Final Corrected Banko Janakari 19-1.pmd


Banko Janakari, Vol. 19, No. 1

3

Diversity of  vascular plant communities along a
disturbance gradient in a central mid-hill community forest

of Nepal

S. K. Baral1 and K. Katzensteiner2

The ‘Community Forestry Program’ has been considered successful in improving the
environmental situation in the hills of Nepal by enhancing the vegetation coverage of
degraded sites and by improving the supply of forest products to farmers. The restoration
measures are considered sustainable if the ecosystems are self-supporting and resilient
against perturbation. A community forest (CF) in the mid-hills of Nepal has been assessed
for restoration success based on the comparison of vegetation structure and species
diversity along a disturbance gradient, using a semi-protected natural forest as a reference
site. In general, the community forest management (CFM) was able to re-establish forests
on formerly severely degraded sites. Forest operations carried out during CFM have
altered plant community composition, species richness and distribution, age class
distribution of trees and vegetation structure. As a result, the CF was being transformed
into a less diverse regular forest although the overall vascular plant diversity was retained
with sufficient niches within the understorey vegetation.

Keywords: Central mid-hills, community forest, disturbance regimes, Nepal, plant diversity

Community Forestry (CF) has proved to be an
efficient approach in the forestry sector of

Nepal. In the mid-hills, it is credited with improving
people’s livelihoods and conserving natural
landscapes (Satyal, 2004). Also the CF program is
noted for in increasing the vegetation coverage
(greenery) of  degraded sites, fostering local level
institutions for resource management, improving the
supply of  forest products to farmers, and correcting
the environmental situation in the hills of  Nepal
(Acharya, 2003).

The agricultural system in Nepal relies on the
interdependence of  arable land and livestock with
forests (Satyal, 2004). In the hills of  Nepal, farmers
rely heavily on forest litter that is collected for animal
bedding and then enriched with animal excrement
to be incorporated as compost into the agricultural
system. In this kind of  interlinked hill farming
system, CF has strived to supply forest products to
local users and while conserving biodiversity with
silvicultural techniques such as cleaning, weeding,
thinning and pruning.

Padma (2007) reported that CF had positive impacts
on biodiversity conservation by increasing the

vegetation cover and the number of  wildlife species,
thereby averting the local extinction of  species.
However, his study revealed that CFUGs tended to
conserve only “useful” species i.e. low-quality timber
trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses and herbs were
removed, a practice that could have undesirable
implications on biodiversity. Such implications
include a changed community structure, a reduction
of  understorey species, and even age stands with low
biodiversities. The present case study tests a
methodological approach for comparing and
analyzing the impacts of  silvicultural techniques and
biomass extraction from community forests on
vascular plant diversity. The investigations were
carried out along a disturbance gradient in a CF in
the central mid-hills of  Nepal.

Materials and methods

Study site

The study was carried out in Dhulikhel, the district
headquarter of  the Kavrepalanchowk District, 30 km
east of  Kathmandu. The district covers an area of
140, 486 hectares and stretches between 85° 24’ -
85° 49’ E longitude and 27° 20’ - 27° 85’ N latitude
in the central mid-hill region. It has been one of the

1 Assistant Research Officer, Department of  Forest Research and Survey, Babarmahal, Kathmandu, Nepal
e-mail: sharadbaral@gmail.com

2 Assoc.Prof., Institute of  Forest Ecology, Department of  Forest and Soil Science, University of  Natural Resources and
Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria



Banko Janakari, Vol. 19, No. 1

4

pioneer districts for the implementation of the
community forestry program (Sharma 2000), a fact
that provides an opportunity to interact with
experienced forest user groups who have been
involved for over 15 years in community forestry
management activities (Humagain 2003). Moreover,
the impacts of  forest management activities on
vascular plant diversity can be pronounced. The
‘Gaukhureshwar Community Forest’ (hereafter CF)
and an adjoining semi-protected natural forest (Thulo
ban) owned by the Dhulikhel Municipality (hereafter
MF) have been selected for the study. The forests
share similar climatic conditions, topographic
features and belong to the same vegetation zone
(Webb and Gautam, 2001).

