Bangladesh J. Plant Taxon. 31(1): 101-121, 2024 (June) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/bjpt.v29i2.74392 © 2024 Bangladesh Association of Plant Taxonomists ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES MANAGEMENT IN MANIKGANJ DISTRICT TAHMINA SULTANA JUTHI1, MOHAMMAD ZASHIM UDDIN1*, MD. ABUL HASSAN1 AND MOHAMMAD A. RASHID2 1Department of Botany, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh 2Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh Keywords: Ethnomedicinal plants; Management; Cardiovascular diseases; Bangladesh. Abstract The present research deals with the identification of ethnomedicinal plants used by the local people for curing cardiovascular diseases in Manikganj district, Bangladesh. The present study aimed to record and validate the ethnomedicinal knowledge used by the local people for cardiovascular disease (CVD) management in Manikganj district, Bangladesh using recent ethnobotanical survey methods. The record of 131 ethnomedicinal plant species with diverse use patterns reflected the traditional knowledge richness in the study area. Among the ethnomedicinal plants, 10 plant species, including Phyllanthus emblica L., Allium sativum L., Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. Ex DC.) Wight & Arn, Achyranthes aspera L., Terminalia chebula Retz., Allium cepa L., Adhatoda zeylanica Nees, Cinnamomum tamala Nees & Eberm, Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp, and Ipomea aquatica Forssk, were cited most frequently by the local people. Among the disease categories, the highest Fic (factor of informant consensus) value was obtained in cardiac complaints, followed by blood purifiers, chest pain, high blood pressure, and antioxidants. In this research, 131 plant species were recorded, and 45 plants obtained the highest Fl (fidelity level) value of 100%. The members of the most common medicinal plants were from the families of Fabaceae, Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Apocynaceae. This result provides baseline data to link the local population, including traditional health professionals and scientific communities, which could be significant in drug discovery and is very important for the sustainable development program and conservation management in Bangladesh. Introduction Cardiovascular disease (CVD), a group of heart and vascular diseases, is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. In the past, there was a scarcity of modern drugs that bound people to depend on medicinal plant parts, which was so helpful for the local people at that time, especially the poor, who were not able to afford any kind of modern medicine because of its expenses. Many ancient herbs and their parts are shown to possess medicinal properties and can be used to prevent, alleviate, or cure several human diseases, especially cardiovascular diseases. It’s calculable that between 70% and 80% of individuals worldwide rely on traditional, largely herbal medicine to meet their primary healthcare needs (Farnsworth and Soejarto 1991; Shengji 2001). It has been ascertained that a lot of trendy medicines are derived from the plants used by indigenous peoples (Balick and Cox, 2011; Rahmatullah, et al., 2010). Worldwide, CVD plays a bigger role in being a significant explanation for morbidity and mortality (Krisela 2007). Historically, Bangladesh may have been burdened with infectious diseases like several low-income countries in *Corresponding author, E-mail: zashim@du.ac.bd https://doi.org/10.3329/bjpt.v29i2.74392 mailto:zashim@du.ac.bd 102 JUTHI et al. the world. Compared to different ethnic groups, South Asians, like those from Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, and other Asian nations and states, have a better prevalence of CAD and connected risks (Yusuf et al., 2001). Southern Asians have a 3-5fold higher risk of myocardial infarction (Gupta et al., 2006). Bangladesh has 99.6% of males and 97.9% of females exposed to one of the established risks of CVD, with CVD at a young age (males below 40 years of age) (El- Saharty et al., 2013, Islam et al., 2014, Enas et al., 1995), and several plants are known to possess cardioprotective properties, resulting in their use by traditional healers for the treatment of chest complaints, high cholesterol, high and low blood pressure, and general heart problems. Although some plants have been used in various systems of ancient and traditional medicine to treat thrombolytic diseases or as antithrombotic agents, such plants claimed in ancient systems are still not scientifically proven (Kumar et al., 2011; Manicam et al., 2010). To safeguard this data, documentation of ethnic medicinal plants is already starting in Bangladesh. Several articles were revealed in this field, including Hassan and Khan (1986); Alam (1992); Alam et al. (1996); Uddin et al. (2001, 2006, 2012, 2017); Khan et al. (2002); Ghani (2003); Islam and Uddin et al. (2009); Uddin and Roy (2007); Roy et al. (2008); Uddin (2013); Haque et al. (2014); Uddin et al. (2015); Haque et al. (2017); Uddin et al. (2019); Uddin et al. (2023). This article lists several medicinal plants from specific communities, specific diseases, or specific regions in Asia. However, this study provides insufficient documentation of ethnomedicinal plant species contributing to the treatment of cardiovascular disease management in Manikganj district because, in previous years, only specific disease-related medicinal plants were documented in this specific region of Bangladesh (Eneh et al., 2013). Further study is needed to identify the effectiveness of the medicinal plants in this district because the younger generation is not aware of the richness of medicinal plants in this area. Further analysis and conservation are needed for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Materials