11 The continuous war against disease and illness has been fought by man from the beginning of human civilization to present date. For the victory of the war and maintenance of health, various plant-based medicines have been used since the early days (Ghani, 2013). From time immemorial, many medicinal plants are used as folk medicine for the treatment of various ailments in Nepal and rest of the world. Globally, about 30,000 to 70,000 plant species are used medicinally, and in developing world, 70-80% of the population depend upon plants for their primary health care (WHO, 2002). Similarly, at least 7,000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived through ethnobotanical surveys from the plants mainly based on the folk medicine of native people (Coe & Anderson, 1996). Nepal is rich in its biological and cultural diversity. The documentation of ethnobotanical knowledge helps in the preservation of indigenous culture and contribute to the conservation and management of plant diversity that benefits the local communities (Luitel et al., 2014). Over 2,500 plant species are medicinal in Nepal (Ghimire, 2008; Bhatt & Kunwar, 2020) which are used in the traditional systems of medicine. The uses are associated with diverse ethnic groups of the country residing in diverse geographical ranges, and the knowledge is transferred orally through grenrations (Adhikari et al., 2019). However, the new generation does not seem willing to continue their local healing tradition since it neither generates sustainable income nor offer any career development scheme. In addition to documenting the traditional knowledge related to medicinal plants, scientific validation of the healing systems is required for protecting the intellectual property rights of the particular community (Aryal et al., 2016). In Nepal, ethnobotanical research started from eastern Nepal with the publication of a paper on medicinal and food plants by Banerji in 1955. Since then, many scientists have covered different Ethnobotanical survey on plants used in Mai Municipality of Ilam district, eastern Nepal K. R. Bhattarai1 1 Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal. E-mail: krbhattarai@gmail.com This study was aimed to document medicinal plant species, their utilization and methods to treat common ailments by traditional healers in Churiya region of Ilam district, eastern Nepal. This study would contribute positively to the field of biodiversity conservation, phytochemistry and ethnopharmacology. Ethnobotanical information were collected in 2016 based on semi-structured questionnaire with key informant interview. Data were evaluated and expressed in terms of number and percentage. A total of 116 medicinal plants belonging to 61 families were reported to treat 76 different ailments categorized into 18 groups. The highest numbers of plants were used to treat digestive system disorders. The most medicines were prepared as the form of paste from leaves or tender shoots and administrated orally. Of the documented plants, 5 species were reported with novel uses and 7 were newly reported as ethnomedicinal plants in Nepal. Besides medicine, 111 species were utilized additionally for food, fodder, socio-cultural events and environmental use. People of the area less frequently use traditional herbal therapies. Due to lack of proper collection, conservation and cultivation practices, some plant species are at risk of extinction.Thus, sustainable harvesting and access to benefit sharing help to improve livelihood and conserve biodiversity. Key words: Ailment, Churiya, ethnobotany, livelihood, medicinal plant Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2, 2020 Pp 11‒35https://doi.org/10.3126/banko.v30i2.33476 Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 12 Bhattarai communities in different geographical area. A number of studies such as Oli et al. (2005), Acharya & Pokhrel (2006), Gachhadar (2006), Maden et al. (2008), Poudel (2009), Gautam (2011), Limbu & Rai (2013), Bhattarai & Khadka (2016), Shrestha et al. (2016), Uprety et al. (2016), Bhattarai (2017), Parajuli (2017), Bhattarai (2018), Chaudhary et al. (2020) and Pradhan et al. (2020) have documented ethnobotanical information from eastern Nepal based on different communities. However, many communities in different parts of the nation