Bangladesh J. Plant Taxon. 30(1): 123-151, 2023 (June) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/bjpt.v30i1.67051
© 2023 Bangladesh Association of Plant Taxonomists
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING
COVID-19 PANDEMIC IN AND AROUND DHAKA CITY
MOHAMMAD ZASHIM UDDIN*, MD. ABDUL MAZID1, MD. SIDDIQ HASAN,
ABULAIS SHOMRAT, NOUSHIN SHARMILI SUZANA AND MARZUK AHMAD SAAD
Department of Botany, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
Keywords: Ethnomedicinal plants; COVID-19; Pandemic Environment; Dhaka city
Abstract
The present article deals with recording ethnomedicinal plants used by the people
living in and around Dhaka city and also focuses on the plant species used during the
pandemic to get relief from COVID-19. The information was gathered using open-ended
and semi-structured questionnaires from 348 informants belonging to different classes of
life. The survey has resulted in the recording of a total of 160 medicinal plant species
belonging to 62 families and used for 157 ailments through 250 different formularies.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. was the most cited species in the study area. The highest
factor informant consensus (FIC) was found in the Cuts and Wounds category, and
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. is the most cited species for this category. Acmella calva
(DC.) R.K. Jansen was the culturally bound species attaining 100% Fidelity Level (FL)
value. Among the ethnomedicinal plants, 40 species were found in the survey that were
used by people to get relief from COVID-19. This interesting ethnomedicinal use is a
new record for these 40 species. Most notable species are Ocimum tenuiflorum L.,
Justicia adhatoda L., Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. &
Panzer) Swingle, Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry, Mentha arvensis L.,
Zingiber officinale Rosc., Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze, and Nigella sativa L. Since
ancient times, these species have been very popular and used to treat several ailments.
The use of these species during the pandemic is a new hope for COVID-19 management.
But this is a preliminary report. Further long-term study is needed to confirm the claim of
these plants’ use against COVID-19. Due to excessive use during COVID-19, these
species have been scarce in the habitats in and around Dhaka city. Conservation measures
should be applied to save these species from extinction.
Introduction
COVID-19, a newly emerging global pandemic, has been one of the major causes of mortality
around the globe in the past few years. During this pandemic till vaccines were discovered, the
scarcity of conventional modern medicines forced people to look for alternatives from nature, one
of which is ethnomedicine. Ethnomedicinal plants are important natural resources that have been
used by traditional healers and local people for centuries in the treatment of various diseases. For
the scientific community, it serves as a gateway to identify new plant products with potential
medicinal and commercial value, as well as a foundation for future investigation into modern drug
development through the consensus on documented medicinal plants (Khan et al. 2014). The use
of medicinal plants, though more or less common among all classes of people, is particularly
relevant in urban areas, where access to quality healthcare is limited during critical times. The
COVID-19 pandemic that started in 2019–20 has further highlighted the importance of natural
remedies in treating this disease and others.
*Corresponding author: zashim01@gmail.com
1Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh.
https://doi.org/10.3329/bjpt.v30i1.67051
mailto:zashim01@gmail.com
124 UDDIN et al.
A good number of research works on the documentation and evaluation of ethnobotanical
knowledge in Bangladesh are available. Most noteworthy works are Hassan and Khan (1986), Mia
and Huq (1988), Alam (1992), Chowdhury et al. (1996), Alam et al. (1996), Uddin et al. (2001),
Yusuf et al. (2002), Khan et al. (2002), Uddin et al. (2006), Yusuf et al. (2006), Uddin and Roy
(2007), Uddin et al. (2008), Uddin et al. (2012), Haque et al. (2014), and Uddin and Hassan
(2014). Apart from these, ethnobotanical research works in certain parts or in and around Dhaka
city were done by Rahmatullah et al. (2009a), Ahmed et al. (2015), Ocvirk et al. (2013), Nusrat
et al. (2015) and Uddin et al. (2019). These studies mainly focused on the ethnomedicinal, anti-
diabetic, and anti-coagulant properties of plant species. According to the above articles on
ethnomedicine, there is no concept of the use of ethnomedicines for COVID-19 because COVID-
19 is a newly borne pandemic disease spreading all over the world and it costs millions of lives
globally. This disease has no proper modern treatment except vaccines. In the absence of modern
treatment, the affected people looked for alternatives in nature to save themselves from this
disease. In the present study, an attempt was made to record ethnomedicinal plants used to treat
different diseases by the people in and around Dhaka city during the COVID-19 pandemic
environment and also to focus on the plant species that were used during the pandemic to get relief
from COVID-19; to identify the threats to ethnomedicinal plants and to make recommendations
for conservation measures for the ethnomedicinal plants used during COVID-19.
Materials and Methods
Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, is located in the Bengal Plain and has witnessed
continuous expansion since gaining independence. On its’ southern border, the city is bordered by
the Buriganga river, while the eastern boundary is formed by the Balu and the Shitalakhya rivers.
To the north lies the Tongi Canal, and to the west, the Turag and the Buriganga rivers define its
limits (Banglapedia, 2014; Sayed et al., 2015). In the past, Dhaka was a part of the natural Sal
(Shorea robusta C.F.Gaertn.) forest of Bhawalgarh, encompassing various water bodies. However,
due to rapid urbanization and development, most of the natural vegetation and water bodies have
suffered degradation (Rahman et al., 2011). At present, Dhaka lacks natural forests, but different
stakeholders such as the City Corporation, RAJUK, and Public Work Department have been
undertaken plantation initiatives along road dividers, footpaths, city parks, and lawns (Rahman
et al., 2011).
Dhaka, the urban centre of Bangladesh, has a tropical climate known for its hot, damp, and
humid conditions. It undergoes a well-defined monsoon period, with an average yearly
temperature of 27.5°C and an annual precipitation of approximately 2000 mm, with more than
80% of it occurring during the monsoon season (Dewan and Yamaguchi, 2009). The city is
situated on flat terrain at a low elevation near the sea, making it vulnerable to flooding during the
monsoon season due to intense rainfall and cyclones (Hough, 2004).
The survey was conducted from January 2022 to January 2023 for a period of 13 months, with
a total of sixteen field visits (Table 1). The interviews were done at different times of the day and
in different parts of the city using open-ended, semi-structured questionnaires (Alexiades,1996) so
that different classes of people could be interviewed for the survey. A total of 348 informants were
interviewed. They were mostly male, and their ages ranged from 18 to 96 years old. The education
levels of the informants ranged from illiterate to M. Sc. degrees. Professionally, they were mostly
rickshaw pullers, small vendors and housewives. During the field survey, information on the uses
of plants to treat different diseases, the parts of plants used, and modes of preparation and
administration were collected. The local names were collected with the help of local people.
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING COVID-19 125
Table 1. Data collections sites in and around Dhaka city.
Visit
No.
Name of place GPS (Latitude, Longitude)
1 Purbachal (1) 23°50'44.8"N, 90°29'50.8"E
2 Uttara, Diabari 23°52'09.8"N, 90°23'36.6"E; 23°52'30.8"N, 90°21'21.5"E
3 Airport, Matikata,
Basundhara
23°50'06.0"N, 90°25'02.8"E; 23°49'13.6"N, 90°23'25.7"E;
23°49'11.5"N, 90°27'15.0"E
4 Jatrabari 23°42'37.0"N, 90°26'07.3"E
5 Keraniganj 23°41'48.2"N, 90°21'03.5"E
6 Abdullahpur 23°39'41.5"N, 90°21'29.5"E
7 Bachila, Noya Bazar,
Hajaribag
23°44'46.2"N, 90°20'57.6"E; 23°43'39.0"N, 90°20'20.1"E;
23°44'10.1"N, 90°21'43.5"E
8 Kakrail, Motijheel 23°44'16.6"N, 90°24'16.2"E; 23°44'04.2"N, 90°25'15.6"E
9 Khilgaon 23°44'56.7"N, 90°25'12.4"E
10 Nandipara 23°44'48.6"N, 90°26'40.1"E
11 Demra 23°43'17.9"N, 90°28'59.6"E
12 Purbachal (2) 23°50'46.3"N, 90°30'53.9"E
13 Tongi (Near Dhaka) 23°53'06.2"N, 90°24'17.9"E
14 Mirpur 23°48'15.9"N, 90°20'52.2"E
15 Rupganj 23°48'02.2"N, 90°31'22.3"E
16 Gulshan 23°46'58.0"N, 90°25'12.6"E
The ethnomedicinal plants mentioned by the dwellers in and around Dhaka city were
identified by their vernacular names and physical specimens by a group of experts led by a
taxonomist in the field. In case of confusion, voucher specimens were prepared following standard
herbarium techniques (Alexiades, 1996; Martin, 2010). These specimens were identified later by
comparing them with various renowned works such as Prain (1903), Siddiqui et al. (2007);
Ahmed et al. (2008a, b), Ahmed et al. (2009a, b, c, d), Uddin and Hassan (2016) and Uddin et al.
