

years, three of them have had a significant  impact on Jewish culture in the last century: Debbie 

Friedman, Shlomo Carlebach, and  Matisyahu. While each musician has a unique biography and 

influence on the Jewish  music industry, Matisyahu has had the most….All three of these 

Jewish musicians also  have traditional Jewish lyrics in their songs that convey a similar message to 

a Jewish  audience even though they may have a different rhythm or background….Friedman and 

 Carlebach were both more traditional and spiritual with their musical interpretation of 

 Jewish music using guitar, drums or acapella, while Matisyahu did a more modern and 

 secular approach to Jewish music with rap and reggae. Carlebach and Friedman’s music 

 is still played in Synagogues and used during prayer today, while Mastisyahu is a more 

 mainstream genre of music, not played in religious 

 building.(https://edubirdie.com/examples/most-influential-jewish-musicians-in-

 world/accessed 13th June, 2024).   

 

It is important to note that all three of the above named musicians had their roots in the synagogue. 

Debbie Friedman who was born in 1951 and died on January 9, 2011 is known as one of the most prolific 

female Jewish musicians who was part of the Reform Movement between late 1960s and early 1970s. 

She originally started singing in the Synagogue as a quasi-folk singer. She had passion for both 

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instrumental and vocal music.  Shlomo was also a Jewish prolific writer of religious songs. He belonged 

to the 20th century and was popularly known to his followers as Reb Shlomo. He reigned for forty 

years as a rabbi (religious teacher), a composer and a singer hence he was called “The Singing Rabbi.”  

He was born in 1925 and on October 20, 1994 of a heart attack. He is remembered today of the 

legacy he left on spiritual music which is still played in Jewish Synagogues. Matisyahu who was born 

on June 30, 1979 first emerged in 2004 as a modern Jewish musician.  His appearance album “shake 

off the Dust…Arise” featured the combination of rap lyrics with reggae beat in the background 

expressing the glories of Judaism hence he had his beginning from the Jewish religion.  This new 

approach of his, created an interesting mashup of music. Having came into prominence in 2004 when 

he released his first album, he began touring around the world with his music as a singer and song 

writer. The three of them have great passion for music and their Jewish ancestry cum heritage. 

 

The Elements of Music in Traditional Jewish and Israeli Music Include:  

Melody: Originally, often modal, swinging between major and minor with guttural diction. Recently, 

among other styles, the Jewish melodies usually have balanced phrases with notes in bars, conjunct 

melodic shape of phrases, melodies are decorated and ornamented when repeated.  

Rhythm: Jewish rhythms, meters, and tempos are always heard through offbeats, syncopations, 

common meters of 2/4 or 4/4, varied tempos e.g., with steady or fast beats, accelerando rallentando). 

Their music ensemble can accelerate and decelerate.  

Structure and Texture: Common textures and structures include: verse-chorus structure, musical 

compositions revolve around heterophonic, polyphonic, antiphonic and homophonic textures.  

Instrumentation and timbre: The human voice, lyre, zither and harp (string), tambourine 

(percussion), ram’s horn, trumpet, pipes i.e., Aerophonic (wind) instruments of all kinds.  

Having briefly x-rayed the music of the Hebrews as one of the oldest kinds of musical culture, let us 

look at the American Music. (https://www.rachehocking.com.au/music-of-a-culture-jewish-

music,html accessed 8th June, 2023).  

1.  The Americas  

The location called America today covers the landmass comprising the totality of North and South 

American continents. The United States popularly called the U. S. A.; Canada, Mexico, Jamaica among 

other countries is located in North America while Brazil, Argentina, Colombia etc. are located in South 

America. According to homework.study.com “as at 2021, the combined population of both North and 

South America is approximately 1. 03 billion. The population of North America is well over 550 million, 

and the population of South America is about 480 million. The most populous country in the Americas 

is the United States followed by Brazil. (accessed July 23, 2023 from 

https://homework.study.com/explanation/approximately-what-is-the-population-of-north-and-

south-america-combined.html#:~:text=). Having the above background in mind, it is important to 

discuss few American musicians.  