History of  the forests

Historically, the study site was a dense forest till 1933.
Afterwards, the forest was gradually exploited. A
series of  natural calamities (earth quake, heavy
rainfall) had disturbed the forest. Additional
pressures from population growth and urbanization
have led to severe degradation. Apparently, both the
CF and MF were subjected to exploitation after 1934
to 1962. However, it is not clear which one of  the
two was more exploited in terms of  resources (Webb
and Gautam, 2001). Although the forests were
classified as CF and MF based on the rights of
management and utilization, the land ownership of
both forests remained with the Government of
Nepal, according to the Forest Act 1993.

Gaukhureshwar community forest (CF)

By 1981 the forest had been almost cleared for
grazing pasture and only a few trees and bushes
remained. In 1985 the local people made an effort
to restore their forest by applying for support from
the District Forest Office, Kabhre for enrichment
planting with Pinus roxburghii and to employ a forest
watcher. Later on, the District Forest Office, Kabhre
formally handed over 21 ha of  this forest to the local
people, thereby formulating a forest user group in
1992. Subsequently, secondary succession ensued
(Webb and Gautam, 2001) and Pinus roxburghii was
outcompeted. The stands were about 20 years old
by 2007. Now the forest user group is managing this
forest as a community forest and applying silvicultural
techniques, according to their operational plan
(Personal communication with the head of  the
CFUG Badri Jangam, 2007).

Dhulikhel municipality owned forest (MF)

The remaining patch of  the forest (Thulo Ban) has
been protected by the residents of  Dhulikhel city
since 1962 in order to conserve the watershed. After
the establishment of the Dhulikhel Municipality in
1986, an important contribution to the protection
of  MF was the deployment of  watchmen. No
utilization activities had taken place since then (Webb
and Gautam, 2001).

Data collection

Sampling design

A CF and a MF were selected for the field survey in
comparable topographic positions. The diversity
status of  vascular plants and forest structure were
compared between forest areas facing a high pressure
of  biomass extraction through the community forest
management activities (CF) and the better protected
municipality owned forest, facing little anthropogenic
pressure (MF) as a reference site.  Cleaning, thinning,
pruning and litter raking activities had been carried
out in the CF. Although the collection of  forest
products in MF had not been allowed, there had been
some illegal collection of  forest products (such as
dry branches, tree stumps and litter in some plots).

A transect survey from the base to the top of  the
hill was conducted systematically to collect the
primary data of  each forest (CF and MF). In this
transect, the survey was carried out in 8 systematically
placed square-shaped composite plots of 10m×10m
for poles, 5m×5m for shrubs and regeneration, and
1m×1m for herbs, a design which is a standard for
contemporary community forest inventory in Nepal.
The sample plots were located at least 50 m apart
and at least 20 m interior from the edges or roads.
After conducting a rapid forest survey, the required
number of  sample plots to reach a confidence
interval for the average weight of  biomass in the CF
of  10 % was calculated by using the following
formula:

Number of plots (n) = (t * 100*Sx/ W * e %)2

Whereby
t = tabulated value of  student tDF-n-1,

p=0.05,
DF = degrees of  freedom
Sx = standard deviation of biomass
W = Average weight of  biomass
e = required accuracy [%]

Baral and Katzensteiner



Banko Janakari, Vol. 19, No. 1

5

Forest inventory

Tree height, diameter at breast height (DBH) and
crown width were measured for each plot. A
clinometer was used for measuring tree height, and
a D-tape and a measuring tape were used for the
determination of  DBH and crown width (diameter),
respectively. The number of  species in the
understorey was recorded. The amount of  litter left
on the forest floor was estimated from 30 cm × 30
cm plots. By interviewing the FUG members, the
quantity of  litter collected from the CF was
estimated.

Scaling the disturbance

To compute the simple plant community-based
indices (plant diversity indices) of  forest disturbance,
the level of  disturbance was scaled from 1-4 in an
ordinal scale, where 1 is the lowest and 4 is the highest
level of  disturbance, based on the visual observation
of sample plots on the basis of the amount of litter
left on the forest floor, trampling and tree lopping
and felling (Table 1).

Secondary data

Records of  the forest management activities and the
data related to the amount of forest products
harvested/collected were drawn from the community
forest user group’s office and District Forest Office
records.

