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Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science Vol.10 No.1 Jan’11 

*Corresponds to: Dr. Musa Mohd. Nordin, MBBCH (Wales), FRCP (Edin); FAMM Consultant 
Paediatrician & Neonatologist, Damansara Specialist Hospital, Kualalumpur, Malaysia. Email: 
musamn@gmail.com. 

Editorial 
Human genetic and reproductive technologies –  
an international medico-legal-religious impasse? 

 
 Musa Mohd. Nordin* 

 
Introduction 

Heralded by the revelation of the double 
helical structure of the DNA molecule in 
1953, the 21st century is aptly designated 
the biotechnology century. The 20th 
century of physics, which saw the 
transformation of silicon into computing 
magic, was embraced with enthusiasm by 
virtually every household. However, unlike 
her predecessor, the same cannot be said 
about the advancements in biomedicine. 
 
These revolutionary procedures in 
biotechnology have probed the outermost 
boundaries of what is scientifically 
possible and acceptable. Micro 
manipulation at the very earliest stages of 
human development, at the level of the 
embryo, single cell and genetic structure is 
undoubtedly a very delicate and sensitive 
issue with potentially explosive ethical, 
social, medico-legal and religious 
ramifications. Hence, the turbulent and not 
uncommonly hostile controversies that has 
since evolved. 
 
Some of the issues in biotechnology which 
are debated contentiously and extensively 
across all segments of human society 
include assisted reproductive technologies, 
human reproductive cloning, therapeutic 
cloning, embryo research, genetic 
engineering, euthanasia, organ 
transplantation, abortion and contraception. 
 
The jurisprudence of biotechnology 

As a complete and comprehensive way of 
life, the teachings of Islam encompasses all 
fields of human endeavours, spiritual and 
material, individual and societal, 
economics and politics, national and 
international. This is well understood from 

the revelation during the occasion of the 
prophet’s farewell pilgrimage. 
 
“This day, I have perfected your religion 
for you, completed My favour upon you, 
and have chosen for you Islam as your 
religion” (5:3) 
 
And the instructions which regulate our 
everyday activity of life is called Shariah 
(Islamic law). The Shariah is the epitome 
of the Islamic spirit, the most typical 
manifestation of the Islamic way of life, 
the kernel of Islam itself1. Bioethical 
deliberations is inseparable from the 
religion itself, hence Islamic bioethics must 
remain and flourish within the confines of 
the Shariah.  
 
All Muslim scholars and jurists are agreed 
that four sources of Islamic law remain in 
the forefront of all deliberations in Islamic 
jurisprudence (Fiqh), known as the 
Masadir al Shariah2. They are: 
 
1. Quran 
2. Sunnah (authentic traditions of the 

prophet) 
3. Ijma’ (consensus) 
4. Qiyas (analogy) 
 
Others which are not founded on a material 
source (nass) from the Quran or Sunnah 
but capturing the spirit of the Shariah and 
taking into consideration the welfare of the 
community include: 

1. Istihsan – the choice of one of several 
lawful options 

2. Istishab – continuation of an existing 
ruling until the contrary is proved 

3. Urf – customs or precedent which does 
not contradict nass 



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4. Maslahah or Istislah – consideration of 
public interest or welfare 

5. Shar’u man qabluna – the laws of our 
predecessors, either confirmed or 
abrogated by the primary sources 

6. Qawl as-sahabi – the narrative of the 
companion of the prophet 

 
The purposes of the law (Maqasid al 
Shariah) arranged in their order of 
importance are directed towards the 
preservation of3: 

1. Deen (religion) 
2. Nafs (life) 
3. Aql (mind) 
4. Nasl (progeny) 
5. Maal (property) 
 
This classification which is permanent and 
immutable defines succinctly and clearly 
the objectives of the community and gives 
it balance and a sense of purpose. Three of 
these priorities are directly related to the 
preservation of health, namely life, mind 
and progeny. 
 