 

Three Selected American Musicians 

Musictheory.com has it that: 

American music is vastly diverse, representing a melting pot of ethnicities, beliefs,  and 

ideas. Through migration, the US has a proud history of welcoming every  conceivable culture 

across its border. Today, American music’s out-sized influence  on world culture is 

undeniable….Louis Armstrong is a jazz trumpeter and vocalist, he  was born in the jazz-rich soil 

of New Orleans, Louisiana. He began his professional  career playing in brass bands or riverboats. In 

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20s, he developed his unique style while  fronting his Chicago group The Hot Five. His approach 

to jazz took a more focused  approach on individual improvisation, something rarely seen before. He 

also became  known for scat singing during performances…His influence over how jazz is composed, 

 played, and sang is unmatched. Bob Dylan began his music career in the burgeoning folk 

 scene of Greenwich Village in New York City. He fashioned his playing style after a  famous 

American folk singer Woody Guthrie. Dylan would compose several iconic  message songs during 

the civil rights movement. Among the most famous of these was  “Blowing in the Wind.’’ These 

songs signaled his change from a folk singer to a modern  songwriter. His lyrical imagery and 

mercurial style influence music to this day. Elvis  Presley known as the “king of Rock and Roll,” 

was born in Tupelo, Mississippi…as one of the earliest performers on the legendary Sun Records label, 

Elvis brought traditionally  Black music to a white audience. His  rockabilly sound captivated 

teenagers and  shocked adults. He immediately became a sex symbol.  Elvis starred in dozens of films 

 on his way to becoming an early example of hyper stardom that would pervade American 

 culture by the end of the century. Even in the twilight of his career, he was beloved.        

(accessed June 13, 2024 from https://hellomusictheory. com/learn/from/famous-

 american-music/). 

 

With regards to music culture of the Americas, Nettl (2005) reported “three Asian styles may have 

influenced North American music across the Bering Strait… all featuring pulsating vocal technique… 

the areas of greatest musical complexity in North America were influenced by the boundary between 

the Northward and southward influences. In the Northwest (Mexico), bird shaped whistles are 

examples of musical instrument. (pp. 133-160).  Nettl refers to the style of the Great Basin area as 

the oldest style and common throughout the entire continent before Mesoamerica (A historical region 

and cultural area that begins in the southern part of the North America and extends to most of 

central Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala etc.). 

 

He furthered by saying “in those days lullaby, gambling and tale genres were known around the 

continent. The above styles that featured relaxed vocal technique may have originated in 

Mesoamerican Mexico and spread north particularly into the California Human and Eastern music 

areas. These styles also feature “relative” rhythmic simplicity in drumming and percussion, with 

isometric material (equally measured beats) and pentatonic scales in the singing, and motives created 

from shorter sections into longer ones.”  

 

Archaeological evidence prove that American music came with the arrival of European explorers. The 

Europeans (British) came to America with their religion (gospel of Christianity) at the same time 

colonized and converted them to the new religion. In this case, Christian music (gospel music) 

influenced their type of music. However, musical instruments and pictographs depicting music and 

dance have been dated as far back as the 7th century in America. Archaeological evidence also shows 

that musical instruments in North America date to at least the archaic period (ca.8000 -1000 BC), 

which includes instruments such as turtle shell rattles. (en.m.wikepedia.org accessed 26th may, 2023).  

Antonin Dvorak an American composer maintained that the future of American voice in music lay in 

African American and Native American music and supported their growth. In his study to discover 

“American music” he found out that Native American and African American musical roots are rather 

different, they share similar characteristics such as featured pentatonic melodies and complex 

rhythms. As a matter of fact, the music of Europe, West Africa, North Africa, Asia, as well as the 

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countries in the Middle East (southwestern-most part of Asia at the crossroads between Asia, Africa, 

and Europe) influenced/influences the music of the Americas. European stream influenced American 

pop music on melody, harmony and verse structure. Church hymns was first influenced by European. 

