










































Environmental refugee: Need for institution response and policy intervention


Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

RIVERBANK EROSION DISPLACEES IN BANGLADESH:  NEED FOR INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSE AND 
POLICY INTERVENTION

MD Fakrul Islam, Ph.D, and A.N.M. Bazlur Rashid, Ph.D.

1. Professor, Department of Social works, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh

2. University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT:  Environmental  refugees are one of  the most burning issues at  this time throughout the world. 

Bangladesh,  a  riverine  country,  is  suffering  from  acquit  riverbank  erosion  which  compels  millions  of  her 

population to be displaced from their place of origin. As such, 283 locations, 85 towns and growth centers, along 

with 2400 kilometers of riverbank line in Bangladesh are vulnerable to erosion. The major rivers e.g., the Padma, 

the  Jamuna,  and  the  Meghna,  erode  several  thousand hectares  of  floodplain  making  thousands  of  people 

landless and homeless every year.  Along with  the floodplain,  Bangladesh loses several  kilometers of  roads, 

railways, and flood-control embankments annually. No other disaster is as disastrous as riverbank erosion and 

‘Internally Displaced Populations’ (IDP) face many unavoidable problems at different stages of displacement. 

Displacement marginalized them in respect of livelihood patterns and psycho-physical troubles. Such forty million 

homeless people in Bangladesh are compelled to lead a floating life. Riverbank erosion plays a major role in 

socio-environmental changes. The displaced people of riverbank erosion experience substantial socio-economic 

impoverishment and marginalization as a consequence of involuntary displacement from their original residence. 

Findings of a social survey carried out in 2008 on the erosion-hit displaced people in Chapai Nawabganj and 

Rajshahi districts are discussed in this paper. Newly settled people along with the native inhabitants have been 

interviewed to reveal the problems associated with making rearrangements for the displaced people. Besides 

these  problems  of  displacement,  adaptation  strategies  and  relationships  with  the  local  people,  their  socio-

economic losses, sufferings, perception of natural disaster and psycho-physical problems, environmental ruins 

etc. have been revealed in this paper. There are no specific policies to rehabilitate the erosion-hit people. Thus, it 

is time to formulate policies to address prevention of riverbank erosion as well as to rehabilitate the river-erosion 

refugees.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Bangladesh is a land of rivers. More than 700 rivers, with their tributaries and distributaries have criss-crossed 

the country forming a network of river system. It has about 2,400 kilometers of bank line and along with the 

bankline there are 283 locations,  85 towns and growth centers are vulnerable to erosion1.  The Padma (The 

Ganges),  the  Jamuna  and  the  Meghna,  major  rivers  of  Bangladesh,  erode  several  thousand  hectares  of 

floodplain, making thousands of people landless and homeless every year. 

In recent years, throughout the world, victims of environmental disasters are growing in number than the victims 

of  war  or  other  (man-made)  forceful  migration.  Victims  of  such  political  violence  receive  satisfactory  media 

coverage along  with  different  types  of  assistance  from various  national  and  international  agencies.  But  the 

uprooted migrants- caused by environmental disasters- fail to attract such level of local or international attention 

which tends them to be more vulnerable. According to the United Nations University (UNU), victims of political 

violence receive a lot of assistance from governments and international organizations in forms of financial grants, 

1Sustainable Embankment Maintenance through Promoting Settlers’ Rights 
http://www.coastbd.org  Dated: 23 June 2007

4

http://www.coastbd.org/


Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

food, tools, shelter, schools and clinics, but “environmental refugees” have not such access to receive aid.2 An 

empirical study conducted among the riverbank erosion displacees of  Rajshahi  and Chapai  Nawabganj,  two 

districts of Bangladesh, by writers in 2009. The respondents were displaced due to erosion of the Padma and the 

Mahananda, two rivers of the said two districts. 

1.2 EXTENT OF BANK-EROSION AND DISPLACEMENT

Rivers constantly alter their course, changing shape and depth, trying to find a balance between the sediment 

transport  capacity  of  the  water  and  the  sediment  supply.  This  process,  called riverine  erosion  or  riverbank 

erosion, is usually seen as the wearing away of riverbanks and riverbeds over a long period of time. Riverbank 

erosion is often initiated by failure of a riverbank causing high sediment loads or heavy rainfall. This generates 

high volume and velocity run-off which will concentrate in the lower drainages within the river’s catchments area. 

When the stress applied by these river flows exceeds the resistance of the riverbank material, erosion will occur. 

As the sediment  load increases,  fast-flowing  rivers  will  erode their  banks downstream.  Eventually,  the river 

becomes overloaded or velocity is reduced, leading to the deposition of sediment to further downstream or in 

dams and reservoirs. The deposition may eventually lead to the river developing a new channel. While all rivers 

change in the long-term, short-term rates of change vary significantly. In less stable braided channel reaches, 

erosion  and deposition of  material  are  a constant  issue.  In  more stable  meandering channels,  episodes  of 

erosion may only occur occasionally. The erosion rate depends on the sediment supply and amount of run-off 

reaching the river. These variables are affected by many things including earthquakes, floods, climatic changes, 

loss of bank vegetation, urbanization, and the construction of civil works in the waterway. There are varieties of 

natural and human-induced factors that influence the erosion process. For example, bankline orientation and 

exposure to prevailing winds and waves all  influence erosion rates.  Bankline composition influences erosion 

rates as well. For example, riverbank composed of sand and silt are easily eroded whereas banklines primarily 

consisting of boulders or large rocks are more resistant to erosion. Other factors may include: bankline type, 

geomorphology  of  the  riverbank,  structure  types  along  the  bankline,  density  of  development,  amount  of 

encroachment  into  the  high  hazard  zone,  proximity  to  erosion  inducing  bankline  structures,  nature  of  the 

riverbank topography, elevation of riverbank dunes and bluffs, and bankline exposure to wind and waves.

Riverbank erosion has many consequences including the loss of land and any development on that land. It can cause 

increased sedimentation of harbors and river deltas. It can hinder channel navigation – affect marine transportation 

source. This char dynamics is related to the morphologic behavior of rivers and in particular to the bank erosion 

processes and the prevailing trends of widening and narrowing of rivers3. Other problems include reduction in water 

quality due to high sediment loads, loss of native aquatic habitats, damage to public utilities (roads, bridges and 

dams) and maintenance costs associated with trying to prevent or control erosion sites.

