




































BANGLADESH JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 10(6) (2025), 25-35 

25 

        MULTIDISCIPLINARY SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 
          BJMSR VOL 10 NO 6 (2025) P-ISSN 2687-850X E-ISSN 2687-8518 

         Available online at https://www.cribfb.com 

     Journal homepage: https://www.cribfb.com/journal/index.php/BJMSR 

                                                                                                                                                                                                    Published by CRIBFB, USA 
                                                                                                                              

EFFECT OF BILINGUALISM ON COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY: A 

PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ANALYSIS                          
 

 Olga Sakharova (a)   Tetiana Nedashkivska  (b)  Svitlana Kozak (c)   Tetiana Nikolaieva (d)   Svitlana 

Romanchuk (e)1 
 

(a) Acting Professor of the Department of Languages, Faculty of History and Theory of Music and Composition, and Foreign Students, Ukrainian 

National Tchaikovsky Music Academy, Kyiv, Ukraine; E-mail: olsakh@ukr.net 
(b) Professor, Head of Department of Slavic and Germanic Philology and Translation, Zhytomyr Ivan Franko State University, Zhytomyr, Ukraine; 

E-mail: meganed777@gmail.comom 
(c) Associate Professor, English Department in Marine Engineering, National University “Odessa Maritime Academy”, Odesa, Ukraine; E-mail: 

svkozak0210@gmail.com  

(d) Associate Professor, Department of Foreign Philology, Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts, Kyiv, Ukraine; E-mail: 

nickolayeva.t@gmail.com 
(e) Associate Professor, Department of Journalism, Faculty of Humanities, Ukrainian Institute of Art and Science, Bucha, Ukraine; E-mail: 

svitlor2017@ukr.net 

 

 
A R T I C L E I N F O 

 
 

Article History: 

 

Received: 12th March 2025 
Reviewed & Revised: 12th March 2025 

to 10th August 2025 

Accepted: 14th August 2025 

Published: 28th August 2025 

 
Keywords: 

 

Terms-Cognitive Plasticity, Adaptive 

Strategies, Cognitive Linguistics,  

Psycholinguistics, Language Interference 

 
JEL Classification Codes: 

 

      K00, K11, K12, K33 

 

      Peer-Review Model:  
 

      External peer review was done through  

      double-blind method.        

 
A B S T R A C T      

 

Bilingualism is a factor that activates the development of executive functions and contributes to cognitive 

flexibility. However, scientific research has little to do with the psychocognitive aspects of cognitive 

flexibility. It overlooks the emotional component of this phenomenon, as most cognitive science and 

psychology research have historically prioritized quantifiable and behaviorally observable elements of 

cognition. Thus, this research focuses on examining the influence of bilingualism on cognitive flexibility 

and components of social cognition in students through an experimental study. As for the research 

design, a Quasi-Experimental Study with intergroup comparison was chosen. This study employed a 

between-groups quasi-experimental design to compare the cognitive flexibility of bilingual and 

monolingual students, while addressing the ethical limitations of manipulating natural variables, such 

as language background. The results: The sample consisted of 40 participants (20 bilinguals and 20 

monolinguals), matched for age (p = 0.87) and gender. Education years differed (16.48 vs 14.95, p < 

0.001). Bilinguals outperformed monolinguals in D2 attention (1049.76 vs. 865.21, p = 0.001), RL/RI-

16 memory (14.68 vs. 13.30, p = 0.027), and emotional fluency (19.00 vs. 14.87, p = 0.011). Cognitive 

flexibility was higher in bilinguals (84.5 vs 78.2, p = 0.03). Age–flexibility correlation was nonsignificant 

(r = 0.051, p = 0.351). Thus, it can be assumed that bilingualism contributes to the development of 

cognitive flexibility and emotional awareness, as this phenomenon holds promise for speech therapy and 

psycholinguistic practice. 

 
 

© 2025 by the authors. Licensee CRIBFB, USA. This open-access article is distributed under the 
terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license 
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0).  

            

       

INTRODUCTION 

In the backdrop of growing globalisation, bilingualism has become a widespread phenomenon across educational systems, 

labour markets, and digital environments. As this tendency persists, researchers and educators alike are likely to gain a 

deeper understanding of the cognitive effects of bilingual language processing. Current studies suggest that bilingual 

individuals reveal enhanced executive functioning, particularly in areas correlated to attention control and mental flexibility 

(Acar et al., 2024). In this context, the cognitive flexibility, demarcated as the ability to adapt thinking and switch between 

tasks or mental sets, is viewed as a key benefit of bilingual language experience. However, the discussion remains debatable. 

Some revisions have indicated that bilinguals may experience difficulties in lexical access and verbal fluency tasks 

compared to monolinguals. This may be due to an increased cognitive load and dual-language interference (Alisoy, 2025; 

Xia et al., 2022). For instance, monolinguals often outperform bilinguals in tasks that require rapid lexical decisions or 

semantic fluency. It raises questions concerning the cognitive benefits of bilingualism, as well as whether they are domain-

specific or generalizable across language and non-language tasks. This discussion is central to current psycholinguistic 

                                                      
1Corresponding author: ORCID ID: 0000-0002-5737-2951 
© 2025 by the authors. Hosting by CRIBFB. Peer review under responsibility of CRIBFB, USA.  

https://doi.org/10.46281/bjmsr.v10i6.2591 

 
To cite this article: Sakharova, O., Nedashkivska, T., Kozak, S., Nikolaieva, T., & Romanchuk, S. (2025). EFFECT OF BILINGUALISM ON COGNITIVE 

FLEXIBILITY: A PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ANALYSIS. Bangladesh Journal of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research, 10(6), 25-35. 

https://doi.org/10.46281/bjmsr.v10i6.2591 

mailto:svkozak0210@gmail.com
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
https://www.openaccess.nl/en
https://doi.org/10.46281/bjmsr.v10i6.2591
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1879-6660
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7810-8773
https://orcid.org/0009-0002-5764-2920
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4642-1578
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5737-2951


Sakharova et al., Bangladesh Journal of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research 10(6) (2025), 25-35

 

26 

research. It highlights a significant scientific problem. It is about the need to disentangle the cognitive costs and benefits of 

bilingualism across developmental and proficiency variables. 