William Billings and Lowell Manson are two great examples. The church music they composed had some 

instinct features that are similar to European music, such as strong melodies, four-part singing and 

chord progressions. (bartleby.com.). Texture wise, American music is influenced by the music of 

Europe which largely has four parts and rich harmonic structure. 

 

Influence of African Music on the American Music (Afro-American people of the U.S A.). 

It is very difficult for cultures to develop without unification of other cultures that have been in 

existence before them. Since various cultures of the world do not develop in a vacuum, roots of 

certain traits are easily identified. In the study of music cultures, the interdependence of countries 

in relation to music cannot be neglected. Nettl and Behague (2014) opine “Afro-American Folk Music 

in North and Latin America is one of the truly important developments in the history of world music 

which was initiated by the forced migration of great numbers of Africans as slaves, into various parts 

of the Americas” (p. 222). Many of the dominate traits found in in North America and Latin American 

music can actually be traced back many generations to the African slaves brought to those countries. 

(https://www.123helpme.com/essay/influence-of-African-Music-in-North-America-286310).  With 

influence of enslavement, African-American music emerged as a unified term covering a diverse range 

hence it has been said that “every genre that is born from America has African heritages.” It has 

also been noted “African music, on the other hand is different from European music. It has a strong 

sense of rhythm, which means it uses heavy beats in music. Also, in African music, you have the 

freedom to change or add the melody or rhythm.” (bartleby.com). African music usually is about daily 

life and it conveys life events. Jazz music, blues music, and gospel music found today in America all 

grew from African roots. Spirituals, work calls and chants coupled with makeshift instruments 

morphed into blues rhythms and ragtime which paved the way for Jazz, and elements from all these 

styles influenced rock and roll and hip-hop music. (https:// hediasporacollective.com). 

 

The African spirit is also felt in Latin America (Brazil). Samba’s infectious rhythm grew out of African 

religious traditions that originated from Congo. “…because samba is so catchy and uplifting, it became 

a huge part of Brazilian celebrations and serves as the symbol of the country today. The Ska and 

reggae (country and rock music have their origins in Africa. (hediasporacollective.com). 

A Methodist at an 1819 camp meeting had this to say about singing among African Americans and its 

influence upon whites:  

The slave songs which are also called jubilees and sorrow songs from which spirituals were 

created out of spoke directly to, the black experience in America prior to the emancipation 

proclamation of 1863 that declared all the slaves free not only laid the musical foundations 

for most popular forms of music in later American history- including the blues, and Jazz- they 

also influenced the practice of American religion. (https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu). 

 

The work songs, dance tunes, and religions music of the African slaves influence the music of America. 

These work songs, dance tunes and religious music-and the syncopated, swing, remixed, rocked, and 

rapped music of the slave descendants- would become the lingua franca of American music, eventually 

influencing Americas of all racial and ethnic backgrounds. (Accessed May 27, 2023 from 

https://music.si.edu >story>musica). The banjo, now central in American folk music, is an instrument 

https://www.123helpme.com/essay/influence-of-African-Music-in-North-America-286310
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brought over to the Americas by the African slaves. (Accessed May 29, 2023 from 

https://exploringgafrica.matrix.msu.edu>). People of African origin were among the earliest non-

indigenous immigrants of the present-day America. The rich African musical habits such as their work 

songs, dance tunes and religious music and accented, rolled, remixed, rocked, and rapped music of 

African roots developed into parts of American music found almost in all races and ethnic nationalities 

in the modern America. 

 

Music of the Arabic Peoples 

According to study.com: 

There are 22 Arab countries. These are: Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, 

Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, 

Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen… many Arab people trace 

their lineage to these countries. The total population is 503,44,167 as of 2023. One could 

define “Arab countries” in a number of ways, but the simplest and generally accepted method 

is to consider the states that are members of the League of Arab States (LAS)…. All the 

countries in the league of Arab States have Arabic as at least one of their official languages, 

and their population is largely identified as Arab. Apart from shared language, many Arab 

people also identify as Muslims with over 90% of the population. The next largest religion 

practiced by the Arab is Christianity, but less than 5% (Accessed July 18, 2023 from 

https://study.com/academy/lesson/arab-history-identity-culture-people.html). 