and Method The Manikganj District (Dhaka Division) spans 1383.66 square kilometers and is situated between latitudes 23°38‘ and 24°03‘ north and longitudes 89°41‘ and 90°08‘ east. The total area of Manikganj is 1,383.66 km2 (534.23 sq mi) and the average annual temperature is between 36.5 °C and 12.7 °C, with 2,376 mm (93.5 in) of rainfall falling on average each year. The Padma, Kalinga, Jamuna, Dashwari and Ichamati Rivers are among the several rivers that flow through the Manikganj District. There are seven Upazilas in the District of Manikganj. This District is surrounded by the upazilas of Saturia to the north, Singair to the east, Harirampur to the south, Shivalaya and Ghior to the west, and Harirampur to the east. This district has a range of humidity levels from 56% to 83%. Silty and sandy alluvial soil, represented by the Brahmaputra Floodplain, makes up the majority of the surface soil associated with agriculture. The main river that flows through the research region is the Kaliganga River. 43.43% of the dwelling families in the research region rely on agriculture as their primary source of income, with 15.94% working in agriculture and 27.49% in cropland, livestock, forestry, and fishing (Sayed et al., 2015). The sampling sites were visited during the years 2018 and 2019 (Table 1). The visit duration for each site lasted for 4-5 days. The data on the medicinal uses of plants was recorded through semi-structured interviews with the help of herbal practitioners and also through key informant discussions (Alexiades, 1996). Field interviews, plant interviews, and group discussions with local people were also conducted for the promotion of data collection. During the field survey, information on the uses of plants to treat humans, modes of preparation, parts used, and mode of administration was documented. A total of 300 local informants, including 67% of males and 33% of females, were interviewed during the ethnobotanical survey. The local informants include housewives, herbalists, farmers, rickshaw-pullers, job-holders, craftspeople, shopkeepers, teachers ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES 103 and students aged between 21–70 years old. Voucher specimens for each medicinal plant species were collected and processed using standard herbarium techniques (Hyland, 1972). Identification of plant species was confirmed using standard literature (Siddiqui et al., 2007 and Ahmed et al., 2008-2009). All voucher specimens were deposited at DUSH. Table 1. Data collections sites in and around Manikganj district. Visit no. Name of place GPS (Latitude, Longitude) 1. Manikganj Sadar 23° 51' 0.00" N, 90° 00' 39.96" E 2. Shivalaya 23° 49' 59.88" N, 89° 47' 30.12" E 3. Singair 23° 49' 0.12" N, 90° 09' 0.00" E 4. Daulatpur 24° 00' 5.04" N, 88° 52' 30.00" E 5. Ghior 23° 53' 15.00" N, 89° 50' 15.00" E 6. Harirampur 23° 43' 59.88" N, 89° 58' 0.12" E 7. Saturia 23° 35' 33.00" N, 90° 01' 23.16" E For estimating the diversity of medicinal plants and determining which plants are particularly valuable in the search for bioactive compounds, the factor of informant consensus (Fic) was calculated (Heinrich et al., 1998). Fic is calculated in the following equation: Fic = Nur – Ntaxa/Nur- 1, where Nur is the number of use-reports in each category and Ntaxa is the number of species in each category (Trotter and Logan, 1986; Heinrich et al., 1998). A Fic-Value provides a range from 0 to 1, where a high Fic-Value (close to 1) means that there is a well-defined group of species used to cure a particular ailment-category and that information is exchanged between informants. On the other hand, a low Fic value (close to 0) indicates that informants disagree over which plants to use, due to random choice or a lack of exchange of information about the use of informants. Such analyses classified disorders into groups, such as plant species with a high Fic value, which can be considered more pharmacologically effective than plant species with a low Fic value (Ragupathy et al., 2008). The credibility level was calculated for the foremost reported medicinal plant species as: Fl (%) = (Np / N) × 100; wherever Np = the number of informants that claim the use of a plant species to treat a specific disease. N = the number of informants that use the plants as medicine to treat any given disease (Friedman et al., 1986). The Fidelity Level (Fl) varies from 0 to 100%. Medicinal plants, that are widely used by local individuals for certain ailments, have higher Fl- values, instead of those, that are less well-liked for being considered good remedies. Citation frequency (Cf) was calculated using the following method: Frequency of citation for a particular species = (Number of citations for that particular species/Number of all citations for all species) x 100. Results and Discussion The present ethnobotanical survey has recorded a total of 131 medicinal plants with 114 formularies belonging to 61 families that were acquired by conducting 300 interviews for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. For each species, the scientific name and voucher number, local name, family, habit, ailments, part(s), and treatment mode have been provided (Table 2). 104 JUTHI et al. Table 2. Ethnobotanical data on medicinal plants and uses in the study area. Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moen., TSJ- 82 Dherosh Malvaceae Herb Antioxidant Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. Blood purifier Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. Cardiac complaints Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. High blood pressure Young fruit is boiled in water, and the water is consumed regularly.. Abroma augusta (L.) L. f., TSJ- 76 Ulat-kambal. Sterculiaceae. Shrub Heart disease Leaf juice is taken. Acalypha indica L., TSJ- 20 Muktajhuri Euphorbiaceae Herb Blood purifier Leaf juice is taken. Blood purifier Root juice is taken Achyranthes aspera L., TSJ-70 Apang Amaranthaceae Herb Chest pain One gm of seed powder is taken. Cardiac complaints One ml of leaf juice is taken with cold water. Acorus calamus L., TSJ- 109 Boch Araceae Herb Antioxidant Rhizome powder is used as spice in cooking. Cardiac complaints Rhizome soaked in water overnight and the extract is taken in the morning. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr., TSJ-75 Bel Rutaceae Tree Cardiac complaints 6-12 gm root powder is taken with milk. Allium cepa L., TSJ-110 Piaj Liliaceae Herb Blood purifier 1 ml of bulb juice is taken. Cardiac complaints Young bulb is taken directly. High blood pressure Leaves are taken as vegetable. Allium sativum L., TSJ- 83 Rosun Liliaceae Herb Cardiac Complaints 2 pieces of bulb is taken everyday. High blood pressure Bulb paste is taken with boiled rice. Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f., TSJ-79 Ghritokumari Aloaceae Herb Antioxidant Leaf juice is taken. Blood purifier Latex paste is eaten with honey. Cardiac complaints Latex is taken as vegetable. High blood pressure Latex pieces is taken internally. Alstonia scholaris R. Br., TSJ-9 Chatim Apocynaceae Tree High blood pressure 50 gm bark powder is taken with hot water twice in a day. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br., TSJ-84 Hainsashak, Kathapata shak Amaranthaceae Herb Chest pain Cooked whole plant is taken as vegetable. ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES 105 Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode Amaranthus tricolor L., TSJ-85 Lalshak Amaranthaceae Herb Antioxidant Cooked whole plant is taken as vegetable. Blood purifier Cooked whole plant is taken as vegetable. Cardiac complaints Whole cooked plants are consumed as vegetables. High blood pressure Cooked whole plant is taken as vegetable. Amaranthus spinosus L., TSJ-86 Katanote shak Amaranthaceae Herb Blood purifier Whole cooked plants are consumed as vegetables. Amaranthus viridis L., TSJ-87 Note shak Amaranthaceae Herb Blood purifier Cooked whole plant is taken as vegetable. Anacardium occidentale L., TSJ-111 Kajubadam Anacardiaceae Tree Cardiac complaints Fried seed is taken. Andrographis paniculata Nees., TSJ-19 Kalomegh Acanthaceae Herb Antioxidant Leaf juice is taken with honey. Blood purifier Leaf juice is taken. Aquilaria malaccensis Lam., TSJ-112 Agor Thymelaeaceae Tree Cardiac complaints 2/3 gm bark powder is taken with milk twice a day. Arachis hypogaea L., TSJ-24 China badam Fabaceae Herb Antioxidant Fried seed is taken. Blood purifier 5/10 seed soaked in water overnight and take the water with seed. . Cardiac complaints Seed juice is taken. High blood pressure Seed paste is taken with boiled rice. Artabotrys hexapetalus (L.f.) Bhandari., TSJ- 113 Kathalichapa Annonaceae Shrub Blood purifier Flower powder is taken in empty stomach with water twice in a day. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk., TSJ-88 Kathal Moraceae Tree Antioxidant Seed paste is taken with boiled rice. Blood purifier Young fruit is taken as vegetable. Cardiac complaints Ripe Fruit is taken. High blood pressure Ripe Fruit is taken. Asclepias curassavica (L.)., TSJ-89 Bon-karpash Asclepiadaceae Shrub Chest pain Leaf juice is taken with honey twice in a day with empty stomach. Asparagus racemosus Willd., TSJ-90 Satamuli Liliaceae Climber Antioxident 5/7 gram boiled leaf is taken. Chest pain 2/3 ml root juice is taken with half cup of raw milk and drink it in empty stomach. 106 JUTHI et al. Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode Averrhoa bilimbi L., TSJ-16 Bilombo Oxalidaceae Tree Antioxident Leaf paste is taken in empty stomach. High blood pressure Fruit is taken with salt. Averrhoa carambola L., TSJ-52 Kamranga Oxalidaceae Tree Antioxidant Fruit is preserved as pickles. Cardiac complaints Ripe Fruit is taken. High blood pressure Fruit juice is taken. Azadirachta indica A. Juss., TSJ-62 Neem Meliaceae Tree Blood purifier Young leaf juice is taken. High blood pressure Leaf juice is taken with honey. Baccaurea ramiflora Lour., TSJ-1 Lotkon Euphorbiaceae Tree Cardiac complaints Fruit juice is taken Bacopa monniera (L.) Pennel., TSJ-8 Brahmmishak Scrophulariaceae Herb Antioxidant Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. High blood pressure Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. Basella alba L., TSJ-100 Puisak Basellaceae Climber Antioxidant Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. Cardiac complaints Leaf juice is taken. High blood pressure Boiled leaf is taken. Benincasa hispida (Thub.) Cogn., TSJ-114 Chal kumra Cucurbitaceae Climber Blood purifier Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. Blumea lacera (Burn. f.) DC., TSJ-22 Kukur shunga, Shealmoti Asteraceae Herb Antioxidant Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. Boerhaavia diffusa L., TSJ-74 Punornova Nyctaginaceae Herb Cardiac complaints 5-10 ml leaf juice is taken twice in a day. Bombax ceiba L., TSJ- 115 Shimul Bombacaceae Tree Blood purifier 1/2 gm root powder is taken with goat milk twice in a day. Brassica oleracea var. capitata L., TSJ-116 Badhakopi Brassicaceae Herb Blood purifier Leaf is taken as salad. Cardiac complaints Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. Brassica nigra (L.) Koch., TSJ-54 Sorishashak Brassicaceae Herb Cardiac complaints Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L., TSJ-117 Fulkopi Brassicaceae Herb Antioxidant 1 cup boiled fruit is taken with salt. . Blood purifier Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. Cardiac complaints Boiled fruit paste is taken with rice. Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp., TSJ-12 Arhar Fabaceae Shrub Blood purifier Boiled leaf juice is taken. Cardiac complaints Cooked seed is taken. ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES 107 Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze., TSJ-87 Cha pata Theaceae Shrub Antioxidant Boiled leaf juice is taken. Blood purifier Boiled leaf juice is taken. Cardiac complaints Boiled leaf juice is taken. High blood pressure Boiled leaf juice is taken. Cardiospermum halicacabum L., TSJ-44 Phutka, Bontepari Sapindaceae Climber Antioxidant One ml of whole plant juice is taken with one spoon of water. Cardiac complaints 4/5 fruit is boiled with water and the juice is taken. Carica papaya L., TSJ- 18 Pepe Caricaceae Shrub Antioxidant Leaf juice is taken. Blood purifier Young fruit is taken as salad. Cardiac complaints Young fruit is taken as vegetable. High blood pressure Ripe Fruit is taken. Carissa spinarum L., TSJ-2 Koromcha Apocynaceae Shrub Cardiac complaints Fruit is taken with salt. High blood pressure Root juice is taken Cassia fistula L., TSJ-69 Sonalu Caesalpiniaceae Tree Antioxidant Leaf juice is taken. High blood pressure 4/5 gm fruit is taken with half cup of milk and drink the mixture twice in a day. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link, TSJ-119 Kolkesunda Caesalpiniaceae Herb Chest pain One gram dried flower powder is taken with milk twice in a day. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don., TSJ-50 Nayantara Apocynaceae Herb Blood purifier Leaf juice is taken. High blood pressure Root juice is taken with empty stomach. Centella asiatica (L.) Urban., TSJ-67 Thankuni Apiaceae Herb Blood purifier 4 ml leaf juice is taken with one spoon honey and drink the mixture in empty stomach. Chenopodium album L., TSJ-101 Bathuashak Amaranthaceae Herb Blood purifier Cooked plant is taken as vegetable. Cinnamomum tamala Nees &Eberm., TSJ-81 Tejpata Lauraceae Tree Antioxidant Dried leaf powder is used as spice. Blood purifier Leaf soaked in hot water overnight and then water is taken in the next day morning. Cardiac complaints 3 gm leaf powder mixed with 300 ml water boiled for few minutes and drink the juice. 108 JUTHI et al. Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode Cinnamomum verum Presl., TSJ-56 Darchini Lauraceae Tree Antioxidant Bark powder is taken as spice. Blood purifier Bark powder is taken with honey. Cardiac complaints Bark is soaked with water overnight and then water is taken in the next morning in empty stomach. Cissus quadrangularis L., TSJ-77 Harjora Vitaceae Climber High blood pressure Leaf juice is taken. Citrullus lanatus (Thumb.) Marts., TSJ- 120 Tormujh Cucurbitaceae Creeper Antioxidant Outer surface of the fruit is taken as salad. Cardiac complaints Ripe Fruit is taken. High blood pressure Young Fruit is taken as vegetable. Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle., TSJ-49 Kagojilebu Rutaceae Shrub Antioxidant Fruit juice is taken. Chest pain One ml of fruit juice is taken with half glass of water. High blood pressure Outer surface of the fruit is taken as salad. Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr., TSJ-3 Jambura Rutaceae Tree Antioxidant Ripe Fruit is taken. Blood purifier Outer surface of the fruit is taken as salad. High blood pressure Fruit juice is taken. Citrus reticulata Blanco., TSJ-45 Komolalebu Rutaceae Shrub Antioxidant Outer surface of the fruit is taken as salad. Cardiac complaints Ripe Fruit is taken. High blood pressure Fruit juice is taken. Cocos nucifera L., TSJ- 121 Narikel Arecaceae Tree Antioxidant Cooked copra is taken with sugar. Blood purifier Young fruit is taken. Cardiac complaints Young fruit is taken in empty stomach. High blood pressure Young fruit juice is taken. Corchorus capsularis L., TSJ-43 Path shak Tiliaceae Herb Antioxidant Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. Blood purifier Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. Cardiac complaints Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. High blood pressure Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES 109 Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode Coriandrum sativum L., TSJ-122 Dhonia Apiaceae Herb Antioxidant Leaf juice is taken. Blood purifier Seed soaked in water then the water is taken. High blood pressure Leaf paste is taken with boiled rice. Croton bonpladianus Baill., TSJ-102 Bon tulshi Euphorbiaceae Shrub Antioxidant Leaf juice is taken with honey in empty stomach. Cardiac complaints Fresh leaf is chewed in every morning with empty stomach. Cucumis sativus L., TSJ- 123 Sosha Cucurbitaceae Climber Cardiac complaints Fruit is taken as salad. Cucurbita maxima Duch, ex Lamk.,TSJ- 103 Mistikumra Cucurbitaceae Climber Antioxidant 1 glass fruit juice is taken with honey 3 times in a day. . Blood purifier Seed paste is taken. High blood pressure Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. Curcuma longa L., TSJ- 104 Holud Zingiberaceae Herb Antioxidant Rhizome juice is taken with milk. Blood purifier Rhizome juice is taken. Cardiac complaints Rhizome powder is used in cooking. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb., TSJ-105 Swarnalata Cuscutaceae Climber Blood purifier Stem juice is taken. Cynodon dactylon Pers., TSJ-51 Durba ghash Poaceae Herb Blood purifier Leaf juice is taken with goat milk. Cyperus rotundus L., TSJ-73 Mutha ghash Cyperaceae Herb Blood purifier One spoon of leaf juice is taken in empty stomach. Daucus carota L., TSJ- 124 Gajor Apiaceae Herb Antioxidant Tuber juice is taken. Blood purifier Tuber is taken as salad. Cardiac complaints Tuber is taken. Dillenia indica L., TSJ-5 Chalta Dilleniaceae Tree Antioxidant Fruit is taken as vegetable. Blood purifier Fruit juice is taken with warm water. Cardiac complaints Fruit is preserved as pickles. Dioscorea alata L., TSJ- 39 Gach alu Dioscoreaceae Climber High blood pressure Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. Diplazium esculentum L., TSJ-33 Dheki shak Polypodiaceae Herb High blood pressure Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L., TSJ-47 Keshraj Asteraceae Herb Blood purifier One spoon of leaf juice is taken with one cup of water. Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume, TSJ-71 Jolpai Elaeocarpaceae Tree Antioxidant Leaf juice is taken. Blood purifier Fruit is preserved as pickles 110 JUTHI et al. Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode Cardiac complaints Fruit is taken. High blood pressure Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton., TSJ-125 Elach Zingiberaceae Herb Antioxidant 4/8 pieces seed soaked in water overnight and take it next morning in empty stomach Blood purifier Seed is chewed in empty stomach. High blood pressure Seed powder is taken as spice. Enhydra fluctuans Lour., TSJ-32 Helencha Asteraceae Herb Antioxidant Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. Blood purifier 20 ml leaf juice is taken with one spoonful of sugar. High blood pressure 2 ml of leaf juice is taken with 2 ml of honey. Ficus racemosa L., TSJ- 7 Jogdumur Moraceae Tree Antioxidant Young leaf is chewed with boiled rice 3 times in a day. Blood purifier 2 ml of bark juice is taken with honey. High blood pressure Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. Ficus religiosa L., TSJ-4 Pipal Moraceae Tree Blood purifier 2 gm of root powder is taken with one ml of water. Cardiac complaints Fruit powder is taken with water. High blood pressure Leaf powder is taken with water. Helianthus annuus L., TSJ-126 Surjomukhi Asteraceae Herb Cardiac complaints Seed oil is used in cooking. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br., TSJ-56 Ananta mul Asteraceae Creeper Blood purifier 1-3 gm root powder is taken after meal twice a day. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L., TSJ-80 Joba Malvaceae Shrub Antioxidant Dried flower powder is taken with boiled water. Blood purifier Dried flower powder is taken with boiled water. High blood pressure Dried flower powder is taken with boiled water. Hymenodictyon orixensis (Roxb.) Mabb., TSJ-128 Bhuikadam Rubiaceae Tree Antioxidant Bark is soaked with water overnight and then water is taken in the next morning in empty stomach. High blood pressure Bark is soaked in water overnight, and the following morning, water is consumed on an empty stomach. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit., TSJ-129 Tokma Lamiaceae Herb Cardiac complaints 1 spoonful of seed is soaked with water overnight and then water is taken in the next morning in empty stomach. ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES 111 Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode Ipomoea aquatica Forssk., TSJ-106 Kalmishak Convolvulaceae Creeper Antioxidant Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. Ipomoea batatas Lamk., TSJ-55 Misti alu Convolvulaceae Creeper Antioxidant Boiled tuber is taken. Blood purifier Boiled tuber is taken with boiled rice. Cardiac complaints Fried tuber is taken. Justicia adhatoda L., TSJ-21 Basak Acanthaceae Shrub Blood purifier Leaf juice is taken. Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.) Pers., TSJ-42 Pathorkuchi Crassulaceae Herb High blood pressure Leaf juice is taken. Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet., TSJ-25 Shim Fabaceae Climber Antioxidant Cooked seed is taken. Blood purifier Flower is taken with salt. Cardiac complaints Fruit paste is taken with boiled rice. High blood pressure Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. Lactuca sativa L., TSJ- 129 Lettuce pata Asteraceae Herb Antioxidant Leaf juice is taken. Blood purifier Leaf is taken as salad. Cardiac complaints Leaf powder is taken for flavouring food. Lagenaria siceraria (Mol). Stan., TSJ- 64 Lau Cucurbitaceae Climber Blood purifier Leaf is taken as vegetable. Cardiac complaints Boiled fruit paste is taken with boiled rice. High blood pressure Fruit is taken as vegetable. Lawsonia inermis L., TSJ-13 Mehedi Lythraceae Shrub Blood purifier Dried leaf powder is taken with boiled water. Lens culinaris Medic., TSJ-131 Musur dal Fabaceae Herb Blood purifier Boiled seed is taken. Cardiac complaints Boiled seed is taken. High blood pressure Boiled seed paste is taken with boiled rice. Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) Farewell., TSJ- 68 Tomato Solanaceae Herb Antioxidant Young fruit is taken. Blood purifier Fruit is taken as salad. High blood pressure Young Fruit is taken as vegetable. Malus domestica Borkh., TSJ-66 Apel Rosaceae Tree Antioxidant 3 fruits are taken in empty stomach. Cardiac complaints At least one fruit is taken everyday. High blood pressure Fruit is taken as salad. Mangifera indica L., TSJ-10 Aam Anacardiaceae Tree Antioxidant Dried leaf powder is taken twice in a day. 112 JUTHI et al. Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode Blood purifier Seed paste is taken with boiled rice. Cardiac complaints Ripe Fruit is taken. High blood pressure 5-12 leaves are boiled with water and take water in an empty stomach. Mentha spicata L., TSJ- 60 Pudina Lamiaceae Herb Antioxidant 6/7 leaves are taken with boiled with water. Blood purifier Leaf juice is taken. . Cardiac complaints Leaf is taken as salad. High blood pressure 2 leaves are chewed in every morning with empty stomach. Momordica charantia L., TSJ-107 Korola Cucurbitaceae Climber Antioxidant Fruit juice is taken with one spoonful of honey in an empty stomach. Blood purifier Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. Cardiac complaints Boiled fruit paste is taken with boiled rice. High blood pressure Fruit juice is taken. Moringa oleifera Lamk., TSJ-78 Sajna Moringaceae Tree Antioxidant 2-5 leaves are chewed in empty stomach. Blood purifier 7 gm leaf powder is taken with water everyday. Cardiac complaints Leaf paste is taken with boiled rice. High blood pressure Leaf is taken as vegetable. Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng., TSJ-26 Curry pata, Choto kamini Rutaceae Shrub Antioxidant One cup leaf juice is taken with butter and black pepper. Blood purifier 4 fresh leaves are taken in empty stomach. Cardiac complaints Leaf juice is taken. Musa paradisiaca L., TSJ-23 Kola Musaceae Tree- like Blood purifier Leaf is taken as vegetable. Chest pain Flower juice is taken at least for 15 days. Cardiac complaints Young Fruit is taken as vegetable. High blood pressure Ripe Fruit is taken. Nerium indicum Mill., TSJ-36 Korobi Apocynaceae Shrub Cardiac complaints 500 gm root powder is taken with honey. Nigella sativa L., TSJ- 30 Kalojira Ranunculaceae Herb Blood purifier Seed paste is taken with boiled rice. Cardiac complaints One ml of seed oil is taken with one cup of milk. ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES 113 Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode High blood pressure One ml of seed oil is taken with one spoon of honey. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L., TSJ-57 Shiuli Verbenaceae Shrub Antioxidant Boiled leaf juice is taken. Blood purifier Leaf juice is taken with honey. Nymphaea nouchali Burm. F., TSJ-65 Shapla Nymphaeaceae Herb Cardiac complaints Flower is taken as vegetable. Ocimum tenuiflorum L., TSJ-11 Tulshi Lamiaceae Herb Antioxidant 4/5 young leaves are chewed in empty stomach. Blood purifier Leaf juice is taken with honey. Oldenlandia corymbosa L., TSJ-91 Khet papra Rubiaceae Herb Blood purifier Boiled leaf juice is taken. Oryza sativa L., TSJ-72 Dhan Poaceae Herb Cardiac complaints Boiled seed is taken. Phyllanthus emblica L., TSJ-17 Amloki Euphorbiaceae Tree Antioxidant Fruit is taken. Blood purifier Fruit is preserved as pickles. Cardiac complaints Fruit juice is taken. High blood pressure Fruit powder is taken with milk everyday. Piper nigrum L., TSJ-28 Golmorich Piperaceae Climber Antioxidant Fruit powder is used as spice. High blood pressure One gm of fruit powder is boiled with two spoon of honey and then the mixture is taken. Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thw., TSJ-41 Debdaru Annonaceae Tree Cardiac complaints 3-4 gram bark powder is taken with boiled water. Psidium guajava L., TSJ-14 Peyara Myrtaceae Tree Antioxidant Leaf juice is taken in empty stomach. Blood purifier Ripe fruit is taken. High blood pressure Young fruit is taken as salad. Punica granatum L., TSJ-58 Dalim Lythraceae Shrub Antioxidant Fruit juice is taken. Blood purifier Dried fruit surface powder is taken with water. Chest pain Ripe fruit is taken. Cardiac complaints Fruit juice is taken. High blood pressure Fruit is taken as salad. Raphanus sativus (L.) Domin., TSJ- 63 Mula Brassicaceae Herb Antioxidant Leaf juice is taken with honey. Blood purifier Boiled tuber is taken with salt. Cardiac complaints Cooked tuber is taken as vegetable. 114 JUTHI et al. Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode High blood pressure Leaf is taken as vegetable. Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth.ex Kurz., TSJ-34 Sarpagandha Apocynaceae Shrub Cardiac complaints Root powder is taken after meal twice in a day. High blood pressure Leaf juice is taken. Rosa centifolia L., TSJ- 53 Golap Rosaceae Shrub Blood purifier 6 gm leaf crushed is taken with 60 ml water. Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wild., TSJ- 40 Ashok Caesalpiniaceae Tree Blood purifier Bark soaked with water overight and then water is taken in empty stomach. Scoparia dulcis L., TSJ- 27 Chini-pata Scrophulariaceae Herb High blood pressure Leaf juice is taken. Solanum melongena L., TSJ- 92 Begun Solanaceae Shrub Antioxidant Fried fruit is taken. Blood purifier Boiled fruit is taken with salt. Cardiac complaints Fruit is taken as vegetable. High blood pressure Boiled fruit paste is taken with boiled rice. Spilanthes calva DC., TSJ- 31 Osom shak, Midi phul Asteraceae Herb High blood pressure Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. Spinacia oleracea L., TSJ-93 Palongshak Chenopodiaceae Herb Antioxidant Leaf juice is taken. Cardiac complaints Boiled leaf paste is taken with boiled rice. High blood pressure Cooked leaf is taken as vegetable. Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz., TSJ- 59 Amra Anacardiaceae Tree Antioxidant Fruit is taken. Blood purifier Fruit juice is taken. Cardiac complaints Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels., TSJ- 15 Jam Myrtaceae Tree Antioxidant Ripe Fruit is taken. Blood purifier One gm of seed powder is taken in empty stomach. High blood pressure Fruit juice is taken. Tamarindus indica L., TSJ- 37 Tetul Caesalpiniaceae Tree Antioxidant Fruit is preserved as pickles. Blood purifier Leaf is taken with boiled water. Cardiac complaints Ripe Fruit is taken. High blood pressure Fruit juice is taken. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. Ex DC.) Wight & Arn., TSJ- 35 Arjun. Combretaceae Tree Chest pain Bark is decocted with water and then drink the water. ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES 115 Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode Cardiac complaints Bark powder is taken in empty stomach. High blood pressure Bark is soaked in water overnight and then water is taken in the morning. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., TSJ- 48 Bohera Combretaceae Tree Cardiac complaints Fruit is soaked in water overnight and then water is taken in the morning. Terminalia catappa L., TSJ- 38 Kath badam Combretaceae Tree Antioxidant Boiled seed paste is taken with boiled rice. Blood purifier Seed is soaked in water overnight and then taken in the morning. Cardiac complaints Seed is taken. High blood pressure Seed juice is taken with milk. Terminalia chebula Retz., TSJ- 6 Haritaki Combretaceae Tree Blood purifier Fruit is soaked in water overnight and then water is taken in the morning. . Cardiac complaints Dried fruit powder mixed with Amloki and Bohera powder in water and drink the mixture in an empty stomach. High blood pressure Fruit is decocted with water and then drink the water. Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold, TSJ- 94 Kalke phul Apocynaceae Shrub Cardiac complaints 0ne gram root powder is taken with boiled milk. Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thoms., TSJ- 95 Guloncholota Menispermaceae Climber Blood purifier 10-12 gm leaf powder is taken with one cup of water for 30 days. Trichosanthes dioica Roxb., TSJ- 96 Potol Cucurbitaceae Climber Antioxidant Seed paste is taken with boiled rice. Blood purifier Boiled fruit paste is taken with boiled rice. Cardiac complaints Fruit is taken as vegetable. Trigonella foenum- graecum L., TSJ- 97 Methi Fabaceae Herb Antioxidant Leaf is taken as vegetable. Blood purifier Seed are soaked in water overnight and then water is taken in the morning. Cardiac complaints Seed paste is taken with boiled rice. High blood pressure Seed powder is taken with water. Triticum asetivumL., TSJ- 46 Gom Poaceae Herb Blood purifier Boiled seed is taken with milk. Cardiac complaints Leaf juice is taken in empty stomach. 116 JUTHI et al. Scientific name & voucher no. Local name Family Habit Ailments Parts and treatment mode Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb., TSJ- 61 Babla Mimosaceae Tree High blood pressure Bark juice is taken. High blood pressure Leaf juice is taken. Vigna sesquipedalis (L.) Walp., TSJ- 98 Borboti Fabaceae Climber Antioxidant Cooked fruit is taken as vegetable. Chest pain Boiled fruit is taken as salad. Cardiac complaints Boiled fruit paste is taken with boiled rice. High blood pressure Boiled seed paste is taken with boiled rice. Vitis vinifera L., TSJ- 108 Angur Vitaceae Climber Antioxidant Fruit is taken. Blood purifier Fruit juice is taken. Cardiac complaints Young fruit is preserved as pickles. Zea mays L., TSJ-99 Vutta Poaceae Herb Antioxidant Fried fruit is taken. Blood purifier Seed is take as popcorn. Cardiac complaints Boiled seed is taken as vegetable. High blood pressure Dried seed powder is taken with water. Zingiber officinale Rosc., TSJ- 29 Ada Zingiberaceae Herb Blood purifier Rhizome is taken with salt. Chest pain 2-inch rhizome is boiled with 2 cup of water and the water is taken. Cardiac complaints Rhizome juice is taken with honey. Among the 131 plant species in the review region, herbs have been addressed by 41%, trees by 33%, shrubs by 19%, and climbers by 7%. The outcome mirrored that herbs are the most prevalent life form among the medicinal plants in the review region. Leaves were the most regularly used plant part, with 35% application in traditional medicinal recipes, followed by fruit (26%), seed (12%), root (6%), bark (5%), whole plant (5%), flower (4%), rhizome (2%), tuber (1%), bulb (1%), latex (1%), and stem (1%). For the treatment of cardiovascular disorders, 61 families of medicinal plants have been identified in the current study. The top five families, including Fabaceae, Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Apocynaceae, were found to contain many species that are medicinal (Fig. 1). Those were the most dominant, with the maximum number of medicinal plant species in the study area. To calculate the factor of informant consensus (Fic) values, total ailments were categorized into five groups, such as cardiac complaints, blood purifiers, chest pain, high blood pressure, and antioxidants. The average Fic value for all ailment categories obtained was 0.8492, with Phyllanthus emblica L., Allium sativum L., Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight and Arn., Achyranthes aspera L., Terminalia chebula Retz, and Allium cepa L. as the most cited plants. Such a value indicated that the maximum number of people in the study area were well informed about the medicinal knowledge of plants. Among the five categories, the cardiac complaints group ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES 117 attained the highest FIC values (0.8640), followed by blood purifier (0.8590), chest pain (0.8492), high blood pressure (0.7164), and antioxidant (0.6667). Fig. 1. Ethnomedicinal plant families according to the high number of plant species for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases in Bangladesh. The medicinal plant species that have been extensively used by the people of the locality had an excessive fidelity level (Fl) compared to the ones that have been less vital. For figuring out medicinally vital plant species in the study area, the fidelity level (Fl) was calculated. In general, the high Fl of a species suggests the superiority of a particular disorder in a place and the usage of plant species by the population to deal with it (Bibi et al., 2014; Srithi et al., 2009). Among the 131 plant species, 45 scored Fl values of 100%. The fidelity level of the most cited plant species was turned into a category (Table 3). According to the citation frequency of all medicinal plants, the most frequently used plants were Phyllanthus emblica L., Allium sativum L., Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight and Arn., Achyranthes aspera L., and Terminalia chebula Retz (Table 4). The highest Cf value means that such species were very popular plant species in the study area and were used for the treatment of cardiac diseases. Among the disease categories, the highest (Fic) value was obtained in cardiac complaints, followed by blood purifiers, chest pain, high blood pressure, and antioxidants. The cardiac complaints were managed by a total of 80 medicinal plant species. Among the medicinal plants, the most cited were Phyllanthus emblica L., Allium sativum L., and Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC). Wight and Arn., Achyranthes aspera L., Terminalia chebula Retz, and Allium cepa L. In the blood purifier category, 76 species were used, and Phyllanthus emblica L., Terminalia chebula Retz, and Allium cepa L. were most cited. In the chest pain category, 20 species were used, Table 3. Fidelity level (Fl) values of the frequently reported plants and their major uses. Ailments Scientific name Np N Fl % Blood purifier Adhatoda zeylanica Medikus. 