65


Proximate composition and thermal properties of hemp and flax fibres

M. A. Rahman1, M. M. Rahman2*, K. Nemoto3 and A. K. M. Golam Sarwar4

1Department of Bio-science and Food Production, Shinshu University, 8304 Minamiminowa, Nagano 399-4598, Japan.
2Pulp and Paper Research Division, Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Dhaka 1205, Bangladesh
3Department of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Division of Plant Science and Resources, Shinshu University, 8304 
Minamiminowa, Nagano 399-4598, Japan
4Laboratory of Plant Systematics, Department of Crop Botany, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, 
Bangladesh

Abstract 

Along with the apparel or clothing industry, diversified uses of natural lignocellulosic fibre are 
getting popularity in many fields e.g., composites, automotive, marines, aerospace, 
electronics, civil construction, nanotechnology, biomedical, etc. The property and uses of 
textiles are determined by their constituent fibre properties. The proximate composition and 
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) data of a total of 9 local hemp and flax genotypes (3 and 6, 
respectively) were carried out to understand their suitability in different applications. A wide 
variation was observed in the ash content of hemp and flax fibres varied from 1.7 to 17.7%, 
crude protein 3.27 to 9.02%, crude fibre 26.51 to 55.32%, ether extract 2.6 to 20.9% and 
energy value 284.44 to 383.96 kcal 100–1 g. In TGA analysis, all the fibres showed a similar 
trend. The flax genotypes contain lower ash and ether extract and higher DM, crude 
carbohydrate and crude fibre than hemp genotypes. Therefore, flax could be used in the 
lightweight composite, textile, pulp and cellulose-based industries. The hemp fibre had higher 
ash which was reflected by a higher residue at 500oC in TGA analysis. To understand the 
viability of these flax fibres, further investigations are needed.     

Keywords: Crude protein; Crude fibre; Ash; Ether extract; Thermogravimetric analysis

*Corresponding author e-mail: mmrbcsir3@gmail.com

Available online at www.banglajol.info

Bangladesh J. Sci. Ind. Res. 58(1), 65-70, 2023

Introduction

Natural fibres (NFs), hairlike structures, originated from 
animals (hairs, wools, silks, etc.), plants (bast, leaf and 
husk fibres, seed hairs, etc.), or geological processes. 
These can be used as a component of composites, 
nonwoven fabrics e.g., felt or paper or, altered into yarns, 
into woven cloth. The NFs have many advantages in 
different aspects e.g., environmental pollution, health, etc. 
over artificial fibres. These NFs are renewable, 

carbon-neutral, biodegradable and also produce waste that 
is either organic or can be used to generate electricity or 
make ecological housing material towards the 
achievement of UN Sustainable Development Goals (# 12 
Responsible Production and Consumption). The demand 
for commercial use of the NFs and fibre-based composites 
in various industrial sectors e.g., textile, pulp, automotive 
interior linings (roof, rear wall, side panel lining),

furniture, construction, packaging, and shipping pallets, 
etc. for their better physicochemical and 
physicomechanical properties (Girijappa et al. 2019). The 
quality and use of a natural fibre may vary due to inherent 
variabilities in its natural components such as fibrous 
nature, fibre morphology, cellulosic, and non-cellulosic 
content, and key properties such as fibrous structure, 
spinnability, strength, fineness, dyeability, and the ability 
to react with acid or alkali (Shuvo, 2020).

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.; Cannabaceae) and flax (Linum 
usit at issimum L.; Linaceae), two of the oldest cultivated 
fibre plants, fibres are singly or combined used for clothing 
and household textiles (Skoglund et al. 2013). Hemp has also 
various traditional uses in the Indian subcontinent such as 
fibre and roasted seeds eaten as a food. In Bangladesh, the 
hemp plant was cultivated for manufacturing three narcotic 
products called Ganja, Charas and Bhang (O’Malley, 1916); 
there are disagreements over the use of hemp fibres. 
According to O’Malley, hemp was cultivated on 8,000 acres 
(approx. 3,250 ha) of land of Sitakund on the banks of the 
Sangu River and in the southeast of Satkania on the banks of 
Tankabati for producing hemp fibre (O’Malley, 1908). 
Milburn initially mentioned that hemp has been cultivated in 
Bengal from time immemorial for intoxication (Milburn, 
1813); but is never used by natives for cordage or cloth, as in 
Europe. However, he also pointed out later that when hemp is 
intended for cordage, the natives sow it very thin and 
afterwards transplant the young plants, placing them at a 
considerable distance from each other, often 2.75 or 3.0 m. 
The history of commercial hemp cultivation in Bangladesh 
has been discussed (Rahman et al. 2022). Hemp fibres are 
used in rope, textiles, garden mulch, an assortment of 
building materials and animal beddings, to fabricate different 
composites, and processed to form yarn or bundles (Girijappa 
et al. 2019). The history of linen production and use dates 
back to 12000 BC (Vedic age) to 1500 CE (Medieval period) 
in the Indian subcontinent, including India, Pakistan and 
Bangladesh <https:// agropedia.i itk.ac.in/ content/history- 
linen- indian-subcontinent>. Edible flaxseed dominated 
India’s production rather than fibre flax; because other fibre 
species, such as hemp, were already in wide use (Judd, 1995). 
Flax fibres are used in furniture materials, textiles bed sheets, 
linen, interior decoration accessories, composite 
reinforcement, etc. (Girijappa et al. 2019; Baley, 2021).

The nutritional aspects of both hemp and flax seeds and 
different plant parts were reported in different publications 
(Muir and Westcott, 2003; Audu et al. 2014; Galasso et al.  

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed by a 
thermal analyzer of SII TG/DTA 6300. Thermal analysis was 
carried out in the temperature range of 30–500°C with a 
programmed heating rate of 20°C min–1. The inertness of the 
heating chamber was maintained with continuous nitrogen 
gas flow at 100 ml min–1. The test was performed with a 5 to 
8 mg ground sample in the platinum crucible.

Results and discussion

Proximate analysis

Distinct differences in all the proximate components were 
observed between fibre of hemp and flax genotypes except 
the DM content. The results revealed a close similarity in the 
DM content of hemp and flax fibres which varied from 96% 
to 97.1% (Table I). High DM content in fibre cells indicates 
that these are rich in structural components – carbohydrates, 

protein, fats, minerals, etc. except water. The density of hemp 
and flax fibres was the same or very similar and low (1.4–1.5 
g cm–3) which could be a great choice for light-weight 
composite structures (Misnon, 2014). Low-density fibre has 
enormous implications in technical textile industries, 
especially in aerospace and automotive applications for 
reducing fuel consumption and related fuel costs (Shuvo et 

al. 2020). A careful selection of cultivars (/genotypes) 
would allow for the optimizing utility of this fibre feature 
(Shuvo, 2020).

Ash content was analyzed in the range of 1.7% to 17.7% and 
a significant difference was observed between hemp 
(12.5–17.7%) and flax (1.7–3.8%) genotypes. The maximum 
ash was found in hemp genotype Meherpur and the minimum 
in flax genotype Chilmari. Ash is the residue left after all the 
moisture and organic matter has been removed at high 
temperatures. The high ash content of these fibres is a 
measure of mineral richness (Lai and Roy,  2004). 

The maximum quantity of CP, EE and energy value was 
found in hemp genotypes and minimum in flax genotypes. 
Fibres of two flax genotypes, viz.  BD-10708 and BD-1903, 
contained an exceptionally higher amount of ether extract 
compared to others (Table I). In living organisms, fat is the 

usually stored form of energy. They are the main structural 
element of phospholipids and sterols (Hashim et al. 2014). 
The CF and crude carbohydrate (CC) contents showed the 
maximum value for flax genotype Canada (55.32%) and Nila 
(38.25%), respectively and a minimum for hemp genotype 
Brammonbaria (26.51%) and Meherpur (23.86%). The 
energy value of hemp genotypes was higher and ranged from 

337.93 to 383.96 kcal 100–1 g (Table I). This augmented 
energy value is due to their greater fat content compared with 
flax genotypes (Ishag et al. 2019).

Among the different plant parts of hemp, the leaf possessed 
the maximum amount (23.78%) of CP (Audu et al. 2014). 
On the other hand, fibre contains the highest amount of CF 
(28.29%) and ash (12%); EE (%) of the leaf was identical to 
that of fibre except in one genotype Brammonbaria (Table I) 
(Audu et al. 2014). In flax plants, seeds contain the highest 
amount of CP (21%) and EE (43.17%), and maximum CF 
(avg. 51.23%) and CC (avg. 33.38%) in fibre (Table I) (Ishag 
et al. 2019).

Thermogravimetric analysis

The TGA curves were used to determine the thermal 
behaviour such as weight loss and residual char level of 
material at a certain temperature. The thermal behaviour of 
untreated hemp and flax fibres is shown in Fig. 1. Fibres of 
all the genot ypea are lignocellulosic and show almost similar 
thermal degradation patterns. Thermal degradation profiles 
of the fibres are separated into three different stages. The first 
stage of degradation started at around 100°C and last up to 
180°C. At this stage, about 10% mass loss occurs. Mass loss 
of fibres at around 100°C due to elimination or rapid 
evaporation of water during the initial stages of heating 
(Ouajai and Shanks, 2005). In addition to moisture, some 
fraction of waxes, pectin, lignin and hemicellulose degraded 
in this stage (Wielage et al. 1999). Decomposing of both the 

hemp and flax fibres takes place slowly up to about 250°C. 
Later the second decomposition started where the maximum 
mass loss occurred. Maximum decomposition took place 
between 250 and 350°C due to the depolymerization of 
cellulose and hemicellulose (Albano et al. 1999). It is 
obvious from the proximate analysis (Table I) that there is a 
difference in the chemical composition of the genotypes that 
affects the thermal stability. The thermal stability of the flax 
genotypes Chilmari and BD-10708 showed higher than the 
others. The third stage of decomposition begins at a 
temperature of about 350°C. At this stage, the fibre breaks 
down to form chars releasing water and carbon dioxide. With 
a further increase in temperature, the process of formation 
and digestion of chars takes place. The stable residual mass at 
500°C temperature comes mostly from minerals and char 
residue (Gashti et al.  2013). Proximate analysis showed that 
hemp fibre had higher ash content on average than flax fibre 
(Table I). The TGA analysis also coincides with the 
proximate analysis showing a higher residual mass fraction at 
500°C for hemp fibres.

Conclusion

The lower ash and ether extract and higher DM, CC and CF 
of these flax fibres make them (also) suitable for being used 
in the lightweight composite, textile, pulp and 
cellulose-based industries. The hemp fibre had higher ash 
which was reflected by a higher residue at 500°C in TGA 
analysis. High ash content in the hemp fibres will provide 

high thermal stability and could be used as reinforcement 
material for composite. Further investigations are needed to 
understand the viability of these flax fibres for different 
purposes. 

References

Albano C, Gonzalez J, Ichazo M and Kaiser D (1999), 
Thermal stability of blends of polyolefins and sisal 
fiber, Polym Degrad Stab. 66(2): 179-190. . 

Alonso-Esteban JI, Pinela J, Ćirić A, Calhelha RC, Soković 
M, Ferreira IC, Barros L, Torija-Isasa E and de Cortes 
Sánchez-Mata M (2022), Chemical composition and 
biological activities of whole and dehulled hemp 
(Cannabis sativa L.) seeds, Food Chem. 374: 131754. 
Doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131754

Audu BS, Ofojekwu PC, Ujah A and Ajima MNO (2014), 
Phytochemical, proximate composition, amino acid 
profile and characterization of Marijuana (Cannabis 
sativa L.), J Phytopharma. 3(1): 35-43.  

Baley C, Bourmaud A and Davies P (2021), Eighty years of 
composites reinforced by flax fibres: A historical 
review, Composites Part A: Appl Sci Manufac 144: 
106333. Doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2021.106333

European Parliament and Council of the European 
Union, (2011), Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of 
the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 
October 2011 on the provision of food information 
to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 
1924/ 2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the 
European Parliament and of the Council, and 
repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, 
Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission 
Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of 
the European Parliament and of the Council, 
Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 
2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 
608/2004. Official Journal of the European Union, 
L 304: 18-63. 