Bangladesh  is  located  at  the  confluence  of  the  three  mighty  river  systems  of  the  world-the  Padma,  the 

Brahmaputra and the Meghna- renders her one of the most vulnerable places to natural disasters. Flood and 

riverbank erosion are the main disasters initiated from the river. During the last three decades (1970-2000), the 

Padma and the Jamuna have consumed 180,000 hectares of land. In 2008, bank erosion of the Padma, forced 

about 200,000 people to be homeless4, along with 1630 acres of mainly agricultural land, 370 settlement areas, 

3930 meters of road, 9 educational institutes, 5 hats and bazaars and 1 union parishad was eroded.

Satellite image studied on the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Mehgna rivers showed that about 106,300 hectares of land 

was lost between 1982 to 1992, when the amount of accreted land was only 19,300 hectares. So, the net annual 

2 http://environment.about.com/od/globalwarming/a/envirorefugees.htm
3 Environment  and  GIS  Support  Project  for  Water  Sector  Planning,  Riverine  Chars  in 

Bangladesh (Dhaka: The University Press Limited, 2000), p. 20.
4 The daily Jugantor,  21.06.2008.

5

http://environment.about.com/od/globalwarming/a/envirorefugees.htm


Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

loss was 8,700 hectares during this period. It has estimated that about one million people become directly or 

indirectly affected by riverbank erosion every year. The ISPAN studied during 1981 and 1993, using satellite 

images  and  population  data  suggested  that  a  total  of  728,439  people  were  displaced  from  their  original 

homestead by riverbank erosion. This also estimated that the annual number of displaced persons to be 63,722. 

Estimation shows that, 50 percent of the total homeless people are victims of riverbank erosion and they cannot 

rebuild their home due to poverty and scarcity of resources. Four million of such homeless people in Bangladesh 

are compelled to lead a floating life5. 

Report of the Climate Institute published in 1995, says that a growing number of people are displaced as a result 

of  environmental  problems  such  as  drought,  soil  erosion,  desertification  and  deforestation.6 It  has  further 

estimated  that  about  3.3  million  people  in  Indonesia  and  7.1  million  in  India  are  at  risk  from flooding  and 

inundation by 2070. It also expressed awareness of large-scale displacement in Bangladesh caused by sea level 

rising and coastal or riverbank erosion.

Scholars  are  also  predicting  that  50  million  people  worldwide  will  be  displaced  by  2010  because  of 

coastal/riverbank erosion, rising sea levels, desertification, dried up aquifers, weather-induced flooding and other 

serious environmental changes. The number of refugees worldwide grew from 9.9 million in 2007 to 11.4 million 

in 2008, according to a report by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), which identified 

climate change as one of the leading causes of the global rise in refugees. 

Geography and Environmental Science Department of the Jahangirnagar University presented a chart of the 

losses of riverbank erosion from 1996 to 2000, which is as follows:7

Year Financial Loss Affected areas
Affected 

population
1996 5809 m  71680.4 Acres  10103635

1997 33012 m 7756 Acres 173090

1998 2201 m 41519 Acres  321000

1999 10535 m 227755 Acres 899275

2000 3286 m 219310 Acres 415870

From the above chart it is clear that the financial loss is not negligible, extent of riverbank erosion is high in the 

land-scarce country and displacement of people is needed to give maximum attention. To protect the lives and 

resources  from erosion,  there should  be  effective  policy  and  programs of  the government  as well  as  non-

governmental organizations. 

1.3 PROBLEMS OF THE DISPLACEES

Riverbank  erosion  displacees  face few unavoidable  problems in  different  times of  displacement,  i.e.  before 

displacement,  during  shifting  household  materials  and family  members and after  displacement  at  their  new 

settlement  area.  Displacee households  were  living in  a  settled  area  from generation  to  generation.  Due to 

riverbank erosion, they were forced to migrate from their place of origin to other places, mostly unknown to them. 

Displacement due to riverbank erosion marginalized them in respect of livelihood patterns and psycho-physical 

troubles. 

1.3.1 Losses for Displacement

Riverbank erosion is  such an environmental  catastrophe which  cannot  be compared to other  environmental 

disasters.  In every disaster, other than earthquake, people lose their household structure at best but due to 

5. Coast Trust, www.coastbd.org
6 http://www.climate.org/publications/environmental-refugees.html
7 ibid.

6



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

riverbank erosion people lose their land and become homeless. Only the difference is, death counts less in 

number. Riverbank erosion displacees’ losses are unbound. There are few losses, which can never be converted 

to money. Besides the loss of land, they lose other things too. Being homeless, they become assetless too. 

People of the study area have lost their agricultural and homestead land in one hand and on the other hand they 

became rootless, ousted from their community, broken down their family ties and social bondage. The effect was 

enormous and the loss was quite impossible to regain. 

1.3.2 Loss of Land and Changes in Land Holding Capacity

Riverbank erosion aggravates land of the riparian inhabitants. It was found that, all of the respondents of study 

area had lost their land, either totally or partially. They were displaced from their original homestead, which was 

an unwilling displacement. Impact of unwilling displacement is always negative, either economically or socially. 

Land is fundamental for civilization, to build home and establish family followed by a society. From the study it 

was found that loss of land, as well as displacement, was the only reason for their present sufferings and other 

problems. They expressed that they followed their own strategy and system to mitigate needs and problems. But 

due to displacement and settling in a new area, things were out of their reach. Searching for homestead land 

turned into priority and a few of them managed to become landowner. A number of respondents were found, 

determined not to make settlement in their present living place. 

1.3.3 Changes in Economic Activities and Loss of Income

Any kind of displacement has direct impact on regular sources of income and income generating activities of the 

displacee households.  This change may be positive or  negative but  some sort  of  change is found in  every 

situation faced by the affected people. If it was caused by a sudden forceful event which consequently causes 

unwilling displacement, the effect was counted severe. Loss of income compelled them to live a sub-standard life 

and they could not  continue their  way of  living even parallel  to the way before displacement.  Displacement 

induced by natural disaster was different from other types of displacement. If it was due to any authority, the 

displacees were compensated and resettled by the authority. But displacement due to natural disaster did not 

make any room for the affected population rather they were victimized by several ill-motivated stakeholders. They 

faced difficulties to find new sources of income in new settlement area. Riverbank erosion displacees took shelter 

in distant places or migrated to urban areas. The landless and jobless heads of the households under financial 

duress8 often deserted their families. Left alone, women of those households had to struggle hard to maintain 

their family. 