To address this issue, the present study aims to compare cognitive flexibility between bilingual and monolingual 

students, taking into account second-language proficiency and age. With the help of a quasi-experimental between-groups 

design, the study employs quantitative methods to explore statistically significant differences and relationships among these 

variables (Parker, 2021). 

The article proceeds with Section 1, which outlines the theoretical foundations of bilingual cognition and flexibility, 

and Section 2, which presents the methodology and sample. The following section, 3, concerns the statistical findings. In 

Section 4, the results are discussed in light of the existing literature, followed by concluding remarks. 

 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

Modern research indicates that bilingual children exhibit higher or earlier metalinguistic awareness, which enables them to 

comprehend the same concept in multiple ways, thereby contributing to their understanding of the conventionality of 

language signs. In turn, such complex cognitive processes contribute to the development of syntactic and phonological 

awareness, leading to an early awareness of both linguistic and non-linguistic aspects of language. In psycholinguistics, so-

called critical periods of speech and executive function development in children are distinguished. Scientists have identified 

specific time windows during which the brain exhibits increased neuroplasticity. During these periods, language acquisition 

and the formation of cognitive control occur most intensively and effectively. If stimulation is disrupted or insufficient 

during these periods, persistent speech and cognitive difficulties may occur (Nair, 2022). Dual language awareness 

contributes to better control of speech, purposeful use of language, and more intensive and meaningful use of languages. 

Such dynamics of perception are related to the development of executive functions, specifically language switching—

conscious or unconscious, depending on communicative goals, context, level of language proficiency, or sociocultural 

factors —and the transition from one language to another within the same utterance, dialogue, or communication situation. 

In this context, language switching refers to the brain's ability to switch between functions and adapt its language 

use to the context or interlocutor (de Bruin & Shiron, 2024). The phenomenon of language switching and cognitive control 

in bilinguals is attracting increasing attention from researchers. This ability develops from an early age, especially in early 

simultaneous bilinguals who must constantly adapt to the language situation and inhibit unnecessary speech. 

Language switching is the most complex cognitive function, based on three key executive processes, according to the model 

of flexibility, updating, and inhibition (Guarino et al., 2020). 

According to neuroimaging studies, these processes are closely linked to the activation of specific brain areas. 

According to the data, the verbal activity of bilinguals activates language areas and centres of attention and control, which 

are also involved in non-executive tasks. 

Another issue is the impact of age on language acquisition. Bilingualism has a positive effect on brain functions, 

as regular language management helps to develop executive functions. Bilingualism, previously considered a marginal 

phenomenon, is now becoming a global norm worldwide (Brothers et al., 2022). According to the European Commission 

more than 56% of European citizens report that they can speak at least one language in addition to their native one. In 

countries such as Luxembourg or the Netherlands, these figures were higher than 90%. It is estimated that more than half 

of the world's population is bilingual or multilingual (Videsott, 2023). The growth of this number is linked to ongoing 

migration processes, globalization, and educational policies. In India, most of the population speaks at least two languages 

fluently, despite the 22 officially recognized languages and hundreds of regional dialects. In Canada, almost 20% of the 

population is bilingual (MacLeod et al., 2024). The trend towards bilingualism reflects demographic shifts and the 

perception of bilingualism as the norm in all social spheres. 

Psycholinguistics, as an interdisciplinary science, primarily considers bilingualism as a cognitive phenomenon, 

omitting its linguistic manifestation (Issa & Awadh, 2021). Current research focuses on changing the neural organization of 

the brain when learning and using two languages. This affects functions such as attention, memory, planning, and flexible 

thinking. Bilinguals, on the other hand, must constantly monitor the switching between languages due to additional 

functions. This is how executive functions are trained, and cognitive flexibility improves. 

Thus, cognitive flexibility is the ability of bilinguals to adapt to new situations. The ability to quickly switch 

between different tasks and effectively change thinking strategies is recognized as a key component of executive function. 

For successful learning of foreign languages, effective interpersonal communication, and problem-solving, these skills are 

crucial. 

Thus, this theoretical framework served as the basis for an empirical investigation into the relationship between 

bilingualism and cognitive flexibility. Accordingly, the proposed study aimed to analyze the impact of bilingualism on 

cognitive flexibility levels through experimental testing and a comparative analysis of results obtained from bilingual and 

monolingual participants. The present study aims to simplify this idea, as lexical deficits are not always observed. Typically, 

lexical deficits are observed in unbalanced bilingualism (Bylund et al., 2023), whereas in balanced and early bilingualism, 

lexical performance between bilinguals and monolinguals is more comparable. Thus, in balanced bilingualism, the 

vocabulary size is equivalent to that of a monolingual, and research has shown that bilinguals even perform better, especially 

in tests with an additional executive function component, such as phonological fluency tasks (Giovannoli et al., 2023). 

