77 Banko Janakari, Vol 32 No. 2, 2022 Pp 77‒86https://doi.org/10.3126/banko.v32i2.50898 Documentation of wild and underutilized vegetables:potential for conservation and utilization Wild and underutilized vegetables are important sources of food, nutrition and income for rural communites and indigenous people. Cultivation of high yielding hybrid varieties, change in food habits, climate change and over harvesting have resulted in genetic erosion of these vegetables. In addition to this, their availability,distribution and uses are poorly documented.This study aims to document the wild, neglected and underutilized vegetable species in Jaimini Municipality of Baglung District, Western Nepal. Complete information on wild and underutilized vegetables were collected using semi-structured interviews, guided field walks and field observation. We recorded 64 species of wild and underutilized vegetables belonging to 27 different families in the study area. Leaf was the most used plant part (26 species) and majority of the plantsspecieswere herbs (33 species). Most of these vegetables were consumed in rainy and summer season and their availability decreased during winter season. Knowledge regarding their utilization, cultivation and conservation were also gradually disappearing. Therefore, consumer awareness, evaluation of their nutritional value and promotion for their commercial use should be emphasized for the inclusion of these vegetable species in our daily diet. Keywords: Conservation, documentation, Jaimini municipality, underutilized, utilization M. Regmi 1, A. Shrestha 1, and H. R. Paudel 2* Received: 4, May 2022 Revised: 21, November 2022 Accepted: 14, December 2022 Published: 31, December 2022 1 Department of Horticulture, Post-Graduate Program, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal 2 National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal. *Email : hemrajpaudel1619@gmail.com Nepal has diverse climate. Climate varies according to the altitude, agroecological zones and topography which is reflected in the higher biodiversity prevalent in Nepal (Rana et al., 1998).A total of 246 species of vegetables are found in Nepal,most of which are wild and underutilized (Dangol et al., 2017). Cultivation and gathering of indigenous and wild vegetables for self-consumption are still prevalent, especially in rural areasof Nepal. Especially during scarcity of food and vegetables, people collect wild and underutilized vegetables from their natural habitats(Dangol, 2003). Wild vegetables like Dioscorea species are still being used as a daily source of energy and micronutrients by the Chepang community and other isolated communities (Aryal et al.,2009). These vegetables contribute to the health and well-being of thousands of indigenous people and local communities in Nepal (Manandhar, 2002). In the present context, the availability of underutilized species is decreasing at an alarming rate in rural areas consequently causing large genetic, cultural and religious erosion(Aryal et al.,2009). The main reasons behind this rapid decline are overexploitation, monocropping, introduction of high yielding hybrid varieties, intensive and mechanized agriculture, population pressure and habitat destruction (Manandhar, 2002). The decline and extinction process are further accelerated by forest fire, deforestation, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0089-0950 Banko Janakari, Vol 32 No. 2 78 Regmi et al. desertification and climate change induced droughts and erratic rainfall (Joshi et al., 2007). Along with their decline, knowledge regarding their cultivation, utilization and conservation is also gradually disappearing (Engle & Faustino, 2006).The conversion of wetlands into agricultural fields, fish ponds, and settlements has destroyed the natural habitats of many indigenous vegetable species(Siwakoti & Tiwari, 2007). Often due to misidentification and limited knowledge about their importance, most of them are treated as weeds (Weinberger& Msuya, 2004). In addition,our indigenous landraces of vegetables are being replaced by exotic high-yielding varieties directly affecting seed production and ultimately leading to their extinction. Fagopyrum esculentum (Mithephapar), F. tartaricum (Titephapar), Amaranthus lividus (Lude) and A. caudatus (Latte) are still being cultivated in some parts of Nepal (Shrestha et al., 2004). The extension on cultivation of such species may enhance the economic activities of locals and independent for vegetables and food security. Some of the wild vegetables with high market values such as Rheum australe (Padamchal), Dryopteris cochleata (Danthe), Polygonum molle (Thotne), Asparagus racemosus (Kurilo) are endangered due to overharvesting (Joshi et al., 2007). Year-round production in their natural habitat, higher nutritional value, well