Bangladesh J. Plant Taxon. 29(1): 137-156, 2022 (June) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/bjpt.v29i1.60454 © 2022 Bangladesh Association of Plant Taxonomists STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE LOCAL PEOPLE OF RAIPURA UPAZILA OF NARSINGDI DISTRICT SAMIA ISLAM AND MOHAMMAD ZASHIM UDDIN1 Department of Botany, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh Keywords: Ethnomedicinal plants; Local people; Raipura Upazila; Threats; Conservation. Abstract An ethnomedicinal investigation was conducted from July 2019 to June 2020 in Raipura Upazila, Narshingdi district. The main aim of this study was to record, integrate and document all the scattered distributions of traditional healthcare knowledge of medicinal plants. Data collection of ethnomedicinal plants were performed through key informant interviews, field interviews, checklist interviews, Plant interviews, semi - structured interviews and group discussion. A total of 87 medicinal species with 114 formularies to treat 69 ailments have been recorded. These species belong to 49 families. Most frequently used plant species are trees (43%) followed by herbs (31%), shrubs (21%) and climbers (5%). Oral consumption is the main mode of treatment in the study area followed by external application. The reported ailments were classified into 15 disease categories. Maximum plant species were reported to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. The highest Factor informant consensus (Fic) value was found in respiratory category (fever, cold, cough, pneumonia).The most cited species for this category are Ocimum sanctum L., Nigella sativa L. and Jasticia adhatoda L. Cardiovascular disease showed second highest Fic value. The most cited plant species for this category are Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex D.C.) Wight & Arn., Tamarindus indica L. and Allium sativum L. In this survey, 8 species scored 100% Fl values for different disease categories. These are Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume, Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser, Tamarindus indica L., Momordica charantia L., Cocos nucifera L., Ocimum sanctum L., Leucus aspera (Willd.) Link. and Jasticia adhatoda L. Therefore, such plant species could be further analyzed for bioactive constituents that can lead to discovery of new and potential drugs. The study also revealed that the medicinal plants and traditional knowledge in Raipura Upazila are in threatened condition due to different disturbances and some suggestions have been recommended for conservation. Introduction Ethnomedicine is the study of the traditional medicine practiced by various ethnic groups. Ethnomedicinal plants are very much popular for curing various ailments in local and ethnic communities at different parts of the world. The origins of over 50% of all pharmaceutical drugs could be traced back to ethnomedicine (Van Wyk et al., 1997). According to data from the World Health Organization (WHO), about 80% of the world's population, mostly the rural people of developing countries still primarily rely on traditional medicines (Islam, 2006). Very recent past global herbal medicine market size was estimated to be US$ 83 billion in 2019 and is expected to reach US$ 550 billion by 2030 (https://www.insightslice.com/herbal-medicine-market). Before recent past this market was estimated to be US$ 60 billion (Breevot, 1998). Currently, this market for medicinal plants and plant products has been rising day by day because of easy availability, effective in case of chronic diseases, less side effects, and cost effectively. 1 Corresponding author: zashim01@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.3329/bjpt.v29i1.60454 https://www.insightslice.com/herbal-medicine-market) mailto:zashim01@gmail.com 138 ISLAM AND UDDIN World leaders gathered in Rio de Janeiro during 1992 to formulate biodiversity conservation policy including agenda 21 which gave emphasis on the documentation and sustainable utilization of traditional knowledge of medicinal plants. Most cultures possess a huge store of undocumented traditional knowledge of applying herbal remedies in disease treatment (Offiah et al., 2011). The documentation of indigenous knowledge is an important aspect of conservation approach (Umair et al., 2017). In addition, documenting the results of scientific research into traditional medicine may also help to conserve an important part of an indigenous people's cultural heritage for the future generations (Mahwasane et al., 2013). Many articles have been published on medicinal plants included Mia and Huq (1988), Hassan and Khan (1986,1996), Alam et al.(1996), Uddin (2006), Uddin et al.( 2001), Khan et al.