(2021). Based on the information obtained from the people in the study area, all the reported
ailments were categorized into 14 broad categories and tabulated. Several diseases were placed in
one ailment category based on the body systems treated. To measure the level of consensus
between the usage of plants in a definite ailment category and its users in the study area, the
informant consensus factor (FIC) value was determined using the formula of Heinrich et al.
(1998). To determine the most frequently used plant species for treating a particular ailment,
fidelity level (FL) was determined following the formula of Friedman et al. (1986). Citation
frequency (CF) values are useful to determine the most common medicinal plants in the study
area. The CF values of medicinal plants were estimated using the formula of Friedman et al.
(1986).
Results and Discussion
A total of 160 medicinal plant species belonging to 62 families were used by the people in and
around Dhaka city for 157 ailments through 250 different formularies. This result indicates the
huge diversity of medicinal plants and also shows the diversity of modes of use for different
126 UDDIN et al.
ailments. For each species, scientific name, local name, family, habitat, parts used, ailments, and
modes of treatment are provided (Table 2). For each species, updated scientific name and family
name is used (Powo, 2023). The ten most abundant families are Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Rutaceae,
Lamiaceae, Amaranthaceae, Malvaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Moraceae, Solanaceae and Arecaceae
(Table 2).
Fig. 1. Percentage habit of recorded ethnomedicinal
plants
Fig. 2. Percentage of plant parts used in treating
ailments
The majority of medicinal plants are herbs (36%), followed by trees (30%), shrubs (21%), and
climbers (13%) (Fig. 1). Leaves are the most commonly used parts, followed by fruits, seeds,
stems and barks (Fig. 2). This suggests the sustainable use of natural resources in the study area.
Among the 250 formularies, 81% were for internal applications, and the remaining 19% were for
external applications (Table 2).
Among all the recorded species, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. has the most citations (Fig. 3).
The next most cited plant species is Ocimum tenuiflorum L., followed by Centella asiatica (L.)
Urban, Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt, Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex-
DC.) Wight & Arn., Zingiber officinale Rosc, Justicia adhatoda L., Litsea glutinosa, (Lour.) Rob.,
Nigella sativa L., Mangifera indica L., Phyllanthus emblica L., Calotropis gigantea (L.)
W.T.Aiton., Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle, and Bombax ceiba L.
Besides, some ethnopharmacologically important plant species were determined using the
informant consensus factor (FIC) parameter (Heinrich et al. 1998). The FIC value was determined
to measure the agreement on each disease category among the informants living in and around
Dhaka city. Fig. 4 indicates the result where FIC values ranged from 0.88 to 0.29, with the highest
value (0.88) found in the Cut and Wounds category. The second-highest FIC value (0.86) was for
COVID-19, followed by glandular and intestinal problems, worm and insect problems, mouth and
dental problems, cardiovascular and circulatory problems, excretory problems, dermatological
disorders, analgesics and antipyretics, skin and health care, digestive and liver problems,
gynaecological or sexual disorders, and others. Medicinal plants that are efficient in treating a
particular ailment have higher FIC values.
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING COVID-19 127
Table 2. List of ethnomedicinal plants (H = Herb, S = Shrub, T = Tree, C = Climber).
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Abroma augusta (L.)
L.f.
Ulot
Kombol
Malvaceae S Stem Heart problem Stem soaked in water and taken
Stem Constipation Stem soaked in water and taken
Stem Urinal burn Stem soaked in water and taken
Stem Male weakness Stem soaked in water and taken
Stem Cold, cough Juice taken
Achyranthes aspera L. Apang Amaranthaceae H Leaf Headache Leaf chewed and taken
Root Stop bleeding Juice applied
Whole
plant
Jaundice Juice taken
Root Diarrhoea Root crushed and juice taken
Root Piles Juice applied
Root Worm Juice taken
Acmella calva (DC.)
R.K.Jansen
Surjokonna Asteraceae H Flower Toothache Flower chewed
Aegle marmelos (L.)
Corr.
Bel Rutaceae T Fruit Analgesic Fruit taken
Leaf Scabies Leaf crushed with Terminalia
arjuna leaf, boiled and then the
water is used.
Fruit Dysentery Fruit taken
Fruit Stomach
problem
Young fruit taken
Leaf Strength Leaf crushed with Terminalia
arjuna leaf, boiled and then the
water is used.
Agaricus bisporus
(J.E.Lange) Imbach
Masroom Agaricaceae H Fruit
body
Diabetes Cooked and taken
Allium cepa L. Peyaj Amaryllidaceae H Latex Hair fall Latex applied on bare head
Allium sativum L. Rosun Amaryllidaceae H Bulb Heart problem One seed taken regularly
Bulb High pressure Bulb taken raw
Alocasia macrorrhizos
(L.) G.Don
Mankochu Araceae S Stem Body pain Juice taken regularly with oil
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Alovera Asphodelaceae H Leaf Thermo-
regulation
Leaf juice taken
Leaf Constipation Leaf juice taken
Leaf Gastritis Leaf juice taken
Leaf Cold, cough Leaf juice taken
Leaf Skin care Leaf paste applied
Leaf Hair treatment Leaf paste applied
Leaf Nutrition Leaf juice taken
Alstonia scholaris (L.)
R. Br.
Chatim Apocynaceae T Leaf Diarrhoea Leaf juice taken
Latex Gonorrhea Latex mixed with sugar and
then taken
Bark Pregnancy
issues
Soaked in water and then taken
128 UDDIN et al.
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Amaranthus spinosus
L.
Katanote Amaranthaceae H Root Dysentery Root crushed with molasses
and taken
Whole
plant
Jaundice Cooked and taken
Amaranthus tricolor L. Lalshak Amaranthaceae H Whole
plant
Blood increase Cooked and taken
Whole
plant
For vitamins Cooked and taken
Amaranthus viridis L. Noteshak Amaranthaceae H Whole
plant
Weakness Cooked and taken
Whole
plant
Eye sight
issues
Cooked and taken
Ananas comosus (L.)
Merr.
Anaros Bromeliaceae H Fruit Fever Ripe fruit taken
Leaf Stomach pain Leaf juice taken
Leaf Worms Leaf juice taken in empty
stomach
Andrographis
paniculata (Burm.f.)
Nees
Kalomegh Acanthaceae H Stem Blood
purification
Stem soaked in water at night
and taken in the morning
Stem Skin problem Stem soaked in water whole
night and taken in the morning
Leaf Jaundice Leaf juice taken
Leaf Constipation Soaked in water then water is
taken
Leaf COVID-19 Leaf juice taken
Leaf Worm Leaf juice taken
Leaf Fever Juice taken
Leaf Itching Leaf soaked in water and taken
Leaf Liver problem Leaf juice taken
Leaf Constipation Leaf soaked in water and taken
Leaf Stomach
problem
Leaf juice taken
Leaf Cold Leaf juice taken
Leaf Worm Leaf juice taken
Leaf Fever Pill made and then taken
Arachis hypogaea L. Badam Fabaceae H Seed Heart problem Raw seeds taken
Seed Diet
maintenance
Roasted seed taken
Artocarpus
heterophyllus Lamk.
Kathal Moraceae T Latex Skin problem White latex applied
Fruit Appetizer Fruit taken
Artocarpus lakoocha
Roxb.
Deowa Moraceae T Latex Skin disease Latex taken
Asparagus racemosus
Willd.