Galasso I, Russo R, Mapelli S, Ponzoni E, Brambilla IM, 
Battelli G and Reggiani R (2016), Variability in seed 
traits in a collection of Cannabis sativa L. genotypes, 
Front Plant Sci. 7: 688. Doi: 10.3389/ fpls. 
2016.00688

Gashti MP, Elahi A and Gashti MP (2013), UV radiation 
inducing succinic acid/silica–kaolinite network on 
cellulose fiber to improve the functionality, Compos B 
Eng. 48: 158-166

Girijappa YT, Rangappa SM, Parameswaranpillai J and 
Siengchin S (2019), Natural fibers as sustainable and 
renewable resource for development of eco-friendly 
composites: A comprehensive review, Front Mater 6: 
226. Doi: 10.3389/fmats.2019.00226

Hashim S, Bakht T, Marwat KB and Jan A (2014), Medicinal 
properties, phytochemistry and pharmacology of 
Tribulus terrestris L. (Zygophyllaceae), Pak J Bot. 
46(1): 399-404. . 

Ishag OAO, Khalid AA, Abdi A, Erwa IY, Omer AB and 
Nour AH (2019), Proximate composition, 
physicochemical properties and antioxidant activity of 
Flaxseed, Annl Res Rev Biol. 34(2): 1-10. 

Judd A (1995), Flaxseed in Human Nutrition. eds by S.C. 
Cunnane, L.U. Thompson. (AOCS Press, Champaign, 
IL) 1995, pp 1-10.

Kabir AA, Moniruzzaman M, Gulshan Z, Rahman AM and 
Sarwar AKM Golam (2018), Biomass yield, chemical 
composition and in vitro gas production of different 
dhaincha (Sesbania spp.) Accessions from 
Bangladesh, Indian Anim Nutri. 35(4): 397-402. Doi: 
10.5958/2231-6744.2018.00060.9

Lai PK and Roy J (2004), Antimicrobial and 
chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices, Curr 
Med Chem. 11(11): 1451-1460.

Milburn W (1813), Oriental Commerce.Vol. 2 (Black, Parry 
& Co, London) 1813, pp 209-11.

Misnon MI, Islam MM, Epaarachchi JA and Lau KT (2014), 
Potentiality of utilising natural textile materials for 
engineering composites applications, Mater Des. 59: 
359-368. Doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2014.03.022

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(CRC press) 2003.

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Proximate analysis and mineral composition of 
potential minor fruits of Western Ghats of India. 
Scientific Papers. Series A. Agronomy, LX., pp 
340-346. 

O’Malley LSS (1916), Bengal district gazetteers: Rajshahi. 
(Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, Calcutta) 1996, pp 
134-144

O'Malley LSS (1908), Eastern Bengal District Gazetteers: 
Chittagong (Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, Calcutta) 
1908.

Ouajai S and Shanks RA (2005), Composition, structure and 
thermal degradation of hemp cellulose after chemical 
treatments, Polym Degrad Stab. 89(2): 327-335.

Rahman AM, Nemoto K, Matsushima KI, Uddin SB and 
Sarwar AKM Golam (2022), A history of cannabis 
(Ganja) as an economic crop in Bangladesh from the 
late 18th century to 1989, Trop Agric Develop 66(1): 
21-32. Doi: 10.9790/0837-2509041926

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Sen HS, Sur D, Lutfar LB, Rahman MS, Hassan DS 
(2010),  Jute Basics, International Jute Study Group, 
Monipuri Para, Dhaka.

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influence of different industrial cellulosic crops 
(cotton, hemp, flax, and canola) on textile properties, 
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0040517519886636

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and Choo-Smith LPI (2020), Producing light-weight 
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s40643-020-00339-1

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early Middle Ages northern Scandinavian textiles 
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Khan MW (2018), Proximate composition, 
phytochemical analysis and antioxidant capacity of 
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bspab.2018.700131

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/bjsir.v58i1.64236

Received: 01 February 2023

Revised: 15 February 2023

Accepted: 19 February 2023

2016; Waris et al. 2018; Ishag et al. 2019; Alonso-Esteban et 
al. 2022). Although the physical properties of hemp and flax 
fibres are known to us (Girijappa et al. 2019), hitherto, no 
information on the proximate composition of fibres of 
Bangladeshi genotypes of these two important fibre-yielding 
crops is available. The constituent fibre properties influence 
application of textiles in many fields e.g., composites, 
automotive, marines, aerospace, electronics, civil 
construction, nanotechnology, biomedical, as well as the 
apparel or clothing industry (Shuvo, 2020). We have, 
therefore, reported the proximate composition and 
thermogravimetric analysis data of 3 hemp and 6 flax 
genotypes here.

Materials and methods

The proximate analysis and thermogravimetric analysis (of 
fibres) of six flax genotypes and three hemp genotypes were 
carried out to understand their suitability in different 
applications. Hemp seeds were collected from different 
locations in Bangladesh (detailed collection information will 
be available upon request) and the genotypes are named 
accordingly, viz. Brammonbaria, Chittagang and Meherpur. 
The hemp plants were grown (in a confined area) at Botanical 
Garden, Department of Crop Botany, Bangladesh 
Agricultural University. Flax fibres were collected with the 
ribbon retting method (Roy et al. 2010) and sun-dried 
properly. The flax fibres of 6 genotypes, harvested from 
another experiment in the same year, were collected from the 
Laboratory of Plant Systematics of the same Department. 

The proximate composition analysis viz. dry matter (DM), 
crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ash and ether extract 
(crude fat; EE), were accomplished at the Laboratory of 
Department of Animal Science, Bangladesh Agricultural 
University, Mymensingh following standard procedure 
(Kabir et al. 2018). 

The crude carbohydrate was calculated following Mundaragi  
et al. (2017).

Crude Carbohydrate (%) = 100 – [moisture (%) + protein (%) 
+ fibre (%) + fat (%) + ash (%)]

The calorific value or the total energy value of fruits in 
kcal100–1 g was calculated with the help of the following 
equation (European Parliament and Council of the European 
Union, 2011). 

Energy value (kcal 100–1 g) = 4 × Protein + 9 × Fat + 4 × 
Carbohydrate + 2 × Fibre

Short Communication



Proximate composition and thermal properties of hemp and flax fibres 58(1) 202366

furniture, construction, packaging, and shipping pallets, 
etc. for their better physicochemical and 
physicomechanical properties (Girijappa et al. 2019). The 
quality and use of a natural fibre may vary due to inherent 
variabilities in its natural components such as fibrous 
nature, fibre morphology, cellulosic, and non-cellulosic 
content, and key properties such as fibrous structure, 
spinnability, strength, fineness, dyeability, and the ability 
to react with acid or alkali (Shuvo, 2020).

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.; Cannabaceae) and flax (Linum 
usit at issimum L.; Linaceae), two of the oldest cultivated 
fibre plants, fibres are singly or combined used for clothing 
and household textiles (Skoglund et al. 2013). Hemp has also 
various traditional uses in the Indian subcontinent such as 
fibre and roasted seeds eaten as a food. In Bangladesh, the 
hemp plant was cultivated for manufacturing three narcotic 
products called Ganja, Charas and Bhang (O’Malley, 1916); 
there are disagreements over the use of hemp fibres. 
According to O’Malley, hemp was cultivated on 8,000 acres 
(approx. 3,250 ha) of land of Sitakund on the banks of the 
Sangu River and in the southeast of Satkania on the banks of 
Tankabati for producing hemp fibre (O’Malley, 1908). 
Milburn initially mentioned that hemp has been cultivated in 
Bengal from time immemorial for intoxication (Milburn, 
1813); but is never used by natives for cordage or cloth, as in 
Europe. However, he also pointed out later that when hemp is 
intended for cordage, the natives sow it very thin and 
afterwards transplant the young plants, placing them at a 
considerable distance from each other, often 2.75 or 3.0 m. 
The history of commercial hemp cultivation in Bangladesh 
has been discussed (Rahman et al. 2022). Hemp fibres are 
used in rope, textiles, garden mulch, an assortment of 
building materials and animal beddings, to fabricate different 
composites, and processed to form yarn or bundles (Girijappa 
et al. 2019). The history of linen production and use dates 
back to 12000 BC (Vedic age) to 1500 CE (Medieval period) 
in the Indian subcontinent, including India, Pakistan and 
Bangladesh <https:// agropedia.i itk.ac.in/ content/history- 
linen- indian-subcontinent>. Edible flaxseed dominated 
India’s production rather than fibre flax; because other fibre 
species, such as hemp, were already in wide use (Judd, 1995). 
Flax fibres are used in furniture materials, textiles bed sheets, 
linen, interior decoration accessories, composite 
reinforcement, etc. (Girijappa et al. 2019; Baley, 2021).

The nutritional aspects of both hemp and flax seeds and 
different plant parts were reported in different publications 
(Muir and Westcott, 2003; Audu et al. 2014; Galasso et al.  

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed by a 
thermal analyzer of SII TG/DTA 6300. Thermal analysis was 
carried out in the temperature range of 30–500°C with a 
programmed heating rate of 20°C min–1. The inertness of the 
heating chamber was maintained with continuous nitrogen 
gas flow at 100 ml min–1. The test was performed with a 5 to 
8 mg ground sample in the platinum crucible.

Results and discussion

Proximate analysis

Distinct differences in all the proximate components were 
observed between fibre of hemp and flax genotypes except 
the DM content. The results revealed a close similarity in the 
DM content of hemp and flax fibres which varied from 96% 
to 97.1% (Table I). High DM content in fibre cells indicates 
that these are rich in structural components – carbohydrates, 

protein, fats, minerals, etc. except water. The density of hemp 
and flax fibres was the same or very similar and low (1.4–1.5 
g cm–3) which could be a great choice for light-weight 
composite structures (Misnon, 2014). Low-density fibre has 
enormous implications in technical textile industries, 
especially in aerospace and automotive applications for 
reducing fuel consumption and related fuel costs (Shuvo et 

al. 2020). A careful selection of cultivars (/genotypes) 
would allow for the optimizing utility of this fibre feature 
(Shuvo, 2020).

Ash content was analyzed in the range of 1.7% to 17.7% and 
a significant difference was observed between hemp 
(12.5–17.7%) and flax (1.7–3.8%) genotypes. The maximum 
ash was found in hemp genotype Meherpur and the minimum 
in flax genotype Chilmari. Ash is the residue left after all the 
moisture and organic matter has been removed at high 
temperatures. The high ash content of these fibres is a 
measure of mineral richness (Lai and Roy,  2004). 

The maximum quantity of CP, EE and energy value was 
found in hemp genotypes and minimum in flax genotypes. 
Fibres of two flax genotypes, viz.  BD-10708 and BD-1903, 
contained an exceptionally higher amount of ether extract 
compared to others (Table I). In living organisms, fat is the 

usually stored form of energy. They are the main structural 
element of phospholipids and sterols (Hashim et al. 2014). 
The CF and crude carbohydrate (CC) contents showed the 
maximum value for flax genotype Canada (55.32%) and Nila 
(38.25%), respectively and a minimum for hemp genotype 
Brammonbaria (26.51%) and Meherpur (23.86%). The 
energy value of hemp genotypes was higher and ranged from 

337.93 to 383.96 kcal 100–1 g (Table I). This augmented 
energy value is due to their greater fat content compared with 
flax genotypes (Ishag et al. 2019).

Among the different plant parts of hemp, the leaf possessed 
the maximum amount (23.78%) of CP (Audu et al. 2014). 
On the other hand, fibre contains the highest amount of CF 
(28.29%) and ash (12%); EE (%) of the leaf was identical to 
that of fibre except in one genotype Brammonbaria (Table I) 
(Audu et al. 2014). In flax plants, seeds contain the highest 
amount of CP (21%) and EE (43.17%), and maximum CF 
(avg. 51.23%) and CC (avg. 33.38%) in fibre (Table I) (Ishag 
et al. 2019).