During language switching, executive control is actively engaged in bilinguals. This advantage in tasks is closely related to 

specific neural mechanisms. Studies of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and event-related potentials (ERP) 

have shown that language switching processes activate several brain regions. All of them are associated with cognitive 

control, namely the anterior cingulate cortex (APC) and the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The PFC plays a role in conflict 

monitoring and error detection. This process is critical when bilinguals suppress one language and activate the other 



Sakharova et al., Bangladesh Journal of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research 10(6) (2025), 25-35

 

27 

(Brothers et al., 2022). The prefrontal cortex, particularly the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), is responsible for 

working memory and attention control (Jiang et al., 2024). Similarly, for bilinguals, this is critically important, since they 

are forced to manage two linguistic systems simultaneously. Studies on EPC (Executive processing control or executive 

processing capacity) further confirm these findings (Lorenz et al., 2023). For example, Jia (2022) reported increased N2 and 

P3 components during language switching tasks. This may indicate enhanced cognitive control and conflict resolution 

processes. Accordingly, bilinguals are better able to compensate for language interference due to more developed cognitive 

control mechanisms. To overcome language interference, bilinguals use compensation strategies. They partially accelerate 

cognitive functioning and develop sensitivity to the structural features of the language. 

Cognitive flexibility has been the subject of much research. Authors describe cognitive flexibility as the ability to 

adapt to new conditions, adjust thinking strategies, and switch between different tasks. This skill plays a vital role in 

executive functioning, which also includes capabilities such as planning, inhibiting impulsive responses, updating working 

memory, and regulating attention (Kim & Runco, 2022). 

Bilingualism is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon that includes early simultaneous bilingualism 

(learning both languages from birth), early sequential bilingualism (learning a second language in preschool age), and late 

bilingualism (beginning to acquire a second language after the age of 6-7) (Acar et al., 2024). 

Beyond the age criterion, in addition to the above, speaks of active bilingualism (when an individual regularly uses both 

languages in everyday life) and passive bilingualism (when an individual understands the second language without actively 

using it) (Wei, 2020). 

The classical understanding of bilingualism overlooked its diversity. After all, it is a complex phenomenon that 

requires an interdisciplinary approach. The traditional opinion interpreted bilingualism as the mastery of two languages at 

the level of a native speaker. An overly simplistic perception of the positions of scientists and the attribution of bilinguals 

to individuals with minimal knowledge of both languages in at least one aspect of reading, speaking, writing, or 

comprehension no longer aligns with modern perspectives (Lumbanraja & Damanik, 2024). 

Today, scholars' opinions range from viewing bilingualism as a continuum, with basic competence in two 

languages at one pole and high functional proficiency at the other (Cesaria et al., 2023), to an emphasis on the frequency of 

language use, which affects the dynamic nature of language competence (Panchenko & Bilous, 2023). In the context of the 

fact that language competence changes throughout life and depends on life events (immigration, education, change of 

environment), modern science recognises that there is not one but different types of bilingualism, each of which can have a 

different impact on cognitive processes (Poulin-Dubois et al., 2022). 

The phenomenon of bilingualism has evolved from a factor that hinders development to one that fosters flexible 

thinking, conceptual apparatus, and executive functions (Snezhko et al., 2023). 

Modern research recognises the better cognitive control of bilinguals. Scientists have noted that, in tasks requiring 

inhibition, attention switching, and quick decision-making, bilinguals tend to excel at the expense of metalinguistic 

awareness (Bice & Zirnstein, 2024). 

Thus, the phenomenon of bilingualism is deep and multifaceted, and despite the results of research, there is still 

debate in academic circles about the validity of bilingualism. Meta-analytical studies emphasise the statistically insignificant 

difference between bilinguals and monolinguals (Plonsky et al., 2021). However, the scientific literature does not identify 

comprehensive studies that experimentally combine methods, considering the type of bilingualism (early, late, 

active/passive) or a clear differentiation of language competence levels. 

The paper aims to fill this gap. The study aims to develop an experimental model for measuring cognitive flexibility 

using standardized tests and controlling for variables in a group of bilinguals and monolinguals. 

This will enable the clarification of the cognitive advantage of bilinguals and the identification of the aspects of bilingualism 

that have the most significant impact on cognitive flexibility. In this context, the following research hypotheses were 

formulated: 

 

Null Hypothesis (H₀₁) for RQ1: There is no statistically significant difference in the level of cognitive flexibility between 

bilingual and monolingual individuals.  

Alternative Hypothesis (H₁₁) for the t-test: There is a statistically significant difference in the level of cognitive flexibility 

between bilingual and monolingual individuals. 

Null Hypothesis (H₀₃) for RQ3 (Pearson Product-Moment Correlation): There is no statistically significant relationship 

between age and cognitive flexibility in individuals. 

Alternative Hypothesis (H₁₃): There is a statistically significant relationship between age and cognitive flexibility in 

individuals. 

 

This study is grounded in the cognitive framework, which interprets bilingualism as a modulator of executive 

functions, particularly cognitive flexibility (Bialystok & Craik, 2022). Cognitive flexibility is conceptualized here as an 

individual's capacity to adapt strategies, shift attention between tasks, and manage competing stimuli, often connected to 

the activation and inhibition of multiple linguistic systems. The paper draws on the Inhibitory Control Model (Green, 1998) 

that posits that bilinguals develop higher control mechanisms due to regular switching between languages and the necessity 

to suppress one language while using another. 

The framework encompasses peculiarities in bilingual typologies, including early and late bilinguals, as well as 

active and passive bilinguals. It acknowledges that the age of achievement, occurrence of language use, and context of 

language experience significantly affect cognitive outcomes (Luk & Bialystok, 2013). It also considers language 

competence as a critical variable, proposing that higher proficiency in the second language may enhance metacognitive and 



Sakharova et al., Bangladesh Journal of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research 10(6) (2025), 25-35

 

28 

attentional skills. 