adapted to adverse environmental conditions, and resistance to insect, pest and diseases has made them superior than our domesticated vegetables (Shava, 2005). Efforts for the conservation and promotion of largely eroding genetic resources of wild and underutilized vegetable species are incipientstage. In-depth information about their distribution, abundance and availability is still lacking(Joshi et al., 2007). The analysis of the abundance of the species in their natural habitats should be the first step towards the conservation of these species. Hence, this study focuses on strengthening the limited knowledge about these vegetables by assessing their present status, documenting their distribution and suggesting strategies for their conservation. Figure 1: Study area map. Map of Jaimini Municipality Ward-5 in Baglung district Banko Janakari, Vol 32 No. 2 79 Regmi et al. Materials and methods Study area The study was carried out in Jaimini Municipality, Ward no. 5 of Baglung district in the mid-hills of Nepal (Figure 1). The district has a total area of 1,784 sq. km. and includes four municipalities and six rural municipalities. Among the ten wards of the Jaimini Municipality, Ward no. 5 is located in the easternmost part. There are 562 households with a total population of 2,392 and covers an area of 6.56 sq. km. The Ward no.5 was particularly selected for this study due to itswider altitudinal range (600 to 2000 ma.s.l.) and diverse climatic conditions, which in turn are likely to support a wide range of plant diversity. Ethnic group (Dalits) holding less agricultural land and residing near to the forest area are most likely to use the wild vegetable species and have a broader knowledge of their occurrence and use. Data collection and analysis Complete information on wild and underutilized vegetables were collected using semi-structured interview, key informant interview, focus group discussion, guided field walk and field observation.The fieldwork was carried out during August-September 2021. A total of64 respondents directly involved in the collection of these vegetables from their natural habitats were interviewed. Through the interview, information on local names, habitats, parts used, the season of availability and market value were gathered. The prior informed consent was obtained from all the respondents before the interview. The snowball sampling was used to identify the key informants as only a limited number of local people were found to have in-depth knowledge about the occurrence, distribution and utilization of the wild and underutilized vegetables. The key informants were women involved in daily household activities, elderly people, vegetable sellers, lead farmers and Ward Chairperson. For the collection of information, plant specimens were collected and photographs were taken. Furthermore, guided field walks and direct field observations were undertaken in participation of the key informants and other knowledgeable local people.The forward farmers and senior citizens served as a guide to collect information on the identification of wild and plants used as vegetables. Vegetable specimens were collected from natural and semi-natural habitats and were photographed. Some of the common vegetable specimens collected were identified with the help of local people and standard literatures (Shrestha, 2013) whereas other specimens were identified by comparing those with the specimens deposited in National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), Godawari, Kathmandu, Nepal. The ‘Annotated Checklist of the FoweringPlants of Nepal’ (Press et al., 2000) was followed for the nomenclature of the collected specimens. Results We recorded a total of 64 wild and underutilized vegetable species belonging to 27 families and 45 genera in the study area (Table 1). Cucurbitaceae with 7 species was found to be the most dominant family in the study areafollowed by Fabaceae (6 species), Dioscoreaceae, Poaceae, Amaranthaceae and Polygonaceae (4 species each,Table 1, Fig. 2). Out of the total species recorded, 26 species were used for their leaves, 11 species for fruits, 8 species for young shoots, 6 species for roots/ tubers, 6 species for flowers, 4 species for seeds and 3 species as a whole plant (Table 1). In addition to their use as vegetables, these plants were also commonly utilized as medicine and animal feed.The availability of these vegetables varied among seasons. From June to August, 39 species were reported to be harvested whereas respondents stated ten species to be collected in the month of December to February. Banko Janakari, Vol 32 No. 2 80 Regmi et al. Table 1: List of wild and underutilized vegetablespeciesfound in Jaimini municipality, ward no.5. Local name, scientific name, family, parts uses, season of availability and other uses of the vegetable