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APPLYING PIAGET`S ``CRITICAL PERIOD`` TO MUSIC 

EDUCATION IN NIGERIA:  A STUDY OF SELECTED SCHOOLS. 

 

   Okeke, Ikedimma Nwabufo 

Music Department, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. 

 

Abstract 

The challenge of a breakthrough in music education in all tiers of our 

learning (nursery/primary/secondary/tertiary) has bordered Nigerian 

music educators for quite a long time. Although numerous learning 

theories have been explored and applied with relative success 

regarding the situation, Piaget`s  notion  of  the  `critical  period` as 

implied in his theory of mental development still raises some concern 

with regards to music education in Nigeria. Piaget`s  notion  of  the  

`critical  period‟ posits that every  normal  person is  imbued with the 

potentiality of forming, organizing, processing, and interpreting 

concepts starting from infanthood through sensitive stages of their 

development (0-11yrs) and beyond this `sensitive or critical` stage, 

cognitive development could be seriously hampered. Piaget`s 

discovery, doubtless, has immensely influenced modern educational 

ideology, policy. Formal education and curricula are now designed to 

commence as early as possible and to pace such factors as age, mental 

capability, and adaptability of the learner. Unfortunately, the  

Nigerian  situation is  such  that  most  learners  become formally 

involved in music when  they must have  passed through  primary  or  

secondary schools. Pupils and students of (Mount Olive 

Nursery/Primary School, Onitsha; Springfield Academy, Onitsha, 

Supreme Knowledge Comprehensive Schools, Nkpor; and British Spring 

College, Awka) along with undergraduate students of the Department 

of Music Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka were taken as research 

samples for the study and evidence of the critical period was 

discovered as a major cause of their musical challenges. In  fact, most  

 Awka Journal of Research in Music and the Arts (ARMA) Vol. 10 2014 

 



 
 

46 

students who  enroll for music  in  the Department of Music of 

NnamdiAzikiwe University, Awka  had no  music  education  in  their 

primary  nor secondary schools. Many  also  have  enrolled  for music  

as  a  last  resort  to  admission problems and thus complicating issues 

for both the learner and the teacher. This paper, therefore, sought 

to find solution to the problem of the critical period regarding music. 

The „continuity theory` of mental development was explored as a 

feasible solution to the problem and it appears to offer some hope. 

The continuity theory holds that human development is continuous and 

not „fixed` therefore giving some glimpse of hope that even though 

the reality of the critical stage can pose serious challenges to music 

learning; the possibility of adapting to music after this stage is still 

feasible with regards to conducive learning environment, native 

endowment and positive attitude on the part of the learner, and 

teacher- motivation. 

 

 

Introduction 

Since the turn of the 19th century, psychologists have been active 

both experimentally and observationally in investigating learning 

processes and the nature of interactions between teachers and 

learners (Gordon, E.E, 1970; Campbell and Scott-Kassner, 2006). 

Learning according  to Leonhard  and  House (1972:121), „…is growth; 

learning is development;  learning  is experience; learning is  something 

new that has been added; learning is a process that results in change 

in behavior`. Mbanugo (2006: 41) affirms that „Investigations of 

human learning have given rise to theories about how people learn and 

how learning is best achieved`. Hoffer (1991) recognizes the fact that 

learning involves different areas of human activity which were 

delineated by Bloom (1956) as, Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor 
Domains. The cognitive domain refers to the domain of information 

and understanding; the affective involves feelings and attitudes while 

Applying Piaget`s ``Critical Period`` to Music Education… 



 
 

47 

the psychomotor domain involves physical skills. Relating the three 

domains to music learning, Hoffer (1991) submits:  

Learning is a many- sided word. It can refer to kinesthetic or 

psychomotor skills, as when a violinist learns to shift from 

first to third position. Learning also refers to memorizing 

information, such as the fact that A above middle C vibrates 

440 times each second or that Mozart was a composer of the 

Classical period. Learning may also mean problem solving. For 

example, a student may have studied some impressionistic 

music and its phrasing and when presented with a work by 

Debussy that is unknown to him or her, he or she is able to 

phrase it properly. Finally, a person has learned a piece of 

music when he or she can listen to it with understanding or 

play it and convey its aesthetic intent (p.78). 