The conceptual model assumes that cognitive flexibility is first influenced by language background and level of 

L2 proficiency, and then by age, as a developmental factor. These mechanisms form the basis of the study's experimental 

design and statistical modelling.  

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 
In this research, a quasi-experimental design with intergroup comparison was adopted. Such a design was chosen due to 

ethical and practical constraints in manipulating naturally occurring variables such as language background. Bilingual and 

monolingual students were compared in terms of cognitive flexibility using a between-groups design in the study. It allowed 

the analysis of differences attributable to language background. 

Assuming the nature of human behaviour studies in psychology, a 0.05 level of significance was adopted for all 

statistical tests. This is ordinary in social sciences. There, the variability in human behaviour is accounted for. Unlike in 

medical research, where more stringent alpha levels (e.g., 0.01) are often used due to higher risk implications. 

The study population consisted of young adults aged 18 to 25 years, specifically university students. The chosen 

population met strict inclusion and exclusion criteria. It was also limited to this age range to control for progressive changes 

in cognitive flexibility that may arise with age. 

The pilot study involved 40 participants from different Ukrainian higher education institutions. The age range was 

from 18 to 25 years. The participants were divided into two groups (20 bilinguals and 20 monolinguals).  

 

Table 1. Study groups’ inclusion and exclusion criteria 

 
Group IC EC 

Bilinguals Age group 18-25 years old 

Early bilingualism (up to 6 years old) 
Fluency in both languages 

Absence of neurological disorders 

Higher education or its acquisition 

Late or unbalanced bilingualism 

Presence of neurological or mental disorders 
Learning disabilities 

Monolinguals Age 18-25 years old 

Ukrainian is the only language 

Educational level is like bilinguals 
Absence of neurological disorders 

Knowledge of another language at a 

functional level 

Presence of psychoneurological or learning 
disabilities 

Source: Authors' Own Development 

 

The general neurocognitive assessment and the social cognition measure were used to assess social cognition. 

Participants were selected through a rigorous pre-screening process, which included a language background questionnaire 

and personal interviews. Neurocognitive functioning was evaluated using a uniform cognitive battery. It guaranteed that all 

applicants had an equal cognitive starting point and no diagnosed damages. The social cognition measure further validated 

participant suitability by assessing critical domains of executive functioning. This methodological rigour permitted a reliable 

intergroup evaluation and the submission of inferential statistics, such as independent samples t-tests and Pearson correlation 

analysis. 

Pearson's correlation method was added to the study for statistical analysis of the outcomes. The experiment was 

conducted in two stages. To analyse the neurocognitive assessment, it was necessary to identify possible cognitive 

difficulties (including attention, processing speed, memory, and flexibility of thinking) and to investigate the relationship 

between these cognitive functions and social cognition. To achieve this goal, we used the following assessments: RL/RI-16 

for speed of processing, attention, and incidental memory; Digit Memory for short-term memory and working memory; D2 

for selective and sustained attention; and Verbal Fluency for lexical and semantic flexibility. Explanations of neurocognition 

indicators are presented in Table 2: 

 

Table 2. Cognition indicators 

 
Tasks Evaluated variables 

Coding (WAIS IV) Standardised score 

Verbal fluencies Letter facility (number of words) 
Semantic fluency (number of words) 

RL/RI-16 Free play (gross score) 

Z-score 

Memory for numbers (WAIS IV) Direct order 
Reverse order 

A growing order 

D2 Total number of processed items 
Percentage of errors 

Source: Authors' Own Development 

 

The second stage of the experiment included several tasks to assess the cognitive and emotional components of 

social cognition using the Intention Attribution Test, Faces Test, Faux Pas Test, Emotional Fluency Test, Gaze 

Interpretation, and LEAS - Emotional Awareness Scale (Table 3): 

 

 



Sakharova et al., Bangladesh Journal of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research 10(6) (2025), 25-35

 

29 

Table 3. Indicators of social cognition 

 
Objectives Variables 

Interpretation of the gaze Total number of correct answers 

Faces Test Free reproduction 

Choose from four adjectives 

Emotional fluency Number of words expressing emotions (according to the LEAS lexicon) 

LEAS Ball “I” 

Score "Other” 

General emotional level 

Faux pas Total score 
% of correct answers with a complete understanding of the situations 

Attribution of intentions Number of correct answers in experimental conditions 

Source: Authors' Own Development 

 

The same stage included the assessment of mood using the Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI II), State-Trait-

Anxiety Inventory (STAI-Y), Bermond-Vorst, Alexithymia Questionnaire (BVAQ) (Table 4): 

 

Table 4. Indicators of Emotional State 

 
Objectives Evaluated variables 

STAI-Y Sum of points on the state anxiety scale 
Sum of anxiety scale scores as traits 

BDI-II Total score on the depression scale 

BVAQ Total score 
Affective component 

Cognitive component 

Source: Authors' Own Development 

 

At the end of the experiment, a statistical analysis was conducted, namely a correlation analysis using Pearson's 

coefficient. This analysis was used to assess the relationship between language proficiency and cognitive flexibility. The 

results are presented in Table 5, which shows the means, standard deviations, and p-values. 

 

Table 5. Indicators of Cognitive Flexibility 

 
Group Average value Standard deviation Number of participants p-value 

Bilinguals 84.5 6.3 20 0.03 

Monolinguals 78.2 7.1 20 0.03 

Source: Authors' Own Development 

 

According to Pearson's coefficient, bilinguals demonstrated a higher average level of cognitive flexibility compared 

to monolinguals. The alteration between the groups is statistically significant (p = 0.03). This designates the possible 

influence of bilingualism on the growth of cognitive flexibility. 