And from the outset it must be emphasized 
that the Shariah is guided by five cardinal 
principles (Qawaid al Shariah). These are4: 

1. The principle of intention – intent is all 
important in actions 

2. The principle of certainty – certainty 
cannot be changed by doubt and all acts 
are permissible unless there are clear 
prohibitions 

3. The principle of injury – do no harm, 
injury must be removed or compensated 

4. The principle of hardship – hardship 
calls forth ease and facilitation, need or 
necessity makes for allowing what is 
prohibited 

5. The principle of custom – custom or 
precedent is the rule unless contradicted 
by nass 

 
These cardinal rules lead the scholars and 
jurists to think of Islamic Fiqh as the 
subject of five vital conceptions5: 

1. There are few absolute obligations 
(takalif) 

2. Gradualism in the promulgation of laws 
3. Making the burden lighter when making 

and executing laws 
4. Hardship is avoided and necessity is 

taken into account 
5. Justice and equity must always prevail 
 
The Shariah is therefore a living, dynamic 
and relevant entity. It is for everyone, 
everywhere and for all times. It also 
describes itself as a guide, a light and a 
mercy6. It is this philosophy of the law 
which is alive to the contemporary 
challenges of advancing biotechnologies. I 
have chosen to illustrate this harmony and 
the relevance of the law to three areas of 
cutting edge biotechnology, namely: 

1. Reproductive human cloning 
2. Therapeutic cloning 
3. Genetic technology and human embryo 

research 
 
Human reproductive cloning 

When man was experimenting with 
cloning in plants, frogs and small marine 
animals, the Islamic Organisation of  
Medical Sciences (IOMS) based in Kuwait, 
convened a seminar in 1983 in which 2 
papers were presented which dealt with the 
potential of human cloning and the shariah 
perspective on this possibility. When the 
cloning of Dolly the sheep by the 
technique of somatic cell nuclear transfer 
was announced in February 1997, the 
IOMS in their 9th Fiqh Medical seminar 
updated their juristic opinion on this most 
contentious issue7. 
 
Like the IOMS, virtually every Islamic 
seminar, jurisprudence council or 
individual scholars have concluded that 
cloning procedures aimed at producing 
human clones is not permissible. The 
majority considered it Haram (not 
permissible) in all its details8. Whilst a 
minority opinion considered in Haram as a 
way to prevent a cause of harm (the 



Human genetic and reproductive technologies 

3 

necessity to refrain from causing harm to 
oneself and others). This latter juristic 
opinion keeps open the option of 
readdressing the issue should new 
information become available and 

approved by Shariah. The use of somatic 
cell nuclear transfer technology even 
between husband and wife was also not 
approved. 

 

 
 

 
 
 
The rationales for prohibition were as 
follows: 

a. The basic concept in reproduction is to 
abide by the Shariah approved system 
of legally binding marriage, through the 
union of the sperm and ovum. 

b. Human cloning is against the natural 
process (Fitrah) of human relationship 
of marriage and reproduction 

c. The major harms far exceed the 
benefits. These include the disruption of 
lineage, family relationships and social 
fabric of humanity. 

d. The anticipated social, moral, 
psychological and legal implications of 
human copies. 

e. The possibility of interfering with the 
male-female population dynamics  

 
The ethics aside, the science of human 
reproductive cloning is not evidence based: 

1. It is an inexact science – there were 277 
attempts before Dolly was possible. 
"Even with mammals the risks are 
monumental let alone humans, it is 
criminally irresponsible" says Ian 
Wilmut, the "creator of Dolly". Failure 
rates are in excess of 98% 

2. It is an inefficient technology - Abortion 
rates are 10x higher, stillbirth rates are 
3x higher. Natural reproduction is more 
efficient and … more fun. 



Musa MN 

4 

3. Unproven safety – Dolly suffered from 
premature rheumatism and early death 
(she was “a sheep in lamb's clothings"). 
Other abnormalities include large 
offspring syndrome, underdeveloped 
lungs, reduced immunity, and increased 
congenital anomalies. The list of 
misadventures increase by the day and 
which infertility expert or cloner is 
going to publish their failures! 

4. Besides it compromises the gene pool - 
it reduces genetic variability and 
diversity. One virulent pathogen may be 
sufficient to wipe out the whole clone 
population.  

 
The national and international responses to 
the new technologies of human 
reproductive cloning have suffered a policy 
lull. Eight years post-Dolly, only a few 
countries have either drafted or enacted 
laws to bring human genetic and 
reproductive technology under responsible 
societal governance. As of November 
2003, 77% of countries have not taken 
action to ban reproductive human cloning. 
Malaysia is in the final stages of drafting 
laws to ban the reproductive cloning of 
human beings.  
 
Apart from a small minority of “rogue 
cloners” there is an international consensus 
against the reproductive cloning of human 
beings. However the opportunity to 
elaborate an international convention to 
ban reproductive human cloning was lost 
when member countries disagreed on the 
extent of the ban.  
 