From the collected data, it was found that about 75 percent respondents counted loss of income due to riverbank 

erosion induced displacement.  On the other  hand,  the frequency of  displacement had significant  impact  on 

income. It was found that number displacement played negative impact on total monthly income of the affected 

households. The households which were displaced more times became more affected in terms of total monthly 

income. Once upon a time, during pre-displacement period, some of them provided jobs to their comparatively 

poor neighbors, in post-displacement time; bank erosion leveled them with others, who were living side by side at 

the present settlement area. These two groups were struggling for same goal. In the new settlements, they were 

searching for shelter and security, at the same time, they were eager to get a job to feed the dependant members 

of their family and buy daily needs. 

8 Nizamuddin, op.cit., p. 3.

7



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

1.3.4 Loss of House-structure

In rural areas of Bangladesh, generally the houses are not constructed by modern architectural design or with 

modern building  materials.  Most  of  the  houses  are designed by the  household-head himself  or  other  local 

laborer. Unburned brick, straw,  chatai and bamboo-chatai are used extensively for most of the houses in rural 

areas of Bangladesh. A few are constructed by brick, or concrete materials. The roof is generally constructed by 

tin, straw, tiles, and a few are with concrete materials. It was found that all the respondents had lost their houses 

due to riverbank erosion. Some of them managed to shift their movable house materials to the present location. 

When erosion took place and came towards their houses, they all together dismantled their houses themselves 

pursuing to shift household materials. But all of them did not get enough time to take house materials. They told 

during the FDG and interview that  most of  them sold their  houses to vendors,  who employed a number of 

laborers and took-off the materials. 

1.3.5 Loss of Crop

With the loss of land, a significant number of the riparian inhabitants lost their standing crops also. Rich 

landowners suffered more loss of crops than relatively smaller landowners. Crop was their main source of 

income and when they failed to harvest their crop in time, they suffered from shortage of money following 

unavoidable misery. They had to wait for next harvest, which was far away from present time. In the mean 

time,  to  meet  daily  expenditure  they had nothing  to  do  but  to  borrow money,  in  most  of  the  cases,  by 

lending their land to money-owners,  locally known as  mahajon. At the time of river bank erosion, if there 

were standing crop in the field, sometimes farmers harvest those knowing that they will not get food grain 

but  may  be  used  for  fuel  or  animal  food.  Loss  of  crop  had  direct  impact  on  local  as  well  as  national 

production of crop. The study region was generally a surplus region in food production. But due to riverbank 

erosion, a large number of displacees faced food scarcity. Many indigenous crops were being extinct due to 

loss  of  agricultural  land  and  changing  occupation  of  the  farmers.  Dependency  on  others  for  food  was 

increased in number. Once upon a time, they were well  set for rice and other cereals. But due to loss of 

land and displacement from their original homestead their dependency for food and cereals on others was 

remarkable.

1.3.6 Loss of Security

Security was another hazard faced by the displacees in the new settlement area. In the new settled area, some 

of them managed only a room for living but other homestead materials remained open under the sky.  They 

identified five sectors of insecurity in the early days in new area. Those were: valuable goods might be stolen, 

household goods might be lost, women and girls might be harassed, attack of animal or bite by snake, and 

infants or children might be missed. For this reason, they followed some indigenous strategies and measures to 

minimize the insecurity fear. They dug a hole inside the room, and kept valuable goods such as, cash, ornaments 

etc. inside the hole in a polythene bag. Some of them, put valuables in a pot on reticulate bags9. They tied up and 

stacked other household materials. Male members kept watching at night by turns. Most of them had no enough 

money to light hurricanes at night. So, they managed to use torch-light at night. Watching at night helped them to 

feel secured from danger. Especially, they felt secured from thief or ill-motivated people. Women and younger 

girls slept inside the room to be more secured. Other members including males lied down on floor in front of the 

9 Reticulate bag made of jute strings, which is hanging from the wall or the ceiling. Locally 
known as shika. It is used as a mini-storage of different things. Many villagers use it as an alternative 
of chest-of-drawer.

8



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

door. Sometimes, local union parishad member and chairman arranged special guarding by the village-police 

under their control. To remain safe from snakebite, they spread out leaves of Neem around them. To save the 

children  and  infants  from missing,  the  elder  members  compassionated  them at  daytime.  Beyond  all  these 

preventive measures, a few incidents happened at that period of instability. 

1.4 IMMEDIATE SHELTER AFTER DISPLACEMENT

Shelter is one of the important basic needs at the time of displacement. As there was no government or non-

governmental steps to provide shelter to the displaced households, displacees themselves were eager to search 

their shelter to shift family members and other household materials. But at the time of displacement, it was not so 

easy to get a suitable land or house or place to resettle. It was found that their first choice was house or land 

of relatives or neighbors who were out of erosion risk. It was one kind of competition to get it. Because, every 

families were on the track to get first welcome address by others. In some cases, river bank erosion displacees 

made innovative use of  kinship10 and other ideologies legitimating reciprocity and mutual  aid to  re-establish 

themselves rent-free on the land of others. However, it did not show always a well-established way of living as 

entitlements and poverty tended to inter-household cooperative conflict and mutual aid among extremely poor 

people.

It  was evident that, most of the displacees were taken shelter to their relative or neighbor’s house just after 

displacement. The cause to choose this option was identified as safer place than others were. It was not needed 

to pay for stay and got help to collect food for family members. Though many of them could not stay long time, 

but believers considered it as a grace of almighty to make them sympathetic to them.

1.5 FREQUENCY OF DISPLACEMENT

There are so many causes for displacement from one place to another. Sometimes, people move willingly and 

sometimes it is caused by force. This involuntary or forced displacement may be categorized in three major11 

groups:  political  displacement,  environmental  displacement  and  development-project  induced  displacement. 