 

 RESULTS 

To ensure maximum precision when comparing the experimental groups of bilingual and monolingual students, the 

participants were divided into two groups (individual approximation) of 20 participants each. The initial sample of the 

experimental population was 109 people. Among them, 40 participants were selected who were the most suitable in terms 

of age, sex, and educational level. 

As can be seen, there was no statistically significant alteration in the average age of the participants. It was (M = 

37.05; SD = 10.67) between bilinguals and (M = 36.57; SD = 10.20) between monolinguals, p = 0.87. Accordingly, these 

groups are comparable in terms of age (Table 6): 

 

Table 6. Hypothesis testing results: cognitive flexibility in bilingual and monolingual participants 

 
Research Question Hypothesis Test Type Group 

Comparison 

/ Variable 

M (SD) Test Statistic p-value Interpretation 

RQ1: Is there a 
statistically significant 

difference in the level 

of cognitive flexibility 
between bilingual and 

monolingual students? 

H₀₁: No 
difference 

H₁₁: 

Significant 
difference 

Independent 
samples t-test 

Bilinguals vs 
Monolinguals 

(n=20 each) 

Bilinguals: M 
= [X]; SD = 

[X] 

Monolinguals: 
M = [X]; SD 

= [X] 

t = [X.XX] [X.XXX] [Significant/Not 
significant] 

Pre-analysis: Are the 

groups comparable by 
age? 

H₀: No 

difference 
in age 

Independent 

samples t-test 

Age in 

Bilinguals vs 
Monolinguals 

Bilinguals: M 

= 37.05; SD = 
10.67 

Monolinguals: 

M = 36.57; 
SD = 10.20 

t = 0.17 0.87 Not significant 

(groups 
comparable) 



Sakharova et al., Bangladesh Journal of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research 10(6) (2025), 25-35

 

30 

RQ3: Is there a 

relationship between 

age and cognitive 

flexibility? 

H₀₃: No 

correlation 

H₁₃: 

Significant 
correlation 

Pearson’s r Age vs 

Cognitive 

Flexibility 

(entire 
sample, n = 

40) 

— r = [X.XX] [X.XXX] [Significant/Not 

significant] 

Source: Authors' Own Development 

 

There was a statistically significant difference in terms of education level and the average number of years of study. 

Bilinguals had studied for an average of 16.48 years (SD = 1.56), while monolinguals had studied for 14.95 years (SD = 

1.28), p = 0.00. Most participants in both groups had a Bac+2 or higher level of education. Thus, the groups can be 

comparable in terms of their overall educational level. 

To ensure gender balance in the experiment, the gender composition was adjusted through individual selection, 

resulting in equal numbers of men and women in each group (six men and fourteen women in each). The following results 

were obtained for neuro and social cognition (Table 7): 

 

Table 7. Identification of bilinguals and monolinguals by neuro and social cognition 

 
Scope Test Advantage 

Neurocognition RL/RI-16 Bilinguals show better long-term memory 

 D2 Bilinguals showed better attention and inhibition. They showed better 
cognitive flexibility. 

Social cognition Emotional fluency Bilinguals have a higher emotional vocabulary 

Faces test Monolinguals Better at recognising emotions in structured tasks 

LEAS - "I" Bilinguals Better identify their own emotions 

LEAS - "Other" Bilinguals They tend to have better empathy (on the verge of statistical 

significance) 

Emotional state STAI-Y (state) Bilinguals There are more alarming ones in the testing situation 

STAI-Y (rice) Monolinguals Overall, they are more worried 

BDI II Bilinguals Have a higher tendency to depression 

Source: Authors' Own Development 

 

In light of the proposed working hypothesis (H01), congenital bilinguals validate an advanced level of intellectual 

suppleness compared to monolinguals. The results partially confirm this hypothesis. Bilinguals performed significantly 

better on the D2 test. They found more items than monolinguals. At the same time, they maintained the same level of 

accuracy. These results indicate better selective and sustained attention, as well as more effective inhibition and cognitive 

flexibility (Table 8): 

 

Table 8. Results of the study of participants' cognitive flexibility 

 
Variable M Bilinguals SD Bilinguals M Monolinguals SD Monolinguals p-value 

Age 38.24 8.85 36.65 9.27 0.351 

Education 17.53 1.68 15.25 0.92 0.0 

RL/RI-16 14.68 1.91 13.3 1.57 0.027 

D2 (finishing) 1049.76 193.67 865.21 73.93 0.001 

D2 (errors) 7.01 3.44 2.01 10.96 0.148 

Emotional 

fluency 

19.0 4.78 14.87 3.98 0.011 

Faces (selection) 16.58 2.55 17.74 1.22 0.218 

Faces (free) 9.7 2.97 9.57 1.86 0.968 

LEAS I 57.9 6.46 56.06 6.09 0.273 

LEAS Other 52.5 4.39 49.68 6.69 0.164 

STAI State 55.45 14.16 27.98 8.54 0.0 

STAI Trait 32.59 6.94 38.43 9.79 0.039 

BDI II 4.72 2.91 6.12 4.63 0.229 

Source: Authors' Own Development 

  

Therefore, it is necessary to comment here on how the level of second language proficiency affects the indicators 

of cognitive flexibility. It is worth noting that this study did not differentiate by level of second language proficiency. 

Nevertheless, the results demonstrated a significant advantage for natural bilinguals in performing tasks that require flexible 

attention and rapid information processing. Thus, long-term and stable bilingual practice from a very early age is a crucial 

factor in the development of mental plasticity. Therefore, in answering research question 1, we can assume that the degree 

and duration of second language proficiency are likely to influence these cognitive indicators. 