Sotomuli Asparagaceae C Root Male weakness Raw root taken
Root Impotent Raw root taken
Root Male weakness Raw root taken
Averrhoa carambola L. Kamranga Oxalidaceae T Fruit High pressure Fruit taken
Azadirachta indica A.
Juss.
Neem Meliaceae T Leaf Fever Leaf dried and taken like pill
Leaf Body pain Leaf juice taken
Leaf Rheumatic
pain
Leaf juice applied
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING COVID-19 129
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Leaf Blood purifier Leaf taken
Leaf Antiseptic Leaf juice applied
Leaf Itching Leaf juice mixed with water
and bathe with it
Leaf Skin problem Pasted with turmeric and
applied
Leaf Itching Crushed with turmeric and
applied
Leaf Pox Juice mixed with water and
bathe
Leaf Allergy Leaf cooked and taken with
rice
Leaf Scabies Leaf paste applied
Leaf Smallpox Juice mixed with water and
bathe
Leaf Jaundice Leaf juice taken
Leaf Constipation Leaf juice taken
Leaf Diarrhoea Leaf dried and taken like pill
Leaf Diabetes Leaf juice taken
Leaf Stomach ache Leaf juice taken
Bark Stomach pain Powder soaked in water and
taken
Leaf Gastritis Leaf juice taken
Stem Tooth and gum
problem
Used as brush
Leaf Cholera Leaf dried and taken like a pill
Leaf Kidney
problem
Leaf juice taken
Leaf Hair fall Leaf juice mixed with coconut
oil and applied
Leaf Worms Leaf juice taken
Leaf Louse Leaf paste applied to the head
Leaf Insecticide Leaf used to preserve crops
Bacopa monnieri (L.)
Wettst.
Brammi
Shak
Plantaginaceae H Whole
plant
Health tonic Cooked and taken
Barringtonia
acutangula (L.) Gaerth.
Hizol Lecythidaceae T Leaf Dysentery Leaf juice taken
Bark Dysentery Bark juice taken
Benincasa hispida
(Thunb.) Cogn.
Kumra Cucurbitaceae C Leaf Headache Leaf chewed and taken
Leaf Constipation Leaf cooked and taken
Leaf Stomachache Leaf chewed and taken
Fruit Body
maintenance
Cooked and taken
Bombax ceiba L. Simul Malvaceae T Root Heart disease Juice taken
Root Constipation Young root taken
Root Dysentery Root juice taken
Bark Dysentery Bark juice taken
Root Gastritis Young root taken
130 UDDIN et al.
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Root Semen increase Young root taken
Root Ca2+ deficiency Young root taken
Borassus flabellifer L. Tal Arecaceae S Stem Diarrhoea Warm juice taken
Leaf Ear problem Young leaf burnt and the
liquid applied on the ear
Stem Cold, cough Warm juice taken
Leaf Asthma Warm juice taken
Brassica juncea (L.)
Czern.
Sorisha Brassicaceae H Seed Body pain Seed oil massage
Seed Neck pain Seed oil massage
Seed Cold, cough Seed oil taken
Seed Cold, cough Oil boiled with garlic and
massage
Seed Cold, cough Seed oil massage on the
throat
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Arhar Fabaceae S Leaf Jaundice Leaf juice taken
Fruit Weakness Cooked and taken
Calamus tenuis Roxb. Bet Arecaceae C Young
Shoot
Gastritis Paste taken
Calotropis gigantea (L.)
W.T.Aiton.
Akondo Apocynaceae S Leaf Body pain Warm leaf juice massaged
Leaf Rheumatic pain Warm leaf juice massaged
Leaf Sexual weakness Leaf soaked in water and
then water taken
Leaf Cold, cough Warm leaf juice mixed with
mustard oil and then
massaged
Latex Insect bite Latex applied
Leaf Snakebite Leaf juice applied on bitten
place
Camellia sinensis (L.) O.
Kuntze
Cha Theaceae S Leaf Headache Boiled in water and water
drunken
Leaf Corona Leaf powder boiled in
water and then taken
Leaf Body fitness Boiled in water and water
taken
Leaf Weight
reduction
Boiled in water and water
taken
Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.)
DC.
Mou Shim Fabaceae C Fruit Appetizer Cooked and taken
Careya arborea Roxb. Kumvi Lecythidaceae T Leaf Cold, cough Paste taken with a bamboo
stick
Carica papaya L. Pepe Caricaceae S Latex Ringworm Latex applied on the
infected skin
Fruit Constipation Fruit taken
Fruit Gastritis Young fruit taken in the
morning
Fruit Stomach
problem
Cooked with less spices and
taken
Leaf Malaria Leaf juice taken
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING COVID-19 131
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Cassia fistula L. Sonalu Fabaceae T Fruit Dysentery Fruit pulp taken
Catharanthus roseus
(L.) G.Don
Noyontara Apocynaceae S Flower Diabetes Flower juice taken
Centella asiatica (L.)
Urban
Thankuni Apiaceae H Leaf Body pain Leaf chewed and taken
Leaf High pressure Leaf juice taken
Leaf Skin problem Leaf juice applied on skin
Leaf,
Stem
Skin problem Cooked and taken
Leaf Jaundice Leaf juice taken
Leaf Liver problem Leaf taken
Leaf Dysentery Leaf juice taken
Leaf Diarrhoea Leaf juice taken
Leaf Constipation Leaf juice taken
Leaf Upset stomach Leaf juice taken
Leaf Diabetes Leaf juice taken
Leaf Gastritis Leaf juice taken in the morning
Leaf Leucorrhea Leaf juice taken
Leaf Eye cataract Leaf juice applied on eye
Leaf COVID-19 Leaf chewed and taken
Leaf Skin glamour Leaf juice applied on skin
Leaf Weight
reduction
Leaf juice taken
Leaf Worm Leaf juice taken
Chenopodium album L. Bethua Amaranthaceae H Leaf Weakness Whole plant cooked and taken
Chromolaena odorata
(L.) R.M.King &
H.Rob.
Ujaru Lota Asteraceae S Leaf Stop bleeding Juice given to the wounded
place
Leaf Fracture Leaf paste applied
Leaf Ulcer Leaf juice is taken
Leaf Gastritis Leaf juice is taken
Cinnamomum tamala
(Buch. -Ham.) T.Nees
& C.H.Eberm.
Tejpata Lauraceae T Leaf Gastritis Leaf juice taken
Leaf COVID-19 Dry leaf boiled with Clove and
water taken
Leaf Cold, cough Dry leaf boiled and water taken
Leaf Hair fall Dry powder applied on bath
water
Cinnamomum verum
J.Presl
Daruchini Lauraceae T Bark Acne Powdered stem applied with
honey
Bark COVID-19 Bark boiled and water taken
Bark Hair fall Dry bark powder mixed with
water and then bathe with it
Cissus quadrangularis
L.
Harvanga Vitaceae C Stem Rheumatic
pain
Cooked and taken
Stem Fracture Stem paste applied on broken
bone
Citrus aurantium L. Malta Rutaceae S Fruit COVID-19 Fruit juice taken
Citrus aurantifolia
(Christm. & Panzer)
Swingle
Lebu Rutaceae S Fruit High pressure Juice taken
Fruit Digestion Fruit juice applied
Leaf Nausea Leaf crushed and smell taken
132 UDDIN et al.
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Fruit Weakness Fruit juice taken
Fruit Tooth problem Fruit taken
Fruit Cancer Fruit boiled and then taken
Fruit Sleep problem Fruit juice taken
Fruit COVID-19 Fruit juice taken
Fruit Antioxidant Fruit juice applied
Fruit Skin care Fruit juice applied
Citrus maxima (Burm.)
Merr.
Jambura Rutaceae S Fruit Jaundice Fruit taken
Clerodendrum
infortunatum L.
Vat Lamiaceae S Root Dysentery Root crushed and taken with
water
Leaf Stomach
problem
Leaf juice taken
Root Tooth problem Root chewed
Stem Tooth problem Stem used as brush
Leaf Toothache Leaf chewed
Young
Shoot
Asthma Juice taken
Leaf Cold, cough Leaf juice taken
Young
Shoot
Worm Juice taken
Clitoria ternatea L. Aparajita Fabaceae C Flower Cold, cough Flower chewed and taken
Coccinia grandis (L.)