are still either unexplored or little explored. Most of the ethnomedicinal studies conducted in the recent years in Nepal have only documented whether the community people have knowledge about the use of plant or not, but have not mentioned about the recent practices of the use of these plants as medicines. Though they have knowledge about the traditional medicine, they may prefer modern medicine. More recent data suggest that the use of traditional medicine in some Asian and African countries is substantially lower and is declining (Oyebode et al., 2016). I hypothesized that the people in Danabari of Mai municipality, Ilam have specialized knowledge on the utilization of medicinal plants, because the settlement area is rich in plant diversity with diverse ethnic communities. I also expected that the knowledge on ethnomedicine is declining in young generatin as the community is affected by urbanization and cultural transformation. The present study, therefore, aims to enlist the ethnomedicinal plants and the methods/technique to manage common ailments by the traditional healers among the Magar-dominated community in Ilam district. Besides, emphasis had been also given for the multiple utilization of medicinal plants and evaluation of ethno medicinal knowledge status in young generations. Materials and methods Study area Extending over an area of 1,703 sq km, Ilam is a hilly district situated about 600 Km east from Kathmandu, in Province No. 1 of Nepal (Figure 1). It is located between 260 40' - 270 08' N latitudes and 870 40' - 880 10' E longitudes. The district stretches from the lower belt of Terai (flat land stretching all along the southern border with India) and Chure (a stretch of Siwalik hill extending from east to west on the north, next to the Terai) to the upper hilly belt of the Himalayan region with the altitude ranging from 150 m to 3636 m above the mean sea level (amsl). The average annual temperature is 200C, and the average annual rainfall is 2500 mm with more than 90% of relative humidity during January-October (Sharma, 2000). The tropical to alpine vegetation is found in the district with forest coverage of about 55% (DFRS, 2015). Fig. 1: Map showing the location of the study area The study was conducted in Danabari area within Mai municipality situated in the southern part of Ilam district (Figure 1). The municipality is surrounded by Deumai and Ilam municipalities on the north, Suryodaya municiplaity on the north-east, Jhapa district on the south-east and Mangsebung and Chulachuli rural municipalitieson the west. The total area of the municipality is 264 sq km with 33,210 population. Danabari stretches towards north from the east of Kankai Mai River at an average altitude of 200 m to 400 m amsl in the Churiya region. The area is inhabited by diverse group of people like Chhetri, Brahmin, Magar, Limbu, inmigrants from different places of Ilam and other districts as well as indigenous people like Meche, Dhimal, Danuhar, Rajbanshi, Tharu, Jhangad, Darai, etc. (DDC, 2015); Magar being the dominant ones. The forest resources in this area are under great threat due to rapid population growth, deforestation, habitat encroachment, over grazing and over exploitation, but still the eastern Churiya has been regarded as a rich place in terms of vegetation and floristic diversity (Oli et al., 2005). Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 13 Bhattarai Data collection and analysis This study was conducted among the key informants between Feb-July, 2016 by using semi-structured questionnaire. Prior to documentation of ethnomedicinal information, a number of open discussions and interactions were organized among the pre-informed people of Danabari in order to acquire knowledge about the medicinal plants found in the locality and also to dcocument the ethnomedicinal information. After that, field survey was carried out with the help of the local people to collect information on the available medicinal plants and their conservation status. The informants were selected randomly to document the knowledge about the medicinal plants in detail. The collected plant specimens were photographed, and some of them were collected and preserved as herbarium specimens. The reported use of the medicinal plants and ailments treated were grouped into major categories