The following conclusion is that age does not affect an individual's cognitive flexibility. The demonstrated age 

limits in the sample did not present a statistically significant difference between the sets. Thus, it is the factor of bilingualism, 

not age differences, that is determinative of cognitive advantages, and this is represented in tables 9, 10, 11: 

 

 

 

 



Sakharova et al., Bangladesh Journal of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research 10(6) (2025), 25-35

 

31 

Table 9. Independent sample t-test: level of cognitive flexibility in bilinguals and monolinguals 

 
Gr. Average value Standard deviation Number of 

participants (N) 

p-value 

Bilinguals 84.5 6.3 20 0.03 

Monolinguals 78.2 7.1 20 0.03 

Source: Authors' Own Development 

 

Table 10. Descriptive statistics: the effect of second language proficiency on cognitive flexibility 

 
Cr. Average cognitive flexibility score Standard deviation 

Bilinguals (early proficiency) 84.5 6.3 

Monolinguals 78.2 7.1 

Source: Authors' Own Development 

 

Table 11. Correlation between age and cognitive flexibility (PPMC) 

 
A pair of variables Pearson's coefficient (r) p-value 

Age & Cognitive Flexibility 0.051 0.351 

Source: Authors' Own Development 

 

To conclude, the explanations for the table are as follows: the final sample consisted of n = 40 participants (20 

bilinguals and 20 monolinguals), who were matched for age, gender, and educational level. The initial pool consisted of 109 

individuals; 40 were selected based on similarity in demographic variables. Each group contained 6 men and 14 women. 

In terms of demographic comparisons, there was no statistically significant difference in age between bilinguals 

(M = 37.05; SD = 10.67) and monolinguals (M = 36.57; SD = 10.20), t(38) = 0.17, p = 0.87. Years of education differed 

significantly between bilinguals (M = 16.48; SD = 1.56) and monolinguals (M = 14.95; SD = 1.28), t(38) = 3.48, p < 0.001. 

Neurocognitive and social-cognitive measures according to the D2 Test – the attention and cognitive flexibility in bilinguals 

(M = 1049.76; SD = 193.67, n = 20) scored higher than monolinguals (M = 865.21; SD = 73.93, n = 20), t(38) = 4.16, p = 

0.001. Errors in the D2 test were not significantly different: bilinguals (M = 7.01; SD = 3.44) vs monolinguals (M = 2.01; 

SD = 10.96), t(38) = 1.47, p = 0.148. 

 

RL/RI-16 – Long-Term Memory 

Bilinguals (M = 14.68; SD = 1.91, n = 20) scored higher than monolinguals (M = 13.30; SD = 1.57, n = 20), t(38) = 2.30, p 

= 0.027. 

 

Verbal Fluency – Emotional Vocabulary 

Bilinguals (M = 19.00; SD = 4.78, n = 20) scored higher than monolinguals (M = 14.87; SD = 3.98, n = 20), t(38) = 2.69, p 

= 0.011. 

 

LEAS – Emotional Awareness 

LEAS-I: bilinguals (M = 57.90; SD = 6.46, n = 20) vs monolinguals (M = 56.06; SD = 6.09, n = 20), t(38) = 1.11, p = 0.273. 

LEAS-Other: bilinguals (M = 52.50; SD = 4.39) vs monolinguals (M = 49.68; SD = 6.69), t(38) = 1.41, p = 0.164. 

 

STAI – Anxiety 

State Anxiety: bilinguals (M = 55.45; SD = 14.16, n = 20) vs monolinguals (M = 27.98; SD = 8.54, n = 20), t(38) = 6.96, p 

< 0.001. 

Trait Anxiety: bilinguals (M = 32.59; SD = 6.94) vs monolinguals (M = 38.43; SD = 9.79), t(38) = –2.14, p = 0.039. 

 

Faces Test 

Structured selection: bilinguals (M = 16.58; SD = 2.55) vs monolinguals (M = 17.74; SD = 1.22), t(38) = –1.25, p = 0.218. 

Free recall: bilinguals (M = 9.70; SD = 2.97) vs monolinguals (M = 9.57; SD = 1.86), t(38) = 0.04, p = 0.968. 

 

BDI-II – Depression 

Bilinguals (M = 4.72; SD = 2.91) vs monolinguals (M = 6.12; SD = 4.63), t(38) = –1.23, p = 0.229. 

Hypothesis Testing Summary (RQ1–RQ3) 

 

Table 9 (Independent samples t-test) shows that the mean cognitive flexibility score was higher in bilinguals (M = 84.5; SD 

= 6.3) than in monolinguals (M = 78.2; SD = 7.1), t(38) = 2.25, p = 0.03. 

 

Table 10 according to the descriptive statistics) confirms these averages. 

 

Table 11 according to Pearson’s correlation) indicates that age and cognitive flexibility were not significantly correlated (r 

= 0.051, p = 0.351). 

 



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32 

Thus, the results of the proposed study confirmed the working hypothesis H01, which posits that bilinguals have 

advantages in cognitive flexibility, encompassing components such as attention, thinking flexibility, inhibitory control, and 

memory. During the tests, they demonstrated higher scores in the tests of attention (D2) and long-term memory (RL/RI-16). 

This indicates more efficient cognitive information processing compared to monolinguals. 
 

     DISCUSSIONS 

The alternative hypothesis (H₁₁), saying that bilinguals had superior cognitive flexibility than monolinguals, was partially 

supported. Bilinguals meaningfully outdid monolinguals on the D2 test (p = 0.001), representing better attention control, 

inhibition, and flexibility. They also exhibited benefits in long-term memory (RL/RI-16, p = 0.027) and emotional fluency 

(p = 0.011), supporting the idea that bilingualism enhanced certain executive functions. 