 

The interest of instructional psychologists in the learning process 

stems from the pioneer work of Ebbing house (1885), Thorndike 

(1898), and others. With the publication of his book, Animal  
Intelligence  in 1898, Thorndike  laid the ground  work for the  theory 

of learning which  dominated  American  education for about  three 

decades  of  the twentieth century and which  remains  influential  

today (Leonhard  and  House, 1972). Notable among the numerous 

learning theorists are  I. Pavlov(1849-1936), B.F. Skinner(1904-1990), 

Jean  Piaget (1896-1980) , Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), David  Asubel, 

Robert Gange, Jerome Bruner(1966), Albert  Bandura (1977), and so 

many others whose findings also bear special significance to music. 

Among the bulk of learning theories are Thorndike‟s connectionism, 

Guthrie‟s contiguous conditioning, Hull‟s systematic behavior theory, 

Pavlov‟s classical conditioning, Piaget‟s cognitive schemata, Vygotsky‟s 

social constructivism, and Skinner‟s descriptive behaviorism and 

operant conditioning among others (Leonhard and House, 1972:147). 

Although the focus of this paper is on Piaget‟s „critical period‟ but it 

Okeke, Ikedimma Nwabufo 



 
 

48 

would suffice to mention in brief some other influential learning 

theories which bear relevance to music. For instance: 

E. L. Thorndike (1874-1949) laid the groundwork for the theory 

of learning which dominated American education for three decades of 

the twentieth century and which remains influential today. That 

theory is generally known as connectionism. The theory is based on 

stimulus-response association (Leonhard and House, 1972). According 

to Thorndike, we stamp in effective stimulus-response (S-R) 

connections and stamp out those responses which are useless. Using 

food-deprived cats, he devised experiments in which the animal was 

placed in a cage or puzzle boxes from which it could escape to reach 

food by simple acts of trial and error such as manipulating a cord, 

pressing a lever, or stepping on a platform. Thorndike‟s experiment is 

shown in the figure below: 

 

Fig. 1. 

One of Thorndike’s puzzle boxes 

To reach the food (goal), the cat had to learn to pull (trial and error) the 

loop that released the cage door. 

 

Thorndike‟s experimental model can be effectively applied to vocal and 

instrumental music instruction where it is usually rewarding for the 

Applying Piaget`s ``Critical Period`` to Music Education… 

 



 
 

49 

learner, after initial guidance by the teacher, to solve articulation 

problems and make discoveries on his instrument through personal 

endeavor and practice (Bruner, 1966 later tagged this Discovery 
learning). 

Like Thorndike, I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936) viewed behavior as 

responses initiated by stimuli, but unlike Thorndike, his interests were 

strictly to do with physiological reflex actions: the salivation of dogs 

in particular (Child, 2004). He discovered that dogs would salivate 

when some other previously neutral stimulus (tuning fork), besides 

food (meat powder), was present, provided that on some previous 

occasions the stimulus had appeared before the presentation of food. 

From this finding he set about intentionally teaching dogs to associate 

salivation with neutral stimuli, a process known as classical 

conditioning. Findings from Pavlov‟s classical conditioning can be 

gainfully applied to the teaching and learning of music by pairing or 

conditioning abstract musical ideas (neutral stimuli) with those musical 

experiences that elicit positive responses (pairing of the tuning 
fork[neutral stimulus] with meat powder[positive stimuli] by Pavlov). 
That is, pairing topics which the learner does not prefer with those he 

prefers and thus the un-preferred ones will begin to elicit the same 

learning response with the preferred ones. That is, student‟s interest 

in abstract topics in music (such as rote learning of the notes and 

spaces of staff) could be sustained when paired with singing, clapping 

and playing of simple melodic and harmonic instruments (Ojukwu, 

2011). Another instance is the teaching of music history with recorded 

musical examples of the musical styles being studied.  