Voigt
Telakucha Cucurbitaceae C Leaf Fever Leaf juice taken
Leaf Chest pain Leaf juice taken
Leaf Rheumatic
pain
Cooked and taken
Leaf Blood purifier Cooked and taken
Leaf Blood clotting Leaf paste applied
Leaf Body burning Cooked and taken
Leaf Jaundice Leaf juice taken
Leaf Constipation Leaf cooked and taken
Leaf Piles Leaf crushed with salt and
applied
Leaf Diabetes Leaf juice taken
Leaf Diabetes Cooked and taken
Leaf Gastritis Cooked and taken
Leaf Ear problem Leaf paste prepared with
mustard oil, salt and then juice
applied
Leaf Kidney stone Leaf juice taken
Leaf Cold, cough Cooked and taken
Leaf Head cool Cooked and taken
Cocos nucifera L. Dab Arecaceae T Fruit Jaundice Fruit water taken
Fruit Diarrhoea Fruit water taken
Fruit Pregnancy
problem
Fruit water taken with faith
Root Toothache Young root juice taken evening
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING COVID-19 133
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Fruit COVID-19 Fruit water taken three times a
day
Colocasia esculenta
(L.) Schott
Kochu Araceae H Stem Pain Cooked and taken
Stem Rheumatic
pain
Cooked and taken
Stem Blood purifier Cooked and taken
Leaf Stop bleeding Paste applied on the wounded
part
Rhizom
e
Blood
dysentery
Cooked and taken
Leaf Constipation Leaf cooked and taken
Combretum indicum
(L.) DeFilipps
Modhumonj
uri
Combretaceae C Leaf Allergy Leaf cooked with black pepper
and taken
Corchorus capsularis
L.
Pat Malvaceae H Leaf Upset stomach Fried leaf taken
Crinum asiaticum L. Gorosun Amaryllidaceae H Bulb Liver problem Soaked in water and then small
amount is taken
Crotalaria pallida
Aiton
Jhunjhuni Fabaceae S Leaf Stomach pain Cooked with other veggies and
taken
Cucumis sativus L. Shosha Cucurbitaceae C Fruit Heart problem Fruit taken
Fruit Stomachache Fruit taken with salt
Fruit Dark spots Fruit applied on the place
Fruit Reduce obesity Fruit taken
Fruit Weight
reduction
Fruit taken
Cuminum cyminum L. Jira Apiaceae H Seed Gastritis Seed chewed and taken
Curcuma longa L. Holud Zingiberaceae H Rhizom
e
Body pain Rhizome taken with milk
Rhizom
e
Blood purifier Raw rhizome taken in the
morning
Rhizom
e
Skin problem Paste applied to skin
Rhizom
e
Acnes spots Rhizome paste applied
Rhizom
e
Jaundice Raw rhizome taken
Rhizom
e
Skin glamour Rhizome paste applied on skin
Curcuma zedoaria
(Christm.) Roscoe
Sothi Zingiberaceae H Root Gastritis Root juice taken
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Sornolota Convolvulaceae C Stem Fever Crushed and juice taken
Stem Body pain Stem paste applied
Stem Rheumatic
pain
Cooked and taken
Stem Fracture Paste applied
Leaf Allergy Leaf boiled and applied
Stem Jaundice Stem juice taken
Stem Diarrhoea Stem paste applied
Stem Gastritis Cooked and taken
134 UDDIN et al.
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Stem Stomach
problem
Stem boiled and taken
Stem Excessive
menstruation
Stem juice taken
Stem Worm Juice used
Cynodon dactylon (L.)
Pers.
Durba Poaceae H Leaf Stop bleeding Leaf juice given to the
wounded place
Whole
plant
Wound healing Crushed and paste applied on
the wounded place
Leaf Ulcer Leaf juice taken
Leaf Urinary
problem
Leaf juice taken
Whole
plant
Gastritis Plant crushed and juice taken
Leaf Gum strong Leaf chewed and juice taken
Leaf Insomnia Leaf juice taken
Datura metel L. Dhutura Solanaceae S Leaf Rheumatic
pain
Young leaf cooked and taken
Leaf Itching Young leaf cooked and taken
Leaf Skin problem Young leaf cooked and taken
Root Constipation Soaked in water and then water
taken
Fruit Mental
problem
Fruit taken after purifying it.
Leaf Cold, cough Leaf juice taken
Dillenia indica L. Chalta Dilleniaceae T Fruit High pressure Fruit juice taken
Leaf Constipation Soaked in water and then water
taken
Fruit Dysentery Fruit juice taken
Leaf Dysentery Soaked in water and then water
taken
Leaf Urinary
problem
Soaked in water and then water
taken
Leaf Stomach
problem
Soaked in water and then water
taken
Fruit Vitamins Soaked in water and then water
taken
Dioscorea alata L. Pastalu Dioscoreaceae C Tuber Health care Cooked and taken
Diospyros malabarica
(Desr.) Kostel.
Gab Ebenaceae T Leaf Constipation Soaked in water and then water
taken
Leaf Dysentery Soaked in water and then water
taken
Eclipta prostrata (L.)
L.
Keshraj Asteraceae H Young
Shoot
Hand pain Five shoots crushed with lime
and applied in hands
Leaf Headache Leaf juice taken
Whole
plant
Stop bleeding Paste applied on wounded part
Whole
plant
Dandruff Paste applied on head
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING COVID-19 135
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Whole
plant
Jaundice Cooked and taken
Fruit Toothache Chewed on the infected tooth
Whole
plant
Hair fall Paste applied on head
Leaf Blackening
hair
Leaf crushed and applied on
head
Leaf Head cool Paste applied on head
Elaeocarpus
floribundus Blume
Jolpai Elaeocarpaceae T Fruit Appetizer Fruit taken
Fruit Vitamin c Fruit taken
Elettaria cardamomum
(L.) Maton
Alach Zingiberaceae Fruit COVID-19 Boiled and water taken
Enydra fluctuans Lour. Helencha Asteraceae H Whole
plant
Asthma Cooked and taken
Whole
plant
Eye sight
improve
Cooked and taken
Whole
plant
Vitamins Cooked and taken
Euryale ferox Salisb Tal Makhna Nymphaeaceae H Fruit Constipation Taken with molasses
Ficus hispida L. f. Kak Dumur Moraceae T Stem Eye cataracts Young branch latex applied on
eye
Ficus racemosa L. Dumur Moraceae T Fruit Diabetes Fruit taken
Fruit Cold, cough Ripe fruit taken raw or unripe
fruit cooked and then taken
Leaf Cold, cough Leaf cooked and taken
Glinus oppositifolius
(L.) Aug.DC.
Gima Shak Molluginaceae H Leaf Skin problem Whole plant cooked and taken
Leaf Body pain Cooked and taken
Glycosmis pentaphylla
(Retz.) A.DC.
Motkila Rutaceae S Stem Tooth
problem
Stem used as brush
Leaf Worms Leaf juice taken
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Josthimodhu Fabaceae S Stem,
Root
Throat
problem
Dried and then soaked water
taken
Stem
and
Root
Cold, cough Stem or root dissolved in
water and then taken
Gynura procumbens
(Lour.) Merr.
Diabetic Plant Asteraceae S Leaf Diabetes Leaf juice taken
Heliotropium indicum
L.
Hatishur Boraginaceae H Leaf
and
Stem
Fever Juice taken
Leaf Abscess Warm leaf juice applied
Root Delivery
problem
Root juice taken
Root Strength Root crushed and juice taken
Flower Ophthalmia Flower juice applied
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
L.
Joba Malvaceae S Bark Dysentery Soaked in water and then
taken
Flower Pregnancy
problem
Flower juice mixed with milk
and taken to have baby
136 UDDIN et al.
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Flower Hair treatment Flower juice applied on head
Flower Head cool Flower paste applied on head
and then washout
Hyptis suaveolens (L.)
Poit.
Tokma Lamiaceae H Seed Body cool Seed soaked in water and taken
Seed Constipation Seed mixed with water and
then taken
Seed Dysentery Seed soaked in water and taken
Leaf Constipation Leaf juice taken
Seed Diabetes Seed soaked in water and taken
Seed Strength Seed mixed with water and
then taken
Imperata cylindrica
(L.) Raeusch.