The USA and Costa Rica in the Policy on 
UN Cloning Treaty 2003, proposed a full 
ban on both reproductive and therapeutic 
cloning; whilst other member countries 
supported the Belgium proposal for a 
partial ban that is to ban reproductive 
cloning and allow national discretion on 
therapeutic cloning.  
 
Therapeutic cloning 

Unfortunately, the confusion and disgust at 
the prospect of  cloning and creating babies 
has been transferred to therapeutic cloning. 
In therapeutic cloning unlike human 
reproductive cloning the end point is not 
cloning a human being. This technology 
involves the production of human clonal 
embryos for the purpose of harvesting 
stem-cells, tissues and organs. This would 
open the potential of curing a whole host of 
chronic and debilitating diseases including 
diabetes mellitus, Parkinsonism, 
myocardial infarction and spinal injuries.  
 
The source of the totipotent stem cells has 
however been a source of intense 
controversy. Stem cells found in umbilical 
cord blood, bone marrow and aborted 
fetuses are generally acceptable from the 
ethical and moral point of view. Though 
less plastic, scarce and sometimes quite 
inaccessible, there have been some success 
stories with the use of these non-embryonic 
stem cells.  
 
The use of embryonic stem cells (ESC) is 
however fraught with highly charged 
religio-bio-ethical debate. The source of 
controversy revolves around the various 
questions about when life becomes a 
human life; namely: 

1. Is an ovum and sperm a person? 
2. When do the products of conception 

become a person? 
3. Does a zygote have a full set of human 

rights? 
4. Does the foetus have a soul? 
 
This concept of personhood is neither 
logical nor empirical. It is based on one’s 
fundamental assumptions about the nature 
of the world. It is primarily a religious or 
quasi-religious concept. 
 
The Roman Catholics believe that the soul 
enters the body at conception and the 
fertilized ovum is a human person will full 
human rights. Pope John Paul II, on 29 
August 2000 said, “Methods that fail to 
respect the dignity and value of the person 



Human genetic and reproductive technologies 

5 

must always be avoided. I am thinking in 
particular of attempts at human cloning 
with a view to obtaining organs for 
transplants: these techniques, in so far as 
they involve the manipulation and 
destruction of human embryos, are not 
morally acceptable, even when their 
proposed goal is good in itself” 
 
The scientific paradigm defines the pre-
embryonic stage as the period from 
fertilization up to the determinant of the 
primitive streak at the age of 14 days. The 
pre-embryo is unable to feel pain or 
pleasure and therefore has no moral status. 
They may be cryopreserved, discarded or 
used for research purposes.  
 
Lord May of Oxford, the President of the 
Royal Society said, “to cut off this research 
(without clear understanding of the science 
of therapeutic cloning and its potential to 
contribute to mankind) would be an act of 
intellectual vandalism comparable to papal 
censorship of Galileo and Copernicus.” 
 
The first verse revealed to Prophet 
Muhammad in the cave of Hira’ translates 
as follows:  
 
“Read! In the name of your Lord, who has 
created. Has created man from alaqa.” 
(96:1-2) 
 
This verse embodies two very significant 
messages. From the outset, the Quran 
emphasizes the primacy of knowledge and 
follows this with the first lesson in 
embryology, the very creation of man 
himself.  
 
The Quran is a book of guidance to invite 
mankind to the truth and salvation. But 
nonetheless it contains many “signs” which 
invites mankind to reflect upon his creation 
and the world that surrounds him.  In 
various verses, it illustrates lucidly both the 
physical and spiritual dimensions of man’s 
creation. In chapter 23, verses 12-14, the 
Quran says: 

“And indeed We created man from a 
quintessence of clay. Then we placed him 
as a small quantity of liquid (nutfa) in a 
safe lodging firmly established. Then we 
have fashioned the nutfa into something 
which hangs (alaqa). Then We made alaqa 
into a chewed lump of flesh (mudgha). 
And We made the mudgha into bones, and 
clothed the bones with flesh. And then We 
brought it forth as another creation. So 
blessed be God, the best to create” 
 
The nutfa represents the blastocyst which 
embeds within the endometrium. The 
alaqa, much intrigued the distinguished 
embryologist, Prof. Moore who was 
puzzled at how 1400 years ago anyone 
could accurately describe it as something 
which clings to the inner uterine wall like a 
leech. The scholars of Quran were 
similarly unable to explain the concept of 
mudgha until microsopy revealed that the 
chewed lump of flesh resembled accurately 
the appearances of the somites. And note 
how explicit the verses have been in 
illustrating that the ossification centres 
preceded the formation of the myotomes. 
 