Okeke, Ikedimma Nwabufo 



 
 

50 

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) in his short life of 37 years was a 

most prolific researcher living in Russia early in the twentieth century 

(Child, 2004). He postulated that human mentality was the result of 

cultural learning using social signs. That is, the culture into which a 

child was born was the source of concepts to be internalized and this 

affected the physiological functioning of the brain. Tools such as 

language, number, and art were seen as the means by which a culture 

would conceptualize, organize and transmit thinking. Therefore, our 

thinking processes are a product of the culture in which we happen to 

be born. Vygotsky‟s theory of social constructivism has a serious 

implication for music education in the sense that a meaningful musical 

experience should involve musical ideas and idioms from the learner‟s 

cultural background. That is, the fortification of the young learner 

with the musical idioms of his culture such as folk songs and 

indigenous musical styles for a meaningful musical experience. This has 

inspired the compulsory integration of native folk songs in the 

curriculum of music studies in most African educational institutions. 

Vygotsky also established that the adult, primarily the parent and 

teacher, is the primary influence on a child‟s socialization process. The 

adult not only transmits music to a child, but also participates in the 

child‟s discovery and manipulation of the music to be acquired. During 

musical play, the teacher or parent delivers to the child cultural signs- 

such as verbal comments, facial expressions, or indicatory gestures. 

According to Vygotsky, these signs provide the means for drawing 

children into knowing their culture (in this case, musical culture) 

(Campbell and Scott- kassner, 2010). 

B. F. Skinner‟s (1904-1990) classical theory of operant conditioning 
is at the heart of behavioral change, including learning. Operant 

conditioning is a three-part instructional “kernel,” or process, 

comprised of a stimulus that is presented to the learner, a response 

that is elicited by the learner as a consequence of the stimulus, 

followed by the presentation of another stimulus that reinforces the 

response (Campbell and Scott- kassner, 2010). Skinner‟s 

Applying Piaget`s ``Critical Period`` to Music Education… 

 



 
 

51 

reinforcement theory can be effectively applied in music. For 

instance, when a learner‟s behavior- singing in tune or playing rhythms 

accurately- is positively reinforced by the teacher‟s smile, nod, or 

positive comment, that behavior will be maintained or increased. 

 

 

 JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980)(Cognitive Schemata/Stage 

Dependent Theory/Critical Period) 

Contemporary views on the nature of cognitive development have been 

vastly influenced by the work of Jean Piaget (Child, 2004). Piaget, a 

Swiss psychologist, developed a theory of mental growth by observing 

the behavior of children. He delineated four stages in the 

development of behavior and thinking: 

 

Sensori- motor (0-2yrs)-  learning through direct sensory 

experience like reflex grasping, sucking and general body movement. 

 

Pre-operational (2-7 yrs)-learning through the manipulation of 

objects, noting the consequences and internalizing them for the 

future, thus transforming stimuli to symbols. 

 

 Concrete operations (6/7-11 yrs)-viewing objects in concrete, 

tangible, and systematic ways but not abstractly. 

 
Formal operations (11yrs onwards)-learning abstractly using logic and 

deductive reasoning. 

Piaget‟s developmental theory has serious implications and applications 

to music and they can be outlined thus: 

 The stages suggest that younger children in particular be given 

many opportunities to listen, sing, play, and move to music. 

 The introduction of staff notation should occur only after 

preliminary experiences. 

Okeke, Ikedimma Nwabufo 



 
 

52 

 Music instruction follows sound –before-symbol approach. 