 

Arabic music includes several genres and styles of music ranging from Arabic classical to Arabic pop 

music and from secular to sacred music. Arabic music whilst independent and very alive, has a long 

history of interaction with many other regional musical styles and genres. It is an amalgam of the 

music of the Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula and influenced by ancient Egyptian, ancient Greek, 

Persian, Kurdish, Assyrian, Turkish, Indian, North African music (i.e.  Berber), African music (i.e., 

Swahili), and European music ( i.e., Flamenco). According to en.m.wikipedia.org: 

Arabic music or Arab music… is the music of the Arab world with all its diverse music styles 

and genres. Arabic countries have many rich and varied styles of music and also many linguistic 

dialectics, with each country and region having their own traditional music. Arabic music has 

a long history of interaction with many other regional music of all the people that make up 

the Arab world today. 

 

 Music of the Middle East which could also be referred as the music of the Arabs influence the music 

of other countries of the world especially the American music in a number of ways such as, musical 

instruments used, the ethnomusicology and the song writing process. Despite three major languages 

and associated cultural differences of the Arabic, Turkish, and Persian speaking world, their music 

can be seen as a single great tradition because of the unifying element of Islam.  

Historically, Islam as a religion found music as problematic, however, they permit relatively 

little religious ceremonial music and has not held back secular music and has even enriched it 

with a strong religious strain. Among the Muslims, only those following certain practices, such 

as Sufism, have used music (and dance) for worship; within the mosque, however, activities 

resembling music (but which are not considered music per se) generally have been limited to 

the call to prayer (adhan) and the chanting of the Quaran… (britanica.com).  

 

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(Sufism is mystical Islamic belief and practice in which Muslims seek to find the truth of divine love 

and knowledge through direct personal experience of God). On the influence of the Arabic (Middle 

Eastern) music on the Americas, Prezi opines “Western music is very connected to the rich history 

of Arabic music. (https://prezi.com >middle eastern...accessed 2th may, 2023). He noted that many 

western musical instruments are direct descendants of Arabic stringed and reed instruments as well 

as the use of complex melodies and improvisation in performance. Bagpipes, guitar, flute, oboe, 

tambourine, viols and most zithers used in America today have Middle Eastern origin. 

 

What Types of Music Emerged Because of Arab American Music? 

Hip-Hop, Rap, and Cultural Movements came into being as a result of Arab influence on the music of 

the Americas. “…most popular and blatantly recognizable blend of Arab music with the American 

musical identity lies within the culture and style of hip-hop. (https://www.arabamerica.com). The 

majority of musical instruments used in European medieval and classical music have roots in Arabic 

musical instruments that were adopted from the medieval Arab world. (https;//en.m.wikepedia.org. 

wiki).  

 

During colonization, the Europeans migrated into America with their music. Through acculturation, 

the music of the Arabs which had already been found in Europe were transferred to the Americas. 

To show that various world music cultures are intertwined:  

Arabic music whilst independent and very alive, has a long history of interaction with many 

other regional musical styles and genres. It is an amalgam of the music of all the peoples that 

make up the Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula and the music of all the peoples that make up the 

Arab world today. It also influenced and has been influenced by ancient Egyptian, ancient 

Greek, Persian, Kurdish, Assyrian, Turkish, North African music (i.e., Berber), African music 

(i.e., Swahili), and European music (i.e., flamenco). As was the case in other artistic and 

scientific fields, Arabs translated and developed Greek texts and works of music and 

mastered the musical theory of Greeks (i.e., Systema ametabolon, enharmonium, chromatikon, 

diatonon). Such inter-influences can often be traced in language; for example, the word shir 

(poetry in Arabic) bears much similarity to its equivalent in other Semitic languages (such as 

Shur in Aramaic and Shir in Hebrew), and Shiro in Babylonian. Afar music is similar to the 

music of Ethiopia with elements of Arab music. The Somali oral traditions include an array of 

poetry and proverbs, much of it devoted to the lives of Sufi saints. Afar oral literature is 

more musical, and comes in many varieties, including songs for weddings, war, praise and 

boasting. (bgkamusic.com accessed 30th May, 2023).  