(2002),Yusuf et al. (2002), Uddin et al. (2004), Uddin et al. (2006, 2008, 2012, 2015, 2017), Yusuf et al. (2006), Uddin and Roy (2007), Uddin et al. (2011), Sajib and Uddin (2013), Rahman (2013), Uddin and Faruque (2013), Uddin and Hassan(2014), Rahman and Sarkar (2015), Kona and Rahman (2016), Yasmin and Rahman (2017) and Khatun and Rahman (2018). All such articles listed a good number of medicinal plants of particular areas of Bangladesh. Unfortunately, no such work of ethnomedicinal plants has been recorded in Raipura Upazila of Narshingdi district. In the present study an attempt has been made to record, integrate and document all the scattered distributions of traditional healthcare knowledge of medicinal plants in Raipura Upazila so that it can provide baseline data for future phytochemical studies to determine potential drugs. Materials and Methods Raipura is an Upazila of Narsingdi Districtbelonging to Dhaka Division. The area covers 312.77 sq. km. It is bounded by Narsingdi Sadar, Banchharampur and Nabinagar Upazilas on the South, Belabo and Bhairab Upazilas on the North, Brahmanbaria Sadar,Nabinagar Upazilas on the East and Shibpur, Narsingdi Sadar Upazilas on the West. Raipura Upazila consists of 24 Union Parishads. These are Amirganj, Adiabad, Alipura, Banshgari, Chander Kandi, Chandpur, Char Aralia, Char Madhua, Char Subuddi, Daukar Char, Hairmara, Maheshpur, Morjal, Mirzanagar, Mirzapur, Mirzarchar, Musapur, Nilakhya, Palashtali, Paratali, Radhanagar, Roypura, Sreenagar, and Uttar Bakharnagar. In Narsingdi, the wet season is warm, oppressive and cloudy and the dry season is warm and mostly clear. Monthly rainfall varies from 6 to 430 mm throughout the year. The study area has been visited five times in different seasons from July 2019 to June 2020. The data of medicinal plant uses have been recorded through key informant interview, field interview, checklist interview, plant interview, semi-structured interview and group discussions. A total of 187 local informants have been interviewed during the ethnomedicinal survey. The informants were in age range of 21-90 years old. Education levels of the informants were from illiterate up to Bachelor Degree. Professionally the informants were mostly farmers, traditional healers and shopkeepers. During the survey, information on medicinal plants, their local names, parts used and treatment modes have been recorded. Voucher specimen for each medicinal plant has been made using standard herbarium techniques (Hyland, 1972; Alexiades, 1996). The specimens were identified consulting with different floras Viz., Hooker (1872-1897), Prain (1903), Uddin and Hassan (2004), Siddiqui et al. (2007c)and Ahmed et al. (2008a, 2008b, 2009b, 2009c, 2009d and 2009e). Specimens available at Dhaka University Salar Khan Herbarium (DUSH) were also consulted in identifying the collected plant specimens. The updated nomenclature of the species followed Siddiqui et al. (2007c) and Ahmed et al. (2008a, 2008b, 2009b, 2009c, 2009d and 2009e). Voucher specimens were deposited at the Dhaka University Salar Khan Herbarium (DUSH). STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE LOCAL PEOPLE 139 In order to estimate the use diversity of the medicinal plants, Factor of informant consensus (Fic) was calculated (Heinrich et al., 1998). Citation frequency (Cf) values were estimated using the formula: (number of people interviewed citing species/ the total number of people interviewed) x 100 (Friedman et al., 1986). The Fidelity level (Fl) value is useful for identifying the informants most preferred species in use for treating certain ailments (Friedman et al., 1986). Fl value was calculated using the formula: Fl = Ip/Iu x100, where Ip is number of informants who indicate use of a species for the same major ailment, Iu is the total number of informants who mentioned the same plant for any other use. Medicinal plants that are widely used by the local people for a particular ailment have higher Fl values than those which are less popular. Results and Discussion A total of 87 medicinal plant species belonging to 49 families with 114 formularies has been recorded from the present survey. The results indicate the rich diversity of ethnomedicinal plants with their different uses in the study area. For each species scientific name, local name, family, habit, parts used, ailments and treatment modes have been recorded. It is evident that local people of the study area has a great knowledge about medicinal plants. Such knowledge has been inherited from generation to generation. No written documents have been found during the survey. The present results also indicated that people of Raipura Upazila has emphasized on using medicinal plants with a diversity of application methods. Table 1: Ethnomedicinal plants and their uses in the study area (S=Shrub, H= Herb, T=Tree, C=Climber). Scientific name Local name Family Habit Parts used Ailments Treatment mode Abroma augustum (L.) L.f. Ulotkombol Sterculiaceae T Stem Weakness Stem soaked water is taken Stem Cold Juice is taken Stem Dysentery Stem soaked in water is taken Stem Constipation Stem soaked in water is taken Stem Urinary disease Stem soaked in water with Menda stem and water is taken Achyranthus aspera L. Uphatlenga Amaranthaceae H Root Anthelmintic Crushed juice is taken Whole plant Gastritis Chopped parts are boiled and water is taken Jasticia adhatoda L. Basak Acanthaceae S Leaf Cold Leaf juice is taken Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa Bel Rutaceae T Fruit Analgesic Fruit juice is taken Fruit Dysentery Fruit juice is taken Young fruit Indigestion Juice is taken Leaf Stomach pain Juice is taken Fruit Dysentery Fruit is soaked in water and juice is taken Fruit Dysentery Fruit juice is taken Fruit Constipation Fruit juice is taken Young fruit Dysentery Chopped and dried fruit is soaked in water and taken Young fruit Diarrhoea Chopped and dried fruit is soaked in water and taken 140 ISLAM AND UDDIN Scientific name Local name Family Habit Parts used Ailments Treatment mode Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume, Bijdr Roktopata Amaranthaceae H Leaf Cut/ Wound Leaf paste is applied Allium sativum L. Rosun Lilliaceae H Clove Heart disease Cooked as jam and eaten Clove Cold Clove is mixed with mustard and applied to hands and feet Clove Cold Clove paste is taken Clove Body pain Externally applied with warm oil Clove Rheumatic pain Cooked as jam and taken Clove Heart disease Clove is taken Aloe vera (L.)Burm. f. Gritkumari Aloaceae S Leaf Antioxidant Leaf juice is taken Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) G. Don Fenkochu Araceae S Leaf Rheumatic pain Dried leaf is cooked and taken Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br Chatim Apocynaceae T Leaf Diarrhoea Leaf juice is taken Leaf Wound Latex is applied Amaranthus cruentus L. Lalshak Amaranthaceae H Leaf Anemia Leaf is cooked and eaten Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Anaros Bromeliaceae S Leaf Anti-worm Juice is taken Fruit Fever Fruit is taken Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees Kalomegh Acanthaceae H leaf Liver problem Leaf juice is taken Leaf Fever Juice is taken Leaf Dysentery Juice is taken Stem Black fever Stem juice is taken Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser Kodom Rubiaceae T Bark Dysentery Juice is taken Arachis hypogaea L. Badam Fabaceae H Seed Heart disease Seed is taken Seed Cancer Seed is taken Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. Kathal Moraceae T Latex Skin disease Latex is applied Asparagus racemosus Willd. Satamuli Liliaceae S Root Impotence Juice is taken Root Weakness Juice is taken Root Dysentery Juice is taken Averrhoa bilimbi L. Bilombo Oxalidaceae T fruit High pressure Fruit is taken Averrhoa carambola L. Kamranga Oxalidaceae T Fruit High pressure Fruit is taken Fruit Fever Fruit is taken Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Neem Meliaceae T Leaf Diarrhoea Leaf fried or juice is taken Leaf Hair fall Leaf paste is mixed with oil and applied on hair Leaf Diabetes Leaf paste is taken Leaf Diabetes Leaf juice is taken Leaf Cold Juice is taken Leaf Allergy Leaf paste is applied STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE LOCAL PEOPLE 141 Scientific name Local name Family Habit Parts used Ailments Treatment mode Leaf Kidney disease Leaf soaked water is taken Leaf Allergy Leaf boiled in water and applied externally Leaf Allergy leaf paste applied Leaf Worm Leaf fried or juice is taken Leaf Brone Leaf crushed with Durba and applied Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. Hijol Lecythidaceae T Leaf Dysentery Juice is taken Leaf Cold Leaf boiled, crushed in water and taken Leaf Cold leaf juice is taken Bombax ceiba L. Shimul Malvaceae T Root Heart disease Root juice is taken Root Weakness Juice is taken Root Weakness Taken as food Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand Akanda Apocynaceae S Leaf Fracture Leaf is burnt and applied Leaf Chest pain Leaf is boiled and applied to the chest Leaf Body pain Leaf is boiled and applied Carica papaya L. Pepe Caricaceae T Fruit Constipation Fruit is cooked and taken Raw fruit Gastritis Fruit is cooked and taken Raw fruit Gastritis Fruit is taken Leaf Dengue Juice is taken Leaf Ulcer Juice is taken Leaf Diabetes Juice is taken fruit liver problem Fruit is taken Fruit Heart disease Fruit is cooked and taken Cassia fistula L. Shonalu Caesalpiniaceae T Fruit Dysentery Fruit pulp is taken Catharanthus roseus L. Nayantara Apocynaceae H Flower Diabetes Flower is chewed Centella asiatica L. Thankuni Apiaceae H Leaf Leucorrhea Leaf juice is taken Leaf Diabetes Juice is taken Leaf Ulcer Leaf juice is taken Leaf Allergy Leaf paste is applied Leaf Anthelmintic Juice is taken Leaf Impotence Leaf juice is taken Leaf Gastritis Juice is taken Leaf Gastritis Leaf crushed with Durba and juice is taken Leaf Jaundice Juice is taken Leaf Memory boosting Leaf juice is taken Leaf Fever Juice is taken Leaf Heart disease Juice is taken Leaf Dysentery Juice is taken Leaf Dysentery Juice is taken with goat milk 142 ISLAM AND UDDIN Scientific name Local name Family Habit Parts used Ailments Treatment mode Whole plant Cold Juice is taken Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H. Rob Pishais Asteraceae S Leaf Fracture leaf is boiled and used for fomentation Flower Toothache Juice is taken Leaf Cut/ wound Leaf paste is applied Whole plant Dysentery Plant juice is taken Citrus limon (L.) Burm. Lebu Rutaceae T Fruit Cancer fruit is boiled and taken Fruit High pressure Juice is