Forced  migrant,  inoduced by environmental  change is  termed as  ‘environmental  refugee’.  In  every  case  of 

displacement,  an  extreme  form  of  marginalization  of  individuals  and  groups  takes  place12.  In  this  study, 

respondent  displacees experienced several  times displacement from their  living place. Before settling in the 

study area, they built their house within the vicinity of riverbank erosion13. The reason behind was, they thought 

riverbank would not be eroded more and they would get back their land. However,  every time, their dreams 

washed out with the bank erosion and they compelled to shift houses to another place. Respondents told that 

none of them was ready to leave their beloved place of birth. Some of them still hope to go back to their original 

land if land accretion happens. However, they agreed that it was not possible for them to go back and adapt 

again with new formation of land. As a last option, they settled in this place. From the study, it was found that a 

good number of respondents lived in the char areas. Chars are more vulnerable to erosion and every year the 

inhabitants loss their land. This multiple shifting, took them quickly to under the poverty line. Their living status 

10 Doreen Marie Indra and Norman Buchignani, “Rural Landlessness, extended entitlements 
and inter-household relations in South Asia: A Bangladesh Case”,  Journal of Peasant Studies, Vol. 
24, Issue 3, April, 1997, pp. 25-64.

http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a790270448~db=all~order=page  dated: 
24.07.2008.

11 Heming and Rees, op.cit., pp. 439-462.
12 Ibid.
13 Professor  Abdul  Baki  (ed.),  Duryogbarta,  Disaster  Research Training and Management 

Center, Dept. of Geology and Environment, DU, Vol. 13, 2006, p. 6.

9



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

and  livelihood  pattern  changed  simultaneously.  The  rainy  season,  followed  by  flood  is  considered  most 

vulnerable period for riverbank erosion- which nature is not same. Sometimes the rate of erosion increases, 

making a mass shifting of bank-inhabitants and aggravates maximum land. 

The maximum displacement  found 12 times of  displacement,  which  was  the highest  in  number  among the 

respondents. Abrar and Azad14 found 19 times of displacement in Lalmonirhat from their study on the same. We 

may also identify them as a population of ‘living with hazard’. They had achieved this implanted force from their 

community.  Displacees  lived  in  a  society  of  strong  ties,  where  collective  force  offered  them some sorts  of 

dependency. FDG members expressed this attitude as ‘die-to-die’ principle. ‘We are born here and want to die 

also; we can not live except this loving place’. 

That was the reason for shifting homestead with the encroachment of bankline. And, at the last time, community 

members left  erosion  prone vicinity  to  safer  places.  At  present,  they were  living in different  places of  the 

country. In FDG, with other questions, they were asked also about the reasons behind living with the threat of 

erosion. The answer came from different corners of thought, but they believed that they would not be migrated. 

They believed that once upon a time the erosion would stop and they could get back their land. 

1.6 PROBLEMS FOR SHIFTING FAMILY MEMBERS

At the time of displacement, a horrible situation arose over the erosion-affected area. Every household of that 

locality tried to take all the household goods and other movable assets to their new shelter. In that situation, elder 

members, especially the women took care of children, not to leave away. Respondents compared that situation 

with  the wartime restlessness.  They told  that  during wartime,  when  heavy bombardment  happened,  enemy 

soldiers were coming nearer; the residents had to leave within short time to save life. A very small amount of 

assets they could take with them. During riverbank erosion, almost the same situation arose. They got a very 

short time to leave. Within that time, they had to shift or sell all the household goods as well as other movable 

things.

1.7 HELP RECEIVED BY THE DISPLACEES FOR SHIFTING 

In this situation, they sought and needed help from others. However, it was not possible for all to help others. 

Because, all of them were busy with same circumstances. However, it was found that, though they were affected 

by same natural events and in a same vulnerable condition, they came with helping hands as much as possible. 

According to them, no other group could understand or could give prompt response other than neighbors. They 

shared their labor force and worked physically also for other households to shift household goods and family 

members. They responded quickly and shared all other facilities in that crucial time. That was because, from so 

many years,  they were living side by side, shared their joy and sorrow and asserted security for each other. 

Relatives were the next group to respond immediately on call of the affected members. Relatives of most of  

the respondents of Ranihati lived in distant places. Therefore, they took more time to respond. It took time to 

reach help seeking message. Distant relatives had no knowledge on what kind of support they could provide. At 

the time of migration, displacees felt  unavailability of transport and labor force to shift  household goods and 

family members easily and within short time. Riverbank erosion caused a displacement of large population, who 

lived in same locality. They had own lifestyle and strong social ties. They had another identity on behalf of their 

society,  which  is  known  as  samaj or  gosthi.  It  is  a  predominant  social  heritage  mainly  in  rural  areas  of 

Bangladesh. Members of a samaj or gosthi are more coherent among themselves, than others living in the same 

locality. A samaj is formed by one or more than one gosthi, where other members may be included sharing the 

same beliefs or values. A gosthi is identical by its clan. Almost all the members of samaj or gosthi were affected 

14 Abrar and Azad, op.cit., p. 32.

10



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

by riverbank erosion, when it  took place. At the time of riverbank accretion,  samaj or  gosthi became mainly 

inactive as all were engaged in own purpose. So, help from samaj members was not so much expected. Beyond 

that, members- who were not within the erosion vicinity came to facilitate shifting activities. Victims found no 

support from government or non-governmental organizations. 

1.8 OLDER MEMBERS, WOMEN AND CHILDREN

These three groups were found more vulnerable to natural disaster as well as riverbank erosion displacement. 

Multistage troubles arose in the process of transferring these members. Sometimes they suffered from various 

types’ of hardship or created problems to others.

1.9 PROBLEMS RELATED TO OLDER MEMBERS

At the time of leaving home for a new place, an emotional situation took place. All the family members were crying 

for  their  unfortunate  displacement.  Older  people  were  widely  accepted  as  being  a  vulnerable  or  potentially 

vulnerable group15. Older members created more complex situation for the young, who were engaged in shifting 

process. They had no time to waste for resettling family members. A large number of respondents replied that their 

older members were not willing to go another place leaving their forefathers homestead land. But lack of public 

awareness and information about older people’s contributions, circumstances, issues or needs created negative 

images of aged members. Other family members were about to forget older peoples’ affliction to family in their early 

age. Older members were so emotional that they wanted to die than to leave. They had spent their childhood in that 

place. Mementos were touching in every corners of their house. Most of the respondents realized that they had 

shown anger with their older family members in that situation. Interestingly, they did not feel guilty for misbehaving 

with their older members. Shifting of older members was another important problem faced by the displacees. Elders, 

who were incapable to walk or too weak to walk or sometimes unable to climb into a truck or van or on a country-

boats, they were taken up on the lap. In that vulnerable situation, they needed special care and attention from other 

members. On the transport, they occupied more space to lie-down. It was embarrassing for them, when they shared 

a transport with others or owned by others. Sometimes, respondents had to manage a separate transport for them. 