 Age eight is a turning point in a child‟s cognitive development. At 

this time, children are capable of identifying timbres, 

discriminating among random melodies, and perceiving structure in 

simple melodies, although they are less successful in perceiving the 

sound of more than one simultaneous musical line (or harmony). 

 Music curriculum should be planned to pace the maturational ages 

of the learners. 

 The evidence of the developmental stages implies the existence of 

sensitive or critical periods when formal learning should duly 

commence. 

 

The bulk of Piaget‟s theory informs us of sensitive periods or stages 

of mental development. By implication, music teaching should 

commence as early as possible to enhance the development of 

musicality and aesthetic sensitivity. Beyond these budding stages, 

music learning could become tedious. Child (2004:78) reaffirms this: 

„Piaget‟s theory implies that certain periods are critical in mental 

growth‟. Furthermore on the notion of the critical period implied by 

Piaget‟s theory, Leonhard and House (1972) assert that: 

The research of Piaget and others emphasizes the soundness 

of the idea that the development of musicianship and 

aesthetic sensitivity can and must begin in early childhood. 

There is increasing recognition that in connection with many 

abilities there is a critical stage that occurs early in the 

development of a child. If education is delayed past this 

critical stage, the child can never fulfill his potential. There is 

every reason to believe that there is a critical stage in the 

development of musicianship and aesthetic sensitivity, which 

occurs early, probably before the age of nine. In view of 

presently available evidence, it is arrant nonsense for music 

educators to continue using the bulk of their financial and 

human resources on students in high school. A planned 

Applying Piaget`s ``Critical Period`` to Music Education… 

 



 
 

53 

program of music education in nursery school, kindergarten 

and the primary grades, providing a rich variety of experience 

with music conducted by well qualified teachers, merits the 

highest priority in music education program planning (p.155). 

 

The notion of the „critical period` implied by Piaget‟s theory is a very 

sensitive and critical learning theory which Nigerian music educators 

have not quite given much attention despite its implications for music 

education in Nigeria and hence, the focus of this paper.  

 

 

The Analogy of Second Language Teaching/Learning 

The teaching of music to the „musically deprived` is usually a task. The 

challenge is analogous to the teaching/learning of a foreign language. 

One  can  testify  of the difficulty  of  learning  a foreign  language, 

let`s say, French in primary  or  secondary  school  after the  mother  

tongue (L1)  has  taken  root. Not  that  learning  a  second  language  

is unattainable, after all  some  have  innate  predisposition  and  flair  

for languages, but  the herculean  task of  learning  new  rules  of  

grammar, syntax, phonology, and  idioms  for communication  is quite  a  

challenge  to the learner and the teacher as well. Child (2004) submits 

that, 

Evidence for this critical period in language acquisition is not 

hard to find. Witness the difficulty a person born and bred in 

France has with `th` as in `the`. It tends to come out as z.  
The  Japanese have  difficulty pronouncing r`s  and  l`s. 
English  speaking  people have their problems  with German 

umlauts  and  French  nasal  sounds (p.93). 

 

This informed Neville and Bavelier‟s recommendation in Child 

(2004:93) of ``how important it is to learn the pronunciation and 

grammar of a second language as early as possible``. If the learning 

of a foreign language can pose such problems, as noted above, how 

Okeke, Ikedimma Nwabufo 



 
 

54 

much more music which demands the learner should go  through the 

rigors of music appreciation, theory, aural perception, solfeggio, 

notation, musicianship, etc. before reasonable musical apprehension ?  

 

 

Precisely when is the Critical Period? 