species SN Local name Scientific name Family Parts used Season of availability Others uses 1 Banko Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott Araceae Whole plant June-July Medicinal 2 Ban kurilo Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Asparagaceae Shoot May-June Medicinal 3 Ban lunde Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae Stalk and leaf April-July Fodder 4 Ban nigalo Thamnocalamusspathiflorus (Trin.) Munro Poaceae Shoot June-July Fodder 5 Ban phapar Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) Hara Polygonaceae Stalk and leaf May-June Medicinal 6 Ban tarul Dioscoreabulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae Root/tuber December- February Medicinal 7 Barela Cyclantherapedata (L.) Schrad. Cucurbitaceae Fruit April-June Feed to livestock 8 Bethe Chenopodium album L. Chenopodiaceae Stalk and leaf January-March Feed to livestock 9 Bhorla Bauhinia vahlii Wight &Arn. Fabaceae Fruit August- September 10 Bramelidhaniya Eryngium foetidum L. Apiaceae Leaf August- September Medicinal 11 Chari amilo Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae Leaf April-June Medicinal 12 Chichinda Trichosanthescochinchinensis (Lour.) M. Roem. Cucurbitaceae Fruit Autumn Feed to livestock 13 Dhanthe neuro Diplazium maximum (D.Don) C. Chr. Woodsiaceae Stalk and leaf Rainy Medicinal 14 Gandhe Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Saururaceae Stalk and leaf April-June Medicinal 15 Ghartarul Dioscoreaalata L. Dioscoreaceae Root/tuber December- February Feed to livestock 16 Golkankri Solenaamplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi ex Saldanha & Nicolson Cucurbitaceae Fruit July-August Feed to livestock 17 Halhale Rumex nepalensisSpreng. Polygonaceae Leaf April- September Medicinal 18 JhoteKauso Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Fabaceae Seed March-April Medicinal 19 Jhusetil Guizotiaabyssinica (L. fil.) Cass. Asteraceae Seed Winter 20 Kalobethe Chenopodiastrummurale (L.) S. Fuentes, Uotila& Borsch Chenopodiaceae Stalk and leaf August- October Feed to livestock 21 Kalobihi Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae Leaf May-June Medicinal 22 Kalo neuro Tectariacoadunata (Wall. ex Hook. &Grev.) C. Chr. Dioeridaceae Leaf June-July Medicinal 23 Kavro Ficus concinna (Miq.) Miq. Moraceae Young leaves May-June Fodder 24 Khanayo Ficus semicordata Miq. Moraceae Fruit October- November Feed to livestock 25 Khasreto Ficus hispida L. fil. Moraceae Fruit July-August Feed to livestock 26 Koiralo Bauhinia variegata L. Fabaceae Flower April-May Medicinal 27 Kundruk Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Cucurbitaceae Fruit Summer Feed to livestock 28 Kukurdiano Smilax aspera L. Smilacaceae Shoot May-June Fodder 29 Kukurdiano Smilax ferox Wall. ex Kunth Smilacaceae Shoot May-June Fodder 30 Kutilkosa Vicia angustifolia L. Fabaceae Seed March-April Feed to livestock Banko Janakari, Vol 32 No. 2 81 Regmi et al. SN Local name Scientific name Family Parts used Season of availability Others uses 31 Kutilkosa Vicia hirsuta (L.) Gray Fabaceae Seed June-July Feed to livestock 32 Kubindo Benincasahispida (Thunb.) Cogn. Cucurbitaceae Fruit September- October Feed to livestock 33 Laligurans Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Ericaceae Flower February-April Fuelwood 34 Latte sag Amaranthus caudatus L. Amaranthaceae Leaf April-July Fodder 35 Lekalisisnu Girardiniadiversifolia (Link) Friis Urticaceae Leaf June -August Fiber yielding 36 Liku neuro Athyrium atkinsoniiBedd. Woodsiaceae Stalk and leaf Rainy 37 Lude sag Amaranthus tricolor L. Amaranthaceae Leaf April-July 38 Lude sag Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae Leaf April-July 39 Masino neuro Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Athyriaceae Stalk and leaf May-June 40 Mithephapar Fagopyrum esculentum Moench Polygonaceae Stalk and leaf May-June Fodder 41 Nigalo Drepanostachyumfalcatum (Nees) Keng f. Poaceae Shoot April-June Fodder 42 Neuro Depariaboryana (Willd.) M. Kato Woodsiaceae Leaf June-July 43 Kulfa sag Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae Stalk and leaf Year round 44 Parwar Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. Cucurbitaceae Fruit Summer Feed to lvestock 45 Pate ghiraula Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. Cucurbitaceae Fruit Summer Feed to livestock 46 Pindalu Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae Whole plant August- October Feed to livestock 47 Photongi Physalis minimaculata Waterf. Solanaceae Fruit Winter Medicinal 48 Rato latte Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin&Clemants Chenopodiaceae Stalk and leaf August- September 49 Sajiwan Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae Fruit April-May Medicinal 50 Sarpa ko makai Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Araceae Whole plant