following Cook (1995), and compared with the national and international literature. The data were entered in the Microsoft Office Excel 2016 Software to analyze the information regarding plant families, their habit, habitat, parts used, preparation type, mode of application, ethnomedicinal uses and other uses; data were expressed in terms of number and percentage. The plants were first identified following the nomenclature of APG III (The Plant List, 2013), and the reported uses were verified by using the available literature of Nepal (Manandhar, 2002; Baral & Kurmi, 2006; Kunwar et al., 2010; Malla et al., 2015; Uprety et al., 2016; Adhikari et al., 2019; Ambu et al., 2020). The voucher specimens were deposited at the herbarium of Plant Research Centre, Ilam. Results Plant diversity and uses Among the documented 116 medicinal plant species belonging to 61 families and 106 genera, 97 were dicots, 16 were monocots and 3 were pteridophytes. These were represented by highest number of trees (n=42) followed by herbs (n=31), shrubs (n=23), climbers (n=15) and lianas (n=5). Out of the 61 families, Leguminosae (10 spp.) and Lamiaceae (8 spp.) were dominant followed by Malvaceae (5 spp.), Euphorbiaceae, Myrtaceae and Zingiberaceae (4 spp. each). Rest of the 55 families had less than 4 species each (Annex 1). The study showed that different parts of the same plants were used for different purpose (food, food-additives, fodder, fuel, different materials, socio-cultural use, environmental use and poison) and for the treatment of different ailments. Among the total medicinal plant species, 5 species were used only as medicine whereas 111 species were used for different other purposes besides medicine. Of the total plants with other uses, 40 species (20%) were used as food (fruits, curries and pickles); 8 species (4%) as food additives (condiments, souring agent and flavours); 48 species (24%) as fodder and forage; and 33 species (17%) as materials (furniture, agricultural tools, household containers, musical instruments, rope, ink, etc.); and 13 species (7%) as fuel. Similarly, 31 species (16%) were used either as sacred plants or used in various socio-cultural events; 21 species (11%) as hedge, ornamental use and also for erosion control; and the rest 2 species (1%) as poison to control pests of plants and livestock (Figure 2). Fig. 2: Uses of medicinal plants in the study area The people in the study area used the documented medicinal plants for the treatment of 76 different ailments categorized into 18 groups. The highest number of plants (54 spp.) were reported to be used for digestive system disorders, followed by 34 spp. for skin/subcutaneous, 31 spp. for infections/infestations, 27 spp. for respiratory disorders, 24 spp. for muscular-skeletal disorders, 16 spp. for genito-urinary disorders, 12 spp. for metabolic disorders, 11 spp. for nutritional disorders, 8 spp. for mental disorders, and 7 spp. for endocrine disorders. Similarly, 6 spp. were reported to be used for circulatory disorders, 6 spp. for the treatment of inflammation and 7 spp. for poisoning. Likewise, 5 spp. were reported to be used for the treatment of pregnancy/birth/ Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 14 Bhattarai puerpuerium disorders, 2 spp. for neoplasm, 2 spp. for sensory disorders, and 1 sp. for nervous disorders, and the use of 5 spp. were unspecified (Table 1). Table 1: List of plant species used for specific ailment categories Ailment categories Name of ailments Name of plant species in each category No. of plant spp. Circulatory System Disorders High blood pressure Aloe vera, Justicia adhatoda, Moringa oleifera, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Rauvolfia serpentina, Sida rhombifolia 6 Digestive System Disorders Bad breath, constipation, dental problems /toothache, diarrhoea, dysentery, gastritis, ulcer, green diarrhoea ("Saruwa"), indigestion jaundice and liver disorder, mild laxative, piles, pyorrhoea, stomach disorder, vomiting Achyranthes aspera, Aegle marmelos, Aloe vera, Acorus calamus, Bauhinia vahlii, Bombax ceiba, Brucea javanica, Cassia fistula, Centella asiatica, Cinnamomum tamala, Citrus aurantifolia, Curcuma aromatica, Curcuma longa, Cuscuta reflexa, Elaeocarpus serratus, Euphorbia royleana, Gladiolus sp, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Lasia