Thermogravimetric analysis

The TGA curves were used to determine the thermal 
behaviour such as weight loss and residual char level of 
material at a certain temperature. The thermal behaviour of 
untreated hemp and flax fibres is shown in Fig. 1. Fibres of 
all the genot ypea are lignocellulosic and show almost similar 
thermal degradation patterns. Thermal degradation profiles 
of the fibres are separated into three different stages. The first 
stage of degradation started at around 100°C and last up to 
180°C. At this stage, about 10% mass loss occurs. Mass loss 
of fibres at around 100°C due to elimination or rapid 
evaporation of water during the initial stages of heating 
(Ouajai and Shanks, 2005). In addition to moisture, some 
fraction of waxes, pectin, lignin and hemicellulose degraded 
in this stage (Wielage et al. 1999). Decomposing of both the 

hemp and flax fibres takes place slowly up to about 250°C. 
Later the second decomposition started where the maximum 
mass loss occurred. Maximum decomposition took place 
between 250 and 350°C due to the depolymerization of 
cellulose and hemicellulose (Albano et al. 1999). It is 
obvious from the proximate analysis (Table I) that there is a 
difference in the chemical composition of the genotypes that 
affects the thermal stability. The thermal stability of the flax 
genotypes Chilmari and BD-10708 showed higher than the 
others. The third stage of decomposition begins at a 
temperature of about 350°C. At this stage, the fibre breaks 
down to form chars releasing water and carbon dioxide. With 
a further increase in temperature, the process of formation 
and digestion of chars takes place. The stable residual mass at 
500°C temperature comes mostly from minerals and char 
residue (Gashti et al.  2013). Proximate analysis showed that 
hemp fibre had higher ash content on average than flax fibre 
(Table I). The TGA analysis also coincides with the 
proximate analysis showing a higher residual mass fraction at 
500°C for hemp fibres.

Conclusion

The lower ash and ether extract and higher DM, CC and CF 
of these flax fibres make them (also) suitable for being used 
in the lightweight composite, textile, pulp and 
cellulose-based industries. The hemp fibre had higher ash 
which was reflected by a higher residue at 500°C in TGA 
analysis. High ash content in the hemp fibres will provide 

high thermal stability and could be used as reinforcement 
material for composite. Further investigations are needed to 
understand the viability of these flax fibres for different 
purposes. 

References

Albano C, Gonzalez J, Ichazo M and Kaiser D (1999), 
Thermal stability of blends of polyolefins and sisal 
fiber, Polym Degrad Stab. 66(2): 179-190. . 

Alonso-Esteban JI, Pinela J, Ćirić A, Calhelha RC, Soković 
M, Ferreira IC, Barros L, Torija-Isasa E and de Cortes 
Sánchez-Mata M (2022), Chemical composition and 
biological activities of whole and dehulled hemp 
(Cannabis sativa L.) seeds, Food Chem. 374: 131754. 
Doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131754

Audu BS, Ofojekwu PC, Ujah A and Ajima MNO (2014), 
Phytochemical, proximate composition, amino acid 
profile and characterization of Marijuana (Cannabis 
sativa L.), J Phytopharma. 3(1): 35-43.  

Baley C, Bourmaud A and Davies P (2021), Eighty years of 
composites reinforced by flax fibres: A historical 
review, Composites Part A: Appl Sci Manufac 144: 
106333. Doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2021.106333

European Parliament and Council of the European 
Union, (2011), Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of 
the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 
October 2011 on the provision of food information 
to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 
1924/ 2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the 
European Parliament and of the Council, and 
repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, 
Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission 
Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of 
the European Parliament and of the Council, 
Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 
2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 
608/2004. Official Journal of the European Union, 
L 304: 18-63. 

Galasso I, Russo R, Mapelli S, Ponzoni E, Brambilla IM, 
Battelli G and Reggiani R (2016), Variability in seed 
traits in a collection of Cannabis sativa L. genotypes, 
Front Plant Sci. 7: 688. Doi: 10.3389/ fpls. 
2016.00688

Gashti MP, Elahi A and Gashti MP (2013), UV radiation 
inducing succinic acid/silica–kaolinite network on 
cellulose fiber to improve the functionality, Compos B 
Eng. 48: 158-166

Girijappa YT, Rangappa SM, Parameswaranpillai J and 
Siengchin S (2019), Natural fibers as sustainable and 
renewable resource for development of eco-friendly 
composites: A comprehensive review, Front Mater 6: 
226. Doi: 10.3389/fmats.2019.00226

Hashim S, Bakht T, Marwat KB and Jan A (2014), Medicinal 
properties, phytochemistry and pharmacology of 
Tribulus terrestris L. (Zygophyllaceae), Pak J Bot. 
46(1): 399-404. . 

Ishag OAO, Khalid AA, Abdi A, Erwa IY, Omer AB and 
Nour AH (2019), Proximate composition, 
physicochemical properties and antioxidant activity of 
Flaxseed, Annl Res Rev Biol. 34(2): 1-10. 

Judd A (1995), Flaxseed in Human Nutrition. eds by S.C. 
Cunnane, L.U. Thompson. (AOCS Press, Champaign, 
IL) 1995, pp 1-10.

Kabir AA, Moniruzzaman M, Gulshan Z, Rahman AM and 
Sarwar AKM Golam (2018), Biomass yield, chemical 
composition and in vitro gas production of different 
dhaincha (Sesbania spp.) Accessions from 
Bangladesh, Indian Anim Nutri. 35(4): 397-402. Doi: 
10.5958/2231-6744.2018.00060.9

Lai PK and Roy J (2004), Antimicrobial and 
chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices, Curr 
Med Chem. 11(11): 1451-1460.

Milburn W (1813), Oriental Commerce.Vol. 2 (Black, Parry 
& Co, London) 1813, pp 209-11.

Misnon MI, Islam MM, Epaarachchi JA and Lau KT (2014), 
Potentiality of utilising natural textile materials for 
engineering composites applications, Mater Des. 59: 
359-368. Doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2014.03.022

Muir AD and Westcott ND (2003), Flax: the genus Linum. 
(CRC press) 2003.

Mundaragi A, Devarajan T, Bhat S and Jeyabalan S (2017), 
Proximate analysis and mineral composition of 
potential minor fruits of Western Ghats of India. 
Scientific Papers. Series A. Agronomy, LX., pp 
340-346. 

O’Malley LSS (1916), Bengal district gazetteers: Rajshahi. 
(Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, Calcutta) 1996, pp 
134-144

O'Malley LSS (1908), Eastern Bengal District Gazetteers: 
Chittagong (Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, Calcutta) 
1908.

Ouajai S and Shanks RA (2005), Composition, structure and 
thermal degradation of hemp cellulose after chemical 
treatments, Polym Degrad Stab. 89(2): 327-335.

Rahman AM, Nemoto K, Matsushima KI, Uddin SB and 
Sarwar AKM Golam (2022), A history of cannabis 
(Ganja) as an economic crop in Bangladesh from the 
late 18th century to 1989, Trop Agric Develop 66(1): 
21-32. Doi: 10.9790/0837-2509041926

Roy S, Ali M, Amin MN, Jianguang S, Bhattacharya SK,  
Sen HS, Sur D, Lutfar LB, Rahman MS, Hassan DS 
(2010),  Jute Basics, International Jute Study Group, 
Monipuri Para, Dhaka.

Shuvo II (2020), Fibre attributes and mapping the cultivar 
influence of different industrial cellulosic crops 
(cotton, hemp, flax, and canola) on textile properties, 
Bioresour Bioprocess 7(51): 1-28. Doi: 10.1177/ 
0040517519886636

Shuvo II, Rahman M, Vahora T, Morrison J, DuCharme S 
and Choo-Smith LPI (2020), Producing light-weight 
bast fibers from canola biomass for technical textiles, 
Tex Res J. 90(11-12): 1311-1325. Doi: 10.1186/ 
s40643-020-00339-1

Skoglund G, Nockert M and  Holst B (2013), Viking and 
early Middle Ages northern Scandinavian textiles 
proven to be made with hemp, Sci Rep. 3(1): 1-6. Doi: 
10.1038/srep02686

Waris Z, Iqbal Y, Arshad Hussain S, Khan AA, Ali A and 
Khan MW (2018), Proximate composition, 
phytochemical analysis and antioxidant capacity of 
Aloe vera, Cannabis sativa and Mentha longifolia, 
Pure Appl Biol. 7(3): 1122-1130. Doi: 10.19045/ 
bspab.2018.700131

Wielage B, Lampke T, Marx G, Nestler K and Starke D 
(1999), Thermogravimetric and differential scanning 
calorimetric analysis of natural fibres and 
polypropylene, Thermochimica Acta. 337(1-2): 
169-177. 

2016; Waris et al. 2018; Ishag et al. 2019; Alonso-Esteban et 
al. 2022). Although the physical properties of hemp and flax 
fibres are known to us (Girijappa et al. 2019), hitherto, no 
information on the proximate composition of fibres of 
Bangladeshi genotypes of these two important fibre-yielding 
crops is available. The constituent fibre properties influence 
application of textiles in many fields e.g., composites, 
automotive, marines, aerospace, electronics, civil 
construction, nanotechnology, biomedical, as well as the 
apparel or clothing industry (Shuvo, 2020). We have, 
therefore, reported the proximate composition and 
thermogravimetric analysis data of 3 hemp and 6 flax 
genotypes here.

Materials and methods

The proximate analysis and thermogravimetric analysis (of 
fibres) of six flax genotypes and three hemp genotypes were 
carried out to understand their suitability in different 
applications. Hemp seeds were collected from different 
locations in Bangladesh (detailed collection information will 
be available upon request) and the genotypes are named 
accordingly, viz. Brammonbaria, Chittagang and Meherpur. 
The hemp plants were grown (in a confined area) at Botanical 
Garden, Department of Crop Botany, Bangladesh 
Agricultural University. Flax fibres were collected with the 
ribbon retting method (Roy et al. 2010) and sun-dried 
properly. The flax fibres of 6 genotypes, harvested from 
another experiment in the same year, were collected from the 
Laboratory of Plant Systematics of the same Department. 

The proximate composition analysis viz. dry matter (DM), 
crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ash and ether extract 
(crude fat; EE), were accomplished at the Laboratory of 
Department of Animal Science, Bangladesh Agricultural 
University, Mymensingh following standard procedure 
(Kabir et al. 2018). 

The crude carbohydrate was calculated following Mundaragi  
et al. (2017).

Crude Carbohydrate (%) = 100 – [moisture (%) + protein (%) 
+ fibre (%) + fat (%) + ash (%)]

The calorific value or the total energy value of fruits in 
kcal100–1 g was calculated with the help of the following 
equation (European Parliament and Council of the European 
Union, 2011). 

Energy value (kcal 100–1 g) = 4 × Protein + 9 × Fat + 4 × 
Carbohydrate + 2 × Fibre



Rahman, Rahman, Nemoto and Sarwar 67

furniture, construction, packaging, and shipping pallets, 
etc. for their better physicochemical and 
physicomechanical properties (Girijappa et al. 2019). The 
quality and use of a natural fibre may vary due to inherent 
variabilities in its natural components such as fibrous 
nature, fibre morphology, cellulosic, and non-cellulosic 
content, and key properties such as fibrous structure, 
spinnability, strength, fineness, dyeability, and the ability 
to react with acid or alkali (Shuvo, 2020).

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.; Cannabaceae) and flax (Linum 
usit at issimum L.; Linaceae), two of the oldest cultivated 
fibre plants, fibres are singly or combined used for clothing 
and household textiles (Skoglund et al. 2013). Hemp has also 
various traditional uses in the Indian subcontinent such as 
fibre and roasted seeds eaten as a food. In Bangladesh, the 
hemp plant was cultivated for manufacturing three narcotic 
products called Ganja, Charas and Bhang (O’Malley, 1916); 
there are disagreements over the use of hemp fibres. 
According to O’Malley, hemp was cultivated on 8,000 acres 
(approx. 3,250 ha) of land of Sitakund on the banks of the 
Sangu River and in the southeast of Satkania on the banks of 
Tankabati for producing hemp fibre (O’Malley, 1908). 
Milburn initially mentioned that hemp has been cultivated in 
Bengal from time immemorial for intoxication (Milburn, 
1813); but is never used by natives for cordage or cloth, as in 
Europe. However, he also pointed out later that when hemp is 
intended for cordage, the natives sow it very thin and 
afterwards transplant the young plants, placing them at a 
considerable distance from each other, often 2.75 or 3.0 m. 
The history of commercial hemp cultivation in Bangladesh 
has been discussed (Rahman et al. 2022). Hemp fibres are 
used in rope, textiles, garden mulch, an assortment of 
building materials and animal beddings, to fabricate different 
composites, and processed to form yarn or bundles (Girijappa 
et al. 2019). The history of linen production and use dates 
back to 12000 BC (Vedic age) to 1500 CE (Medieval period) 
in the Indian subcontinent, including India, Pakistan and 
Bangladesh <https:// agropedia.i itk.ac.in/ content/history- 
linen- indian-subcontinent>. Edible flaxseed dominated 
India’s production rather than fibre flax; because other fibre 
species, such as hemp, were already in wide use (Judd, 1995). 
Flax fibres are used in furniture materials, textiles bed sheets, 
linen, interior decoration accessories, composite 
reinforcement, etc. (Girijappa et al. 2019; Baley, 2021).