April -May 51 Simal Bombax ceiba L. Bombaceae Fruit February- March Medicinal 52 Sim sag Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Brassicaceae Leaf Year round 53 Simal tarul Manihot esculenta Crantz Euphorbiaceae Root/tuber December- February 54 Sipligan Crateva religiosa G. Forst. Capparaceae Stalk and leaf March-April Medicinal 55 Sisnu Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae Leaf Year round Medicinal 56 Tanki Bauhinia purpurea L. Fabaceae Flower August- October Feed to livestock 57 Tarul Dioscoreadeltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. Dioscoreaceae Root/tuber December- February Feed to livestock 58 Tarul Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill Dioscoreaceae Root/tuber December- February Feed to livestock 59 Titephapar Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn. Polygonaceae Stalk and leaf May-June Feed to livestock 60 Thakal Cirsium wallichii DC. Asteraceae Shoot June-July 61 Tori ghans Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. Brassicaceae Leaf January-April 62 Tatelo Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz Bignoniaceae Fruit March – May Medicinal 63 Tama bans Dendrocalamushamiltonii Nees & Arn. ex Munro Poaceae Shoot June-July Fodder 64 Tama bans Dendrocalamusstrictus (Roxb.) Nees Poaceae Shoot June-July Fodder Banko Janakari, Vol 32 No. 2 82 Regmi et al. Figure 2: Number of wild and underutilized vegetable species found found inJaimini Municipality, Ward no. 5 by families The majority of species (21 species) were collected from natural forests, 19 species were gathered from uncultivated lands, 10 species were cultivated in farmers’field, 11 species were grown in home gardens whereas 3 species were collected from fallow lands (Fig. 3). Figure 3: Natural habitats of wild and underutilized vegetable species found in Jaimini municipality, ward no. 5 The majority of the recorded wild and underutilized vegetable species (33 species) were herbs, 14 species were climbers, 11 species were trees, 5 species were grasses whereas 1 species was shrub (Fig. 4). Figure 4: Proportion of wild and underutilized vegetable species found found inJaimini Municipality, Ward no. 5 by life forms We found that seven species of the vegetables are traded in the local market. They were Drepanostachyum falcatum (Nees) Keng f., Cyclanthera pedata (L.) Schrad., Chenopodium album L., Bauhinia variegata L., Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees, Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. and Diplazium maximum (D.Don) C. Chr.Species like Diplazium esculentum (Masino neuro), Dendrocalamus strictus (Tama bans), Moringa oleifera (Sajiwan) and Drepanostachyum falcatum (Nigalo) were found to have high market value and some of the species of Dioscorea are culturally important as they have Banko Janakari, Vol 32 No. 2 83 Regmi et al. a high market demand during the Hindu festival of Maghe Sankranti. Elderly people were found to have wider knowledge about the use of wild plants as vegetables than the younger respondents. They also pointed out that common vegetables like Pate ghiraula (Luffa acutangula), Kubindo (Benincasahispida) are slowly disappearing from their home garden because of the replacement by modern high yielding varieties of the vegetables. Most of the vegetable species found in this region were nutritionally important while some of them have medicinal value too. Sisnu (Urtica dioica), Sipligan (Crateva religiosa) and Sajiwan (Moringa oleifera) were used locally to lower high blood pressure and high blood sugar level. According to the local farmers, the availability and distribution of these vegetable species are declining at an alarming rate.They also mentioned that there is limited knowledge regarding the use of wild plants in the younger generation. They stated excessive collection, deforestation, drought and forest fires to be the major factor for their declination (Appendix). Discussion Wild and underutilized vegetables have been the major source of human diets for centuries with a great contribution to food and nutrition security, particularly for rural people. It is perceived that wild and underutilized vegetables are tastier, more nutritious and are easily available to meet their daily need and are a source of income as well(Limbu & Thapa, 2011;Bhattarai et al., 2013;Aryal et al.,2018). In this study, the rural people were dependent on the wild and underutilized vegetables mostly in the lean season. Limbu and Thapa (2011) found majority of Chepang people residing in the hilly areas of Nepal highly dependent on wild fruits and vegetables as shifting cultivation was insufficient to feed their families throughout the year. Another study carried out in a Chepang community reported that 58% of households were depended on wild and underutilized plants for vegetables for