There seems to be no consensus on the precise developmental time 

frame which might be labeled „the critical period` or which might 

denote its elapse among scholars, even though most scholars agree to 

the evidence of it (Leonhard and House, 1972). Piaget in Child 

(2004:69) pointed to ages between „0 -11yrs`; Pryor in Davidoff 

(1987) reasoned it is before or soon after birth during periods of fast 

growth. Leonhard and House (1972) argued it is before the age of nine 

for music education. Here we find one of the weak points of this 

theory. Does the critical period start and close or end at what age? 0-

11yrs, 3yrs, 6 yrs, 9yrs, puberty, adolescence, or adulthood? If, 

according to Leonhard and House (1977), the critical stage ends at 

age nine for music, does it follow that there is a critical period 

peculiar for a given subject of learning? If we decide to ignore the 

confusion with specifics and admit that naturally the critical period 

should be in –between the tender ages of 0 -10yrs, how then do we 

reckon with the learning of prodigious and exceptional people who 

having been deprived the privilege of learning as early as suggested 

surprisingly rise beyond their limitations and the expectations of 

many. A classic example of this anomaly with regards to music is the 

life of the Russian composer, Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), 

who began to study music at a relatively late age of twenty-one but 

rose to become the most famous Russian composer (Kamien, 1986). A 

more glaring scenario is the case of popular musicians who, having no 

formal music education, soar beyond their limitations and sustaining 

their art. 

Applying Piaget`s ``Critical Period`` to Music Education… 

 



 
 

55 

Where then is the place of `the critical period`? One might give some 

explanation to the aforementioned situation to stem from the peculiar 

nature of music. Musical genius just like fine art requires talent for 

its arousal and sustenance. One can sing or paint artistically without 

formal lessons but none has ever been known to speak a language 

without direct imitation or learning. But `the continuity theory` of 

cognitive development and maturation tends to give a more lucid and 

objective explanation to the situation. The continuity theory, in 

contrast with the theory of the critical period, posits that: `People 

change subtly and gradually and grow continually` (Davidoff 1987:371). 

She further explains that, `continuity theories challenge the 

uniformity assumption of stage theories‟. Development is an individual 

process that depends, in every instance; on unique biological 

propensities and specific experiences` (p.371). Does the continuity 

theory completely negate the evidence of the critical stage? No. If 

we completely ignore the evidence of the critical period, we might end 

up with some developmental and educational crisis! Failing to enroll a 

child, for instance, in school as early as possible and hoping the child 

would `continue` in his cognitive development whenever possible would 

be a risky experiment. The gains of early childhood education are 

numerous but the continuity theory sensitizes us on the possibility of 

continued cognitive receptivity and development on the side of the 

learner even after the critical stage has elapsed. 

 

 

Data  Analysis 

The bulk of data gathered through questionnaires from undergraduate 

music students of NnamdiAzikiwe University, Awka and the direct 

observation by the researcher in the course of 

nursery/primary/secondary school music teaching show evidences of 

the effect of the critical period. For instance, through direct 

observation, the researcher discovered that most of the students 

Okeke, Ikedimma Nwabufo 



 
 

56 

who showed competence in music in the Jss 1 and Jss 2 classes of 

British spring secondary school, Awka (2011/2012 session) were mainly 

primary school graduates of Springfield Academy and Mount Olive 

School, both in Onitsha. These two primary schools located at New 

Nkisi drive, G.R.A Onitsha are renowned for serious music teaching. 

Also data sourced from questionnaires issued to undergraduate music 

students of NnamdiAzikiwe University, Awka shows that most 

undergraduate music students of NnamdiAzikiwe University, Awka 

with appreciable levels of musical capacity passed through Dennis 

Memorial grammar School, Onitsha. Dennis Memorial grammar School, 

Onitsha is also renowned for a strong musical tradition. The data is 

analyzed below: 

Thirty-three copies of the questionnaire were distributed 

among the undergraduate music students of various academic levels 

(yrs. 1 through 4). The students were asked to indicate the various 

schools they attended ranging from nursery through secondary and 

whether they studied music in the respective tiers of their learning. 

They were also asked to indicate the nature of the challenges they 

were experiencing presently as undergraduate music students. The 

last question was raised in order to find any possible connection 

between their contact with formal music or its deprivation in their 

formative years (critical period) and their musical experiences in the 

university. 