Uluchan Poaceae H Whole
plant
New hair
growth
Whole plant crushed and the
paste applied on head
Ipomoea aquatica
Forssk.
Kolmi Convolvulaceae H Leaf Abscess Leaf mixed with Onion and
paste applied
Leaf Insect bite Leaf paste applied
Justicia adhatoda L. Basok Acanthaceae S Leaf Body pain Leaf juice massaged
Leaf COVID-19 Leaf juice taken
Leaf Asthma Leaf juice taken
Kalanchoe
daigremontiana Raym.-
Hamet & H.Perrier
Pathor
Chuna
Crassulaceae H Leaf Stomachache Leaf taken with molasse
Leaf Dysentery Leaf chewed in morning empty
stomach
Leaf Semen
increase
Leaf chewed in morning empty
stomach
Kalanchoe pinnata
(Lam.) Pers.
Pathor
kuchi
Crassulaceae H Leaf Fever Leaf juice applied
Leaf Urinary
problem
Leaf juice taken
Leaf Stomach
problem
Leaf juice applied
Lagenaria siceraria
(Molina) Standl.
Lau Cucurbitaceae C Fruit Stomach
problem
Fruit cooked and taken
Laportea interrupta
(L.) Chew
Chotra Urticaceae H Root Dysentery Root juice taken
Lawsonia inermis L. Mehedi Lythraceae S Leaf Dandruff Leaf paste applied on head
Leaf Nail problem Leaf juice applied
Leaf Gastritis Leaf juice taken
Leaf Abortion Leaf juice is taken
Leaf Hair fall Leaf juice applied on head
Leaf Head cool Paste applied on head
Leaf Hair color Paste applied on head
Lens culinaris Medik. Mosur Dal Fabaceae H Seed Skin glamour Soaked in water and then
pasted
Leucas aspera (Willd.)
Link
Dondo
Kolosh
Lamiaceae H Leaf Face swollen Leaf juice taken
Leaf Cold, cough Leaf cooked and taken
Whole
plant
Cold, cough Crushed and juice taken
Leaf Cold, cough Leaf juice taken
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING COVID-19 137
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Young
Shoot
Diabetes Cooked with potato and taken
Leaf Worm Leaf juice applied
Limonia acidissima L. Kodbel Rutaceae T Fruit Apatite Fruit taken
Fruit Constipation Young fruit dried and then
taken with water and sugar
Litsea glutinosa (Lour.)
C.B.Rob.
Menda Lauraceae T Leaf,
Stem
Body burning
sensation
Soaked in water and then taken
Leaf Jaundice Leaf soaked in water and then
water taken
Leaf Dysentery Leaf soaked in water and then
water taken
Leaf Constipation Leaf soaked in water and then
water taken
Bark Dysentery Bark crushed and soaked in
water and then water taken
Leaf Urinary
problem
Leaf soaked in water and then
water taken
Leaf Stomach
problem
Leaf soaked in water and then
water taken
Leaf Cold, cough Leaf soaked in water and then
water taken
Leaf Burning
sensation
Leaf soaked in water and then
taken
Bark Burning
sensation
Bark soaked in water and then
taken
Leaf Head cool Leaf paste applied
Mallotus nudiflorus
(L.) Kulju & Welzen
Pitali Euphorbiaceae T Stem,
Root
Tooth problem Used as brush
Fruit Abscess Fruit powder applied
Mangifera indica L. Amm Anacardiaceae T Fruit High pressure Fruit juice taken
Bark Jaundice Bark juice taken
Fruit Jaundice Fruit water taken
Bark Dysentery Bark juice taken
Bark Diarrhoea Bark soaked in water with
molasses and then taken
Flower Dysentery Flower bud Juice taken on
empty stomach
Leaf Dysentery Leaf juice taken
Leaf Gastritis Leaf juice taken on empty
stomach
Seed Diabetes Seed taken
Flower Gastritis Flower bud taken directly on
empty stomach
Leaf Stomach pain Leaf chewed and taken
Leaf Toothache Leaf chewed and taken
Fruit Vitamin C Young fruit is taken
Fruit Heart problem Young fruit taken
138 UDDIN et al.
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Melia azedarach L. Ghoranim Meliaceae T Leaf Louse Leaf paste applied on the head
Mentha arvensis L. Pudina Lamiaceae H Leaf Digestion Leaf taken raw
Leaf Gonorrhea Leaf juice taken with milk
Leaf COVID-19 Leaf warm juice taken
Leaf Asthma Leaf boiled in water and then
taken
Leaf Closed nose Leaf juice vapors taken by nose
Mikania scandens (L.)
Willd.
Asamlota Asteraceae C Leaf Headache Leaf paste applied
Leaf Wound healing Leaf juice applied on the
wounded place
Leaf Gastritis Leaf juice taken
Leaf Diabetes Leaf cooked and taken or taken
raw
Leaf Stomachache Leaf juice taken
Mimosa pudica L. Lojjaboti Fabaceae S Root Dysentery Root crushed and juice taken
with water
Root Sleep problem Root tie on hand
Momordica charantia
L.
Korola Cucurbitaceae C Fruit Diabetes Cooked and taken
Fruit Diabetes Fruit juice taken
Leaf Diabetes Juice taken
Moringa oleifera Lam. Sajna Moringaceae T Fruit Fever Cooked and taken
Leaf Rheumatic
pain
Leaf juice taken
Bark Rheumatic
pain
Bark fried and chewed with
rice seed powder
Leaf Jaundice Cooked and taken
Leaf Dysentery Leaf juice taken
Leaf Diabetes Cooked and taken
Leaf Weakness Cooked and taken
Leaf,
Bark
Cold, cough Bark or leaf crushed and taken
Bark Asthma Bark juice taken
Murraya paniculata
(L.) Jack
Kamini Rutaceae T Leaf Tooth problem Leaf chewed
Musa paradisiaca L. Kola Musaceae H Fruit Dysentery Unripe fruit crushed with sugar
and taken
Fruit Eye sight Fruit taken
Leaf Skin problem Leaf paste applied
Cone Jaundice Cooked and taken
Fruit Dysentery Unripe fruit crushed with sugar
and taken
Cone Constipation Cooked and taken
Fruit Constipation Cooked and taken
Fruit Diarrhoea Unripe fruit cooked and taken
Cone Upset stomach Cooked and taken
Fruit Stomach
problem
Unripe fruit crushed and taken
Cone Diabetes Cooked and taken
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING COVID-19 139
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Fruit Dysentery Fruit soaked in water and then
water taken
Fruit Weakness Fruit taken
Fruit Diarrhoea Fruit soaked in water and then
water taken
Nelumbo nucifera
Gaertn.
Poddo Nelumbonaceae H Leaf Pain Leaf juice taken
Neolamarckia cadamba
(Roxb.) Bosser
Kodom Rubiaceae T Leaf Rheumatic
pain
Body massage with the warm
juice of leaf
Bark Dysentery Bark soaked in water and then
taken
Leaf Worm Young leaf chewed and taken
Nigella sativa L. Kalojira Ranunculaceae H Seed Pain Seed oil massage to get remedy
Seed Skin problem Seeds are taken
Seed Gastritis Seeds are taken
Seed Stomach
problem
Seeds are taken
Seed Strength Seeds are taken
Seed COVID-19 Seed paste taken
Seed Cold, cough Seed paste taken
Seed COVID-19 Seeds taken regularly to get
remedy from COVID-19
Seed Cold, cough Seed boiled with ginger, tea
leaf and clove and water taken
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis
L.
Shiuli Oleaceae S Leaf Fever Leaf crushed and juice taken
Leaf Piles Leaf crushed and juice taken
Leaf Cold, cough Leaf crushed and juice taken
Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Tulshi Lamiaceae S Leaf Headache Warm juice taken
Leaf Skin problem Crushed with mango leaf,
guava leaf and then paste
mixed with bath water
Leaf Cold, cough Leaf juice taken
Leaf Cold, cough Leaf chewed and taken
Leaf COVID-19 Leaf chewed and taken
Leaf Cold, cough Leaf boiled and taken with
honey
Leaf Sore throat Warm juice taken
Oroxylum indicum (L.)
Benth. ex Kurz.