Problems concerned to elders did not end by shifting but in the new place, they found more troubles with the 

environment 

1.10 PROBLEMS RELATED TO WOMEN AND GIRLS

Women were one of the severe victims of riverbank erosion, which tended them to comparatively a vulnerable 

group16.  Women  of  the  respondent  households  had  reported17 their  helplessness  and  vulnerability  due  to 

displacement induced by riverbank erosion. On the other hand, their male counterparts had expressed variably 

different attitude to few activities of female members on the eve of shifting. Those comments and observations 

are stated below: 

a) The general comment of women on male members’ activities and attitude was that they were kept in the 

dark about things going on. They were eager to know about the rate of erosion, recent distance of river from 

15 “Older people in disasters and humanitarian crises: Guidelines for best practice”, HelpAge 
International, London: NA, pp. 1-20.

16 Sharif  A.  Kafi,  Disaster  and  Destitute  Women (Dhaka:  Bangladesh  Development 
Partnership Centre, 1992), p. 73.

17 Their opinions on this issue were collected during Focus Group Discussion meetings in the 
two study areas. A cross section (male and female) FDG was also arranged with the respondents and 
female members.

11



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

their place of living and selecting new place to resettle. But there was no direct information system to women 

to know about this. They were fully dependent on male members. 

b) At the time of disaster, pregnant women felt in a critical condition and they felt helpless. They could not move 

freely due to their physical inability. Other members had to take special care for them, but in that terrible 

situation,  members  could  do  a  little  for  them.  If  they  were  needed  to  take  to  hospital,  it  was  almost 

impossible  to  do  so  due  to  unavailability  of  transport  and  hazardous  communication.  Only  traditional 

medicine and nursing facility could be provided for them. 

c) Male members wanted to make safe shifting for their family. In that respect, they arranged transport and 

preparation. Household heads expected to transfer household materials after sending family members. But 

most of the women desired to be present at the time of packing household goods, so that they could reopen 

those packs to get essential materials easily. Male members forced them to leave immediately with other 

members. 

d) Women and girls were found more exposed to insecurity,  e, i;  sexual and domestic violence in disaster 

contexts18. They became a vulnerable group in all respect. Latha has identified several reasons for increased 

risk of sexual and domestic violence on women and children, in his study on aftermath of Orissa cyclone and 

Gujrat earthquake. Women seeking shelter during cyclones had been exposed to sexual harassment and 

assault. Concerns were raised that children misidentified as cyclone ‘orphans’ were trafficked into sex work. 

Kafi’s19 work also supported this findings that girls and women affected by cyclones and floods followed by 

riverbank erosion, lack of protection from male relatives for widows and other sole women was cited as one 

of the factors increasing the rate and fear of sexual assault. Girls in families forced by the losses of drought 

or cyclone to sell off dowry possessions may well be forced into early marriage and child labor increases 

when hard-hit families must send all members of the household out to work. Families found ‘forced-marriage’ 

of their girls in early ages due to lack of security and providing of food. 

e) Natural  disaster  induced  displacement  took  displacees  to  the  periphery  of  livelihood  facilities.  It  was 

mentioned earlier that womenfolk of the society suffered more than the male from many purposes. More 

than 50 percent respondent families of the study areas did not get latrine facilities at their shelter for the first 

time. It got revealed that those female members could respond to their natural calls only at the very early in 

the morning or after evening. Living without latrine facility, affected directly to the women, whereas, male 

members  might  not  accept  it  as  a  severe  problem.  But  they  were  concerned about  that  problem and 

managed latrine facility as soon as possible. 

f) It  was another duty lies on the female members to look after children as well  as older members.  Male 

members  argued  that  they  had  to  work  outside  to  earn  money  for  household  expenditure  and  female 

members were traditionally accountable to look after other members.

1.11 IMPACT ON PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH

It is invariably true that everyone will experience physical or emotional and psychological distress during or in the 

immediate aftermath20 of a disaster or other large-scale traumatic event. Acts of terrorism, natural disasters and 

other large-scale traumatic events typically result in tremendous loss of life, physical injuries and property damage. 

Survivors of such tragedies invariably experience significant physical, emotional and psychological distress in the 

immediate days  and weeks  that  follow.  Just  after  the disaster,  respondents  reported  symptoms ranging  from 

18 Prof Dr Krishnadas Mazumder Latha, “Role of Women in Disaster Preparedness”,  www. 
authorsDen.com. Dated: 28.06.2008.

19 Ibid.
20 Matt J. Gray, “Acute Psychological Impact of Disaster and Large-scale Trauma: Limitations 

of  Traditional  Interventions  and  Future  Practice  Recommendations”,  Prehospital  and  Disaster 
Medicine, Vol. 19, No. 1 (March, 2004), pp. 64-72.

12



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

physical  injury,  intense fear, anxiety and despair to shock and disbelief21, which are compounded by legitimate 

concerns about safety, shelter and significant financial consequences of the event. Every disaster left few signs over 

the affected locality. 

NIRAPAD22 had found out five types impacts of disaster on the affected population as well as over the affected 

locality. From the figure 2.6, it was seen that respondents of both the study areas had suffered from physical 

trauma  as  well  as  psychological  distress  due  to  sudden  dislocation  and  belief  of  being  a  permanent 

displacement from their homestead.

These two types  of  trauma were  discussed below.  Respondents  and  other  family members got  hurt  in  the 

process of shifting. Physical accidents are as follows: 

a) Injury: Thirty six percent respondents were injured at the time of shifting of their household goods and family 

members. Physical injury covers, bleeding or loss or damage of a limb. It was quite natural and unavoidable 

to be injured in any form of the hazardous shifting process. Others experienced swelling or negligible hurts. 

b) Disability: Bone crack due to accident at the time of shifting was found in the 01 percent households of both 

the study areas. 

c) Death: Death due to riverbank erosion was not common like tornado, cyclone, earthquake or other natural 

disasters. 