up to 5 months a year (Aryal et al., 2009). Bhattarai et al. (2013) reported that75% of the respondents were depending exclusively on wild and underutilized plants for 1–3 months and 10% for more than 3 months to meet their daily vegetable requirements in Darchula District. A review study done byDangol et al. (2017) revealed that the highest number of wild edible plants were constituted by vegetable species (246 out of 349 species). The present study documented fewer wild vegetables than Joshi et al. (2015), who reported 89 wild vegetable species from Makawanpur district. The possible reason for more number of wild vegetables reported is wider altitudinal range covering a larger area than the present study.Uprety et al. (2012) reported 36 wild vegetable species from five districts (Makawanpur, Tanahun, Dang, Bardiya, Kailali) and found highest diversity in Makawanpur district. Regarding the habitat of these species, the majority of them were collected from the forest. Forest providing partial shade, undisturbed conditions and good soil fertility can be probable reasons for their higher diversity. This finding is in line with the result of Joshi et al. (2015) which stated forest to be the most important place for the collection of these vegetables whereas in contrast, a lesser number of vegetable species were collected from fallow in this study. The findings of this study showed that leaves and other aerial parts were the most consumed parts as vegetables which is similar to the result of Singh et al. (2012) which discovered tender and succulent shoots, young growing aerial parts and leaves (30 species) as the most consumed plant parts of wild edible vegetables followed by floral parts, roots and tubers. Wild and underutilized vegetables are providing millions of consumers with essential micronutrients, such as vitamins and minerals needed to maintain health and promote immunity against infections. This research found many of the formerly neglected commodities like: Sisnu(Urtica dioica), Sipligan (Crateva religiosa) and Sajiiwan (Moringa oleifera) have now become nutritionally and medicinally important due to consumer awareness.Some species were found to have multiple uses also.Tanki was found to have been used for different purposes like:vegetable, fodder, fuel wood, litters, and also can fix nitrogen in the soil. Many researches https://frtc.gov.np/downloadfile/Ragmi%20at%20all%20Appendix%20(1)_1672983671.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2WJb9Nx-yre6OUznww0Erx-09oBeGFbUJbDGEzvrvtrFHFC4FfY4C6WfU Banko Janakari, Vol 32 No. 2 84 Regmi et al. have revealed that the vitamins like vitamin A, B, C, beta carotene, mineral composition such as nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and protein contents of wild vegetables are generally higher than those of cultivated species (Flyman &Afolayan, 2006). Rajyalakshmi et al. (2001) reported 36 out of 70 wild vegetables eaten by the tribal people in South India had high vitamin A concentration. The same study revealed Dioscorea bulibifera, D. versicolor, D. deltoida, D. triphylla to have 5 times more protein than potatoes, sweet potatoes and colocasia. In our study, only four species of Dioscorea were documented while Sharma and Bastakoti (2009) reported9 out of 10 species of Dioscorea used as food in Chepang community. This indicates that the traditional knowledge of identification, collection, processing and consumption have saved this community of Dhading district from food insecurity to great extent. Singh et al. (2012) found a greater number of plant species were used for curing stomach related diseases among 43 wild plants used as vegetable in Rupandehi District. Limbu and Thapa (2011) reported that dust of roots of Kalo neuroandBankurilo eaten with warm water can treat diarrhea. Issues and challenges Major issues in the utilization and management of the wild and underutilized vegetables are changing human lifestyle, food habit and taste, modernization in agriculture, lack of human resources for collection, overgrazing, land clearanceandoverharvest. However, the chemical, nutritional and toxicological properties of wild and underutilized vegetables and their modification by various processing techniques still need to be properly studied and documented (Flyman &Afolayan, 2006). Dependency on imported vegetables, lack of awareness and low demand for underutilized vegetables are the main reasons for farmers’ unwillingness to use and grow them. Expectation of farmers to cultivate commercial varieties with a strong market chain can be another challengeintheconservation efforts. People are overharvesting these wild plants from their natural habitats but are not concerned with their conservation and rational utilization. Also, there is a limitation of knowledge about their abundance, diversity, and