In another verse the Quran very clearly 
revealed another phase of man’s being, the 
process of ensoulment. 
 
“And breathe into him of His spirit” (32:9) 
 
The soul is a metaphysical concept which 
is fundamental in Islam and it defines a 
human individual. The majority opinion in 
Islam accepts the 120th day of pregnancy 
as the time of ensoulment. Eventhough 
ensoulment occurs later; the embryo is 
respected from the onset of fertilization 
and acquires consideration as a human 
foetus after implantation. 
 
And based on these fundamental premises, 
at least three Islamic Fiqh (Jurisprudence) 
Councils have given permission for the use 
of surplus embryos from IVF laboratories 
for   ESC research9,10,11. However, it is not 
permissible at this juncture, to consciously 



Musa MN 

6 

generate pre-embryos either by 
conventional IVF techniques or somatic 
cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) for ESC 
research.  
 
As at November 2003, 6 (3%) countries 
have allowed therapeutic cloning whilst 30 
(16%) have prohibited it. The 6 countries 
in favour of allowing therapeutic cloning to 
proceed within stipulated policy guidelines 
are China, Singapore, Belgium, UK, Cuba 
and USA. 
 
The Federal Embryo Protection Law 
(1990) of Germany prohibits both 
reproductive and therapeutic cloning. This 
represents the spectrum of countries with 
“relatively restrictive” laws related to 
reproductive technologies. Others include 
Austria, the Scandinavian countries, 
Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Spain and 
Switzerland. 
 
The other end of the spectrum is 
represented by the United Kingdom’s 
Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 
(1990) and Human Reproductive Cloning 
Act (2001) and Singapore’s Bioethics 

Advisory Committee (BAC) Report on 
“Ethical, Legal and Social Issues in Human 
Stem Cell Research, Reproductive and 
Therapeutic Cloning” which was approved 
by the government on 18 July 2002. The 
UK and Singapore “more permissive” 
regulations allows the generation of 
embryos by both IVF and SCNT 
technologies if there is a demonstrable and 
exceptional need which cannot be met by 
the use of surplus embryos.  
 
The “in-between” policies are 
demonstrated by the Canadian’s new 
Assisted Human Reproduction Act (2004) 
and Australia’s Research Involving 
Embryos Act (2003). They both allow the 
utilization of surplus IVF embryos for 
research but prohibit the creation of human 
embryos for research and SCNT for 
research and reproduction. The current 
thinking in our Malaysian National 
Committee on Human Cloning seems to 
favour this line of thought and legal 
framework; which is also resonates well 
with the fatwa issued by the three 
jurisprudence councils in Jeddah, USA and 
Jordan. 

 
 

Region Countries Reproductive Cloning Research Cloning IGM 

  Prohibited Prohibited Allowed Prohibited 
 # # % # % # % # % 

Africa 53 1 2% 1 2% 0 0% 1 2% 
Middle East 23 1 4% 0 0% 0 0% 1 4% 
South Asia / East 
Asia / Pacific 33 6 18% 3 9% 2 6% 5 15% 

Europe - Eastern 24 14 58% 8 33% 0 0% 9 38% 
Europe - Western 24 16 67% 13 54% 2 8% 8 33% 
Americas & 
Caribbean 35 8 23% 5 14% 2 6% 3 9% 

World 192 46 23% 30 16% 6 3% 27 14%
 
Except for Israel, none of the nations in the 
Middle East have taken legal action to 
regulate either reproductive or therapeutic 
cloning. As at 6 November 2003, Bahrain, 
Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, 
Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, UAE 

and Yemen voted in favour of Iran’s 
motion on the UN Cloning Treaty Process, 
to postpone further discussions for another 
2 years. This is illustrated in the table 
above. 
 