Every natural disaster left few psychological events for the affected population. For most of them, the adage “time 

heals all wounds”23 was an apt characterization of post-traumatic adjustment. However, after displacement from 

their homestead, they bore the psychological distress than did non-displacees24 though it was expected that they 

would show maximum resiliency. A thorough survey was done on the respondents of two study areas to find out the 

psychological  impact of displacement. Diversified expressions were observed over them. These are mentioned 

below briefly:

a) Fear: Many of them feared that the river might grab their present homestead on day. They did not forget the 

fearful events-when they lived with threat of erosion.

b) Flashbacks: This type of emotional shock made people more vulnerable to be sick. They wanted to look 

forward but could not build new idea. All the time they thought about their past life, which they believed as a 

golden  time.  They  remembered  their  childhood,  joyful  events,  family-life  etc.  Flashbacks  made  them 

emotional and consequently the became psychologically sick.

c) Feeling of pain: Most of the displacees felt mental pain, when they thought about their fate and present 

situation. Though it was reported as being impossible to describe in words,  it was characterized by very 

painful emotions. 

d) Feel helpless: Displacees felt very helpless in the present place of living. In their earlier living area, they had 

a  very  strong  association;  neighbors  were  helpful  to  one  another  in  every  situation,  especially  in  the 

emergency time. They had also a mutual understanding of their needs. But in the new settlement area, 

displacees felt themselves helpless in every situation, as they could not express their needs to the local 

people.

e) Loneliness: This  was  another  symptom  of  distressed  population.  Losing  homestead,  family  members, 

friends and neighbors they became psychologically weak, and could not make relation with new neighbors. 

21 Ibid.
22 Md. Rezaul Karim, Post Disaster Psychological Care Manual (Dhaka: NIRAPAD, 2005), p. 

9.
23 Ibid.
24 http: //pdm.medicine.wisc.edu/Hutton.htm dated: 30.06.2008

13



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

Due to continuous emotional pressure, they became introvert and as a consequence of these matters, they 

preferred to stay alone and thought about their losses.

f) Disappointment: Disaster victims always looks disappointed due to various reasons. And riverbank erosion 

displacees were victimized at the maximum that river can do. They looked just like a boat in a sea without 

sail. They found no light of hope to bear the needs. It was found that due to this displacement, total work-

hour of the displacees had reduced remarkably by 20-30 percent in both the areas, which varied from male 

to female also.

g) Low self-esteem: As a disappointed and hopeless man, they lost  self-esteem to do something for  the 

betterment of the family members. A number of respondents were found, who did not do anything. Actually 

they had lost their inner energy and power to do something. In this connection, social workers had more 

space to gear up these people to start normal life.

h) Sleep  disturbance: Respondents  reported  on  their  changes  in  duration  of  sleep  before  and  after 

displacement. It was found from their report that they were suffering from sleep disturbance due to migration 

in a new place and displacement from their original homestead. This may be clarified from the following 

table.

i) Crying: It was observed from FDGs that most of the displaced persons, especially the women and children 

cried for their present miserable condition. They could not forget their earlier happiness and way of living. 

‘Loss of land, loss of everything’ – this thinking made them emotional to cry out.

j) Feeling guilty: Sometimes failure to manage situation professionally brought guilty perception to the head of 

the institution.  The riverbank erosion displacees faced a crucial  problem during and after displacement in 

connection with disposing or shifting household goods and family members. Some of them expressed their 

concern over their land and other on movable assets, which they could sell out or bring with them. Some of  

them felt guilty to compel family members to participate in the process of shifting who had been injured and 

disabled. 

k) Addiction: It was observed that some of the household members became addicted to be forgetful of their 

personal and family depression. They were interviewed and agreed that addiction was not the solution but 

they had nothing to do to overcome sadness. 

l) Suicidal tendency: Disaster affected and psychologically distressed people may commit suicide any time 

after disaster. There are two final stages of psychological distresses, one is schizophrenia and the other is 

suicide. But it does not always happen to every affected person. In the two study areas, no incidence of 

suicide was found. Displacees’ family ties and sharing family responsibilities by other members might have 

shown them the light of hope to start from the beginning. 

m) Relationship problems25: Relation with the local people sometimes might cause psychological distress to the 

displacees. The researchers came to know that though most of the local people accepted them cordially but 

some of them expressed negligence and criticized their sufferings as it was a punishment from Allah for their 

unbound sins. Sometimes they quote the Qur’anic verses and try to relate with that. Most of the local people 

identified displacees collectively as ‘refugee’. In this context, displacees suffered from relationship problem with 

local people. 

1. 12  PRESENT POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL SETUP

25 Frndcine Shapiro, “Eye Movement Desensitization: A New Treatment for Post-traumatic 

Stress”, Disorder. Mental Research Institute, Inc., Palo Alto, California, Vol. 10, No. 3 (1989), pp. 111-

217.

14



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

Due to the geographical location, the country frequently suffers from devastating natural hazards of which, floods, 

cyclones,  tornadoes, riverbank erosion,  drought and earthquakes are the most disastrous to mention.  Flood, 

cyclone, tornado and drought are seasonal disasters in Bangladesh. Earthquakes happen rarely in this country. 

But only the riverbank erosion is recurrent and it happens throughout the year.

Riverbank erosion is a unique type of environmental disaster due to its destructive nature. In other disasters, 

resources may loss or people may displace for a short period of time but land exists. On the other hand, land, the 

primary  component  of  civilization,  is  washed  out,  displacement  occurs  forever.  So,  no  other  disaster  is  as 

disastrous as riverbank erosion. Unfortunately, it was not considered a specific disaster in Bangladesh before 

1993, rather thought to be a consequence of flood. But flood is not turns always a disaster. After continuous 

campaign and demand from concerned agencies and stockholders, in 1993, government of Bangladesh declared 

riverbank erosion as a disaster. Though riverbank erosion is a unique type of disaster but it is amalgamated with 

other disasters and affected people are entertained on the basis of the existing policies and programs of disaster 

management. 