 

Table 1. 

Influence of the critical period on musical understanding 

Sample of 

population 

Early contact with formal 

Music(percentage value) 

No contact with formal 

Music(percentage value) 

33 (100%) 13(39.3%) 20(60.6%) 

 

From the table presented above along with direct observation of the 

research samples, these relevant deductions were made: 

Applying Piaget`s ``Critical Period`` to Music Education… 

 



 
 

57 

 Only 13(39.9%) of the total number of students gathered through 

the questionnaire received musical instruction in their formative 

years. 

 About 20(60.6%) of the total 33 students were deprived music 

instruction in their formative years. 

 Among the 60% who were deprived of formal music learning, about 

50% of them have serious difficulty adapting to music as 

undergraduates students. 

 Most of the 13(39.9%) students who received music lessons in 

their formative years have shown appreciable traits of musical 

understanding and appreciation as undergraduate students. 

 Some of the deprived students have seemingly grown beyond their 

limitations. May be as a result of a positive attitude towards music. 

This development  might have informed the assertion by Leonhard 

and House (1985 :401) that „A pupil with a moderate level of 

musical capacity and high levels of motivation and interest 

frequently accomplishes more than the most talented pupil lacking 

in interest and motivation‟ 

 Some of the students who attested to receiving music learning 

early appear to have lost much of the musical understanding gained 

during their formative years. Maybe because of poor attitude 

towards continuous learning or some external factors. 

 

Discussion of Findings 

Evidently, the influence of the critical period in mental development is 

a serious factor affecting music education in Nigeria. Obviously we 

have an educational crisis at the grassroots (nursery/primary/ 

secondary) with respect to music. We cannot hope for a positive 

response to music at the tertiary level if music is lost at the critical 

stages. Perhaps it may be possible to still revitalize a deprived 

student musically at the tertiary level if proper motivation were 

employed by music educators. This position stems from one of the 

discoveries of the research through the questionnaire. Virtually all 

Okeke, Ikedimma Nwabufo 



 
 

58 

the students indicated their utmost challenge to be lack of attention 

by their respective vocal/instrumental instructors. Motivation shall be 

discussed in the subsequent pages as a vital tool which music 

educators can employ towards solving issues emanating from the 

critical period. 

 

 

Classroom Implications of the Critical Period for the Music 

Teacher 

Having gone through the bulk of theoretical and empirical 

arguments surrounding the notion of the critical period in mental 

development and having established its influence, what then should 

the music teacher expect in a given classroom situation? Supposed he 

is faced with, let`s say, a class of Jss 1(year 7) students who had no 

music education in their primary and consequently have no idea of 

rudiments of music? Suppose also in a given Jss1 class of twenty (20) 

students; six (6) had received primary music education and the 

remaining fourteen (14) had none? What does he do? Does he bring 

every one down to rudimentary music or does he carry everyone along 

with the secondary school music curriculum? Definitely the secondary 

school curriculum will not work here. In fact this is one of the 

situations where music teaching can be frustrating, bearing in mind 

that at the end of the term you are required to account for good 

music teaching! How does a primary school pupil sing in choir when he 

has no grasp on rudimentary solfeggio (d: r: m: f: s: l: t: d)? Where 

does the undergraduate music student start on his  orchestral 

lessons, let`s  say, trumpet, flute, saxophone, or oja  when  he has no 

grasp on recorder or oja basics from his primary/secondary 

education? All these are just a few of the myriads of challenges 

facing the music educator in Nigeria with regards to issues emanating 

from the critical period. Reacting to this situation; Aninwene (2009) 

discloses that:   

Applying Piaget`s ``Critical Period`` to Music Education… 

 



 
 

59 

All children should have minimum competences in music so that 

in future while some are good music makers, others would be 

producers and performers of music. The success of their 

musical experience largely depends on the musical nurturing 

they received right from their early childhood. If they do not 

receive the right musical education, they become deficient in 

that aspect, and this would definitely affect their adulthood. 