The nutritional aspects of both hemp and flax seeds and 
different plant parts were reported in different publications 
(Muir and Westcott, 2003; Audu et al. 2014; Galasso et al.  

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed by a 
thermal analyzer of SII TG/DTA 6300. Thermal analysis was 
carried out in the temperature range of 30–500°C with a 
programmed heating rate of 20°C min–1. The inertness of the 
heating chamber was maintained with continuous nitrogen 
gas flow at 100 ml min–1. The test was performed with a 5 to 
8 mg ground sample in the platinum crucible.

Results and discussion

Proximate analysis

Distinct differences in all the proximate components were 
observed between fibre of hemp and flax genotypes except 
the DM content. The results revealed a close similarity in the 
DM content of hemp and flax fibres which varied from 96% 
to 97.1% (Table I). High DM content in fibre cells indicates 
that these are rich in structural components – carbohydrates, 

protein, fats, minerals, etc. except water. The density of hemp 
and flax fibres was the same or very similar and low (1.4–1.5 
g cm–3) which could be a great choice for light-weight 
composite structures (Misnon, 2014). Low-density fibre has 
enormous implications in technical textile industries, 
especially in aerospace and automotive applications for 
reducing fuel consumption and related fuel costs (Shuvo et 

al. 2020). A careful selection of cultivars (/genotypes) 
would allow for the optimizing utility of this fibre feature 
(Shuvo, 2020).

Ash content was analyzed in the range of 1.7% to 17.7% and 
a significant difference was observed between hemp 
(12.5–17.7%) and flax (1.7–3.8%) genotypes. The maximum 
ash was found in hemp genotype Meherpur and the minimum 
in flax genotype Chilmari. Ash is the residue left after all the 
moisture and organic matter has been removed at high 
temperatures. The high ash content of these fibres is a 
measure of mineral richness (Lai and Roy,  2004). 

The maximum quantity of CP, EE and energy value was 
found in hemp genotypes and minimum in flax genotypes. 
Fibres of two flax genotypes, viz.  BD-10708 and BD-1903, 
contained an exceptionally higher amount of ether extract 
compared to others (Table I). In living organisms, fat is the 

usually stored form of energy. They are the main structural 
element of phospholipids and sterols (Hashim et al. 2014). 
The CF and crude carbohydrate (CC) contents showed the 
maximum value for flax genotype Canada (55.32%) and Nila 
(38.25%), respectively and a minimum for hemp genotype 
Brammonbaria (26.51%) and Meherpur (23.86%). The 
energy value of hemp genotypes was higher and ranged from 

337.93 to 383.96 kcal 100–1 g (Table I). This augmented 
energy value is due to their greater fat content compared with 
flax genotypes (Ishag et al. 2019).

Among the different plant parts of hemp, the leaf possessed 
the maximum amount (23.78%) of CP (Audu et al. 2014). 
On the other hand, fibre contains the highest amount of CF 
(28.29%) and ash (12%); EE (%) of the leaf was identical to 
that of fibre except in one genotype Brammonbaria (Table I) 
(Audu et al. 2014). In flax plants, seeds contain the highest 
amount of CP (21%) and EE (43.17%), and maximum CF 
(avg. 51.23%) and CC (avg. 33.38%) in fibre (Table I) (Ishag 
et al. 2019).

Thermogravimetric analysis

The TGA curves were used to determine the thermal 
behaviour such as weight loss and residual char level of 
material at a certain temperature. The thermal behaviour of 
untreated hemp and flax fibres is shown in Fig. 1. Fibres of 
all the genot ypea are lignocellulosic and show almost similar 
thermal degradation patterns. Thermal degradation profiles 
of the fibres are separated into three different stages. The first 
stage of degradation started at around 100°C and last up to 
180°C. At this stage, about 10% mass loss occurs. Mass loss 
of fibres at around 100°C due to elimination or rapid 
evaporation of water during the initial stages of heating 
(Ouajai and Shanks, 2005). In addition to moisture, some 
fraction of waxes, pectin, lignin and hemicellulose degraded 
in this stage (Wielage et al. 1999). Decomposing of both the 

hemp and flax fibres takes place slowly up to about 250°C. 
Later the second decomposition started where the maximum 
mass loss occurred. Maximum decomposition took place 
between 250 and 350°C due to the depolymerization of 
cellulose and hemicellulose (Albano et al. 1999). It is 
obvious from the proximate analysis (Table I) that there is a 
difference in the chemical composition of the genotypes that 
affects the thermal stability. The thermal stability of the flax 
genotypes Chilmari and BD-10708 showed higher than the 
others. The third stage of decomposition begins at a 
temperature of about 350°C. At this stage, the fibre breaks 
down to form chars releasing water and carbon dioxide. With 
a further increase in temperature, the process of formation 
and digestion of chars takes place. The stable residual mass at 
500°C temperature comes mostly from minerals and char 
residue (Gashti et al.  2013). Proximate analysis showed that 
hemp fibre had higher ash content on average than flax fibre 
(Table I). The TGA analysis also coincides with the 
proximate analysis showing a higher residual mass fraction at 
500°C for hemp fibres.

Conclusion

The lower ash and ether extract and higher DM, CC and CF 
of these flax fibres make them (also) suitable for being used 
in the lightweight composite, textile, pulp and 
cellulose-based industries. The hemp fibre had higher ash 
which was reflected by a higher residue at 500°C in TGA 
analysis. High ash content in the hemp fibres will provide 

high thermal stability and could be used as reinforcement 
material for composite. Further investigations are needed to 
understand the viability of these flax fibres for different 
purposes. 

References

Albano C, Gonzalez J, Ichazo M and Kaiser D (1999), 
Thermal stability of blends of polyolefins and sisal 
fiber, Polym Degrad Stab. 66(2): 179-190. . 

Alonso-Esteban JI, Pinela J, Ćirić A, Calhelha RC, Soković 
M, Ferreira IC, Barros L, Torija-Isasa E and de Cortes 
Sánchez-Mata M (2022), Chemical composition and 
biological activities of whole and dehulled hemp 
(Cannabis sativa L.) seeds, Food Chem. 374: 131754. 
Doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131754

Audu BS, Ofojekwu PC, Ujah A and Ajima MNO (2014), 
Phytochemical, proximate composition, amino acid 
profile and characterization of Marijuana (Cannabis 
sativa L.), J Phytopharma. 3(1): 35-43.  

Baley C, Bourmaud A and Davies P (2021), Eighty years of 
composites reinforced by flax fibres: A historical 
review, Composites Part A: Appl Sci Manufac 144: 
106333. Doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2021.106333

European Parliament and Council of the European 
Union, (2011), Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of 
the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 
October 2011 on the provision of food information 
to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 
1924/ 2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the 
European Parliament and of the Council, and 
repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, 
Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission 
Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of 
the European Parliament and of the Council, 
Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 
2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 
608/2004. Official Journal of the European Union, 
L 304: 18-63. 

Galasso I, Russo R, Mapelli S, Ponzoni E, Brambilla IM, 
Battelli G and Reggiani R (2016), Variability in seed 
traits in a collection of Cannabis sativa L. genotypes, 
Front Plant Sci. 7: 688. Doi: 10.3389/ fpls. 
2016.00688

Gashti MP, Elahi A and Gashti MP (2013), UV radiation 
inducing succinic acid/silica–kaolinite network on 
cellulose fiber to improve the functionality, Compos B 
Eng. 48: 158-166

Girijappa YT, Rangappa SM, Parameswaranpillai J and 
Siengchin S (2019), Natural fibers as sustainable and 
renewable resource for development of eco-friendly 
composites: A comprehensive review, Front Mater 6: 
226. Doi: 10.3389/fmats.2019.00226

Hashim S, Bakht T, Marwat KB and Jan A (2014), Medicinal 
properties, phytochemistry and pharmacology of 
Tribulus terrestris L. (Zygophyllaceae), Pak J Bot. 
46(1): 399-404. . 

Ishag OAO, Khalid AA, Abdi A, Erwa IY, Omer AB and 
Nour AH (2019), Proximate composition, 
physicochemical properties and antioxidant activity of 
Flaxseed, Annl Res Rev Biol. 34(2): 1-10. 

Judd A (1995), Flaxseed in Human Nutrition. eds by S.C. 
Cunnane, L.U. Thompson. (AOCS Press, Champaign, 
IL) 1995, pp 1-10.

Kabir AA, Moniruzzaman M, Gulshan Z, Rahman AM and 
Sarwar AKM Golam (2018), Biomass yield, chemical 
composition and in vitro gas production of different 
dhaincha (Sesbania spp.) Accessions from 
Bangladesh, Indian Anim Nutri. 35(4): 397-402. Doi: 
10.5958/2231-6744.2018.00060.9

Lai PK and Roy J (2004), Antimicrobial and 
chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices, Curr 
Med Chem. 11(11): 1451-1460.

Milburn W (1813), Oriental Commerce.Vol. 2 (Black, Parry 
& Co, London) 1813, pp 209-11.

Misnon MI, Islam MM, Epaarachchi JA and Lau KT (2014), 
Potentiality of utilising natural textile materials for 
engineering composites applications, Mater Des. 59: 
359-368. Doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2014.03.022

Muir AD and Westcott ND (2003), Flax: the genus Linum. 
(CRC press) 2003.

Mundaragi A, Devarajan T, Bhat S and Jeyabalan S (2017), 
Proximate analysis and mineral composition of 
potential minor fruits of Western Ghats of India. 
Scientific Papers. Series A. Agronomy, LX., pp 
340-346. 

O’Malley LSS (1916), Bengal district gazetteers: Rajshahi. 
(Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, Calcutta) 1996, pp 
134-144

O'Malley LSS (1908), Eastern Bengal District Gazetteers: 
Chittagong (Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, Calcutta) 
1908.

Ouajai S and Shanks RA (2005), Composition, structure and 
thermal degradation of hemp cellulose after chemical 
treatments, Polym Degrad Stab. 89(2): 327-335.

Rahman AM, Nemoto K, Matsushima KI, Uddin SB and 
Sarwar AKM Golam (2022), A history of cannabis 
(Ganja) as an economic crop in Bangladesh from the 
late 18th century to 1989, Trop Agric Develop 66(1): 
21-32. Doi: 10.9790/0837-2509041926

Roy S, Ali M, Amin MN, Jianguang S, Bhattacharya SK,  
Sen HS, Sur D, Lutfar LB, Rahman MS, Hassan DS 
(2010),  Jute Basics, International Jute Study Group, 
Monipuri Para, Dhaka.

Shuvo II (2020), Fibre attributes and mapping the cultivar 
influence of different industrial cellulosic crops 
(cotton, hemp, flax, and canola) on textile properties, 
Bioresour Bioprocess 7(51): 1-28. Doi: 10.1177/ 
0040517519886636

Shuvo II, Rahman M, Vahora T, Morrison J, DuCharme S 
and Choo-Smith LPI (2020), Producing light-weight 
bast fibers from canola biomass for technical textiles, 
Tex Res J. 90(11-12): 1311-1325. Doi: 10.1186/ 
s40643-020-00339-1

Skoglund G, Nockert M and  Holst B (2013), Viking and 
early Middle Ages northern Scandinavian textiles 
proven to be made with hemp, Sci Rep. 3(1): 1-6. Doi: 
10.1038/srep02686

Waris Z, Iqbal Y, Arshad Hussain S, Khan AA, Ali A and 
Khan MW (2018), Proximate composition, 
phytochemical analysis and antioxidant capacity of 
Aloe vera, Cannabis sativa and Mentha longifolia, 
Pure Appl Biol. 7(3): 1122-1130. Doi: 10.19045/ 
bspab.2018.700131

Wielage B, Lampke T, Marx G, Nestler K and Starke D 
(1999), Thermogravimetric and differential scanning 
calorimetric analysis of natural fibres and 
polypropylene, Thermochimica Acta. 337(1-2): 
169-177. 