Ministry of  Water  Resources (MWR) and Ministry of  Food and Disaster  Management  (MFDM) are two  key 

ministries to work in this area. MWR is responsible for riverbank protection and management and MFDM has 

responsibility  for  coordinating  the  government  disaster  management  efforts  with  two  line  agencies  as  the 

Directorate of Relief and Rehabilitation (DRR) and the Disaster Management Bureau (DMB). 

The government of Bangladesh has promulgated The National Water Policy in 1999 providing policy direction for 

water sector. Planning and Management of Water Resources under the policy (article- 4.2 q) provides directive to 

‘undertake survey and investigation of the problem of riverbank erosion and develop and implement master plans 

for river training and erosion control works for preservation of scarce land and prevention of landlessness and 

pauperisation.’  MWR works  individually  to  protect  and  manage  riverbank  from erosion  without  coordinating 

MFDM.

The National  Policy  on Disaster  Management  has  emphasized  a group of  broad  based strategies,  i.e.  risk 

management, community involvement and non-structural mitigation measures. In Bangladesh there are three 

bodies  for  multi-sectoral  coordination  and  collaboration  at  the  national  level26.  a)  The  National  Disaster 

Management  Council  (NDMC)  is  headed  by  the  Prime  Minister,  b)  Inter  Ministerial  Disaster  Management 

Coordination  Committee (IMDMCC),  headed by  the cabinet  Minister  in  charge  of  the Ministry  of  Food and 

Disaster  Management  (MFDM)  and  c)  National  Disaster  Management  Advisory  Committee  (NDMAC)  with 

memberships from both the public and private sectors. There are committees also in district, upazila and union 

level followed by the directives of national committees.

The Ministry of Food and Disaster Management is responsible for building awareness in pre-disaster phase and 

distributing relief goods in post-disaster phase as well as rehabilitations in some extend. Certain sections of the 

displacees are accommodated in allocation of  Khas land,  Adarshaya Gram and  Abashon projects. NGOs like 

CARE-Bangladesh, OXFAM, BDPC and RDRS are working with displacees in certain areas of Bangladesh.

1.14 DISCUSSION ON THE POLICIES AND PROGRAMS

26 National  Report  and  Information  on  Disaster  Reduction  for  the  World  conference  on 
Disaster Reduction, Ministry of Food and Disaster Management , Government of Bangladesh. Kobe-
Hyogo, Japan, January 18-22, 2005. 

15



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

It  is  common in  Bangladesh  that  the  victims  of  riverbank  erosion  do  not  receive  same response from the 

concerned authorities as received by the victims of flood, tornado and cyclone- who have secured important 

places in the list of disasters. Because of its slow process and scattered incidences, displacees of riverbank 

erosion fail to draw attention successfully of the responsible authorities. Riverbank erosion and displacees do not 

obtain also such media coverage as victims of other disasters get. As a result, almost a silent catastrophe is 

going on throughout the year to that unfortunate group of people. But there is no specific policy or program for 

the riverbank erosion displacees either in government or in non-government sectors. Riverbank erosion victims 

are treated in same manner by the government as victims of other disasters. Government has issued general 

principles for distribution of relief goods to the victims of disasters, which leaves unequal opportunities for the 

displacees due to few conditions for getting relief goods. In May 2007, four important government circulars have 

issued by the Ministry  of  Food and Disaster  Management  directing  guidelines for  distribution  of  CI  Sheets, 

General  Relief  (cash),  allotment (cash)  for  house building,  and General  Relief  (Food) among the victims of 

cyclone/fire/flood/riverbank erosion/tidal wave/earthquake. 

Riverbank erosion displacees do not get first two types of assistances because of the required qualifications. For 

getting CI Sheets, victims have to have their own land. But ‘displacees became displacees’ after losing their land 

due to riverbank erosion. So, they fail to get CI Sheets that is essential for building a temporary shelter. They do 

not get general relief (cash) also. If a person dies due to disaster then his family may get assistance as cash. 

Fortunately, death is rare in case of riverbank erosion victims. Twenty KGs of rice is distributed to each family 

only for once as general relief, with which a five-member family can go maximum ten days. Three thousand Taka 

is given to each family to repair their damage houses.

Problem also lies in selecting victim families. There are temporary shelters build by the government at cyclone 

prone areas, where people take shelter during cyclone-surge. Authorities can easily get reach to them. They also 

can reach to those who do not come to the shelter, because they live in their own land. It is also the same for the 

flood affected people. But there is no temporary shelter for riverbank erosion victims or no early warning system 

or no early evacuation process to evacuate the inhabitants of  erosion prone areas. As a result,  after  losing 

homestead, displacees leave the area on their own initiatives to distant safer places as there is no chance for 

early  alluvial  of  their  diluviated  land.  Field  level  experience  shows  that  most  of  them  move  to  different 

administrative area. So, the officials of their original area cannot assist them and the officials of resettled area 

have limited scope to help them as they are not the victims of that administrative area. The consequence is that, 

these environmental refugees become more vulnerable in every sense and compel to live under the extreme 

poverty line. 

It is found that victims of sudden and highly-publicized disasters like the Asian tsunami, Bay of Bengal cyclones 

(Sidr, Bizli, Aila etc.) or the US Gulf Coast hurricanes are benefited from the mobilization of private and public 

sector generosity and humanitarian relief. On the other hand, millions of victims of disasters like coastal/riverbank 

erosion  or  sea  level  rising  around  the  world  are  uprooted  by  gradual  environmental  changes,  receive 

comparatively little support to cope and adapt and are not recognized as refugees with the benefits that grants. 

It is said that 50 million people worldwide will be displaced by 2010 due to different environmental disasters as 

scholars  are  predicting.  Developed  countries  has  important  role  in  this  connection  by  providing  financial 

assistance and logistic support. Increasing number of internal displaced population is not only a problem for the 

affected country but it may also create extra-pressure through ‘inevitable migration’ to the developed countries. 

16



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

Therefore, some changes are needed in existing policies and initiatives of institutions to work for the victims of 

riverbank erosion. It is needed to consider riverbank erosion as a unique environmental disaster which not only 

makes people landless and homeless but it also changes the geographical map (by encroaching riverbank) of the 

land scarce country and increases the number of internal displaced population who finds no way but to live as 

slum dwellers. 