Our children in the primary schools do not receive proper 

early music education and that has reflected in the society 

(p.51). 

 

Bemoaning this situation, Ekwueme  in Aninwene (2009:51) argues 

further that: ``If we deny a child music education, we have denied 

him the opportunity of developing his musical talents, capabilities and 

musical intelligence, thus causing that part of his brain to remain 

dormant and undeveloped throughout his life time”. Furthermore, 

Gordon (1970) advises that:  

Although younger students learn more slowly than older 

students, the younger one is when he begins the study of an 

instrument the more he can ultimately learn. The earlier one 

learns motor skills in terms of technique, the more solidified 

they become. This is because younger students are more 

adept at rote learning than conceptualization, whereas the 

reverse is true for older students (p.233) 

 

 

Solving the Problem of the Critical Period in Music Education in 

Nigeria 

Some scholars have suggested „audition tests‟ for students before 

admitting them to study music particularly in Nigerian tertiary 

institutions. It is believed that this approach would sieve out students 

who have little or no formal music background and thereby cutting off 

the problem of „teaching the untaught‟. This approach has so many 

Okeke, Ikedimma Nwabufo 



 
 

60 

obvious drawbacks. First, few students apply for music as their 

primary course of study in the tertiary institutions and any further 

exercise that cuts off more numbers from the few portends grave 

danger for the survival of music departments in tertiary institutions. 

Also it is elitist: there is no guarantee that the „qualified‟ students can 

sustain their musical aptitude throughout school. Conversely, there 

are no adequate criteria to judge and conclude that those candidates 

that could not „qualify‟ initially would not grow musically and even 

surpass their favoured colleagues. Therefore the option of „audition 

test‟ creates more problems for music and so does not work here. 

Worth mentioning is the continuity theory of mental 

development because it offers some hope to solving the dilemma of 

the critical period on music education. The continuity theory posits 

that human development is continuous and not `fixed`. Continuity 

theory assumes that people change subtly and gradually and grow 

continually and thus challenging the uniformity assumption of the 

stage theory. Development (learning) is an individual process that 

depends, in every instance, on unique biological propensities and 

specific experiences (Davidoff, 2004). Drawing on the position of this 

theory, therefore, it is possible for a learner to adapt to music after 

deprivation if he can develop positive attitude towards music, explore 

his native musical endowment with proper teacher-motivation, and the 

creation of conducive learning environment.  

 

The four suggestions are discussed in detail thus: 

 

 Conducive Learning Environment 

A conducive musical environment is very necessary for effective music 

learning. A proper learning environment also serves to catch the 

attention of learners more easily than the actual learning itself. The 

nature of music demands a setting secluded from the usual 

distractions of daily living; practice rooms with soundproof acoustics; 

adequate and functional musical instruments for individual practice; 

Applying Piaget`s ``Critical Period`` to Music Education… 

 



 
 

61 

interactive teacher-learner relationship and learning materials such as 

audio-visual aids, music software and computers, music texts and 

relevant literature for individual studies. Onuora-Oguno (2009) and 

Onwuekwe (2010) have raised the imperatives of computer in music 

education in Nigeria. 

 

 Exploring The Learner’s Native  Endowment 

It is evident from history for native endowment or giftedness to 

supersede lapses in the preceding stages of learning. Classic examples 

are Shakespeare and Newton. Another classic example particular to 

music is the case of Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), mentioned 

earlier in the work, who began to study music at a relatively late age 

of twenty-one but rose to become the most famous Russian 

composer(Kamien, 1986). 