160 160 100 Cardiac complaints Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. 108 108 100 Chest pain Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. 77 77 100 Cardiac complaints Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. 76 76 100 Helianthus annuus L. 58 58 100 Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. 58 58 100 Blood purifier Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. 56 56 100 Cardiac complaints Nymphaea nouchali Burm. F. 47 47 100 118 JUTHI et al. Table 4. Citation frequency of most cited medicinal plants. Scientific name Local name Parts use Ailments Citation CF value Phyllanthus emblica L. Amloki Fruit Antioxidant 197 65.67 Blood purifier 197 65.67 Cardiac complaints 197 65.67 High blood pressure 197 65.67 Allium sativum L. Rosun Bulb Cardiac complaints 182 60.67 High blood pressure 182 60.67 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. Ex DC.) Wight & Arn. Arjun. Bark Chest pain 174 58 . . Cardiac complaints 174 58 High blood pressure 174 58 Achyranthes aspera L. Apang Leaves Cardiac complaints 172 57.33 Seed Chest pain 172 57.33 Terminalia chebula Retz. Horitoki Fruit Blood purifier 166 55.33 Cardiac complaints 166 55.33 and the most cited were Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. Ex DC). Wight and Arn. and Achyranthes aspera L. In the high blood pressure category, 39 species were used, and the most cited were Phyllanthus emblica L., Allium sativum L., and Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC). Wight and Arn., Terminalia chebula Retz, Allium cepa L. In the antioxidant category, 36 species were used, and Phyllanthus emblica L. was the most cited plant. Among the 131 plant species, 45 species scored a 100% fidelity level as culturally important plant species. The record of 131 ethnomedicinal plant species with diverse use patterns reflected the traditional knowledge richness in the study area. Among the ethnomedicinal plants, 10 plant species, including Phyllanthus emblica L., Allium sativum L., Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight and Arn, Achyranthes aspera L., Terminalia chebula Retz., Allium cepa L., Adhatoda zeylanica Nees, Cinnamomum tamala Nees and Eberm, Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp, and Ipomoea aquatic Forssk, were cited the most times by the local people. The study resulted in the recording a total of 131 ethnomedicinal plant species under 61 families with 114 formularies documented by the local people around the study area of Manikganj district for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Although modern health services are available, the local people still rely on traditional medicine, highlighting the importance of traditional herbal treatment methods. Since the dawn of society, humans have relied on plants to create new fields for the discovery of drugs derived from plants. These medicines are effective in curing several ailments and have changed the focus on herbal medicines in new ways. It is estimated that about 30% of pharmaceutical products are made from plant derivatives (Leta et al., 2002; Gillman et al., 1995). Several studies have been conducted to find plants, natural food sources, and their supplements that have antithrombotic effects such as anticoagulants and antiplatelets. There are indications that consumption of these foods leads to the prevention of coronary disease and stroke (Ratnasooriya et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2000; Joshipura et al., 1999; Bazzano et al., 2002). Although there are several thrombolytic drugs derived from those obtained with recombinant DNA technology, the side effects associated with some of these drugs have been reported to cause further difficulties (Baruah et al., 2006; Gallus et al., 1998; Capstick et al., 2005). The Ethnomedicinal plants were also used for the treatment of Covid-19 pandemic in and around Dhaka City (Uddin et al., 2023). However, herbal preparations with the right dosage can be an alternative and a better choice for curing various diseases. ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES 119 Based on observations and local people's perceptions, the most cited species, named Achyranthes aspera L., Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp., Andrographis paniculata Nees., Aquilaria malaccensis Lam., Dioscorea alata L., and Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz., were found to be very rare in the habitat and were also in danger because of anthropogenic pressure, deforestation, lack of knowledge about plants, and mismanagement of plantations in the study area. This survey has significant value for conservation managers and policymakers for the sustainable management of medicinal plant species that are threatened in nature. This species should be conserved before being eliminated from nature. There is an urgent need to document this knowledge before it becomes extinct. These herbal remedies can be further tested against various diseases to discover their unexplored capacity and may be a potential source of biologically important drug components. Acknowledgement The Authors are acknowledged to Prime Minister’s Education Assistance Trust Fund for the financial support. 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