taken Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Bhat Lamiaceae S Root Dysentery Juice is taken Leaf Gastritis Juice is taken Clitoria ternatea L Aparajita Fabaceae c Flower Cold Flower is chewed Coccinia grandis (L.)Voigt Kuchila Cucurbitaceae H Leaf Chest pain Juice is taken Leaf Blood purifier Leaf cooked with Gondhovaduli leaf and eaten Leaf Piles Leaf paste is applied with salt Leaf Jaundice Leaf is cooked and eaten Leaf Boil Leaf paste is applied Leaf Kidney stone Leaf juice is taken Leaf Dysentery Leaf crushed in water then taken leaf juice is taken Leaf Bone pain Paste is cooked with spices is taken Leaf Body pain Leaf fried and taken Leaf Gastritis Paste is cooked with spices is taken Leaf Diabetes Leaf is cooked and taken Leaf Diabetes Leaf juice is taken in empty stomach Cocos nucifera L. Narikel Arecaceae T Root Toothache Root juice is taken Colocasia esculenta (L)Schott. Kochu Araceae S Root Blood Dysentery Cooked and eaten Root Piles Paste is applied Leaf Blood coating Leaf paste is applied Stem Cut/ wound Paste is applied Crateva magna (Lour.) DC. Borun Capparaceae T Fruit Constipation Young fruit is taken Leaf Rheumatic pain Leaf paste is applied Cucumis sativus L. Shosha Cucurbitaceae V Fruit Heart disease Fruit is taken Fruit Overweight problem Fruit is taken STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE LOCAL PEOPLE 143 Scientific name Local name Family Habit Parts used Ailments Treatment mode Curcuma longa L. Halood Zingiberaceae H Rhizo me Jaundice Paste is taken Rhizo me Skin disease Juice is taken Rhizo me Skin disease Rhizome is crushed with Neem leaf and paste is applied Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Shornolota Cuscutaceae P Whole plant Anti-worm Juice is taken with pineapple Leaf Allergy Leaf boiled in water and water is taken Leaf Allergy Leaf boiled in water and water is used for bath Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Durba Poaceae H Leaf Blood purifier Leaf juice is taken Leaf Constipation Leaf juice is taken Leaf Urinary disease Juice is taken Leaf Dysentery Juice is taken Whole plant Impotence Juice is taken for 3 days Leaf Cut/ wound Leaf paste is applied Datura metel L. Dhutura Solanaceae S Fruit Dog bite Fruit paste is applied leaf Rheumatic pain Leaf paste is applied Fruit Mental problem Fruit crushed with Dontokolosh and Kamranga leaf and paste is applied on head Dillenia indica L. Chalta Dilleniaceae T Fruit High pressure Juice is taken Fruit Dysentery Juice is taken Leaf Dysentery Leaf juice is taken Eclipta alba L. Kehuitta Asteraceae H Leaf Dysentery Juice is taken Root Cavity Root is crushed with Durba leaf and paste is applied Leaf Cut/ Wound Leaf paste is applied Cut Leaf crushed with arum leaf and applied Ficus racemosa L. Jogdumur Moraceae T Leaf Cold Cooked and taken Leaf asthma Cooked and taken Leaf Heart disease Cooked and taken Fruit Cold Fruit is taken Leaf Skin disease Leaf paste is applied Fruit Skin disease Fruit paste is applied Fruit Antioxidant Fruit is fried and taken Fioria vitifolia L. Bonkarpas Malvaceae H Flower Hair tonic Flower ash is applied on hair Whole plant Diarrhoea Powdered and taken with cold water Whole plant Constipation Powdered and taken with warm water 144 ISLAM AND UDDIN Scientific name Local name Family Habit Parts used Ailments Treatment mode Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) A. DC Motkila Rutaceae T Leaf Anti-worm Juice is taken Leaf Anti-worm Leaf is chewed Leaf Diarrhoea Juice is taken Leaf Child Diarrhoea Leaf crushed with guava and pomegranate leaf and juice is taken Leaf Cut/ wound Leaf paste is applied Leaf Heart disease Leaf juice is taken Leaf Cavity Leaf is crushed and applied on teeth Leaf Toothache Leaf boiled water is used for gargling Leaf Jaundice Leaf juice is taken with goat milk Bark Heart pain Paste is applied on chest Leaf Weakness Leaf juice is taken H Leaf Ulcer Leaf juice is taken Leaf Gastritis Leaf juice is taken Stem Toothache Used as brush Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr. Diabetes pata Asteraceae S Leaf Diabetes Leaf juice is taken Heliotropium indicum L. Hatisur Boraginaceae H Root Pregnancy Juice is taken Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Joba Malvaceae S Leaf Cut injury Leaf paste is applied Flower Infertility Flower paste is taken with milk Flower Miscarriage Flower paste is applied to stop bleeding Flower Leucorrhea Flower is crushed with Arjun bark and eaten Leaf Dysentery Leaf juice is taken Leaf Jaundice Leaf juice is taken Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Tokma Lamiaceae H Seed Dysentery Seed is taken Seed Constipation Seed is taken Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R. Br Dudh pata Apocynaceae S Leaf Dysentery Juice is taken Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Kolmi Convolvulaceae H Leaf Insect bite Paste is applied Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers Pathor kuchi Crassulaceae H Leaf Body pain Leaf is used for fomentation Leaf Kidney disease Juice is taken Lawsonia inermis L. Mehdi Lythraceae S Leaf Seizure Leaf soaked water is taken Fruit