The texture of Arabic music is majorly emphasized on melody and rhythm, as opposed to harmony. 

However, there are some genres which are polyphonic, but typically, Arabic music is homophonic. 

 

Three Selected Arabic Musicians 

According to thenationalnews.com “Bu Kolthoum is a Syrian artist with a great voice and 

 beautiful lyrics…everything he does is organic and spontaneous. His work has been an 

 inspiration to many….Lilian Chlela is a veteran of the Labanese indie music scene and  one of 

few female producers. She just released a new album called Safala and it is full of  her 

experimental electronic music and sophisticated production. She is also a keen  collaborator 

and has worked with everyone from jazz musicians to Hamed Cinno from  Mashrou’ Leila.” Daboor 

and Shabjdeed …”This duo is among voices of the youth and  they demonstrate their resistance 

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against Israeli occupation through art. Their style, way  with words and technique are great. 

They are an inspiration for the Arabic hip-hop  scene and artists definitely worth following.” 

(Accessed 16 June, 2024 from  https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music/the-

21-arab-independent musicians-you-should-be-listening-to-right-now-1.1002985). 

 

Music of the Chinese 

China is a country in Asia. Asia is the largest and most populous continent, home to the largest Russian 

and most populous China nations. Asia is the largest of the world’s continents, covering approximately 

30 percent of the Earth’s land area. (https.//education.nationalggeographic.org accessed 2/6/ 2023).  

 

According to New World Encyclopedia: 

Music of China dates back to the dawn of Chinese civilization with the documents and 

artifacts providing evidence of a well-developed musical culture as early as the Zhou Dynasty 

(1122 B. C.  E.) In ancient China, music was regarded as central to the harmony and longevity 

of the state. Chinese traditional music is played on solo instruments or in small ensembles of 

plucked and bowed stringed instruments, flutes, and various cymbals, gongs, and drums. The 

scale has five notes. Bamboo pipes and qin are among the oldest known musical instruments 

from China; instruments are traditionally divided into categories based on their material of 

composition; skin, gourd, bamboo, wood, silk, earth/clay, metal and stone. Chinese orchestras 

traditionally consist of bowed strings, woodwinds, plucked stings and percussion. Chinese vocal 

music has traditionally been sung in a thin, non-resonant voice or in falsetto and is usually solo 

rather than choral. All traditional Chinese music is melodic rather than harmonic. Chinese 

vocal music probably developed from sung poems and verse accompanied by music. (Accessed 

on 15/6/2023 from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org.org/Music-of-China).   

Looking at the above, one will easily understand that Chinese musical instruments are 

categorized under eight different classifications namely; silk, bamboo, wood, stone, metal, 

clay, gourd and skin. There are however, other traditionally grouped instruments that do not 

fall within the above groupings. The New World Encyclopedia also records that “after the 

period of dynasty, China metamorphosed   into a republic era (1912-1949) during this period, 

the new culture movement of 1910s and 1920s evoked a lasting interest in western music with 

a number of Chinese musicians returning from studying abroad to perform western classical 

music, composing work based on western musical notations system. Characteristically, the 

texture of Chinese traditional music depended on the scale of five notes usually performed 

with solo instruments in small ensembles of plucked and bowed strings, flutes, and various 

cymbals, gongs, and drums. The melody is usually solo with the Bamboo pipes among the oldest 

known musical instruments. Musical instruments are traditionally divided into categories 