Human genetic and reproductive technologies 

7 

Previously it was thought that it would be 
extremely difficult to develop 
comprehensive policies to govern human 
genetic and reproductive technologies. 
Despite the earlier   skepticism, various 
countries have now shown that it is 
possible to break the policy deadlock and 
draft legislation to regulate these new 
technologies of human genetic 
modification. Despite their different 
political and social experiences, some of 
the national policies thus available have 
exhibited a remarkable sharing of core 
principles; namely: 

a. they affirm technologies with a real 
chance of preventing or curing disease  

b. they ban technologies which could harm 
children or open the door to free market 
eugenics  

c. they ensure research involving embryos 
is tightly regulated  

d. they establish publicly accountable 
means to review policies & make new 
ones  

e. they pose no risk for reproductive rights 
 
Probably one of the most far reaching 
thoughts on this highly controversial issue 
of ESC research has been that propounded 
by Sheikh Dr. Yusuf Al-Qardawi, a highly 
respected and contemporary Muslim 
scholar who related in his concluding 
remarks after a lengthy juristic deliberation 
the following position12:  
 
“If it becomes possible through research to 
clone organs such as the heart, liver, 
kidneys or others which may benefit those 
who are in dire need of them; then this is 
permitted by religion and the researcher or 
scientist will receive the reward from 
Allah. This is because the research will 
confer benefit on humanity without loss to 
others or infringing upon them. 
Therapeutic cloning with this noble 
research pursuit is permissible and it is 
encouraged. In fact, in some 
circumstances, it may become mandatory 
to enhance this research in accordance with 

the need and man’s research capability and 
accountability.”  
 
The following diagram illustrates the 
extreme potential for therapeutic cloning, 
with virtually zero risk of graft versus host 
disease (GVHD), with the option of either 
de-differentiation of the patients’ 
indigenous stem cells or utilizing somatic 
cell nuclear transfer technology to generate 
embryonic stem cells. 
  
Genetic technology and human embryo 
research 

Two hadiths (authentic traditions) related 
from the Prophet has helped us to have a 
better insight into the science of genetics.  
 
“Select your spouses carefully in the 
interest of your offspring because lineage 
is a crucial issue”  
 
“Do not marry your close relatives because 
you will beget weak offsrpings”  
 
The second Caliph of Islam, Omar ibn El-
Khattab, upon noting that a particular tribe 
intermarried with increased frequency, 
remarked to them: 
 
“You have weakened your descendants. 
You should marry strangers (people 
outside your tribe)”. 
 
The spirit of the exhortations of the 
Prophet SAW and his companion was to 
secure normal and healthy babies, 
protection of their early well being, 
endowed with the benefits of good genes 
from both parents and the prevention of 
congenital malformations and its 
consequent disabilities. 
 
A variety of inherited diseases may now be 
diagnosed in the pre-embryo stage prior to 
implantation into the uterus. Highly 
sensitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 
techniques have enabled the rapid 
amplification of minute amounts of DNA 
material from the embryonic cells. 



Musa MN 

8 

Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) 
technologies with combination 
chromosomal probes have made possible 

the genetic analysis of embryonal sex and 
various aneuploidies13. 

 

 
 
Some of the potentially debilitating 
diseases which may be screened include 
Trisomy 13, 17 and 21, cystic fibrosis, 
haemophilia, Marfan’s syndrome, 
incontinentia pigmentosa, x-linked immune 
deficiency, retinitis pigmentosa, fragile X 
syndrome, muscular dystrophy and Lesch-
Nyhan disease. The first preimplantation 

genetic diagnosis (PGD) was achieved in 
1989. Since then, well over 200 diseases or 
conditions has been further isolated with 
ongoing PGD research14. 
 
The First International Conference on 
Bioethics in the Muslim World held in 
Cairo from 10-13 Dec 1991 examined very 



Human genetic and reproductive technologies 

9 

carefully this area of pre-embryo 
research15.  Collaborating this with the 
decisions of other scientific cum Islamic 
jurisprudence seminars, the following 
practice guidelines may be summarized: 

1. Cryopreserved pre-embryos may be 
used for research purposes with the free 
and informed consent of the couple. 

2. Research conducted on pre-embryos is 
limited only to therapeutic research. 
Genetic analysis of pre-embryos to 
detect specific genetic disorders is 
permissible. Hence diagnostic aids 
should be provided for couples at high 
risk for selected inherited diseases. The 
treated embryo may only be implanted 
into the uterus of the wife who is the 
owner of the ova and only during the 
span of the marriage contract. 

3. Any pre-embryos found to be 
genetically defective maybe rejected 
from transfer into the uterus after proper 
counselling by the physician. 

4. Research aimed at changing the 
inherited characteristics of pre-embryos 
(e.g.  hair and eye colour, intelligence, 
height) including sex selection is 
forbidden. 

5. Sex selection is however permitted if a 
particular sex predisposes to a serious 
genetic condition. One of the first 
couple to use the technique of sex 
selection was hoping to escape a 
neurologically debilitating disease 
known as x-linked hydrocephalus, 
which almost always affected boys. 
Embryonal sex selection would make 
possible the weeding out of other 
serious x-linked disorders including 
haemophilia, Duchenne muscular 
dystrophy and fragile X syndrome. 