availability to some local people and ethnic communities only. Strategies for their conservation and utilization Wild and underutilized plants are valuable genetic resources. The use of wild vegetables in breeding programs to improve resistance to insect pests and adaptation to different microclimatic niches of Nepal can be a potential scope. Mostly, wild varieties of vegetables are hardy, require low agricultural inputs and can produce desirable yields with fewer management practices. Hence, marginalized lands with lower productivity could easily be utilized to help in their conservation and promotion(Shava, 2005).Participatory variety selection for the adaption of local varieties and awareness programs for the conservation of genetic resources from government, community, and private levels can play important role in the conservation of our underutilized vegetables (Rana et al., 1998).Conservation and awareness programs for local people who know the use of indigenous food plants must be strengthened for rational utilization and conservation(Brush, 1995). Diversity fairs, food fairs, poetry and dramas can be organized to explore these diverse vegetables and sensitize people about their importance. Both ex-situ and in-situ methods can be applied for the conservation of genetic resources.Along with the sustainable harness, domestication and in-situ conservation of these endangered vegetable species by certain ethnic groups or local people aresimple and highly effective strategies in the case of Nepal and transfer of knowledge concerning conservation is much more practicable (Malla & Chhetri, 2009; Battarai et al., 2013).Community-level seed collectionand establishment of seed bank withtheactive participation of locals are the best alternative for ex-situ conservation of genetic resources. Local communities, ethnic groups and women were found to know the culinary uses, gathering seasons, conservation and utilization better than other people. Hence, they can play an important role in the preservation and domestication of indigenous vegetables (Joshi et al., 2007). Banko Janakari, Vol 32 No. 2 85 Regmi et al. Research and promotion of wild and underutilized vegetables can lead to the rise of new staple crops and hence a sustainable change in consumption patterns could be established (Kunwar et al., 2012). Efforts should be made to cultivate high-value indigenous vegetables permanently on the field or commercial scale to reduce the extinction risk.Also, consumers are always eager to taste new commodities and underutilized vegetables can play an important role to satisfy their demand. Thus, it has now become necessary to diversify our food by accommodating such nutritious wild and underutilized vegetables into our diet for improved health and nutrition (Jaenicke & Hoschle-Zeledon, 2006). Evaluation of commercial use and market values including potentials for their domestiation and promotion should be explored. Also, identification of local and international markets, marketing channels, and value addition of local products should be prioritized for their conservation and development (Shava, 2005). Promotion, utilization, and marketing of indigenous vegetables can aid in their conservation while also reducing food and nutrition insecurity in the country, particularly in rural and hilly areas of Nepal. Conclusion The present study documented 64 species of wild and underutilized vegetables from 27 different families. Knowledge of abundance, distribution and utilizationofwild and underutilized plant species has gradually degraded in the new generation. People from the Dalit community who had been highly involved in the collection and utilization of these species have now relied on modern vegetable species. Only few species which are readily available and easy to collect have been extensively used for self consumption or for marketing. Distribution of some of high value marketable wild vegetable species in the study area is declining day by day due to overharvesting while most of them are being neglected. Identification, collection, documentation, characterization, and research from government and non-governmental sides and detailed analysis of their nutritional values should be prioritized for their promotion and conservation. Along with sustainable consumption, domestication, in-situ and ex-situ conservation of these vegetables is the only way of controlling genetic erosionthus, contributing to the food and nutrition security, and a means for income generation for rural people. References Aryal, K. P., Poudel, S., & Chaudhary, R. P. (2018). Diversity and use of wild and non- cultivated edible plants in the Western Himalaya. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 14 (10). Aryal, K., Berg, A., & Ogle, B. (2009). Uncultivated Plants and Livelihood Support-A case study from the Chepang people of Nepal. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 7, 409–422. doi:10.17348/era.7.0.409-422 Bhattarai, S., Pant, B., & Upadhyaya, C. (2013). Dependency of Tharu communities on wild plants: A case study of Shankarpur, Kanchanpur district. Banko Janakari, 21(1), 35-40. doi:10.3126/banko. v21i1.9062 Brush, S. (1995). In situ Conservation of Landraces in Centres of Crop Diversity. Crop Science, 35, 346-354. doi:10.2135/ cropsci1995.0011183X003500020009x Dangol, D. (2003). Economic uses of forest plant resources in western Chitwan, Nepal. Banko Jankari, 12 (2), 56–64. Dangol, D. R., Maharjan, K. L., Maharjan, S. K., & Acharya, A. K. (2017). Wild edible plants in Nepal. Conservation and utilization of agricultural plant genetic resources of Nepal (pp. 390-407). Dhulikhel: NAGRC. Engle, L. M., & Faustino, F. C. (2006). Conserving the indigenous vegetable germplasm of Southeast Asia. International Conference on Indigenous Vegetables and Legumes. Prospectus for Fighting Poverty, Hunger and Malnutrition 752 (pp. 55–60). Flyman, M. V., & Afolayan, A. J. (2006). The suitability of wild vegetables for alleviating human dietary deficiencies. South African Journal of Botany, 72 (4), 492–497. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2006.02.003 Jaenicke, H., & Hoschle-Zeledon,I. (2006). Strategic Framework for Underutilized Plant Species Research and Development: Banko Janakari, Vol 32 No. 2 86 Regmi et al. with Special Reference to Asia and the Pacific, and to Sub-Saharan Africa. Rome, Italy: International Centre for Under utilized Crops. Joshi, N., Kehlenbeck, K., & Maass, B. L. (2007). Traditional, neglected vegetables of Nepal: Their sustainable utilization for meeting human needs. Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development, (pp. 1–10). Tropentag. Joshi, N., Siwakoti, M., & Kehlenbeck, K. (2015). Wild vegetable species in Makawanpur District, Central Nepal: developing a priority setting approach for domestication to improve food security. Economic Botany, 69 (2), 161–170. Kunwar, R., Mahat, L., Sharma, L., Shrestha, K., Kominee, H., & Bussmann, R. (2012). Underutilized plant species in Far West Nepal. Journal of Mountain Sciences, 9(5), 589-600. doi:10.1007/s11629-012-2315-8 Limbu, P., & Thapa, K. (2011). Chepang Food Culture: Contribution to Wild Edible and Neglected Plant Species. Pokhara, Nepal: Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development (LIBIRD). Malla, B., & Chhetri, R. (2009). Indigenous knowledge on ethnobotanical plants of Kavrepalanchowk disctrict. Journal of Science Engineering and Technology, 5 (2), 96–109. Manandhar, N. (2002). Plants and People of Nepal. Portland Oregon, USA: Timber Press . Press, J. R., Shrestha, K. K., & Sutton, D. A. (2000). Annotated checklist of the flowering plants of Nepal. London: The Natural History Museum. Rajyalakshmi, P., Venkatalaxmi, K. V., & Suneetha, V. (2001). Total carotenoid and beta-carotene contents of forest green leafy vegetables consumed by tribals of South India. Plant Foods for Huma. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 56 (3), 225–238. Rana, R., Joshi, K., & Lohar, D. (1998). On-farm conservation of indigenous vegetables by strengthening community based seed banking in Seti River Valley. Pokhara, Nepal: LI-BIRD. Sharma, L. N., & Bastakoti, R. (2009). Ethnobotany of Dioscorea L. with emphasis on food value in Chepang communities in Dhading district, central Nepal. Botanica Orientalis: Journal of Plant Science, 6, 12–17. doi:10.3126/botor.v6i0.2905 Shava, S. (2005). Research on Indigenous Knowledge and its Application: A Case of wild food plants of Zimbabwe. Southern African Journal of Environmental Education, 22, 73–86. doi:10.4314/SAJEE. V22I0.122700 Shrestha, D. (2013). Indigenous vegetables of Nepal for biodiversity and food security. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, 5 (3), 98–108. doi:10.5897/ IJBC11.124 Shrestha, P., Gautam, R., Rana, R., & Sthapit, B. (2004). Managing diversity in various ecosystems: Home gardens of Nepal. Washington, USA. Singh, A. G., Singh, M. P., & Tewari, D. D. (2012). Wild plants used as vegetable in Rupandehi district of Nepal and their ethnomedicinal importance. Journal of Natural History Museum, 26, 111–125. Siwakoti, M., & Tiwari, S. (2007). Emerging needs of wetlands protection for the conservation of wild rice biodiversity in Nepal: a case study from Lumbini area. Science World, 5 (5), 95–99. doi:10.3126/ sw.v5i5.2664 Uprety, Y., Poudel, R., Shrestha, K., Rajbhandary, S., Tiwari, N. N., Shrestha, U. B., & Asselin, H. (2012). Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources in Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 8 (16), 1–15. Weinberger, K., & Msuya, J. (2004). Indigenous vegetabls in Tanzania: Singnificance and prospects. Shanhua, Taiwan: AVRDC Publication.