Data analysis

Calculation of  above ground biomass, basal area
and diversity indices
The total above ground tree biomass was calculated
by using the biomass table prepared by Tamrakar
(1999). Basal area was calculated by using equation 4
below. Three biodiversity indices for the vascular
plant diversity were calculated from the information
of  the forest inventory. Shannon Wiener Index was
used as the index affected by both the number of
species and the evenness of  their population. This
index increases as both values (number of  species
and evenness) increase. On the other hand, the
Simpson’s index was used as a dominance index. It

is weighted towards the abundance of  the most
common species and measures the probability of
two individuals randomly selected from a sample
belonging to the same category. In this measure, as
the index goes up, so does diversity.

The following formulae were used to calculate the
diversity indices (Timberline Forest Inventory
Consultants Ltd, 2003).

Shannon-Wiener index H = ∑
=

×−
s

i
ii pp

1
log .... 1

Simpson’s diversity D = ∑
=

−
s

i
ip

1

21 ................... 2

Evenness E = H / log (N ................................ 3

BA = 4/2DBHπ . ........................................... 4

Where:
s = number of  species
pi = proportion of  the ith species in a

community
N = total number of  species
DBH = diameter at breast height (1.3 m)

from the ground level

Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics was used to describe stand
structure, forest composition and forest management
activities. The differences between diversity indices
of  the different forest types were subjected to a
Mann-Whitney U test because these parameters were
not normally distributed. Basal area per hectare,
number of  plants in the understorey per hectare and
estimated above ground biomass were subjected to
independent sample t-tests. The level of  significance
used was α = 0.05.

Results and discussions

Forest management history, forest structure
and diversity of  vascular plants

Forest type and management activities
The forest vegetation type belonged to the boundary
line between the sub-tropical Schima-Castanopsis

Table 1: Criteria for scaling the disturbance

Score 
S.N. Criteria 

1 2 3 4
Overall score 

1 Amount of litter left on the 
forest floor (Litter raking) 

>70% 50-70% 30-50% <30% 

2 Trampling Low Medium High Very high 

3 Tree lopping and felling Few Medium High Very High 

The overall score of 
the plot is: if the total 

scores  
9-12=4, 6-9=3, 3-
6=2 and <3=1. 

Baral and Katzensteiner



Banko Janakari, Vol. 19, No. 1

6

forest and the lower temperate forest. Major species
found in the forest were: Castanopsis tribuloides, Quercus
glauca, Rhododendron arboreum, Myrica esculenta, Myrsinia
rivularis and Schima wallichii etc.

Litter raking was the dominant method of  biomass
extraction activities from the forest. Cleaning
(removal of  unwanted shrubs and weeds and singling
of  desired species) and thinning/pruning were the
other silvicultural operations undertaken after the
forest was handed over to the community. The
intensity of  thinning entirely depended on traditional
knowledge. In this system, only the dead, dying,
crooked, malformed and weak trees were
preferentially removed. On average, 30% of  pole-
sized trees were removed in the thinning operations
and the branches were pruned up to 50% of  tree
height. During winter, litter raking has been free for
the users. Grazing and illegal collection of  forest
products were totally prohibited. Table 2 displays the
record of quantity of biomass extracted at different
time periods from the community forest.

Forest structure

The MF had a higher stem density per hectare.
However, the understorey density was higher in CF.
In the MF, basal area was almost double that of  CF,
and the estimated above ground biomass was also
slightly higher. Similarly, both the maximum tree
height (13.5 m) and the maximum DBH (29.5 cm)
were significantly higher in MF (Table 4).

A larger part of  the basal area in the MF was occupied
by the trees with higher diameters but in the CF the

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

40.00

45.00

<5
cm

5-
9.
99

cm

10
-1

4.
99

cm

15
-1

9.
99

cm >2
0

Tot
al

B
a

s
a

l
a

re
a

(m
2
h

a
-1

)

Community Forest Municipal Forest

Figure 1: Basal area distribution in different DBH classes

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Sw Ci Ra Me Ct Qg Mr O
Species

B
a
s
a
l
a
re

a
m

2
h
a

-1

Community forest

Municipality forest

Sw: Schima Wallichii

Ci: Castonopsis indica

Ra: Rhododendron 

arboreum

Me: M yrica esculanta

Ct: Castonopsis 

tribuloides

Qg: Quercus glauca

Mr: M yrsenia rivularis

O: Others

Figure 2: Basal area distribution of  tree species in the CF
and MF

larger part of  the basal area was contributed by trees
with 5-15 cm DBH since there were no trees thicker
than 20 cm DBH (Fig 1).