spinosa, Maesa macrophylla, Mallotus philippensis, Mangifera indica, Melastoma melabathricum, Mimosa pudica, Musa paradisica, Ocotea lancifolia, Phyllanthus emblica, Piper longum, Piper mullesua, Pogostemon benghalensis, Polygonum molle, Premna barbata, Psidium guajava, Rauvolfia serpentina, Scoparia dulcis, Shorea robusta, Sida acuta, Sida rhombifolia, Smilax ovalifolia, Spondias pinnata, Stephania glandulifera, Stephania japonica, Syzygium cumini, Tamarindus indica, Tectaria sp., Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia tomentosa, Tinospora sinensis, Trichosanthes cucumerina, Vitex negundo, Woodfordia fruticosa, Wrightia arborea, Zingiber montanum 54 Endocrine System Disorders Diabetes Aegle marmelos, Aloe vera, Moringa oleifera, Scoparia dulcis, Stephania glandulifera, Syzygium cumini, Ziziphus jujuba 7 Genitourinary System Disorders Burning urination, dysuria, female sterility, hematuria, kidney problems, m e n o r r h a g i a , menstrual disorder Alstonia scholaris, Cassia fistula, Centella asiatica, Colebrookea oppositifolia, Eclipta prostrata, Mangifera indica, Mentha spicata, Mimosa pudica, Molineria crassifolia, Morus alba, Nephrolepis cordifolia, Ocotea lancifolia , Scoparia dulcis, Solanum torvum, Stephania glandulifera, Tinospora sinensis 16 Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 15 Bhattarai Ailment categories Name of ailments Name of plant species in each category No. of plant spp. Infections/ Infestations A n t h e l m i n t i c , diphtheria, fever, food poisoning (“nas- kapat”), gonorrhoea, lice repellent, malaria, measles, scabies, sore throat, hyperthermia (heat illness ) Achyranthes aspera, Aegle marmelos, Alstonia scholaris, Artemisia indica, Azadirachta indica , Callicarpa macrophylla, Centella asiatica, Cheilocostus speciosus, Colebrookea oppositifolia, Curcuma aromatica, Curcuma longa, Dioscorea deltoidea, Etlingera linguiformis, Euphorbia royleana, Justicia adhatoda, Lasia spinosa, Lobelia nicotianifolia, Mimosa pudica, Murraya koenigii, Molineria crassifolia, Mussaenda macrophylla, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Ocotea lancifolia, Pogostemon benghalensis, Rauvolfia serpentina, Scoparia dulcis, Sida acuta, Tetrastigma bracteolatum, Woodfordia fruticosa, Zingiber montanum, Ziziphus jujuba 31 Muscular- Skeletal System Disorders Fracture, joint pain, muscular pain, body pain, sprain Acacia pennata, Asparagus racemosus, Butea monosperma, Callicarpa macrophylla , Calotropis gigantea, Curcuma aromatica, Desmodium multiflorum, Eclipta prostrata, Gonostegia hirta, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Lepidium sativum, Lygodium flexuosum, Neolamarckia cadamba, Oroxylum indicum, Poranopsis paniculata, Pterospermum acerifolium, Shorea robusta, Smilax ovalifolia, Solanum torvum, Spatholobus parviflorus, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia tomentosa, Uncaria sessilifructus, Zingiber montanum 24 Neoplasm Cancer Asparagus racemosus,Butea monosperma 2 Nervous System Disorders Nervous problems Zingiber montanum 1 Nutritional Disorders Tonic Alstonia scholaris, Asparagus racemosus, Bauhinia vahlii, Calamus erectus, Centella asiatica, Mangifera indica, Morus alba, Murraya koenigii, Musa paradisica, Phyllanthus emblica, Tinospora sinensis 11 Poisonings Caterpillar sting, insect bite, snake bite Caryota urens, Cassia fistula , Centella asiatica, Clerodendrum viscosum, Polygonum molle, Rauvolfia serpentina, Sida rhombifolia 7 Pregnancy /Birth/ Puerpuerium Disorders Abortifacient, breast engorgement, delay expulsion of placenta, lactation stimulant, prevent miscarriage Asparagus racemosus, Achyranthes aspera, Butea monosperma, Mentha spicata, Sida rhombifolia, 5 Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 16 Bhattarai Ailment categories Name of ailments Name of plant species in each category No. of plant spp. Respiratory System Disorders Asthma, cough, cough- cold, sore throat, deepening of voice, pneumonia, respiratory problems, sinusitis Achyranthes aspera, Acorus calamus, Aegle marmelos, Bauhinia vahlii, Centella asiatica, Cinnamomum tamala, Cissus repanda, Colebrookea oppositifolia, Curcuma longa, Drymaria cordata, Etlingera linguiformis, Mimosa pudica, Myrica esculenta, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Ocotea lancifolia, Oroxylum