Kanai
dinga
Bignoniaceae T Leaf Stomach
problem
Young leaf chewed and taken
Oryza sativa L. Dhan Poaceae H Seed Strong hair Boiled and water applied
Seed Upset stomach Processed seed (cheera) taken
with yogurt
Paederia foetida L. Gondho
Vadhuli
Rubiaceae C Leaf Liver problem Cooked and taken
Leaf Dysentery Leaf juice taken with sugar
Persicaria orientalis
(L.) Spach
Bishkatali Polygonaceae H Whole
plant
Fish killing Plant crushed and applied
Phoenix sylvestris (L.)
Roxb.
Khejur Arecaceae T Fruit Migraine Unripe fruit taken
Fruit Increase
weight
Fruits are taken regularly
140 UDDIN et al.
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Phyllanthus acidus (L.)
Skeels
Orboroi Phyllanthaceae T Fruit Cold, cough Fruit taken
Phyllanthus emblica L. Amloki Phyllanthaceae T Fruit Chest pain Crushed with Terminalia
bellirica and T. chebula fruits
and taken after drying
Fruit Heart problem Powder soaked in water and
taken
Fruit High pressure Crushed with T. chebula fruit
and taken
Fruit Appetite Crushed with Terminalia
bellirica and T. chebula fruits
and taken after drying
Fruit Aversion to
food
Fruit taken
Fruit Digestion Fruit taken
Fruit Liver problem Crushed with T. chebula fruit
and taken
Fruit Excretory
problem
Crushed with Terminalia
bellirica and T. chebula fruits
and taken after drying
Fruit Constipation Fruit taken
Fruit Constipation Crushed with Terminalia
bellirica and T. chebula fruits
and taken after drying
Fruit Gastritis Crushed with Terminalia
bellirica and T. chebula fruits
and taken after drying
Fruit Impotent Crushed with Terminalia
bellirica and T. chebula fruits
and taken after drying
Fruit Strength Crushed with Terminalia
bellirica and T. chebula fruits
and taken after drying
Fruit Mouth
problem
Raw fruit taken
Fruit Mouth ulcer Raw fruit taken
Fruit Antioxidant Fruit juice applied
Fruit Hair fall Soaked in water and applied on
head
Fruit Skin care Fruit juice applied
Phyllanthus reticulatus
Poir.
Sitki Phyllanthaceae S Stem Tooth problem Used as brush
Physalis minima L. Photka Solanaceae H Seed Diabetes 2 or 3 seeds are chewed and
taken
Piper betle L. Pan Piperaceae C Leaf Digest Leaf taken
Leaf Diabetes Leaf taken
Piper longum L. Pipul Piperaceae H Leaf Fever Crushed with black pepper seed
and taken
Leaf Fever Leaf juice taken
Leaf Headache Leaf juice taken
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING COVID-19 141
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Piper nigrum L Gol Morich Piperaceae C Leaf Cold, cough Leaf juice taken
Piper retrofractum
Vahl
Chui Jhal Piperaceae C Stem Better
digestion
Stem cooked and taken
Plantago ovata Forssk. Esobgul Plantaginaceae S Seed
coat
Constipation Seed coat powder mixed with
water and taken
Indigestion Seed coat powder mixed with
water and taken
Prunus domestica L. Alu
bokhara
Rosaceae T Fruit Diabetes Fruit taken
Psidium guajava L. Peyara Myrtaceae T Fruit Constipation Fruit taken
Leaf Dysentery Juice taken
Leaf Diabetes Leaf juice taken
Leaf Toothache Young leaf chewed
Leaf Tooth pain Boiled with Azadirachta indica
leaf and Aegle marmelos leaf
and then mouthwash with the
water
Leaf Tooth decay Leaf chewed twice a day
Punica granatum L. Dalim Lythraceae S Fruit Blood
increasement
Fruit taken
Leaf Pox Juice taken
Leaf Blood
dysentery
Leaf crushed with Mango leaf
and, Guava leaf then taken.
Fruit Diarrhoea Fruit taken
Flower Dysentery Paste applied
Fruit Cold, cough Fruit taken
Fruit Cold, cough Fruit peel boiled in water and
then taken
Pyrus communis L. Naspati Rosaceae T Fruit Heart water
remove
Fruit taken
Ricinus communis L. Verenda Euphorbiaceae S Seed Pain Seed oil massage to get remedy
Seed Rheumatic
pain
Seed oil massage to get remedy
Salvia hispanica L. Chiya Seed Lamiaceae H Seed Constipation Soaked in water and then taken
Seed Skin, organ
nutrition
Soaked in water and then taken
Saccharum officinarum
L.
Akh Poaceae H Stem Jaundice Stem juice taken
Stem Jaundice Stem juice taken
Scoparia dulcis L. Bon Dhone Plantaginaceae H Leaf Cold, cough Juice taken
Leaf Body pain Leaf juice taken
Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Dad
mordon
Fabaceae S Leaf Ringworm Leaf juice applied
Senna alexandrina
Mill.
Sonapata Fabaceae S Leaf Constipation Leaf powder taken
Sesamum indicum L. Til Pedaliaceae H Seed Cold, cough Seed oil applied
Shorea robusta
C.F.Gaertn.
Sal Dipterocarpacea
e
T Bark Diarrhoea Bark juice taken
Stem Impotence Mixed with molasses and taken
142 UDDIN et al.
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Sida cordifolia L. Berela Malvaceae S Root Weakness Root juice taken with sugar
regularly
Smilax perfoliata Lour. Kumari lota Smilacaceae C Stem Fracture Paste applied
Stem Strength Young stem chewed and taken
Stem Sexual problem Stem taken
Solanum indicum
Roxb.
Tuni begun Solanaceae S Fruit Blood purifier Chewed or juice taken
Solanum nigrum L. Titbegun Solanaceae H Leaf Itching Leaf burned and ash applied
Solanum
sisymbriifolium Lam.
Kata Begun Solanaceae H Seed Allergy Cooked and taken
Spinacia oleracea L. Palong Amaranthaceae H Leaf Vitamins Cooked and taken
Spondias pinnata (L.f.)
Kurz
Amra Anacardiaceae T Fruit High pressure Fruit taken
Fruit Appetite Fruit taken
Stephania japonica
(Thunb.) Miers
Aknadi Menispermacea
e
C Leaf Leukorrhea 19 leaves crushed and paste
taken with molasses for 7 days
Sterculia villosa
Roxb.ex Sm.
Udal Malvaceae T Stem Strength Young stem soaked in water
and taken
Stevia rebaudiana
Bertoni
Chinipata Asteraceae H Leaf Cold, cough Leaf juice taken
Streblus asper Lour. Shewra Moraceae T Leaf Diabetes Leaf juice taken
Strychnos nux-vomica
L.
Kuchila Loganiaceae T Leaf Diabetes Cooked and taken
Swietenia macrophylla
King
Mehogoni Meliaceae T Seed Diabetes Taken raw
Syzygium aromaticum
(L.) Merr. & L.M.
Perry
Lobongo Myrtaceae T Flower Tooth problem Flower chewed
Flower Cold, cough Flower chewed
Flower Shore throat Flower chewed with Nigella
sativa
Syzygium cumini (L.)
Skeels
Jam Myrtaceae T Fruit Blood increase Fruit taken
Leaf Diarrhoea Leaf juice taken
Leaf Dysentery Leaf juice taken
Seed Diabetes Seed powder taken regularly
Seed Gastritis Seed powder taken regularly
Seed Male strength Seed crushed and then taken
Fruit Strength Fruit pulp taken
Tagetes erecta L. Gada Asteraceae H Leaf Stop bleeding Leaf juice given to the
wounded place
Leaf Liver problem Leaf juice taken
Tamarindus indica L. Tetul Fabaceae T Fruit High pressure Fruit taken
Fruit Skin care Fruit juice applied
Fruit Antioxidant Fruit juice applied
Terminalia arjuna
(Roxb. ex DC.) Wight
& Arn.