 

Forest product extraction 
S.N. Year Management activities 

Product Unit* Quantity 

1 1993 Mg ha-1 3.7 
2 1994 

Cleaning 
Cleaning 

Fuelwood with green foliage 
Fuelwood with green foliage Mg ha-1 2.8 
Fuel-wood m3 ha-1 1.2 
Timber m3 ha-1 0.4 

3 1997 Thinning/pruning 
(Average thinning intensity = 30%) 

Foliage Mg ha-1 0.3 
4 1999 Cleaning Fuelwood with green foliage Mg ha-1 6.8 
5 Annually Litter raking (82% of the total litter) Litter Mg ha-1 3.2 

* The unit was calculated considering 1 bhari = 40 kg for green foliage and fire wood and 1 bhari litter = 25 kg of litter 

Table 2: Community forest management activities and quantity of  forest biomass extracted

Table 3: Density, basal area and estimated above ground biomass in different forest types

Forest type 
Basal area 

m2ha-1 

No. of stems 

ha-1 

No. of plants in 

the understorey 

ha-1 

Max. tree 

height 

(m) 

Max 

DBH 

(cm) 

Estimated above 

ground biomass 

(kg m-2)

CF 19.03a 2525 7050a 12.5 16.5 12.18a

MF 38.19a 2725 4850a 13.5 29.5 17.72a

Castanopsis tribuloides and Quercus glauca were the major
dominating tree species in CF occupying the higher
share (almost 80%) of the total basal area, whereas
the basal area was distributed rather fairly among all
the species that were found in the site in MF (Fig 2).

The average biomass in the MF was 17.61 kg m-2,
SE = 0.91, a sum significantly higher than the average
biomass of the CF (12.08 kg m-2, SE = 0.86). In the
CF, almost 85% of  the biomass was contributed by
two major tree species Castanopsis tribuloides and

a Significant difference between CF and MF in independent samples t-test at á=0.05.

Baral and Katzensteiner



Banko Janakari, Vol. 19, No. 1

7

 

Forest type 

/ Layer 

Number of 

species 

Total 

number of 

families 

Shannon- 

Wiener 

Index (H) 

Simpson’s 

Index (D) 

Evenness 

(E) 
Remarks 

CF 
Tree layer 
Under storey 
Total 

 
11 
36 
40 

 
8
30 
30 

 
0.96a

1.96 
 

0.48 a 
0.84 

 
0.60 a 
0.91 

 

MF 
Tree layer 
Under storey 
Total 

 
14 
32 
36 

 
10 
25 
25 

 
1.6 a 
1.87 

 
0.75 a 
0.8 

 
0.85 a 
0.88 

 

a denotes the significant difference between CF and MF in the Mann Whitney U test at α=0.05. 

Quercus glauca but in the MF the biomass was
distributed among the wider species composition
typical to this forest type (Fig 3). This observation
suggests a tendency for species preference among
forest users in community forest management. They
probably preserved preferred species (Castanopsis
tribuloides and Quercus glauca) and removed others. In
the CF, they had also removed bigger and older trees
during silvicultural operations to provide space for a
future crop of  younger trees of  the preferred species.

From this pattern it can be concluded that the
number of  plots was sufficient to describe the
diversity within the two forest types.

There were 40 vascular plant species of  30 families
found in the CF but in the MF only 36 species of 25
families were recorded. The number of  tree species
was slightly higher in the MF (14 species of  10
families) than that of the CF (11 species of 8 families)
(Annex 1). The diversity index for the tree layer in
the CF was 0.96 for Shannon Wiener, 0.48 for
Simpson and 0.6 for Evenness, as opposed to 1.6
for Shannon Wiener, 0.75 for Simpson and 0.85 for
Evenness in the MF. This result underscored
the higher tree species richness and their more
even distribution within the MF than in the CF
(Table 4).

While the tree layer diversity was significantly higher
in the MF than in the CF, the understorey vegetation
diversity was slightly higher in the CF, although this
difference was insignificant (Table 4).

Castanopsis tribuloides and Quercus glauca were the most
abundant tree species found in the CF, whereas
Myrsinia rivularis, Quercus glauca, Rhododendron arboreum
and Myrica esculenta were the species having a higher
abundance in the MF (Fig 5).