 

 Positive Musical Attitude 

Attitude plays a reasonable role in learning. A positive attitude 

towards music makes music learning faster and easier. Even with 

native giftedness in music, a poor attitude to the subject diminishes 

the giftedness. Leonhard and House (1972:19) explain that, „attitude 

refers to a generalized emotional reaction for or against a specific 

object. Attitudes have a direct effect on learning of all kinds and 

have much to do with the efficiency with which knowledge and 

understanding are developed‟. Mbanugo (2006) observes the care-free 

attitude often exhibited towards music by some undergraduate music 

students of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, who conceive individual 

music practicing as too sedentary. That is, they find it hard to sit 

down and work at the pieces for long and this poor attitude usually 

results in their poor delivery during performance exams. 

 

 Motivation 

Motivation is a powerful tool in the employ of a dedicated teacher and 

it involves arousing learners‟ interests in learning. Leonhard and House 

Okeke, Ikedimma Nwabufo 



 
 

62 

(1985: 306) explain that „it is the most complex but most important 

task of the music teacher to manage the learning environment so that 

optimal motivation is present`. They reasoned further that „motivation 

is closely associated with interests, setting reasonable and rewarding 

goals, and experiencing success in attaining goals` and that  „A pupil 

with a moderate level of musical capacity and high levels of motivation 

and interest frequently accomplishes more than the most talented 

pupil lacking in interest and motivation‟ (Leonhard and House, 1985 

:401). Onyiuke (2003) also has seriously advised on the place of 

motivation in primary school music education in Nigeria. 

 

Recommendations 

Having shown evidences and the problems ensuing from the 

„critical/sensitive period‟ with regards to music education in Nigeria, it 

becomes imperative that Nigerian music educators endeavor towards 

proper and compulsory music education starting from the 

kindergarten to the tertiary level. The researcher recommends class 

singing using didactic and folk songs, and the introduction of simple 

musical instruments the learners can adapt to with ease. Such musical 

rhythmic/melodic/harmonic instruments that have been found useful 

are the rattle or tambourine, the recorder, and the harmonica. We 

cannot hope for a positive response to music if we do not have a 

functional one at the grassroots.  

Also, since few or no students are currently registering for 

training under CCA (Cultural & Creative Arts) in colleges of education; 

it would be worthwhile to absorb undergraduate music students (yr 2- 

4) for music teaching in schools as a form of industrial attachment 

and a palliative measure. This would help address the emergency at 

the grassroots regarding music. Currently the researcher has placed 

about five music undergraduate students of Nnamdi Azikiwe 

University, Awka in about five different nursery/primary/secondary 

schools in Anambra state where they are engaged in serious music 

teaching under the supervision of the researcher. Currently this is 

Applying Piaget`s ``Critical Period`` to Music Education… 

 



 
 

63 

yielding remarkable results as music education is thriving in the 

respective schools. 

 

 

Conclusion 

The highlight of Piaget‟s stage theory of mental development 

(sensory/preoperational/operational/concrete) suggests and implies 

that learning commences as early as possible (0-3yrs) in human beings 

(sensitive/critical period) and that formal learning beyond this 

sensitive stage might be hampered. This holds serious implication for 

music education in Nigeria where music is neglected as a subject of 

instruction in most schools.  The aftermath is that learners grow 

without any formal foundation in music and thus encounter serious 

challenges in aesthetic development and in attempts to study the 

subject later. The research has discovered that although the impact 

of the critical period might overshadow and hamper subsequent 

learning in music; the enthusiastic learner can still survive by 

developing a positive attitude to music, building on his native 

potentiality for music, and adequate support from educators by means 

of motivation and conducive learning environment for music.  

 

 

Suggestion for Further Reading 

The present paper does not claim to be encompassing. Therefore, it is 

being suggested that further research along this line be undertaken 

by future researchers. This will help to consolidate the decision made 

in relation to Piaget‟s „critical period‟ as the ideas relate to Nigeria‟s 

music education. 

 

 

 

 

Okeke, Ikedimma Nwabufo 



 
 

64 

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