2016; Waris et al. 2018; Ishag et al. 2019; Alonso-Esteban et 
al. 2022). Although the physical properties of hemp and flax 
fibres are known to us (Girijappa et al. 2019), hitherto, no 
information on the proximate composition of fibres of 
Bangladeshi genotypes of these two important fibre-yielding 
crops is available. The constituent fibre properties influence 
application of textiles in many fields e.g., composites, 
automotive, marines, aerospace, electronics, civil 
construction, nanotechnology, biomedical, as well as the 
apparel or clothing industry (Shuvo, 2020). We have, 
therefore, reported the proximate composition and 
thermogravimetric analysis data of 3 hemp and 6 flax 
genotypes here.

Materials and methods

The proximate analysis and thermogravimetric analysis (of 
fibres) of six flax genotypes and three hemp genotypes were 
carried out to understand their suitability in different 
applications. Hemp seeds were collected from different 
locations in Bangladesh (detailed collection information will 
be available upon request) and the genotypes are named 
accordingly, viz. Brammonbaria, Chittagang and Meherpur. 
The hemp plants were grown (in a confined area) at Botanical 
Garden, Department of Crop Botany, Bangladesh 
Agricultural University. Flax fibres were collected with the 
ribbon retting method (Roy et al. 2010) and sun-dried 
properly. The flax fibres of 6 genotypes, harvested from 
another experiment in the same year, were collected from the 
Laboratory of Plant Systematics of the same Department. 

The proximate composition analysis viz. dry matter (DM), 
crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ash and ether extract 
(crude fat; EE), were accomplished at the Laboratory of 
Department of Animal Science, Bangladesh Agricultural 
University, Mymensingh following standard procedure 
(Kabir et al. 2018). 

The crude carbohydrate was calculated following Mundaragi  
et al. (2017).

Crude Carbohydrate (%) = 100 – [moisture (%) + protein (%) 
+ fibre (%) + fat (%) + ash (%)]

The calorific value or the total energy value of fruits in 
kcal100–1 g was calculated with the help of the following 
equation (European Parliament and Council of the European 
Union, 2011). 

Energy value (kcal 100–1 g) = 4 × Protein + 9 × Fat + 4 × 
Carbohydrate + 2 × Fibre

Genotype Dry matter 
(%)

Ash 
(%)

 Crude Protein 
(%)

 Crude Fibre 
(%)

Ether Extract  
(%)

Crude Carbohydrate 
(%)

Energy Value 
(kcal 100–1 g)

Hemp  

Meherpur 96.9 17.7 7.94 29.10          18.30 23.86 350.1 
Brammonbaria 97.1 14.8 8.65 26.51 12.35 34.79 337.93 

Chittagang 97.0 12.5 9.02 29.27          20.90 25.31 383.96 

Average 97±0.08 15±2.13 8.54±0.45 28.29±1.26 17.18±3.58 27.99±4.85 357.33±19.47 

Flax  

Nila 96.0   2.3 3.64 49.21 2.60 38.25 289.38 

Chilmari 96.2 1.7 3.27 52.21 3.91 35.11 293.13 

China 96.5 3.8 3.62 51.73 3.42 33.93 284.44 

BD-10708 96.8 1.8 5.24 47.28 9.70 32.78 333.94 

Canada 96.7 1.8 3.98 55.32 4.50 31.1 291.46 

BD-1903 96.3 2.0 3.27 51.60 10.30 29.13 325.5 

Average 96.4±0.31 2.23±0.79 3.84±0.74 51.23±2.75 5.74±3.36 33.38±3.18 302.98±21.09 

Table I.  Proximate analysis of fibres of different hemp and flax genotypes



Proximate composition and thermal properties of hemp and flax fibres 58(1) 202368

furniture, construction, packaging, and shipping pallets, 
etc. for their better physicochemical and 
physicomechanical properties (Girijappa et al. 2019). The 
quality and use of a natural fibre may vary due to inherent 
variabilities in its natural components such as fibrous 
nature, fibre morphology, cellulosic, and non-cellulosic 
content, and key properties such as fibrous structure, 
spinnability, strength, fineness, dyeability, and the ability 
to react with acid or alkali (Shuvo, 2020).

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.; Cannabaceae) and flax (Linum 
usit at issimum L.; Linaceae), two of the oldest cultivated 
fibre plants, fibres are singly or combined used for clothing 
and household textiles (Skoglund et al. 2013). Hemp has also 
various traditional uses in the Indian subcontinent such as 
fibre and roasted seeds eaten as a food. In Bangladesh, the 
hemp plant was cultivated for manufacturing three narcotic 
products called Ganja, Charas and Bhang (O’Malley, 1916); 
there are disagreements over the use of hemp fibres. 
According to O’Malley, hemp was cultivated on 8,000 acres 
(approx. 3,250 ha) of land of Sitakund on the banks of the 
Sangu River and in the southeast of Satkania on the banks of 
Tankabati for producing hemp fibre (O’Malley, 1908). 
Milburn initially mentioned that hemp has been cultivated in 
Bengal from time immemorial for intoxication (Milburn, 
1813); but is never used by natives for cordage or cloth, as in 
Europe. However, he also pointed out later that when hemp is 
intended for cordage, the natives sow it very thin and 
afterwards transplant the young plants, placing them at a 
considerable distance from each other, often 2.75 or 3.0 m. 
The history of commercial hemp cultivation in Bangladesh 
has been discussed (Rahman et al. 2022). Hemp fibres are 
used in rope, textiles, garden mulch, an assortment of 
building materials and animal beddings, to fabricate different 
composites, and processed to form yarn or bundles (Girijappa 
et al. 2019). The history of linen production and use dates 
back to 12000 BC (Vedic age) to 1500 CE (Medieval period) 
in the Indian subcontinent, including India, Pakistan and 
Bangladesh <https:// agropedia.i itk.ac.in/ content/history- 
linen- indian-subcontinent>. Edible flaxseed dominated 
India’s production rather than fibre flax; because other fibre 
species, such as hemp, were already in wide use (Judd, 1995). 
Flax fibres are used in furniture materials, textiles bed sheets, 
linen, interior decoration accessories, composite 
reinforcement, etc. (Girijappa et al. 2019; Baley, 2021).

The nutritional aspects of both hemp and flax seeds and 
different plant parts were reported in different publications 
(Muir and Westcott, 2003; Audu et al. 2014; Galasso et al.  

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed by a 
thermal analyzer of SII TG/DTA 6300. Thermal analysis was 
carried out in the temperature range of 30–500°C with a 
programmed heating rate of 20°C min–1. The inertness of the 
heating chamber was maintained with continuous nitrogen 
gas flow at 100 ml min–1. The test was performed with a 5 to 
8 mg ground sample in the platinum crucible.

Results and discussion

Proximate analysis

Distinct differences in all the proximate components were 
observed between fibre of hemp and flax genotypes except 
the DM content. The results revealed a close similarity in the 
DM content of hemp and flax fibres which varied from 96% 
to 97.1% (Table I). High DM content in fibre cells indicates 
that these are rich in structural components – carbohydrates, 

protein, fats, minerals, etc. except water. The density of hemp 
and flax fibres was the same or very similar and low (1.4–1.5 
g cm–3) which could be a great choice for light-weight 
composite structures (Misnon, 2014). Low-density fibre has 
enormous implications in technical textile industries, 
especially in aerospace and automotive applications for 
reducing fuel consumption and related fuel costs (Shuvo et 

al. 2020). A careful selection of cultivars (/genotypes) 
would allow for the optimizing utility of this fibre feature 
(Shuvo, 2020).

Ash content was analyzed in the range of 1.7% to 17.7% and 
a significant difference was observed between hemp 
(12.5–17.7%) and flax (1.7–3.8%) genotypes. The maximum 
ash was found in hemp genotype Meherpur and the minimum 
in flax genotype Chilmari. Ash is the residue left after all the 
moisture and organic matter has been removed at high 
temperatures. The high ash content of these fibres is a 
measure of mineral richness (Lai and Roy,  2004). 

The maximum quantity of CP, EE and energy value was 
found in hemp genotypes and minimum in flax genotypes. 
Fibres of two flax genotypes, viz.  BD-10708 and BD-1903, 
contained an exceptionally higher amount of ether extract 
compared to others (Table I). In living organisms, fat is the 

usually stored form of energy. They are the main structural 
element of phospholipids and sterols (Hashim et al. 2014). 
The CF and crude carbohydrate (CC) contents showed the 
maximum value for flax genotype Canada (55.32%) and Nila 
(38.25%), respectively and a minimum for hemp genotype 
Brammonbaria (26.51%) and Meherpur (23.86%). The 
energy value of hemp genotypes was higher and ranged from 

337.93 to 383.96 kcal 100–1 g (Table I). This augmented 
energy value is due to their greater fat content compared with 
flax genotypes (Ishag et al. 2019).

Among the different plant parts of hemp, the leaf possessed 
the maximum amount (23.78%) of CP (Audu et al. 2014). 
On the other hand, fibre contains the highest amount of CF 
(28.29%) and ash (12%); EE (%) of the leaf was identical to 
that of fibre except in one genotype Brammonbaria (Table I) 
(Audu et al. 2014). In flax plants, seeds contain the highest 
amount of CP (21%) and EE (43.17%), and maximum CF 
(avg. 51.23%) and CC (avg. 33.38%) in fibre (Table I) (Ishag 
et al. 2019).

Thermogravimetric analysis

The TGA curves were used to determine the thermal 
behaviour such as weight loss and residual char level of 
material at a certain temperature. The thermal behaviour of 
untreated hemp and flax fibres is shown in Fig. 1. Fibres of 
all the genot ypea are lignocellulosic and show almost similar 
thermal degradation patterns. Thermal degradation profiles 
of the fibres are separated into three different stages. The first 
stage of degradation started at around 100°C and last up to 
180°C. At this stage, about 10% mass loss occurs. Mass loss 
of fibres at around 100°C due to elimination or rapid 
evaporation of water during the initial stages of heating 
(Ouajai and Shanks, 2005). In addition to moisture, some 
fraction of waxes, pectin, lignin and hemicellulose degraded 
in this stage (Wielage et al. 1999). Decomposing of both the 

hemp and flax fibres takes place slowly up to about 250°C. 
Later the second decomposition started where the maximum 
mass loss occurred. Maximum decomposition took place 
between 250 and 350°C due to the depolymerization of 
cellulose and hemicellulose (Albano et al. 1999). It is 
obvious from the proximate analysis (Table I) that there is a 
difference in the chemical composition of the genotypes that 
affects the thermal stability. The thermal stability of the flax 
genotypes Chilmari and BD-10708 showed higher than the 
others. The third stage of decomposition begins at a 
temperature of about 350°C. At this stage, the fibre breaks 
down to form chars releasing water and carbon dioxide. With 
a further increase in temperature, the process of formation 
and digestion of chars takes place. The stable residual mass at 
500°C temperature comes mostly from minerals and char 
residue (Gashti et al.  2013). Proximate analysis showed that 
hemp fibre had higher ash content on average than flax fibre 
(Table I). The TGA analysis also coincides with the 
proximate analysis showing a higher residual mass fraction at 
500°C for hemp fibres.

Conclusion

The lower ash and ether extract and higher DM, CC and CF 
of these flax fibres make them (also) suitable for being used 
in the lightweight composite, textile, pulp and 
cellulose-based industries. The hemp fibre had higher ash 
which was reflected by a higher residue at 500°C in TGA 
analysis. High ash content in the hemp fibres will provide 

high thermal stability and could be used as reinforcement 
material for composite. Further investigations are needed to 
understand the viability of these flax fibres for different 
purposes. 

References

Albano C, Gonzalez J, Ichazo M and Kaiser D (1999), 
Thermal stability of blends of polyolefins and sisal 
fiber, Polym Degrad Stab. 66(2): 179-190. . 