Arjun Combretaceae T Leaf Fever Leaf juice taken
Bark Heart problem Powder soaked in water and
taken
Bark Heartache Powder soaked in water and
taken
Bark High pressure Powder soaked in water and
taken
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING COVID-19 143
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Bark Constipation Powder soaked in water and
taken
Bark Gastritis Powder soaked in water and
taken
Leaf Diabetes Leaf taken
Leaf Gastritis Leaf juice taken
Bark Semen
increase
Powder soaked in water and
taken
Bark Burning
sensation
Bark chewed or bark juice
taken
Bark Ca2+
deficiency
Powder soaked in water and
taken
Bark Dizziness Powder soaked in water and
taken
Terminalia bellirica
(Gaertn.) Roxb.
Bohera Combretaceae T Fruit Heart problem Powder soaked in water and
taken
Fruit Stomach
problem
Fruit taken
Terminalia chebula
Retz.
Horitoki Combretaceae T Fruit Heart problem Powder soaked in water and
taken
Fruit Appetite Powder soaked in water and
taken
Fruit Constipation Powder soaked in water and
taken
Fruit Stomach
problem
Powder soaked in water and
taken
Fruit Weakness Unripe fruit soaked in water
and then taken
Trigonella foenum-
graecum L.
Methi Fabaceae H Seed Diabetes Seed taken
Leaf Strength Leaf cooked and taken
Typhonium trilobatum
(L.) Schott.
Kharkan Araceae H Leaf Pain Cooked and taken
Vachellia nilotica (L.)
P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb.
Babla Fabaceae T Young
Shoot
Urinary
problem
Shoot chewed and juice taken
for 5-7 days
Vigna mungo (L.)
Hepper
Mashkolai Fabaceae H Seed Increase
lactation in
mothers
Seeds are cooked with Squash
and taken
Vitex negundo L. Nishinda Lamiaceae S Leaf Worm Leaf juice taken
Vitis vinifera L. Angur Vitaceae C Fruit Eye sight Fruit taken
Fruit Blood
purification
Fruit taken regularly
Xanthium strumarium
L.
Ghagra Asteraceae H Leaf Body pain Leaf juice taken
Leaf Blood purifier Leaf cooked and taken
Latex Stop bleeding Latex applied
Leaf Itching Leaf cooked and taken
Root Dysentery Root paste taken
Zanthoxylum rhetsa
(Roxb.) DC.
Bajna Rutaceae T Seed Body pain Seed oil massage
Spine Cold, cough Spine powered and taken with
water
144 UDDIN et al.
Table 2 Contd.
Scientific name Local name Family Habit Part
used
Ailment Treatment mode
Zingiber officinale
Rosc.
Ada Zingiberaceae H Rhizome Gastritis Raw rhizome taken with salt
Rhizome Stomach pain Raw rhizome taken with salt
Rhizome Nausea
prevention
Raw rhizome taken with salt
Rhizome Weakness Rhizome taken
Rhizome Cold, cough Boiled with tea leaf and drunk
Rhizome COVID-19 Raw rhizome taken
Rhizome COVID-19 Raw rhizome taken with clove,
black pepper and black cumin.
Rhizome Sore throat Raw rhizome taken
Ziziphus mauritiana
Lam.
Boroi Rhamnaceae T Fruit High pressure Raw fruit taken
Leaf Itching Leaf juice applied in bath water
Leaf Dysentery Leaf paste taken
Leaf Dead body
wash
Leaf boiled in water and then
bath
Fig. 3. Most cited top fifteen species.
Fig. 4. Disease clusters with FIC value.
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING COVID-19 145
The high FIC value for Cuts and Wounds showed that this ailment is possibly common in the
study area and that a small number of taxa are used by a large number of people to treat this
ailment. This is also applicable in case of COVID-19 category (the second highest FIC value), as
the potential risk of being attacked by the Corona virus and the fear of not getting proper treatment
led people to collect different species from the study area in the hope of getting relief from this
disease. The higher FIC value also establishes better communication among the people in treating
the particular disease. It also indicates that the species traditionally used to treat these ailments are
worth searching for bioactive compounds.
The fidelity level (FL) was calculated to determine the most medicinally important plant
species. Medicinal plants that are widely used for a particular disease by local people show higher
FL values than those that are used to treat multiple ailments. The FL values for 17 species were
calculated (Table 3), among which Acmella calva (DC.) R.K. Jansen has 100% FL, which means
this species is only used for toothache treatment. There is no controversy about this use. In the
case of other species, the values show less than 100% FL, which means those species have some
other uses as well.
Table 3. Fidelity level (FL) from all disease categories.
Disease Disease categories Scientific name Local name FL%
Toothache Mouth and Dental Problems Acmella calva Surjokonna 100.00
Cold and Cough COVID-19 Ocimum tenuiflorum Tulshi 96.12
Cold and Cough COVID-19 Justicia adhatoda Basok 95.12
Fracture Cuts and Wounds Cissus quadrangularis Harvanga 92.31
Stop bleeding Cuts and Wounds Cynodon dactylon Durba 87.88
Corona COVID-19 Nigella sativa Kalojira 78.13
Hair fall Skin and Health Care Lawsonia inermis Mehedi 76.47
Wound healing Cuts and Wounds Mikania scandens Asamlota 66.67
Heart problem Cardiovascular and Circulatory Problem Terminalia arjuna Arjun 61.54
Dysentery Excretory Problem Centella asiatica Thankuni 60.81
Body Pain Analgesic and Antipyretic Calotropis gigantea Akondo 59.09
Diabetes Glandular and Intestinal Problem Coccinia grandis Telakucha 58.46
Gastritis Glandular and Intestinal Problem Mangifera indica Amm 51.61
Cold and Cough COVID-19 Zingiber officinale Ada 40.43
Semen increase Gynecological or Sexual Disorders Bombax ceiba Shimul 30.00
Worms Worm and Insect problem Azadirachta indica Neem 17.69
Itching Dermatological Disorders Azadirachta indica Neem 14.97
One of the interesting findings of this survey is the first-time record of 40 plant species
getting relief from COVID-19. These species are Abroma augusta (L.) L.f., Aloe vera (L.)
Burm.f., Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall.ex Nees, Borassus flabellifer L., Brassica
juncea (L.) Czern., Calotropis gigantea (L.) W.T.Aiton., Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze,
Careya arborea Roxb., Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, Cinnamomum tamala Nees & Eberm.,
Cinnamomum verum J.Presl, Citrus aurantium L., Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer)
146 UDDIN et al.
Swingle, Clerodendrum infortunatum L., Clitoria ternatea L., Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt, Cocos
nucifera L., Datura metel L., Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton, Enhydra fluctuans Lour., Ficus
racemosa L., Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Justicia adhatoda L., Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link, Litsea
glutinosa (Lour.) Robinson, Mentha arvensis L., Moringa oleifera Lamk., Nigella sativa L.,
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L., Ocimum tenuiflorum L., Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels, Piper nigrum
L., Punica granatum L., Scoparia dulcis L., Sesamum indicum L., Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni)
Bertoni, Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry, Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC. and
Zingiber officinale Rosc. Among them, 10 species were widely used by most people. These
species are Holy Basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum L.), Malabar nut (Justicia adhatoda L.), Pennywort
(Centella asiatica (L.) Urban), Lemon (Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle), Cloves
(Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry), Spearmint (Mentha arvensis L.), Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.), Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze), and Black cumin (Nigella
sativa L.).
The local informants of the Purbachal area reported that, during the pandemic the distribution
of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban and Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall.ex Nees were sharply
declined. Local people and as well as people from different areas were collected these species in
the hope of treating the COVID-19 disease. Dream stories about the use of Centella asiatica (L.)
for COVID-19 treatment were spread among the people of Purbachal and Keraniganj. According
to the dream, the use of three leaves of Centella asiatica (L.) can cure COVID-19. According to
the people, Centella asiatica (L.) leaves were very scarce during COVID-19, and even three
leaves were sold in the market for 100 Taka. Hot, salt water with Zingiber officinale Rosc.,
Nigella sativa L., Ocimum tenuiflorum L., Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry, raw
Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze, Mentha arvensis L. and leaves, Andrographis paniculata
(Burm.f.) Wall.ex Nees, were regularly used by the people who were out of vaccines. There is
really no Corona Virus, as said by a good number of people, including rickshaw pullers and
people from slums. They led their normal life during the pandemic situation, and they did not
maintain any isolation from each other. The rate of death in slums and rickshaw pullers was very
low as compared to higher society, as reported by the informants during the survey. The cited
plants in the report are very preliminary in their uses against COVID-19. To validate these plants’
use against COVID-19, further long-term research is necessary.