6. The free informed consent of the couple 
should be obtained prior to conducting 
any non-therapeutic research on the pre-
embryos. These pre-embryos should not 
be implanted into the uterus of the wife 
or that of any other woman. 

7. Research of a commercial nature or not 
related to the health of the mother or 
child is not allowed. 

8. The research should be undertaken in 
accredited and reputable research 
facilities. The medical justification for 
the research proposal must be sound and 
scientific and conducted by a skilled 
and responsible researcher. 

 
The designer baby technology or 
inheritable genetic modification (IGM) has 
further accentuated the ethical debate often 
referred to as “slippery slope” issues. The 
world’s first true designer baby, Nash 
Brown, was born on 29 August 2000. He 
was conceived specifically for the sake of 
his six year old sister, Molly who suffered 
from Fanconi’s Anaemia. His umbilical 
cord blood was transfused into Molly, with 
the hope of curing her condition. 
 
Another landmark case was in the UK in 
2001, where a British couple was given the 
go ahead by the courts to select an IVF 
baby who is Thalassaemia free and has a 
tissue make-up which precisely match their 
son Zain who suffers from Thalassaemia 
and does not have a compatible donor. 
Umbilical cord blood from the IVF baby 
would be transplanted into Zain to cure his 
Thalassaemia. 
 
The table shows that only 27 (14%) 
countries have taken action to ban the 
creation of designer babies. 
 
Conclusion 

Islamic medical bioethics is firmly 
grounded on the fundamental tenets of the 
Islamic Shariah. The close collaboration 
between the scholars of jurisprudence and 
the scientific and medical fraternity has 
enabled her to keep abreast of the plethora 
of advancing biotechnologies. 
 
Despite the wide ranging bio-religio-
ethical problems and dilemmas posed by 
these emerging biotechnologies, Islamic 
medical bioethics, has provided a “middle 
of the road” approach moderating between 
the extremes of conservatism and 
liberalism. This it does without impeding 



Musa MN 

10 

the genuine and responsible quest for new 
knowledge and breakthroughs in new 
research frontiers. 
 
It has provided a legal framework for 
responsible societal governance of human 
genetic and reproductive technologies and 
banned all forms of free market eugenics. 

Allah says in Chapter 2, verse 143: 
 
“Thus we have appointed you a middle 
nation, that you may be witness against 
mankind, and that the messenger maybe 
witness against you …” 

______________ 
 

References 
1. Schacht, Joseph. An introduction to Islamic 

Law. Reprinted 1966, 1971:1. 

2. Ash-Shafi’I; al-Umm, 1993, vol. 7:492-494; 
Ramadan, Islamic Law, 1970:33; Madkour, al-
Madkhal, 1966:90,196. 

3. Ash-Shatibi, al-Muwafaqat, 1975, vol. 2:10. 

4. Borno, al-Wajiz, 1998, pp8,63. 

5. Madkour, al-Madkhal, 1966:12-20. 

6. Al-Quran 5:44-46. 

7. Recommendations of the 9th Fiqh-Medical 
Seminar; Islamic Organisation of Medical 
Sciences. 

8. Aly A. Mishal. Cloning and advances in 
molecular biotechnology. FIMA Year Book 
2002, pp 38. 

9. The Council of Islamic Fiqh Academy of the 
Muslim World League. 2003; 17th session in 
Makkah, 13-17 December. 

10. Fiqh Council of North America, International 
Institute of Islamic Thought, Graduate School of 
Islamic and Social Sciences, Islamic Institute 
news release August 27, 2001. 

11. Aly A. Mishal. Stem cells: Controversies and 
ethical issues. Jordan Medical Journal. May 
2001; 35(1) pp 80-82. 

12. Yusuf Al-Qardawi. Hadyul Islam Fatawi 
Mu’athirah. Darul Qalam Kuwait 2001. 
Translated Gema Insani Press, October 2002. 

13. Grifo JA,et al. Update in preimplantation 
diagnosis. Advances and problems. Current 
Opinions Obstet Gynae 8:135-138. 

14. Fact Sheet: Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis. 
American Society for Reproductive Medicine. 
Dec 1996. 

15. Serour GI. Proceeding to the 1st international 
congress on bioethics in human reproduction 
research in the Muslim world. IICPSR 1992 Vol 
II. 

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