Alonso-Esteban JI, Pinela J, Ćirić A, Calhelha RC, Soković 
M, Ferreira IC, Barros L, Torija-Isasa E and de Cortes 
Sánchez-Mata M (2022), Chemical composition and 
biological activities of whole and dehulled hemp 
(Cannabis sativa L.) seeds, Food Chem. 374: 131754. 
Doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131754

Audu BS, Ofojekwu PC, Ujah A and Ajima MNO (2014), 
Phytochemical, proximate composition, amino acid 
profile and characterization of Marijuana (Cannabis 
sativa L.), J Phytopharma. 3(1): 35-43.  

Baley C, Bourmaud A and Davies P (2021), Eighty years of 
composites reinforced by flax fibres: A historical 
review, Composites Part A: Appl Sci Manufac 144: 
106333. Doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2021.106333

European Parliament and Council of the European 
Union, (2011), Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of 
the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 
October 2011 on the provision of food information 
to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 
1924/ 2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the 
European Parliament and of the Council, and 
repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, 
Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission 
Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of 
the European Parliament and of the Council, 
Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 
2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 
608/2004. Official Journal of the European Union, 
L 304: 18-63. 

Galasso I, Russo R, Mapelli S, Ponzoni E, Brambilla IM, 
Battelli G and Reggiani R (2016), Variability in seed 
traits in a collection of Cannabis sativa L. genotypes, 
Front Plant Sci. 7: 688. Doi: 10.3389/ fpls. 
2016.00688

Gashti MP, Elahi A and Gashti MP (2013), UV radiation 
inducing succinic acid/silica–kaolinite network on 
cellulose fiber to improve the functionality, Compos B 
Eng. 48: 158-166

Girijappa YT, Rangappa SM, Parameswaranpillai J and 
Siengchin S (2019), Natural fibers as sustainable and 
renewable resource for development of eco-friendly 
composites: A comprehensive review, Front Mater 6: 
226. Doi: 10.3389/fmats.2019.00226

Hashim S, Bakht T, Marwat KB and Jan A (2014), Medicinal 
properties, phytochemistry and pharmacology of 
Tribulus terrestris L. (Zygophyllaceae), Pak J Bot. 
46(1): 399-404. . 

Ishag OAO, Khalid AA, Abdi A, Erwa IY, Omer AB and 
Nour AH (2019), Proximate composition, 
physicochemical properties and antioxidant activity of 
Flaxseed, Annl Res Rev Biol. 34(2): 1-10. 

Judd A (1995), Flaxseed in Human Nutrition. eds by S.C. 
Cunnane, L.U. Thompson. (AOCS Press, Champaign, 
IL) 1995, pp 1-10.

Kabir AA, Moniruzzaman M, Gulshan Z, Rahman AM and 
Sarwar AKM Golam (2018), Biomass yield, chemical 
composition and in vitro gas production of different 
dhaincha (Sesbania spp.) Accessions from 
Bangladesh, Indian Anim Nutri. 35(4): 397-402. Doi: 
10.5958/2231-6744.2018.00060.9

Lai PK and Roy J (2004), Antimicrobial and 
chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices, Curr 
Med Chem. 11(11): 1451-1460.

Milburn W (1813), Oriental Commerce.Vol. 2 (Black, Parry 
& Co, London) 1813, pp 209-11.

Misnon MI, Islam MM, Epaarachchi JA and Lau KT (2014), 
Potentiality of utilising natural textile materials for 
engineering composites applications, Mater Des. 59: 
359-368. Doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2014.03.022

Muir AD and Westcott ND (2003), Flax: the genus Linum. 
(CRC press) 2003.

Mundaragi A, Devarajan T, Bhat S and Jeyabalan S (2017), 
Proximate analysis and mineral composition of 
potential minor fruits of Western Ghats of India. 
Scientific Papers. Series A. Agronomy, LX., pp 
340-346. 

O’Malley LSS (1916), Bengal district gazetteers: Rajshahi. 
(Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, Calcutta) 1996, pp 
134-144

O'Malley LSS (1908), Eastern Bengal District Gazetteers: 
Chittagong (Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, Calcutta) 
1908.

Ouajai S and Shanks RA (2005), Composition, structure and 
thermal degradation of hemp cellulose after chemical 
treatments, Polym Degrad Stab. 89(2): 327-335.

Rahman AM, Nemoto K, Matsushima KI, Uddin SB and 
Sarwar AKM Golam (2022), A history of cannabis 
(Ganja) as an economic crop in Bangladesh from the 
late 18th century to 1989, Trop Agric Develop 66(1): 
21-32. Doi: 10.9790/0837-2509041926

Roy S, Ali M, Amin MN, Jianguang S, Bhattacharya SK,  
Sen HS, Sur D, Lutfar LB, Rahman MS, Hassan DS 
(2010),  Jute Basics, International Jute Study Group, 
Monipuri Para, Dhaka.

Shuvo II (2020), Fibre attributes and mapping the cultivar 
influence of different industrial cellulosic crops 
(cotton, hemp, flax, and canola) on textile properties, 
Bioresour Bioprocess 7(51): 1-28. Doi: 10.1177/ 
0040517519886636

Shuvo II, Rahman M, Vahora T, Morrison J, DuCharme S 
and Choo-Smith LPI (2020), Producing light-weight 
bast fibers from canola biomass for technical textiles, 
Tex Res J. 90(11-12): 1311-1325. Doi: 10.1186/ 
s40643-020-00339-1

Skoglund G, Nockert M and  Holst B (2013), Viking and 
early Middle Ages northern Scandinavian textiles 
proven to be made with hemp, Sci Rep. 3(1): 1-6. Doi: 
10.1038/srep02686

Waris Z, Iqbal Y, Arshad Hussain S, Khan AA, Ali A and 
Khan MW (2018), Proximate composition, 
phytochemical analysis and antioxidant capacity of 
Aloe vera, Cannabis sativa and Mentha longifolia, 
Pure Appl Biol. 7(3): 1122-1130. Doi: 10.19045/ 
bspab.2018.700131

Wielage B, Lampke T, Marx G, Nestler K and Starke D 
(1999), Thermogravimetric and differential scanning 
calorimetric analysis of natural fibres and 
polypropylene, Thermochimica Acta. 337(1-2): 
169-177. 

2016; Waris et al. 2018; Ishag et al. 2019; Alonso-Esteban et 
al. 2022). Although the physical properties of hemp and flax 
fibres are known to us (Girijappa et al. 2019), hitherto, no 
information on the proximate composition of fibres of 
Bangladeshi genotypes of these two important fibre-yielding 
crops is available. The constituent fibre properties influence 
application of textiles in many fields e.g., composites, 
automotive, marines, aerospace, electronics, civil 
construction, nanotechnology, biomedical, as well as the 
apparel or clothing industry (Shuvo, 2020). We have, 
therefore, reported the proximate composition and 
thermogravimetric analysis data of 3 hemp and 6 flax 
genotypes here.

Materials and methods

The proximate analysis and thermogravimetric analysis (of 
fibres) of six flax genotypes and three hemp genotypes were 
carried out to understand their suitability in different 
applications. Hemp seeds were collected from different 
locations in Bangladesh (detailed collection information will 
be available upon request) and the genotypes are named 
accordingly, viz. Brammonbaria, Chittagang and Meherpur. 
The hemp plants were grown (in a confined area) at Botanical 
Garden, Department of Crop Botany, Bangladesh 
Agricultural University. Flax fibres were collected with the 
ribbon retting method (Roy et al. 2010) and sun-dried 
properly. The flax fibres of 6 genotypes, harvested from 
another experiment in the same year, were collected from the 
Laboratory of Plant Systematics of the same Department. 

The proximate composition analysis viz. dry matter (DM), 
crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ash and ether extract 
(crude fat; EE), were accomplished at the Laboratory of 
Department of Animal Science, Bangladesh Agricultural 
University, Mymensingh following standard procedure 
(Kabir et al. 2018). 

The crude carbohydrate was calculated following Mundaragi  
et al. (2017).

Crude Carbohydrate (%) = 100 – [moisture (%) + protein (%) 
+ fibre (%) + fat (%) + ash (%)]

The calorific value or the total energy value of fruits in 
kcal100–1 g was calculated with the help of the following 
equation (European Parliament and Council of the European 
Union, 2011). 

Energy value (kcal 100–1 g) = 4 × Protein + 9 × Fat + 4 × 
Carbohydrate + 2 × Fibre

Fig. 1. Thermogravimetric analysis curves of fibres of different hemp and flax genotypes



Rahman, Rahman, Nemoto and Sarwar 69

furniture, construction, packaging, and shipping pallets, 
etc. for their better physicochemical and 
physicomechanical properties (Girijappa et al. 2019). The 
quality and use of a natural fibre may vary due to inherent 
variabilities in its natural components such as fibrous 
nature, fibre morphology, cellulosic, and non-cellulosic 
content, and key properties such as fibrous structure, 
spinnability, strength, fineness, dyeability, and the ability 
to react with acid or alkali (Shuvo, 2020).

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.; Cannabaceae) and flax (Linum 
usit at issimum L.; Linaceae), two of the oldest cultivated 
fibre plants, fibres are singly or combined used for clothing 
and household textiles (Skoglund et al. 2013). Hemp has also 
various traditional uses in the Indian subcontinent such as 
fibre and roasted seeds eaten as a food. In Bangladesh, the 
hemp plant was cultivated for manufacturing three narcotic 
products called Ganja, Charas and Bhang (O’Malley, 1916); 
there are disagreements over the use of hemp fibres. 
According to O’Malley, hemp was cultivated on 8,000 acres 
(approx. 3,250 ha) of land of Sitakund on the banks of the 
Sangu River and in the southeast of Satkania on the banks of 
Tankabati for producing hemp fibre (O’Malley, 1908). 
Milburn initially mentioned that hemp has been cultivated in 
Bengal from time immemorial for intoxication (Milburn, 
1813); but is never used by natives for cordage or cloth, as in 
Europe. However, he also pointed out later that when hemp is 
intended for cordage, the natives sow it very thin and 
afterwards transplant the young plants, placing them at a 
considerable distance from each other, often 2.75 or 3.0 m. 
The history of commercial hemp cultivation in Bangladesh 
has been discussed (Rahman et al. 2022). Hemp fibres are 
used in rope, textiles, garden mulch, an assortment of 
building materials and animal beddings, to fabricate different 
composites, and processed to form yarn or bundles (Girijappa 
et al. 2019). The history of linen production and use dates 
back to 12000 BC (Vedic age) to 1500 CE (Medieval period) 
in the Indian subcontinent, including India, Pakistan and 
Bangladesh <https:// agropedia.i itk.ac.in/ content/history- 
linen- indian-subcontinent>. Edible flaxseed dominated 
India’s production rather than fibre flax; because other fibre 
species, such as hemp, were already in wide use (Judd, 1995). 
Flax fibres are used in furniture materials, textiles bed sheets, 
linen, interior decoration accessories, composite 
reinforcement, etc. (Girijappa et al. 2019; Baley, 2021).

The nutritional aspects of both hemp and flax seeds and 
different plant parts were reported in different publications 
(Muir and Westcott, 2003; Audu et al. 2014; Galasso et al.  

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed by a 
thermal analyzer of SII TG/DTA 6300. Thermal analysis was 
carried out in the temperature range of 30–500°C with a 
programmed heating rate of 20°C min–1. The inertness of the 
heating chamber was maintained with continuous nitrogen 
gas flow at 100 ml min–1. The test was performed with a 5 to 
8 mg ground sample in the platinum crucible.

Results and discussion

Proximate analysis

Distinct differences in all the proximate components were 
observed between fibre of hemp and flax genotypes except 
the DM content. The results revealed a close similarity in the 
DM content of hemp and flax fibres which varied from 96% 
to 97.1% (Table I). High DM content in fibre cells indicates 
that these are rich in structural components – carbohydrates, 

protein, fats, minerals, etc. except water. The density of hemp 
and flax fibres was the same or very similar and low (1.4–1.5 
g cm–3) which could be a great choice for light-weight 
composite structures (Misnon, 2014). Low-density fibre has 
enormous implications in technical textile industries, 
especially in aerospace and automotive applications for 
reducing fuel consumption and related fuel costs (Shuvo et 

al. 2020). A careful selection of cultivars (/genotypes) 
would allow for the optimizing utility of this fibre feature 
(Shuvo, 2020).