Traditionally, the oil of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) seed is used to treat impotence by the
people of Lawachara National Park (Uddin et al., 2017). Moreover, Rahmatullah et al. (2009b)
reported that black cumin is taken with crushed roots of Mapania caudata Kük. to treat
helminthiasis. The present survey explored a new use of this species, that is many informants in
and around Dhaka regularly took black cumin to get relief from COVID-19. The roots and leaves
of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) are used to treat fever, cough, and rheumatism by the Chakma
community of Bangladesh (Roy et al., 2008). Rahman et al. (2018) have mentioned its
antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities against the germs that attack our respiratory system. The
present study also found the same result where the local informants mentioned the effectiveness of
the leaves and seeds of black pepper against symptoms of COVID-19. Indian pennywort (Centella
asiatica (L.)) Urban has many uses, and in most cases, its whole body is taken to treat different
ailments. Roy et al. (2008), Uddin et al. (2012), and Uddin and Hassan (2014) recorded that this
plant’s body is used to treat dysentery, diarrhoea, and other stomach-related disorders. Moreover,
its leaf juice, when applied to the eyes, can help treat cataracts (Uddin et al., 2017). The present
study found that people believed so much in the efficacy of Indian pennywort against COVID-19
that this species became scarce during the pandemic period due to over-exploitation. Lemon
(Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle) is used to treat jaundice (Uddin et al., 2017)
and fever (Uddin et al., 2012). The present study revealed that majority of the informants who
CONSENSUS IN THE USE OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS DURING COVID-19 147
participated in the survey took lemon juice in the belief of being relieved of COVID-19. The
decoction produced from the rhizome of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is used to treat neck
pain (Uddin et al., 2017). Moreover, to treat flu and bronchitis, ginger rhizome is taken with betel
leaf and also taken as a syrup by the local people of Lawachara National Park (Uddin et al., 2012).
Informants of the present study linked this species with the treatment of COVID-19. Holy basil
(Ocimum tenuiflorum L.) is considered the most sacred plant in Hindu scriptures. Its leaf paste is
applied to reduce high blood-pressure (Uddin et al., 2017), and leaf juice is taken to treat colds and
coughs (Uddin et al., 2017; Uddin and Hassan, 2014). Moreover, informants in the present study
took leaf juice of this species to get relief from COVID-19 during the pandemic period. The whole
plant of green chiretta (Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ex Nees) is used by the people
of Lawachara National Park to treat diseases like malaria (Uddin and Hassan, 2014), diabetes,
dermatitis, and anthelmintic disorders (Uddin et al., 2017). Many informants in the present study
were mentioned this plant to use in the treatment of COVID-19. The leaf juice of Malabar nuts
(Justicia adhatoda L.) helps in treating colds and coughs (Uddin et al., 2017) and fever, malaria,
impotence, and jaundice (Uddin and Hassan, 2014). The study revealed that many informants in
and around Dhaka city took the leaf juice of Malabar nuts when the primary symptoms of
COVID-19 developed. The leaf juice of spearmint (Mentha arvensis L.) is used to treat stomach
aches (Uddin et al., 2017). This study revealed a new use of this species: many informants of
Dhaka took hot leaf juice of spearmint to get relief from COVID-19. Uddin et al. (2015) recorded
the use of tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) leaves in the treatment of diarrhoea. The present
study also revealed that many informants drank tea regularly in the hope of being relieved from
COVID-19.
The present survey recorded a number of threats to the local ethnomedicinal plants that were
mentioned by the informants in and around Dhaka city and were also observed by this team of
experts in the field. Most of the people mentioned rapid infrastructural development, construction
works, urbanization, pollution, overexploitation, ignorance about ethnomedicinal plants,
deforestation, and a lack of local medicinal plants in nurseries as the major threats. Urbanization
and construction works have been observed in more or less all parts of Dhaka that were visited
during this survey. In the Purbachal area green spaces are more abundant compared to other parts
that were surveyed. But the deforestation of the local forest and the emigration of some of the
local people from that area have resulted in the reduction of many local ethnomedicinal plants and
also to the sharp decline of the ethnomedicinal knowledge bank. Many informants from the
surveyed areas reaffirmed that the knowledge bank on ethnomedicines has shrunk from that of
previous generations, and a lack of ethnomedicinal practices has contributed to the sharp decline
of maintaining local ethnomedicinal plants in the homestead vegetation. Moreover, a lack of such
plants in the local nurseries and too much dependency on aesthetic plants for home décor have
also accelerated this process. Besides, people also exploit and over-exploit ethnomedicinal plants
from time to time, especially when there is no alternative source of medicine during a crisis
period. This was evident in the Purbachal area, where local dwellers mentioned Centella asiatica
(L.) Urban and Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall.ex Nees as plants that became scarce due
to overexploitation during the COVID-19 pandemic period.
A study by Setzer et al. (2006) showed that more than 80% of rural people around the globe
depend on herbal medicines. Besides, the world market for herbal medicines based on traditional
knowledge was estimated at US$ 60 billion (Brevoort, 1998) more than 24 years ago. These
studies prove how immensely important ethnomedicinal knowledge is! Yet its’ practices and
knowledge banks have been ignored by city dwellers and government and non-government
authorities to a large extend. There has been no government effort so far that actually upheld or
tried to uphold the local ethnomedicinal knowledge of our country. However, the practices of
148 UDDIN et al.
conserving this knowledge have only been limited to the researches of scientific communities. So,
the urgent focus has to be given by all of the respective communities to conserve ethnomedicinal
plants, their practices, and the people who practice this knowledge. On top of that, a number of
other recommendations have been provided.
Incentives can be given to nurseries to display and sell local ethnomedicinal plants with
discounts on them. Local people, especially city dwellers should be enlightened with the
importance of ethnomedicinal plants. The chance of building industries on ethnomedicinal plants
and their active compounds can be examined. Besides these, ethnomedicinal plants can be planted
on government properties such as road dividers, road pavements, parks and lakes. A national
knowledge bank on ethnomedicinal plants and the practices regarding them can be built.
Compensation for the destruction of ethnomedicinal plants due to urbanization and
industrialization with more secured plantations can be done. Pollution in sensitive areas such as
rivers where ethnomedicinal plants are found to be growing abundantly should be stopped.
Deforestation needs to be banned and a master plan regarding sustainable and urban development
can be formulated.
The present work is one of the initial efforts to quantify ethnomedicinal information in
Bangladesh, focusing on COVID-19 disease. This study will provide a better option for the
selection of widely used medicinal plants in the search for bioactive compounds for further
research. The record of 160 ethnomedicinal plant species belonging to 62 families and used for
157 ailments through 250 different formularies is an indication of the richness of ethnomedicinal
plants in the study area. The highest citations of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. reaffirmed that this is
one of the most important ethnomedicinal plants in Bangladesh. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. is
generally used for cuts and wounds treatment in all around Bangladesh and this was proved by
having the highest FIC value in the present study. Acmella calva (DC.) R.K. Jansen was the
culturally bound species attaining 100% Fidelity Level (FL) value. The most important finding of
this present study is the record of 40 species under COVID-19 category. These species were used
by local informants to get relief from COVID-19. Among these 40 species, most notable species
are Holy Basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum L.), Malabar Nut (Justicia adhatoda L.), Pennywort
(Centella asiatica (L.) Urban), Lemon (Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle), Cloves
(Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry), Spearmint (Mentha arvensis L.), Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.), Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze), and Black cumin (Nigella
sativa L.). The record of these 40 species against COVID-19 is a preliminary report. Further long-
term study is needed to confirm the claim for these plants’ use against COVID-19. Due to sudden
excessive use during COVID-19, these species became very scarce in the habitats in and around
Dhaka city. There is an urgent need to formulate suitable conservation strategies for the naturally
growing ethnomedicinal plants to overcome their depletion.
Acknowledgement
We duly acknowledge the Ministry of Science and Technology for financial support of the
project. We also acknowledge the local people who helped us by sharing their knowledge during
the interview process.
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