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Sw Ci Ra Me Ct Qg Mr O

Species

B
io

m
a
s
s

(k
g

m
-2
)

Community forest
Municipality forest

Sw: Schima Wallichii

Ci: Castonopsis indica

Ra: Rhododendron 

arboreum

Me: M yrica esculanta

Ct: Castonopsis 

tribuloides

Qg: Quercus glauca

Mr: M yrsenia rivularis

O: Others

Figure 3: Biomass distribution of  tree species in the CF
and MF

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Number of plots

N
u
m

b
e
r
o
f
s
p
e
c
ie

s

Tree species in CF Understorey in CF

Tree species in MF Understorey in MF

Figure 4: Cumulative number of  species

Table 4: Number of  families and species in forest, Shannon Wiener diversity index, Simpson’s index and
Evenness at study sites

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Ct
Qg Ci

Me Sw Ra Mr O

Species

R
e

la
ti

v
e

a
b

u
n

d
a

n
c

e

CF MF

Ct: Castonopsis 

tribuloides

Qg: Quercus glauca

Ci: Castonopsis indica

Me: M yrica esculanta

Sw: Schima Wallichii

Ra: Rhododendron 

arboreum

Mr: M yrsenia rivularis

O: Others

Figure 5: Abundance of  different tree species in CF and

MF

Species richness, abundance and diversity indices

The cumulative tree species number increased with
the increasing number of  plots. The number of
understorey species rapidly increased in the initial
plots but the increase declined after the fifth plot
for both forests. The slope of  the curve for
understorey flattened after five to six plots (Fig 4).

Baral and Katzensteiner



Banko Janakari, Vol. 19, No. 1

8

This study indicated that the basal area per hectare,
biomass and tree density were higher in the forest
that was better protected (MF) than in the
community forest. Species diversity in the tree layer
was also higher in the MF. Forest biodiversity
depends on even age class distribution, presence of
various tree species and proper distribution of  these
species in the forest stand (HMG/N 2002). However,
the number of  plant species in the understorey
vegetation (tree species<5cm DBH and other
shrubby species) was found to be higher in the CF.
This finding was similar to the findings of  Webb
and Gautam (2001) who observed that the mature,
semi-protected forest had a substantially greater basal
area while the community forest exhibited a higher
density of  small diameter trees, which was typical of
a young successional forest.

Managed forests were more diverse in plant species
than primary forests, and were also more
heterogeneous in a study of  Sebastia et al. (2005)
conducted in Southern Europe. Research carried out
in the boreal forests of  Canada had suggested that
vascular plant species diversity peaked on moderately
treated sites (Heusler et al., 2002). Likewise, diversity
was rapidly restored through succession in
community forests of  Nepal although the forest
structure was not complex (Webb and Gautam,
2001). However, in this study, tree species were found
to be less diverse in the CF than in the MF although
the understorey was more diverse. This might be due
to the silvicultural activities carried out by CFUGs
based on local knowledge and skills that focused on

the promotion of  preferred tree density (Acharya,
2003) for economic benefits from tree species useful
for timber (Pandey, 2007). The most abundant
species in the CF (Castanopsis tribuloides and Quercus
glauca) were highly valued by farmers for their high
yield of  leaves, and as multipurpose trees usable for
fodder, fuelwood, agricultural implements and timber
(Jackson, 1994).

Silvicultural activities change the tree species
composition (Schelhas and Greenberg, 1996) and if
they are not carried out with caution, they can
jeopardize biodiversity (Putz and Blate, 2001). These
findings confirmed that the tree diversity decreased
in the CF. There were 40 species of  30 families in
the CF while in the MF, there were only 36 species
of  25 families. However, a contradictory finding of
this study was the higher vascular plant species
richness in the CF. Low impact management
mimicking natural disturbances enhances plant
diversity (Sebastia et al., 2005) and, therefore, the
management that mirrors natural disturbances is
recommended to sustain biodiversity (Harvey et al.,
2002).