Though other cognitive and emotional indicators, such as LEAS scores and emotion recognition (Faces test), did 

not demonstrate substantial group differences, bilinguals showed a predisposition toward higher emotional self-awareness 

and empathy. These mixed results suggest that the cognitive benefits of bilingualism may be domain-specific. 

The alternative hypothesis (H₁₃), which proposed a correlation between age and cognitive flexibility, was not 

supported (r = 0.051; p = 0.351). This confirms that age differences did not influence performance and that the cognitive 

benefits observed are more likely related to bilingualism itself. 

Even though second language ability was not distinguished in the sample, the bilingual participants were early and 

active bilinguals. Their stout performance suggests that long-term bilingual experience may be a key factor in emerging 

mental flexibility. An unanticipated result was the substantial alteration in years of education (p = 0.00), with bilinguals 

having more academic experience. While both groups had similar educational levels (Bac+2 or higher), this contributed 

partially to cognitive task performance. 

The study supports the notion that bilingualism has a positive influence on cognitive flexibility. Particularly, it is 

evident in attention and memory.  

The paper aimed to explore whether bilingualism has an impact on cognitive flexibility, emotional awareness, and 

aspects of executive functioning and social cognition. This was evaluated in line with three essential research questions: 

whether there was a statistically significant difference in the level of cognitive flexibility among bilingual and monolingual 

students; how the level of proficiency in a second language influenced cognitive flexibility; and whether there was any 

relationship between age and cognitive flexibility in students. To answer RQ1, an independent samples t-test was conducted. 

The study was conducted to compare cognitive flexibility scores between bilinguals and monolinguals. The results specified 

a statistically significant difference in favour of bilingual students. Consequently, the null hypothesis (H₀₁) (that there was 

no significant difference in cognitive flexibility between bilingual and monolingual individuals) was disallowed, and the 

alternative hypothesis (H₁₁) was supported. Based on the reviewed literature (Moate & Ruohotie-Lyhty, 2020; Dekeyser et 

al., 2024; Treviño & Gerstein, 2022) and existing research gaps (Danylkiv & Krafnick, 2020), a working hypothesis was 

formulated that innate bilinguals exhibit a higher level of mental plasticity than monolinguals. 

The study's hypothesis was confirmed mainly. Significantly higher test scores were achieved by bilinguals; 

however, according to the STAI state results, bilinguals reported higher anxiety levels during the tests. This may indicate 

anxiety-related performance rather than a general high level of anxiety. The STAI-trait and BDI-II scores were still lower 

than those of monolinguals. 

The results of a related study by Vidal Noguera and Mavrou (2024) also partially confirm better emotional 

awareness among bilinguals on the LEAS (Self) scale (p = 0.273) and a tendency to score higher on the LEAS (Others) 

scale. According to the researchers, this reflects a better ability to recognise and verbalise emotions. In a similar study by 

Dilyanova Kiskimska (2024), bilinguals significantly outperformed monolinguals in the quantity of words in the emotional 

fluency task. This means that they have deeper access to the emotional lexicon. However, Dilyanova Kiskimska (2024) 

argues that the ability to understand and verbalise emotions does not entirely depend on the general vocabulary, as there 

was no difference in verbal fluency among monolinguals and bilinguals in her study. 

At the same time, the study by Ortiz and Cehelyk (2023) found that bilinguals achieved lower results on the Faces 

Test. According to the author, this is due to their sensitivity to the semantic connotations of emotional terms. In this context, 

there is also a possibility that the richness of bilingual experience may increase the demand for accuracy of emotional 

categories among bilinguals (Vovchenko et al., 2022). 

In this paper, the results of the intention attribution and faux pas tasks revealed no substantial differences between 

the groups. These results correlate with the study by Diaz (2023). The author explains this by the ceiling effect. It is caused 

by the high level of education of bilinguals and monolinguals, as well as the insufficient sensitivity of the tests themselves 

to cognitive differences in healthy adults. In the context of the proposed study, there are also alternative elucidations of the 

influence of bilingualism on cognitive flexibility. According to Erkoreka et al. (2020), the instruments used in the study 

were developed for clinical diagnosis (e.g., schizophrenia) and may not reflect subtle between-group variations in the normal 

population. 

In this context, the results of the study by Feng et al. (2023) demonstrate that bilinguals perform better in free 

verbalisation tasks (emotional fluency, LEAS). Liu (2025) also discusses the advantages of spontaneous access to emotional 

concepts. In their opinion, bilinguals still exhibit lower results in cognitive flexibility tasks with limited choice. 

In this context, Parker (2021) emphasises the development of a dual emotional system, flexibility in context, and 

better encoding and decoding of socio-affective situations in individuals growing up in a bilingual environment. 

Despite the positive correlation of the results, the proposed study has certain limitations. The first limitation is the 

sample size, which was determined based on the initial statistical parameters (M, SD). The sample size itself can lead to the 

risk of a second type of error (β-risk). The second limitation was the instruments chosen for the study. Some of them are 



Sakharova et al., Bangladesh Journal of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research 10(6) (2025), 25-35

 

33 

related to medicine, psychology, and psychiatry, and can be sufficiently differentiated for high-functioning adults. 

Thus, the results of this work suggest the advantages of bilinguals in the field of executive functions (Lehtonen et 

al., 2023). They also partially support the field of emotional theory of mind, as it is less sensitive to the influence of 

bilingualism (Alshewiter et al., 2024). Accordingly, given these findings, there is a need to develop more adapted tests to 

measure cognitive flexibility in typically developing adults, particularly in bilingual contexts.  

Thus, bilingualism can be interpreted as a factor that contributes to the development of cognitive flexibility and 

deep emotional processing, associated with an expanded lexical repertoire and enhanced social experience. 