Ash content was analyzed in the range of 1.7% to 17.7% and 
a significant difference was observed between hemp 
(12.5–17.7%) and flax (1.7–3.8%) genotypes. The maximum 
ash was found in hemp genotype Meherpur and the minimum 
in flax genotype Chilmari. Ash is the residue left after all the 
moisture and organic matter has been removed at high 
temperatures. The high ash content of these fibres is a 
measure of mineral richness (Lai and Roy,  2004). 

The maximum quantity of CP, EE and energy value was 
found in hemp genotypes and minimum in flax genotypes. 
Fibres of two flax genotypes, viz.  BD-10708 and BD-1903, 
contained an exceptionally higher amount of ether extract 
compared to others (Table I). In living organisms, fat is the 

usually stored form of energy. They are the main structural 
element of phospholipids and sterols (Hashim et al. 2014). 
The CF and crude carbohydrate (CC) contents showed the 
maximum value for flax genotype Canada (55.32%) and Nila 
(38.25%), respectively and a minimum for hemp genotype 
Brammonbaria (26.51%) and Meherpur (23.86%). The 
energy value of hemp genotypes was higher and ranged from 

337.93 to 383.96 kcal 100–1 g (Table I). This augmented 
energy value is due to their greater fat content compared with 
flax genotypes (Ishag et al. 2019).

Among the different plant parts of hemp, the leaf possessed 
the maximum amount (23.78%) of CP (Audu et al. 2014). 
On the other hand, fibre contains the highest amount of CF 
(28.29%) and ash (12%); EE (%) of the leaf was identical to 
that of fibre except in one genotype Brammonbaria (Table I) 
(Audu et al. 2014). In flax plants, seeds contain the highest 
amount of CP (21%) and EE (43.17%), and maximum CF 
(avg. 51.23%) and CC (avg. 33.38%) in fibre (Table I) (Ishag 
et al. 2019).

Thermogravimetric analysis

The TGA curves were used to determine the thermal 
behaviour such as weight loss and residual char level of 
material at a certain temperature. The thermal behaviour of 
untreated hemp and flax fibres is shown in Fig. 1. Fibres of 
all the genot ypea are lignocellulosic and show almost similar 
thermal degradation patterns. Thermal degradation profiles 
of the fibres are separated into three different stages. The first 
stage of degradation started at around 100°C and last up to 
180°C. At this stage, about 10% mass loss occurs. Mass loss 
of fibres at around 100°C due to elimination or rapid 
evaporation of water during the initial stages of heating 
(Ouajai and Shanks, 2005). In addition to moisture, some 
fraction of waxes, pectin, lignin and hemicellulose degraded 
in this stage (Wielage et al. 1999). Decomposing of both the 

hemp and flax fibres takes place slowly up to about 250°C. 
Later the second decomposition started where the maximum 
mass loss occurred. Maximum decomposition took place 
between 250 and 350°C due to the depolymerization of 
cellulose and hemicellulose (Albano et al. 1999). It is 
obvious from the proximate analysis (Table I) that there is a 
difference in the chemical composition of the genotypes that 
affects the thermal stability. The thermal stability of the flax 
genotypes Chilmari and BD-10708 showed higher than the 
others. The third stage of decomposition begins at a 
temperature of about 350°C. At this stage, the fibre breaks 
down to form chars releasing water and carbon dioxide. With 
a further increase in temperature, the process of formation 
and digestion of chars takes place. The stable residual mass at 
500°C temperature comes mostly from minerals and char 
residue (Gashti et al.  2013). Proximate analysis showed that 
hemp fibre had higher ash content on average than flax fibre 
(Table I). The TGA analysis also coincides with the 
proximate analysis showing a higher residual mass fraction at 
500°C for hemp fibres.

Conclusion

The lower ash and ether extract and higher DM, CC and CF 
of these flax fibres make them (also) suitable for being used 
in the lightweight composite, textile, pulp and 
cellulose-based industries. The hemp fibre had higher ash 
which was reflected by a higher residue at 500°C in TGA 
analysis. High ash content in the hemp fibres will provide 

high thermal stability and could be used as reinforcement 
material for composite. Further investigations are needed to 
understand the viability of these flax fibres for different 
purposes. 

References

Albano C, Gonzalez J, Ichazo M and Kaiser D (1999), 
Thermal stability of blends of polyolefins and sisal 
fiber, Polym Degrad Stab. 66(2): 179-190. . 

Alonso-Esteban JI, Pinela J, Ćirić A, Calhelha RC, Soković 
M, Ferreira IC, Barros L, Torija-Isasa E and de Cortes 
Sánchez-Mata M (2022), Chemical composition and 
biological activities of whole and dehulled hemp 
(Cannabis sativa L.) seeds, Food Chem. 374: 131754. 
Doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131754

Audu BS, Ofojekwu PC, Ujah A and Ajima MNO (2014), 
Phytochemical, proximate composition, amino acid 
profile and characterization of Marijuana (Cannabis 
sativa L.), J Phytopharma. 3(1): 35-43.  

Baley C, Bourmaud A and Davies P (2021), Eighty years of 
composites reinforced by flax fibres: A historical 
review, Composites Part A: Appl Sci Manufac 144: 
106333. Doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2021.106333

European Parliament and Council of the European 
Union, (2011), Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of 
the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 
October 2011 on the provision of food information 
to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 
1924/ 2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the 
European Parliament and of the Council, and 
repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, 
Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission 
Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of 
the European Parliament and of the Council, 
Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 
2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 
608/2004. Official Journal of the European Union, 
L 304: 18-63. 

Galasso I, Russo R, Mapelli S, Ponzoni E, Brambilla IM, 
Battelli G and Reggiani R (2016), Variability in seed 
traits in a collection of Cannabis sativa L. genotypes, 
Front Plant Sci. 7: 688. Doi: 10.3389/ fpls. 
2016.00688

Gashti MP, Elahi A and Gashti MP (2013), UV radiation 
inducing succinic acid/silica–kaolinite network on 
cellulose fiber to improve the functionality, Compos B 
Eng. 48: 158-166

Girijappa YT, Rangappa SM, Parameswaranpillai J and 
Siengchin S (2019), Natural fibers as sustainable and 
renewable resource for development of eco-friendly 
composites: A comprehensive review, Front Mater 6: 
226. Doi: 10.3389/fmats.2019.00226

Hashim S, Bakht T, Marwat KB and Jan A (2014), Medicinal 
properties, phytochemistry and pharmacology of 
Tribulus terrestris L. (Zygophyllaceae), Pak J Bot. 
46(1): 399-404. . 

Ishag OAO, Khalid AA, Abdi A, Erwa IY, Omer AB and 
Nour AH (2019), Proximate composition, 
physicochemical properties and antioxidant activity of 
Flaxseed, Annl Res Rev Biol. 34(2): 1-10. 

Judd A (1995), Flaxseed in Human Nutrition. eds by S.C. 
Cunnane, L.U. Thompson. (AOCS Press, Champaign, 
IL) 1995, pp 1-10.

Kabir AA, Moniruzzaman M, Gulshan Z, Rahman AM and 
Sarwar AKM Golam (2018), Biomass yield, chemical 
composition and in vitro gas production of different 
dhaincha (Sesbania spp.) Accessions from 
Bangladesh, Indian Anim Nutri. 35(4): 397-402. Doi: 
10.5958/2231-6744.2018.00060.9

Lai PK and Roy J (2004), Antimicrobial and 
chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices, Curr 
Med Chem. 11(11): 1451-1460.

Milburn W (1813), Oriental Commerce.Vol. 2 (Black, Parry 
& Co, London) 1813, pp 209-11.

Misnon MI, Islam MM, Epaarachchi JA and Lau KT (2014), 
Potentiality of utilising natural textile materials for 
engineering composites applications, Mater Des. 59: 
359-368. Doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2014.03.022

Muir AD and Westcott ND (2003), Flax: the genus Linum. 
(CRC press) 2003.

Mundaragi A, Devarajan T, Bhat S and Jeyabalan S (2017), 
Proximate analysis and mineral composition of 
potential minor fruits of Western Ghats of India. 
Scientific Papers. Series A. Agronomy, LX., pp 
340-346. 

O’Malley LSS (1916), Bengal district gazetteers: Rajshahi. 
(Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, Calcutta) 1996, pp 
134-144

O'Malley LSS (1908), Eastern Bengal District Gazetteers: 
Chittagong (Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, Calcutta) 
1908.

Ouajai S and Shanks RA (2005), Composition, structure and 
thermal degradation of hemp cellulose after chemical 
treatments, Polym Degrad Stab. 89(2): 327-335.

Rahman AM, Nemoto K, Matsushima KI, Uddin SB and 
Sarwar AKM Golam (2022), A history of cannabis 
(Ganja) as an economic crop in Bangladesh from the 
late 18th century to 1989, Trop Agric Develop 66(1): 
21-32. Doi: 10.9790/0837-2509041926

Roy S, Ali M, Amin MN, Jianguang S, Bhattacharya SK,  
Sen HS, Sur D, Lutfar LB, Rahman MS, Hassan DS 
(2010),  Jute Basics, International Jute Study Group, 
Monipuri Para, Dhaka.

Shuvo II (2020), Fibre attributes and mapping the cultivar 
influence of different industrial cellulosic crops 
(cotton, hemp, flax, and canola) on textile properties, 
Bioresour Bioprocess 7(51): 1-28. Doi: 10.1177/ 
0040517519886636

Shuvo II, Rahman M, Vahora T, Morrison J, DuCharme S 
and Choo-Smith LPI (2020), Producing light-weight 
bast fibers from canola biomass for technical textiles, 
Tex Res J. 90(11-12): 1311-1325. Doi: 10.1186/ 
s40643-020-00339-1

Skoglund G, Nockert M and  Holst B (2013), Viking and 
early Middle Ages northern Scandinavian textiles 
proven to be made with hemp, Sci Rep. 3(1): 1-6. Doi: 
10.1038/srep02686

Waris Z, Iqbal Y, Arshad Hussain S, Khan AA, Ali A and 
Khan MW (2018), Proximate composition, 
phytochemical analysis and antioxidant capacity of 
Aloe vera, Cannabis sativa and Mentha longifolia, 
Pure Appl Biol. 7(3): 1122-1130. Doi: 10.19045/ 
bspab.2018.700131

Wielage B, Lampke T, Marx G, Nestler K and Starke D 
(1999), Thermogravimetric and differential scanning 
calorimetric analysis of natural fibres and 
polypropylene, Thermochimica Acta. 337(1-2): 
169-177. 

2016; Waris et al. 2018; Ishag et al. 2019; Alonso-Esteban et 
al. 2022). Although the physical properties of hemp and flax 
fibres are known to us (Girijappa et al. 2019), hitherto, no 
information on the proximate composition of fibres of 
Bangladeshi genotypes of these two important fibre-yielding 
crops is available. The constituent fibre properties influence 
application of textiles in many fields e.g., composites, 
automotive, marines, aerospace, electronics, civil 
construction, nanotechnology, biomedical, as well as the 
apparel or clothing industry (Shuvo, 2020). We have, 
therefore, reported the proximate composition and 
thermogravimetric analysis data of 3 hemp and 6 flax 
genotypes here.

Materials and methods

The proximate analysis and thermogravimetric analysis (of 
fibres) of six flax genotypes and three hemp genotypes were 
carried out to understand their suitability in different 
applications. Hemp seeds were collected from different 
locations in Bangladesh (detailed collection information will 
be available upon request) and the genotypes are named 
accordingly, viz. Brammonbaria, Chittagang and Meherpur. 
The hemp plants were grown (in a confined area) at Botanical 
Garden, Department of Crop Botany, Bangladesh 
Agricultural University. Flax fibres were collected with the 
ribbon retting method (Roy et al. 2010) and sun-dried 
properly. The flax fibres of 6 genotypes, harvested from 
another experiment in the same year, were collected from the 
Laboratory of Plant Systematics of the same Department. 

The proximate composition analysis viz. dry matter (DM), 
crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ash and ether extract 
(crude fat; EE), were accomplished at the Laboratory of 
Department of Animal Science, Bangladesh Agricultural 
University, Mymensingh following standard procedure 
(Kabir et al. 2018). 

The crude carbohydrate was calculated following Mundaragi  
et al. (2017).