Conclusions

Silvicultural techniques applied in CF affect forests
by altering plant community composition, species
richness and distribution, and age class distribution
of  the trees. From the study it can be concluded
that the CF was changing into less diverse, uniform
stands with a low number of  species in the tree layer
compared to a regular semi-protected forest.
However, the overall diversity of  vascular plants was
maintained by providing proper niches for a rich
understorey vegetation. From a biodiversity
conservation point of  view, special attention must
be paid to the maintenance of  species diversity in
the forest composition when executing silvicultural
operations in the community forest. To keep
disturbance at an intermediate level would be an
appropriate strategy for CF management to achieve
the paradoxical twin objectives of  i) supplying  the
basic needs for forest products to the forest users
and ii) for maintaining the vascular plant diversity in
forest ecosystems.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Gaukhureshwar
Community Forest User Group Dhulikhel-1,
Kabhrepalanchok. We acknowledge the ITTO

Tree diversity indices according to different
scale of disturbance

The value of  Shannon Wiener index and Simpson’s
index were plotted against the scale of  disturbance
in the plots. Fig 6 shows that when the intensity of
disturbance increased from 1 to 2, the tree diversity
in the forest slightly increased but heavy disturbance
(categories>2) was associated rapid decrease in
diversity.

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

1.60

1.80

1 2 3 4

Scale of disturbance

D
iv

e
rs

it
y

in
d
e
x

Shannon Wiener index

Simpson's index

1= Low 

2 = Medium 

3 = High 

4 = Very high 

Figure 6: Value of  diversity indices with respect to different
scale of disturbance

Baral and Katzensteiner



Banko Janakari, Vol. 19, No. 1

9

Fellowship Program, Japan for providing financial
support to conduct this study. We also would like to
thank Mr. Bimal Acharya, Assistant Research Officer,
Department of  Forest Research and Survey,
Babarmahal, Kathmandu and Mr. Dil Bahadur Purja
Pun, Ranger, Department of  Forest, Babarmahal,
Kathmandu, Nepal for their support during data
collection.

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Webb, E. L. and Gautam, A. P. 2001. Effects of
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Baral and Katzensteiner



Banko Janakari, Vol. 19, No. 1

10

Annex 1: List of plant species found in the forest at study sites 
 

Occurrence 

Family Species Habit Community 

forest 

Municipality 

forest 

Acanthaceae Thungbergia coccinea  climber √

Ampelidaceae Leea robusta Shrub √

Anacardaceae Rhus succedanea Small tree √ √

Asteraceae Inula cappa Shrub √ √

Asteraceae Eupatorium adenophorum Shrub √

Betulaceae Betula alnoides Tree √

Campanulaceae Lobelia alsinoides Small tree √

Caprifoliceae Viburnum coriaceum Shrub √ √

Cyperaceae Cyperus cyperoides Herb/grass √

Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus Herb/grass √ √

Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris atrata Herb/Fern √ √

Ericaceae Rhododendron arboreum Tree √ √

Ericaceae Lyonia ovalifolia Tree √

Fabaceae Indigofera cylindracea Shrub √

Fagaceae Castanopsis tribuloides Tree √ √

Fagaceae Quercus glauca Tree √ √

Fagaceae Castanopsis indica  Tree √ √

Gleicheniaceae Gleichenia glauca Herb/Fern √ √

Lamiaceae Scuttelaria discolor Herb/grass √ √

Lauraceae Litsea citrate Tree √

Loranthaceae Maesa chisia Shrub √ √

Melastomataceae Osbeckia stellata Herb √ √

Melastomataceae Melastoma normale Shrub √ √

Meliaceae Walsura trijuga Tree √

Myricacea Myrica esculenta Tree √ √

Myrseniceae Myrsenia rivularis Tree √ √

Myrseniceae Myrsenia semiserrata Tree √ √

Oleaceae Fraxinus floribunda Tree √ √

Oleandraceae Nephrolepsis cordifolia Fern √

Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus parvifolius Shrub √

Poyaceae Digitaria sanguinalis Herb/grass √ √

Poyaceae Eragrostis tenella Herb/grass √ √

Poyaceae Athraxon lancifolius Herb/grass √ √

Poyaceae Arundinaria intermedia Grass/bamboo √

Ranunculaceae Clematis buchananiana Herb √ √

Rosaceae Syzygium cumini Tree √

Rosaceae Robus ellipticus Shrub √ √

Rubiaceae Loranthus spps. Tree √ √

Smilacaceae Smilax menispermoides climber √ √

Symplocaceae Symplococus ramosissima Shrub √ √

Thaeceae Schima wallichii Tree √ √

Thaeceae Eurya cerasifolia Tree √ √

Thaeceae Cleyera ochnacea Herb √ √

Thaeceae Camellia kissi Shrub √ √

Orchids species not determined Epiphytes √ √

Baral and Katzensteiner