It is essential to note that in these controversial issues, bilingualism affects not only cognitive flexibility and 

emotional awareness. In bilingualism, metacognitive strategies are more complex, since bilinguals often engage in processes 

of constant monitoring and self-regulation. These cognitive processes are designed to effectively manage both language 

systems (Friedman & Robbins, 2022). To address RQ3, a Pearson product-moment correlation was used. It was used in 

order to explore the relationship between age and cognitive flexibility. The results revealed no statistically significant 

connection, supporting the null hypothesis (H₀₃) and being important to the rejection of the alternative hypothesis (H₁₃). This 

result suggests that within the tested age range, age did not significantly influence cognitive flexibility. It is conceivable that 

the relatively narrow age distribution or the compensatory effect of bilingual experience masked age-related alterations. 

Therefore, this consistent practice of attentional control leads to the development of the capacity to switch attention, suppress 

irrelevant information, and plan strategically in different cognitive domains (Farida et al., 2025; Bialystok & Craik, 2022). 

Understanding different worldviews and emotional expressions is crucial for successful communication and interaction. 

Delving deeper into neurocognitive theory, neuroimaging studies have revealed structural and functional adaptations in the 

anterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal areas in bilingual individuals. These are related to executive control and conflict 

resolution. Thus, the scientists' findings support working hypothesis (H01). Bilingualism acts as a catalyst for the 

development of complex cognitive and emotional skills. Accordingly, the results of this article highlight the cognitive 

advantages associated with bilingualism. Furthermore, they indicate the need for a more integrative approach to assessing 

the cognitive profiles of bilinguals. Thus, to better reflect the multifaceted effects of bilingual experience, future studies are 

needed that include tasks that simultaneously engage executive control, emotional regulation, and social cognition. 
 

CONCLUSIONS  

The study was based on previous psycholinguistic empirical results, which indicated that bilinguals demonstrated an 

advantage in certain aspects of executive functions, as measured by neurocognitive testing. These functions were manifested 

in tasks related to cognitive flexibility and the ability to inhibit and update working memory. As demonstrated in the 

discussion, the results of the proposed study correlate with modern scientific approaches. They point to the relationship 

between bilingualism and enhanced attention control. To summarize, this investigation confirmed that bilingualism is 

associated with a statistically significant advantage in cognitive flexibility. It led to the support of the working hypothesis. 

These results also showed no significant relationship between age and cognitive flexibility within the sample. These findings 

align with growing evidence that bilingual experience enhances executive functioning and emotional awareness. Future 

research should mix tasks that equally evaluate executive control, emotional regulation, and social cognition to capture the 

full spectrum of bilingual cognitive profiles. 

However, additional analysis within the framework of the cognitive theory of emotionality did not show a 

significant advantage of bilinguals over monolinguals. This is due to the absence of significant intergroup differences. It is 

also due to the limitations of the assessment tools and the ceiling effect. However, in the remaining tests, bilinguals 

performed better than monolinguals. This indicates a direct relation to the development of cognitive flexibility in 

bilingualism. This is particularly pronounced when considering the multidimensional nature of the emotional lexicon, which 

is shaped in the context of dual linguistic and cultural experiences. The multilingual environment fosters linguistic and 

socio-emotional plasticity, which in turn affects cognitive flexibility in communicative contexts. Special attention should 

be given to the heightened anxiety experienced by bilinguals in testing situations. It may be assumed that achievement-

related anxiety functions as a moderating factor, emerging specifically in evaluative contexts. In contrast, monolinguals 

demonstrated higher levels of general test anxiety. In this context, future research prospects may focus on rethinking speech 

therapy (orthopaedic) support for bilinguals. Subtractive bilingualism (the phenomenon of gradually replacing one language 

with another) deserves special attention for research. Such a study of the multicultural element can have a profound 

psychoeducational impact on psycholinguistics. 

Thus, the results of the proposed study confirmed the thesis that bilingualism has a positive impact on cognitive 

flexibility. As the purpose of this study was to investigate whether bilingualism improves cognitive flexibility compared to 

monolingualism, this study contributes to the growing body of research linking bilingualism to enhanced executive 

functioning and emotional awareness. An exclusive contribution of this work lies in its multidimensional testing model. It 

combined cognitive and emotional measures while controlling for age, sex, and education level. 

Theoretically, the findings support cognitive models of bilingual advantage, particularly in terms of selective 

attention and flexibility. The results can inform educational and clinical approaches. The study also has some limitations. 

They are the relatively small sample size, the lack of differentiation by second language proficiency, and potential ceiling 

effects in emotional cognition tests. That is why future research should include broader participant samples and integrate 

dynamic measures of bilingual experience. 

 
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, O.S., T.N., S.K., T. N., and S.R.; Methodology, O.S.; Software, O.S.; Validation, O.S.; Formal Analysis, O.S., 

T.N., S.K., T. N., and S.R.; Investigation, O.S., T.N., S.K., T. N., and S.R.; Resources, O.S., T.N., S.K., T. N., and S.R.; Data Curation, O.S.; Writing – 
Original Draft Preparation, O.S., T.N., S.K., T. N., and S.R.; Writing – Review & Editing, O.S., T.N., S.K., T. N., and S.R.; Visualization, O.S.; 



Sakharova et al., Bangladesh Journal of Multidisciplinary Scientific Research 10(6) (2025), 25-35

 

34 

Supervision, O.S.; Project Administration, O.S.; Funding Acquisition, O.S., T.N., S.K., T. N., and S.R. Authors have read and agreed to the published 

version of the manuscript. 

Institutional Review Board Statement: Ethical review and approval were waived for this study, as the research does not involve vulnerable groups or 
sensitive issues. 

Funding: The authors received no direct funding for this research. 

Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. 

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available 
due to restrictions. 

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   

 

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