Heart disease Fruit juice is taken Leaf Skin disease Paste is applied Leaf Diabetes Juice is taken STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE LOCAL PEOPLE 145 Scientific name Local name Family Habit Parts used Ailments Treatment mode Leaf Gastritis Leaf is boiled and water is taken with sugar Leaf Dandruff Leaf paste is applied on head Leaf Jaundice Leaf soaked water is taken Leaf White discharge of female Leaf soaked water is taken Leaf Urinary disease Leaf soaked water is taken Leucus aspera (Willd.) Link Dontokolosh Lamiaceae H Leaf Cold Leaf is cooked and taken Flower Cold Juice is taken with honey Flower Cold Juice is taken Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob. Menda Lauraceae T Leaf Impotence Leaf juice is taken Leaf Constipation Leaf is crushed in water and taken Leaf Seizure Juice is taken Leaf Dysentery Leaf is crushed in water and taken Bark Diarrhoea Bark is crushed with mango and blackberry bark and taken Bark Dysentery Bark soaked water is taken Bark Weakness Bark soaked water is taken Leaf Jaundice Leaf juice is taken Mangifera indica L. Aam Anacardiaceae T Raw fruit High pressure Fruit is taken Young fruit Diarrhoea Juice is taken Young fruit Body pain Powdered and taken Bark Dysentery Juice is taken Bark Dysentery Bark crushed with blackberry bark and juice is taken Young leaf Gastritis Juice is taken Young leaf Diarrhoea Leaf crushed with Sajna bark and taken with lime Bark Jaundice Juice is taken Leaf Dysentery Juice is taken Stem Toothache Stem is heated and applied to teeth Mentha arvensis L Pudina Lamiaceae H Leaf Sexual disease Juice is taken with milk for 7 days in empty stomach Leaf Gonorrhea Juice is taken with milk for 7 days in empty stomach 146 ISLAM AND UDDIN Scientific name Local name Family Habit Parts used Ailments Treatment mode Mikania cordata (Burm.f.) B.L. Rob. Refugee lota Asteraceae C Leaf Blood Dysentery Leaf juice is taken Leaf Ulcer Leaf paste is taken Leaf Weakness Juice is taken Leaf Cut/ Wound Leaf paste is applied Stem Fracture Used for binding Leaf Headache Leaf paste is applied on head Leaf Gastritis Juice is taken Leaf Boil Leaf is applied on boil Leaf Dysentery Leaf crushed in water then taken Mimosa pudica L. Lajjaboti Mimosaceae S Leaf Cut/ Wound Leaf paste is applied Root Dysentery Juice is taken Root Baby delivery problem Root paste is e applied Leaf Dysentery Juice is taken Momordica charantia L. Korola Cucurbitaceae V Fruit Diabetes Cooked and eaten Moringa oleifera Lamk. Sajna Moringaceae T Leaf Diarrhoea Leaf juice is taken Leaf Dysentery Leaf juice is taken Leaf Rheumatic pain Leaf juice is taken Leaf Cold Curry is taken Leaf Diabetes Dried leaf is cooked and taken Bark Heart disease Bark paste is taken Bark Cold Bark paste is taken Bark Asthma Bark juice is taken Bark Asthma Juice taken for 3 days leaf Cold Leaf paste is taken leaf Indigestion Leaf fried and taken Bark Cold Bark cooked with onion and garlic and taken Leaf Cold Leaf fried and taken Bark Cold Boiled and taken as a jam Leaf Diabetes Leaf fried and taken Murraya paniculata (L.)Jack. Kamini Rutaceae T Leaf Toothache Used as brush Musa acuminata Colla. Kola Musaceae T Fruit Dysentery Fruit is soaked in water and taken with sugar Dysentery Fruit is taken Musa paradisiaca L. Kachkola Musaceae T Fruit Liver problem Cooked and eaten Fruit Diarrhoea Fruit boiled and water is taken Fruit Jaundice Fruit is cooked and taken Fruit Diarrhoea Fruit is cooked and taken Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Poddo Nelumbonaceae H Leaf Seizure Leaf juice is taken STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE LOCAL PEOPLE 147 Scientific name Local name Family Habit Parts used Ailments Treatment mode Nigella sativa L Kalojeere Ranunculaceae H Seed Rheumatic pain seed paste is taken Seed Distaste Seed is taken Seed Diarrhoea Seed paste is taken Seed Gastritis Paste is taken Seed Heart pain Paste is taken Seed Cold Seed paste is taken Nyctanthes arbor- tristis L. Shiuli Verbenaceae T Leaf Piles Leaf juice is taken Ocimum sanctum L. Tulsi Lamiaceae H Leaf Cold Leaf juice with ginger taken Paederia foetida L. Mant. Gondhovadali Rubiaceae C Seed Constipation Juice is taken Leaf Sexual problem Paste is cooked with spices and taken Leaf Dysentery Juice is taken Leaf Ulcer Juice is taken Leaf Gastritis Juice is taken Phyllanthus emblica L. Amloki Euphorbiaceae T Fruit Gastritis Fruit is taken Fruit Mouth sore Fruit is taken Fruit Heart pain Powdered and taken Fruit Hair tonic Fruit juice is boiled with oil and then applied on hair Fruit High pressure Fruit is taken Psidium guajava L. Peyara Myrtaceae T Fruit Heart pain Fruit is taken Young leaf Gastritis Leaf juice is applied Leaf Toothache Leaf boiled water is used for gargling Young leaf Dysentery Juice is taken Young leaf Toothache Leaf crushed with mango young leaf and applied Punica granatum L. Dalim Punicaceae T Leaf Diarrhoea Leaf fried and taken Leaf Child dysentery Leaf is cooked and eaten by mothers Fruit peel Cold Boiled with in water and water is taken Young fruit Diarrhoea Fruit is taken Leaf Pox Leaf juice is taken Fruit