Crude Carbohydrate (%) = 100 – [moisture (%) + protein (%) 
+ fibre (%) + fat (%) + ash (%)]

The calorific value or the total energy value of fruits in 
kcal100–1 g was calculated with the help of the following 
equation (European Parliament and Council of the European 
Union, 2011). 

Energy value (kcal 100–1 g) = 4 × Protein + 9 × Fat + 4 × 
Carbohydrate + 2 × Fibre



Proximate composition and thermal properties of hemp and flax fibres 58(1) 202370

furniture, construction, packaging, and shipping pallets, 
etc. for their better physicochemical and 
physicomechanical properties (Girijappa et al. 2019). The 
quality and use of a natural fibre may vary due to inherent 
variabilities in its natural components such as fibrous 
nature, fibre morphology, cellulosic, and non-cellulosic 
content, and key properties such as fibrous structure, 
spinnability, strength, fineness, dyeability, and the ability 
to react with acid or alkali (Shuvo, 2020).

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.; Cannabaceae) and flax (Linum 
usit at issimum L.; Linaceae), two of the oldest cultivated 
fibre plants, fibres are singly or combined used for clothing 
and household textiles (Skoglund et al. 2013). Hemp has also 
various traditional uses in the Indian subcontinent such as 
fibre and roasted seeds eaten as a food. In Bangladesh, the 
hemp plant was cultivated for manufacturing three narcotic 
products called Ganja, Charas and Bhang (O’Malley, 1916); 
there are disagreements over the use of hemp fibres. 
According to O’Malley, hemp was cultivated on 8,000 acres 
(approx. 3,250 ha) of land of Sitakund on the banks of the 
Sangu River and in the southeast of Satkania on the banks of 
Tankabati for producing hemp fibre (O’Malley, 1908). 
Milburn initially mentioned that hemp has been cultivated in 
Bengal from time immemorial for intoxication (Milburn, 
1813); but is never used by natives for cordage or cloth, as in 
Europe. However, he also pointed out later that when hemp is 
intended for cordage, the natives sow it very thin and 
afterwards transplant the young plants, placing them at a 
considerable distance from each other, often 2.75 or 3.0 m. 
The history of commercial hemp cultivation in Bangladesh 
has been discussed (Rahman et al. 2022). Hemp fibres are 
used in rope, textiles, garden mulch, an assortment of 
building materials and animal beddings, to fabricate different 
composites, and processed to form yarn or bundles (Girijappa 
et al. 2019). The history of linen production and use dates 
back to 12000 BC (Vedic age) to 1500 CE (Medieval period) 
in the Indian subcontinent, including India, Pakistan and 
Bangladesh <https:// agropedia.i itk.ac.in/ content/history- 
linen- indian-subcontinent>. Edible flaxseed dominated 
India’s production rather than fibre flax; because other fibre 
species, such as hemp, were already in wide use (Judd, 1995). 
Flax fibres are used in furniture materials, textiles bed sheets, 
linen, interior decoration accessories, composite 
reinforcement, etc. (Girijappa et al. 2019; Baley, 2021).

The nutritional aspects of both hemp and flax seeds and 
different plant parts were reported in different publications 
(Muir and Westcott, 2003; Audu et al. 2014; Galasso et al.  

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed by a 
thermal analyzer of SII TG/DTA 6300. Thermal analysis was 
carried out in the temperature range of 30–500°C with a 
programmed heating rate of 20°C min–1. The inertness of the 
heating chamber was maintained with continuous nitrogen 
gas flow at 100 ml min–1. The test was performed with a 5 to 
8 mg ground sample in the platinum crucible.

Results and discussion

Proximate analysis

Distinct differences in all the proximate components were 
observed between fibre of hemp and flax genotypes except 
the DM content. The results revealed a close similarity in the 
DM content of hemp and flax fibres which varied from 96% 
to 97.1% (Table I). High DM content in fibre cells indicates 
that these are rich in structural components – carbohydrates, 

protein, fats, minerals, etc. except water. The density of hemp 
and flax fibres was the same or very similar and low (1.4–1.5 
g cm–3) which could be a great choice for light-weight 
composite structures (Misnon, 2014). Low-density fibre has 
enormous implications in technical textile industries, 
especially in aerospace and automotive applications for 
reducing fuel consumption and related fuel costs (Shuvo et 

al. 2020). A careful selection of cultivars (/genotypes) 
would allow for the optimizing utility of this fibre feature 
(Shuvo, 2020).

Ash content was analyzed in the range of 1.7% to 17.7% and 
a significant difference was observed between hemp 
(12.5–17.7%) and flax (1.7–3.8%) genotypes. The maximum 
ash was found in hemp genotype Meherpur and the minimum 
in flax genotype Chilmari. Ash is the residue left after all the 
moisture and organic matter has been removed at high 
temperatures. The high ash content of these fibres is a 
measure of mineral richness (Lai and Roy,  2004). 

The maximum quantity of CP, EE and energy value was 
found in hemp genotypes and minimum in flax genotypes. 
Fibres of two flax genotypes, viz.  BD-10708 and BD-1903, 
contained an exceptionally higher amount of ether extract 
compared to others (Table I). In living organisms, fat is the 

usually stored form of energy. They are the main structural 
element of phospholipids and sterols (Hashim et al. 2014). 
The CF and crude carbohydrate (CC) contents showed the 
maximum value for flax genotype Canada (55.32%) and Nila 
(38.25%), respectively and a minimum for hemp genotype 
Brammonbaria (26.51%) and Meherpur (23.86%). The 
energy value of hemp genotypes was higher and ranged from 

337.93 to 383.96 kcal 100–1 g (Table I). This augmented 
energy value is due to their greater fat content compared with 
flax genotypes (Ishag et al. 2019).

Among the different plant parts of hemp, the leaf possessed 
the maximum amount (23.78%) of CP (Audu et al. 2014). 
On the other hand, fibre contains the highest amount of CF 
(28.29%) and ash (12%); EE (%) of the leaf was identical to 
that of fibre except in one genotype Brammonbaria (Table I) 
(Audu et al. 2014). In flax plants, seeds contain the highest 
amount of CP (21%) and EE (43.17%), and maximum CF 
(avg. 51.23%) and CC (avg. 33.38%) in fibre (Table I) (Ishag 
et al. 2019).

Thermogravimetric analysis

The TGA curves were used to determine the thermal 
behaviour such as weight loss and residual char level of 
material at a certain temperature. The thermal behaviour of 
untreated hemp and flax fibres is shown in Fig. 1. Fibres of 
all the genot ypea are lignocellulosic and show almost similar 
thermal degradation patterns. Thermal degradation profiles 
of the fibres are separated into three different stages. The first 
stage of degradation started at around 100°C and last up to 
180°C. At this stage, about 10% mass loss occurs. Mass loss 
of fibres at around 100°C due to elimination or rapid 
evaporation of water during the initial stages of heating 
(Ouajai and Shanks, 2005). In addition to moisture, some 
fraction of waxes, pectin, lignin and hemicellulose degraded 
in this stage (Wielage et al. 1999). Decomposing of both the 

hemp and flax fibres takes place slowly up to about 250°C. 
Later the second decomposition started where the maximum 
mass loss occurred. Maximum decomposition took place 
between 250 and 350°C due to the depolymerization of 
cellulose and hemicellulose (Albano et al. 1999). It is 
obvious from the proximate analysis (Table I) that there is a 
difference in the chemical composition of the genotypes that 
affects the thermal stability. The thermal stability of the flax 
genotypes Chilmari and BD-10708 showed higher than the 
others. The third stage of decomposition begins at a 
temperature of about 350°C. At this stage, the fibre breaks 
down to form chars releasing water and carbon dioxide. With 
a further increase in temperature, the process of formation 
and digestion of chars takes place. The stable residual mass at 
500°C temperature comes mostly from minerals and char 
residue (Gashti et al.  2013). Proximate analysis showed that 
hemp fibre had higher ash content on average than flax fibre 
(Table I). The TGA analysis also coincides with the 
proximate analysis showing a higher residual mass fraction at 
500°C for hemp fibres.

Conclusion

The lower ash and ether extract and higher DM, CC and CF 
of these flax fibres make them (also) suitable for being used 
in the lightweight composite, textile, pulp and 
cellulose-based industries. The hemp fibre had higher ash 
which was reflected by a higher residue at 500°C in TGA 
analysis. High ash content in the hemp fibres will provide 

high thermal stability and could be used as reinforcement 
material for composite. Further investigations are needed to 
understand the viability of these flax fibres for different 
purposes. 

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Roy S, Ali M, Amin MN, Jianguang S, Bhattacharya SK,  
Sen HS, Sur D, Lutfar LB, Rahman MS, Hassan DS 
(2010),  Jute Basics, International Jute Study Group, 
Monipuri Para, Dhaka.

Shuvo II (2020), Fibre attributes and mapping the cultivar 
influence of different industrial cellulosic crops 
(cotton, hemp, flax, and canola) on textile properties, 
Bioresour Bioprocess 7(51): 1-28. Doi: 10.1177/ 
0040517519886636

Shuvo II, Rahman M, Vahora T, Morrison J, DuCharme S 
and Choo-Smith LPI (2020), Producing light-weight 
bast fibers from canola biomass for technical textiles, 
Tex Res J. 90(11-12): 1311-1325. Doi: 10.1186/ 
s40643-020-00339-1

Skoglund G, Nockert M and  Holst B (2013), Viking and 
early Middle Ages northern Scandinavian textiles 
proven to be made with hemp, Sci Rep. 3(1): 1-6. Doi: 
10.1038/srep02686

Waris Z, Iqbal Y, Arshad Hussain S, Khan AA, Ali A and 
Khan MW (2018), Proximate composition, 
phytochemical analysis and antioxidant capacity of 
Aloe vera, Cannabis sativa and Mentha longifolia, 
Pure Appl Biol. 7(3): 1122-1130. Doi: 10.19045/ 
bspab.2018.700131

Wielage B, Lampke T, Marx G, Nestler K and Starke D 
(1999), Thermogravimetric and differential scanning 
calorimetric analysis of natural fibres and 
polypropylene, Thermochimica Acta. 337(1-2): 
169-177. 

2016; Waris et al. 2018; Ishag et al. 2019; Alonso-Esteban et 
al. 2022). Although the physical properties of hemp and flax 
fibres are known to us (Girijappa et al. 2019), hitherto, no 
information on the proximate composition of fibres of 
Bangladeshi genotypes of these two important fibre-yielding 
crops is available. The constituent fibre properties influence 
application of textiles in many fields e.g., composites, 
automotive, marines, aerospace, electronics, civil 
construction, nanotechnology, biomedical, as well as the 
apparel or clothing industry (Shuvo, 2020). We have, 
therefore, reported the proximate composition and 
thermogravimetric analysis data of 3 hemp and 6 flax 
genotypes here.

Materials and methods

The proximate analysis and thermogravimetric analysis (of 
fibres) of six flax genotypes and three hemp genotypes were 
carried out to understand their suitability in different 
applications. Hemp seeds were collected from different 
locations in Bangladesh (detailed collection information will 
be available upon request) and the genotypes are named 
accordingly, viz. Brammonbaria, Chittagang and Meherpur. 
The hemp plants were grown (in a confined area) at Botanical 
Garden, Department of Crop Botany, Bangladesh 
Agricultural University. Flax fibres were collected with the 
ribbon retting method (Roy et al. 2010) and sun-dried 
properly. The flax fibres of 6 genotypes, harvested from 
another experiment in the same year, were collected from the 
Laboratory of Plant Systematics of the same Department. 

The proximate composition analysis viz. dry matter (DM), 
crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ash and ether extract 
(crude fat; EE), were accomplished at the Laboratory of 
Department of Animal Science, Bangladesh Agricultural 
University, Mymensingh following standard procedure 
(Kabir et al. 2018). 

The crude carbohydrate was calculated following Mundaragi  
et al. (2017).

Crude Carbohydrate (%) = 100 – [moisture (%) + protein (%) 
+ fibre (%) + fat (%) + ash (%)]

The calorific value or the total energy value of fruits in 
kcal100–1 g was calculated with the help of the following 
equation (European Parliament and Council of the European 
Union, 2011). 

Energy value (kcal 100–1 g) = 4 × Protein + 9 × Fat + 4 × 
Carbohydrate + 2 × Fibre