1.15 RECOMMENDATIONS

On the basis of the above discussion, the following recommendations are made to reduce the vulnerability and 

improve the stability of the riverbank erosion induced displacees. The National Disaster Management Council 

(NDMC) should enact the Comprehensive Riverbank Erosion Management Policy:

1. To ensure the rights and protection of the displacees; 

2.  Formation  of  ‘Coordination  Council’  to  coordinate  bank-protection  works  and  displacees’  livelihood 

development programs. 

These programs should include the following phases of erosion risk management at the national as well as local 

level:

Phase 1 – Pre-displacement Period

1. Identifying, assessing and monitoring of the potential hazards, risks and vulnerabilities.

2. Organization of effective early warning and information management systems. This guarantees timely and 

effective dissemination of early warning information to the community level.

3. Building storage systems at district levels in order to effectively dispatch material resources for relief and 

rehabilitation.

4. Identifying land/khas land to nearby safer zones to improve the management capacity of authority.

5. Regional Disaster Management Center of South Asia for multilateral cooperation.

Phase 2- Emergency Response

1. Conducting rescue, evacuation and recovery operations as necessary.

2. Determining temporary shelter and facilitate with transport may help the displacees to come to the shelter 

area.

3. Activating evacuation points/areas and distributing relief and medical supplies to disaster victims.

4. Undertaking rehabilitation activities.

5. Developing recovery plans based on community needs and priorities.

Phase 3- Post Displacement Phase

1. Providing “developmental relief” and recovery services as necessary.

2. Allotment of Khas land and providing accommodation in Adarshya Gram and Abashon projects.

3. Enacting Banking policy to provide loan without interest and write off agricultural loan to the victims.

4. Insurance schemes at soft premiums.

5. Ensuring boundary conditions (river depth, flow velocities, water levels) for different design options (spurs, 

revetments) based on specific characteristics of major rivers.

6. Introducing two- and three-layer bank protection systems.

CONCLUSION

Besides  different  bank  protection  works,  riverbank  erosion  remains  as  a  continuous  threat  to  the  riparian 

inhabitants  and  the  land-scarce  country.  Every  year,  a  large  number  of  its  population  is  displaced  due to 

17



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

riverbank  erosion.  They  loss  their  land  and  migrate  to  another  place  to  make  new  settlement.  These 

environmental refugees become vulnerable as a whole in every sense. Before deteriorating situation to beyond 

control, it is high time to take necessary actions to stop forceful displacement and livelihood management of the 

victims.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abrar,  Chowdhury R and Azad,  S Nurullah,  Coping with  Displacement,  Dhaka: RDRS Bangladesh, 

2004.

Disaster Report: 1997, Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Forum, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

-2000, Bangladesh Disaster Preparedness Forum, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Doreen Marie Indra and Norman Buchignani, “Rural Landlessness,  extended entitlements and inter-

household relations in South Asia: A Bangladesh Case”,  Journal of Peasant Studies,  Vol. 24, Issue 3, April, 

1997, pp. 25-64.

Elahi, K. Maudood et. al., (eds.). Riverbank Erosion, Flood and Population Displacement in Bangladesh. 

Dhaka:Riverbank Erosion Impact Study, 1991.

 Frndcine  Shapiro,  “Eye  Movement  Desensitization:  A  New  Treatment  for  Post-traumatic  Stress”, 

Disorder. Mental Research Institute, Inc., Palo Alto, California, Vol. 10, No. 3 (1989), pp. 111-217.

Heming, Li  and Rees, Philip,  “Population Displacement in the Three Gorges Reservoir  Area of  the 

Yangtze  River,  Central  China:  Relocation  Policies  and  Migrant  Views”,  International  Journal  of  Population 

Geography, Vol. 6, 2000.

Islam, M. Zulfiquar Ali. “Social Resilience of the riverbank Erosion Displacees in Bangladesh”. Ecology 

and Human Well-Being. Eds. By Pushpam Kumar and B. Sudhakara Reddy. New Delhi: Sage Publications India 

Pvt Ltd. 2007.

Kafi, Sharif A.,  What People can do to Reduce the Disastrous Effects of River Erosion,  Dhaka: Pact-

Bangladesh/PRIP, 1993.

Matt  J.  Gray,  “Acute  Psychological  Impact  of  Disaster  and  Large-scale  Trauma:  Limitations  of 

Traditional Interventions and Future Practice Recommendations”,  Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, Vol. 19, 

No. 1 (March, 2004), pp. 64-72.

Md. Rezaul Karim, Post Disaster Psychological Care Manual (Dhaka: NIRAPAD, 2005), p. 9.

Ministry  of  Food  and  Disaster  Management  ,  Government  of  Bangladesh,  National  Report  and 

Information on Disaster Reduction for the World conference on Disaster Reduction,. Kobe-Hyogo, Japan.

National Report and Information on Disaster Reduction for the World conference on Disaster Reduction, 

Ministry of Food and Disaster Management , Government of Bangladesh. Kobe-Hyogo, Japan, January 18-22, 

2005.

Nizamuddin,  k.,  ed.,  Disaster  in  Bangladesh,  Dhaka:  Disaster  Research Training  and  Management 

Centre, undated.

“Older people in disasters and humanitarian crises: Guidelines for best practice”, HelpAge International, 

London: NA, pp. 1-20.

Professor Abdul Baki (ed.), Duryogbarta, Disaster Research Training and Management Center, Dept. of 

Geology and Environment, DU, Vol. 13, 2006, p. 6.

Prof  Dr  Krishnadas  Mazumder  Latha,  “Role  of  Women  in  Disaster  Preparedness”,  www. 

authorsDen.com. Dated: 28.06.2008.

Sharif A. Kafi,  Disaster and Destitute Women (Dhaka: Bangladesh Development Partnership Centre, 

1992), p. 73.

18



Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 2011;2(2): 4-19

The daily Jugantor, 21.06.2008.

www.coastbd.org

environment.about.com 

www.climate.org

http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a790270448~db=all~order=page dated: 24.07.2008.

http: //pdm.medicine.wisc.edu/Hutton.htm dated: 30.06.2008

19

http://environment.about.com/od/globalwarming/a/envirorefugees.htm
http://www.coastbd.org/

	RIVERBANK EROSION DISPLACEES IN BANGLADESH: NEED FOR INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSE AND POLICY INTERVENTION
	1.3 PROBLEMS OF THE DISPLACEES