Dysentery Raw fruit is taken Leaf Heart pain Leaf juice is taken Leaf Burn Leaf ash is applied Leaf Anti-worm Juice is taken Leaf Dysentery Leaf is crushed with Neem leaf and Tumeric and taken Scoparia dulcis L. Chinipata Scrophulariaceae H Leaf Cold Juice is taken Leaf Gastritis Juice is taken Leaf Dysentery Juice is taken 148 ISLAM AND UDDIN Scientific name Local name Family Habit Parts used Ailments Treatment mode Sida cordifolia L. Baillodi Malvaceae S Root Headache Root juice is taken Leaf Boil Leaf paste is applied Root Weakness Root juice is taken Smilax macrophylla Roxb. Kumari lota Smilacaceae V Stem Sexual disease Stem is taken Solanum nigrum L. Titbegun Solanaceae S Leaf Itching Leaf is burnt and applied Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz. Amra Anacardiaceae T Fruit High pressure Fruit is taken Fruit Heart pain Fruit is taken fruit Diabetes Fruit is taken Streblus asper Lour. Sheora Moraceae T Latex Boil Latex is applied Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. Mehogony Meliaceae T Seed Diabetes Seed soaked water is taken Seed Diabetes Seed powder is taken Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Jam Myrtaceae T Bark Dysentery Juice is taken Leaf Gastritis Juice is taken Seed Diabetes Powder is taken Seed Heart pain Seed is powdered with mango seed and taken Tagetes erecta L. Gada Asteraceae S Leaf Cut/ Wound Leaf paste is applied Leaf Liver problem Leaf juice is taken Tamarindus indica L. Tetul Caesalpiniaceae T Fruit High pressure Fruit juice is taken Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC) Wight & Arn. Arjun Combretaceae T Bark Constipation Bark paste is taken Bark Dysentery Paste is taken Bark Dysentery Bark is crushed with Thankuni leaf and paste is taken Bark Heart disease Paste is taken Bark Heart disease Bark soaked in water and both are taken Bark Diabetes Juice is taken Bark Weakness Bark soaked water is taken Bark Heart disease Bark soaked water is taken Bark Gastritis Bark powder is taken with water Bark Heart disease Bark powder is taken with water Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Bohera Combretaceae T Fruit Chest pain Fruit powdered with Amlaki and Haritaki fruit and taken Fruit Antioxidant Fruit powdered with Amlaki fruit and Arjun bark and taken Terminalia chebula Retz. Haritaki Combretaceae T Leaf Seizure Leaf crushed with Bohera leaf and taken with water Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) D.C. Bajna Rutaceae T Seed Body pain Seed oil is applied STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE LOCAL PEOPLE 149 Scientific name Local name Family Habit Parts used Ailments Treatment mode Thorn Waist pain Externally bound on waist Thorn Cold Powder is taken Zingiber officinale Rosc. Ada Zingiberaceae H Rhizo me Gastritis Juice is taken with lemon juice Rhizo me Nausea Juice is taken Rhizo me Heart disease Juice is taken Rhizo me Stomach pain Boiled with salt in water and water is orally taken Rhizo me Cold Juice is taken Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. Boroi Rhamnaceae T Fruit High pressure Fruit is taken Leaf Old dysentery Leaf is crushed with ginger and taken Among the medicinal plants, most frequently used plant speci are trees (43%) followed by herbs (31%), shrubs (21%) and climbers (5%). (Fig.1). Out of 114 formularies, 80% were of internal application and the rest 20% were of external applications (Fig. 2). Leaf is the most commonly used plant part followed by fruit, root, seed, bark and flower (Fig. 3). Figs 1-3: 1. Different life forms of medicinal plants. 2. Application mode of plants. 3. Parts used for the preparation of ethnomedicines 150 ISLAM AND UDDIN The Factor of informant consensus model was used to determine the use diversity of medicinal plants and to identify the ethnopharmacologically important plant species (Heinrich et al., 1998). Table 2 shows that the Fic values varied from 0.956 to 0.938. The highest Fic value (0.956) was obtained in case of respiratory disorders. The second highest fic value (0.955) was found in case of cardiovascular diseases followed by diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, diarrhea and dysentery, anthelmintic, dermatological disease, muscle and skeletal disorders, kidney disease, dental, gynecological disorder, jaundice and sexual disorder. The most cited species for respiratory category are Ocimum sanctum L., Nigella sativa L. Moringa oleifera Lamk. and Jasticia adhatoda L. In case of Cardiovascular diseases the most cited plant species are Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex D.C.) Wight & Arn., Tamarindus indica L., Allium sativum L. Fic is comparatively low for sexual disorders indicating that there is low consensus on the treatment of this ailment in the study area. Table 2. Consensus of agreement on the uses of medicinal plants among informants No. Category of disease Most cited plants Nur Ntaxa Fic 1 Dermatology (hair fall,skin rash, pox, acne, allergy) Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 176 17 0.908 2 Gastrointestinal disorders (gastritis, constipation, stomachache) Carica papaya L. 380 25 0.936 3 Diabetes Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt 194 13 0.937 4 Cardiovascular disease (pressure reduce, chest pain, blood purifier) Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex D.C.) Wight & Arn. 627 29 0.955 5 Respiratory disorder(Asthma, Cough, fever) Ocimum sanctum L. 401 19 0.956 6 Muscle and skeletal disorders (cuts and wound, body pain, rheumatism) Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 254 25 0.905 7 Jaundice Centella asiatica L. 32 11 0.677 8 Dental (toothache, cavity) Glycosmis Pentaphylla (Retz.) A. D.C. 59 7 0.896 9 Diarrhoea and Dysentery Punica granatum L. 512 36 0.932 10 Gynecological disorder Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. 