based on their material resources such as: skin, gourd, bamboo, wood, silk, earth/clay, metal 

and stone. Chinese orchestras traditionally consist of bowed strings, woodwinds, plucked 

strings and percussion. Vocal music is sung to a thin, non-resonant voice or in falsetto and is 

usually solo rather than choral. By way of acculturation, western music influenced the Chinese 

traditional folk music which was melodic and not harmonic especially after the establishment 

of the republic of China in 1911. Both western classical and popular music as performed today 

in China were adapted from western music culture. The Chinese popular music which was 

regarded as “yellow” music was denounced by the government which promoted revolutionary 

songs because they considered “yellow” immoral. The introduction of rock music was however 

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delayed until 1990s because of cultural revolution that censored the kind of music genres 

imported into China from other world cultures.  

 

Three Most Famous Musicians from China 

According to pantheon.com Lang Lang; born 14 June 1982 is a Chinese pianist who has 

performed with major orchestras around the world and appeared at many  leading concert 

halls. Active since the 1990s, he was the first Chinese pianist to be engaged by the Berlin 

Philharmonic, the Vienna Phiharmonic and many of top American orchestras. In 2000, a 

Chicago Tribune called him “the biggest, most exciting young keyboard talent I have 

encountered in many a year of attending  piano recitals.” Toshiko Akiyoshi, born 12 

December 1929 is an American jazz  pianist, composer, arranger, and bandleader. Akiyoshi 

received fourteen Grammy  Award nominations and was the first woman to win Best 

Arranger and Composer  awards in Down Beat magazine’s annual Readers’ poll. In 1984, 

she was the  subject of the documentary, Jazz Is My Native Language. In 1996, she 

published  her autobiography, Life with Jazz, and in 2007 she was named an NEA Jazz 

 Master by the U. S. National Endowment for the Arts. Fou Ts’ong ; born 10 1934 -28 

December 2020) was a Chinese-born British pianist who was the first  pianist of his 

national origin to achieve international recognition. He came to  prominence after 

winning third prize and the Polish Radio Prize for the best  performance of mazurkas in 

the 1995 V international Chopin Piano Competition,  and remained particularly known as an 

interpreter of Chopin’s music. (From 

 https://pantheon.world/profile/occupation/musician/country/china.accessed 6 June, 

 2024). 

 

Chinese Popular Music as Yellow Music (pornography).  

The New World Encyclopedia has it that “music in China is dominated by the state, as the television 

broadcasting, media, and major concert halls are all controlled by the Communist party. The 

government chose not to support Chinese rock, by limiting its exposure and airtime. As a result, the 

genre never fully reached the mainstream. Contemporary China has a high rate of piracy and difficulty 

enforcing intellectual property rights. As a result, record companies often make the decision to 

release new Chinese music albums in Taiwan or Hong Kong first; normally there is a delay before the 

products are released on the mainland, with occasional exceptions, such as the work of Cui Jian, which 

was released in Taiwan, Hong Kong and the mainland simultaneously. 

(https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Music-of-china#Traditional-Music3/7Annualevents 

such as the Midi Modern Festival in Beiling Keep music culture alive accessed July 25 2023 from ). 

 

Conclusion 

The outcome of the findings shows that music of various countries of the world are borne out of 

their resource materials which range from geographical/topographical features, agriculture, ecology, 

occupation, religion etc. Conclusively, the study discovered that the four countries discussed in this 

paper are musically connected.  This means that through acculturation and acculturation, various 

countries of the world are musically inseparable . For example, the music of the Americas are 

influenced by the African slaves taken to the Americas by their slave masters. The activities of the 

European Christians who evangelized the Americas and other continents of the world also influenced 

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the aboriginal   music of their host countries. The Islamic music overshadowed the music genres of 

the countries conquered  by Islam vice versa. 

Recommendation 

The study recommends the extension of the present inquiry to other countries of the world which 

were not mentioned in this research hence the present investigation could not accommodate the whole 

truth envisioned to be addressed in the study. 

 

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