43 07 0.857 11 Anthelmintic disease Azadirachta indica (A.) Juss. 79 07 0.923 12 Sexual disorder Mentha arvensis L. 14 07 0.538 13. Kidney disease Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers 22 03 0.904 14. Others (weakness, memory boosting, epilepsy, anemia, headache, distaste) Nigella sativa L. 120 22 0.823 Fidelity level (FL) was calculated to identify medicinally important plant species of the study area. The higher FL value of a species indicates the prevalence of a specific disease in an area and the utilization of plant species by the inhabitants to treat it (Bibi et al., 2014; Srithi et al., 2009). Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume, Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser, Tamarindus indica L., Momordica charantia L., Cocos nucifera L. Jasticia adhatoda L., Ocimum sanctum L, Leucus aspera (Willd.) Link. showed 100% Fidelity level (FL) values against cut injury, dysentery, high blood pressure, diabetes, toothache and cold respectively. (Table 3). STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE LOCAL PEOPLE 151 Table 3. Fidelity level (Fl) values of frequently cited plant species and their major uses. Scientific name Ailments Ip Iu FL (100) Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume Cut injury 25 25 100 Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser Dysentery 17 17 100 Tamarindus indica L. Pressure reduce 96 96 100 Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand Body pain 19 49 38.77 Cucumis sativus L. Cardiovascular disease 17 18 94.5 Momordica charantia L. Diabetes 20 20 100 Cocos nucifera L. Toothache 17 17 100 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Diabetes 51 86 59.30 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex D.C.) Wight & Arn., Cardiovascular disease 140 205 68.29 Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob. Dysentery 55 70 78.57 Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Anthelmintic disesase 09 11 81.9 Ocimum sanctum L. Cough 125 125 100 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Skin disease 16 24 66.70 Azadirachta indica (A.) Juss. Skin disease 51 126 40.4 Curcuma longa L. Skin disease 9 11 81.90 Leucus aspera (Willd.) Link. Cough 29 29 100 Colocasia esculanta L. Cut injury 30 38 78.90 Allium sativum L. Cardiovascular disease 49 67 73.10 Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers Kidney disease 11 13 84.60 Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand Cardiovascular disease 28 49 57.10 Musa paradisiaca L. Diarrhea 19 24 79.10 Jasticia adhatoda L Cough 34 34 100 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gynae 13 34 38.23 Citation frequency (Cf) of different plant species are shown in the Table 4. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex D.C.) Wight & Arn. showed highest Cf value (74.86%) which indicated that such species is very popular plant species in the study area to treat heart diseases. Ocimum sanctum L., Tamarindus indica L., Carica papaya L., Cynodon dactylon (L.)Pers, Punica granatum L., Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt were also the most cited plant species in the study area. These species are considered as important medicinal plants in our country. In the present study maximum number of plant species belonged to Rutaceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae. Juice is the most commonly cited mode of medicine preparation by the followed by paste, crushed, decoction, chewed and powdered. The same results were reported in other study performed by Uddin et al. (2017). Maximum informants preferred oral consumption of medicines rather than external application. This result is similar with other studies from Bangladesh (Faruque et al., 2018; Uddin et. al., 2015). Highest Fic value (0.956) was found for respiratory disease category (cough, cold, fever). The most cited species used to treat such ailment are Ocimum sanctum L. Jasticia adhatoda L. which were also reported by Uddin et al., (2017) and Sajib and Uddin (2013, 2015). Cardiovascular disease showed second 152 ISLAM AND UDDIN highest fic value (0.955) and the most cited species for this category is Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC) Wight & Arn. which were also used for the same purpose as reported by Uddin et al. (2012) and Uddin and Hassan (2014). The third highest Fic value (0.937) was found for Diabetes and the most cited species for this category is Coccinia grandis (L.)Voigt which is similar with the report of Uddin et al. (2015). Coccinea grandis is also used for blood purifying, skin disease, jaundice, kidney disease, body ache and dysentery which were reported in different studies (Jahan et al., 2013; Rahmatullah et al., 2010; Dinsesh et al., 2013; Rahmatullah et al., 2009). Table 4. Citation frequency of some selected medicinal plants. Scientific name Local name Ailments Citation Citation frequency (CF%) Ocimum sanctum L., Tulshi Cough 125 66.80 Tamarindus indica L. Tetul Pressure reduce 96 51.33 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Jam Diabetes 51 27.28 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers Durba Cut injury 67 35.82 Nigella sativa L. kalijira Cough 59 31.55 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt kuchila Diabetes 65 34.75 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Neem Skin disease 51 27.28 Carica papaya L. Pepe Gastritis 84 44.91 Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) A. D.C. Motkila Toothache 29 15.50 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex D.C.) Wight & Arn. Arjun Cardiovascular disease 140 74.86 Citrus limon (L.) Burm. Lebu Pressure reduce 42 22.45 Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob. Chapaitta,/Menda Dysentery 55 29.41 Colocasia esculanta L. Kochu Cut injury 30 16.04 Mangifera indica L. Aam Gastritis 35 18.71 A number of medicinal uses are found to be new after comparison with previous studies (Uddin et al., 2006, 2015, 2017; Sajib and Uddin, 2013, 2015; Nahar et al., 2016; Yasmin and Rahman, 2017; Khatun and Rahman, 2018; Sohel et al., 2016). Leucus aspera (Willd.) Link. was reported to treat cough, Amaranthus tricolor L. to treat anaemia, Punica granatum L. to treat child diarrhea, Datura metel L. to treat dogbite and Fioria vitifolia L. was reported to treat hair fall problem. From the present survey, some threats to medicinal plants have been observed. Lack of awareness among local people and roadside plantation of exotic species are the major threats in the study area. Acacia auriculiformis (A.) Cunn. ex Benth, Switenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq., Eucalyptus camadulensis Dehnh. Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. and Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. are some commonly used exotic plants for roadside plantation. According to local people, these species might posses threats to native ecosystem as no birds sit in these trees and no fish can survive in nearby ponds. To protect valuable medicinal plant species in the present study area, a number of measures should be undertaken. Among the measures, nurseries should be developed for propagating important and threatened medicinal plants. Distribution map of medicinal plants can be made. Ex situ conservation strategies should be applied for the important and threatened plants of the study area. Different governmental and non-governmental organizations should STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE LOCAL PEOPLE 153 undertake appropriate measures for listing and conserving important medicinal plants of Raipura Upazila. Conclusion The study area has a variety of medicinal plants (87 species) and diversity of health care uses (69 ailments with 114 formularies). Respiratory disorders attained highest Fic value followed by cardiovascular disease. In this survey Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers, Tamarindus indica L., Momordica charantia L., Cocos nucifera L., Jasticia adhatoda L., Ocimum sanctum L. and Leucus aspera (Willd.) Link. scored 100% Fl values. According to the Fic, FL and Cf values, the most important medicinal plant species in the study area are Ocimum sanctum L., Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Curcuma longa L., Centella asiatica L., Carica papaya L.,Coccinia grandis (L.)Voigt, Aerva sanguinolenta (L.)Blume, Jasticia adhatoda L., Leucus aspera (Willd.) Link., Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob., Mangifera indica L., Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex D.C.) Wight &Arn., Tamarindus indica L., Punica granatum L., Mikania cordata (Burm. f.) Robinson, Moringa oleifera Lamk., Syzigium cumini L.and Momordica charantia L. The present analysis proved their popularity as important medicinal plants among the local people of Raipura Upazila. Therefore, such plant species can undergo further selection process for future phytochemical studies and also be recommended for drug development. The study also revealed that the medicinal plants and traditional knowledge in Raipura Upazila are in threatened condition due to different disturbances and some suggestions have been recommended for conservation. Acknowledgement The authors acknowledged the Ministry of National Science and Technology for financial support for the research. The authors also remember the contribution of informants in the data collection process during field works in Raipura Upazila. 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