indicum, Phyllanthus emblica, Piper longum, Piper mullesua, Piper nigrum, Pogostemon benghalensis, Spondias pinnata, Stephania japonica, Syzygium kurzii, Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia chebula, Vitex negundo 27 Sensory System Disorders Conjunctivitis, corneal opacity Euphorbia royleana, Piper nigrum 2 Skin/ Subcutaneous Cellular Tissue Disorders Boils, burn and scalds, cracks and sores, cut and wound, dandruff, rashes on tongue/ mouth, skin diseases/ lesions, stinging irritation of Clocosia, vitiligo ("seto dubi") Achyranthes aspera, Aerva sanguinolenta, Ageratina adenophora, Aloe vera, Alstonia scholaris, Antidesma acidum, Artocarpus lakoocha, Azadirachta indica, Caryota urens, Centella asiatica, Curcuma longa, Eclipta prostrata, Euphorbia heterophylla, Ficus racemosa, Justicia adhatoda, Lygodium flexuosum, Magnolia champaca, Mimosa pudica, Molineria crassifolia, Moringa oleifera, Mucuna macrocarpa, Mussaenda macrophylla, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Oroxylum indicum, Pogostemon benghalensis, Poranopsis paniculata, Premna barbata, Sapindus mukorossi, Scoparia dulcis, Senna sophera, Sida rhombifolia, Spatholobus parviflorus, Thunbergia coccinea, Thysanolaena maxima 34 Unspecified Chest pain, dizziness, headache, internal wound, nasal bleeding Drymaria cordata, Sida rhombifolia, Syzygium cumini, Vitex negundo, Zingiber montanum 5 Plant parts used, their preparation and administration Different parts of these plants were reported to be used for ethno medicinal purpose. The most commonly used parts of the plants were found to be the leaves and tender shoots (48 spp.), followed by root/rhizome (41 spp.), fruit/pulp (35 spp.), bark (25 spp.), stem (17 spp.), flowers (13 spp.), seeds (11 spp.), gel/latex/sap (6 spp.) while thewholepartsof 4 spp. were reported to be used (Figure 3). Fig. 3: Usability and frequency of the plant parts used Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 17 Bhattarai The study revealed that the plant parts were mostly used as paste (63 spp.), followed by raw/ chewable (45 spp.), juice (34 spp.), decoction (14 spp.) and powder (10 spp.). The young shoot and fruits of some species like Lasia spinosa, Moringa oleifera, Piper longum and Smilax ovalifolia were even used as curry and some other species were used as tea, infusion, ash, fume/scent/vapour, chew stick, fomentation and adhesive (Figure 4). Internal consumption as well as external applications are involved in administration of medicines. It was found that the most common method of administration was oral (66%, 128 spp.) followed by external or topical application (32%, 62 spp.), and inhalation (2%, 3 spp.). In the study area, 95 plant species were collected from wild while the remaining 21 species were domesticated in kitchen garden or cultivated in farm-land. Fig. 4: No. of plant species in different modes of drug preparation Discussion Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants The frequent use of tree species as source of medicine is a common phenomenon in the low- altitudinal regions like the present study site, which indicates the better abundance and year- round availability of such resources. The studies conducted by Singh (2017) in Parsa district and other tropical region (Raj et al., 2018) also reported the similar trend. The families 'Leguminosae' and 'Lamiaceae' have accounted for highest number of medicinal plants, which could be due to their species richness. Other studies (Bhattarai & Acharya, 2015; Singh et al., 2018; Pradhan et al., 2020) carried out in different parts of the country also revealed the similar trends. Most of the people in study area were farmers, and so they had to depend upon the forest resources for food, fodder/forage, agricultural tools, pesticides, fermenting agent and construction materials along with different religious and environmental activities. The scenario of using the highest number of plants for digestive system disorders showed that there is high frequency of occurrence of this group of ailments, and better exchange of information among the informants for their treatment (Heinrich et al., 1998). Local people had to use sharp tools and work with mud during farming, leading to frequent problem of skin diseases, cuts/wounds, boils/infections, and so on. These problems were tried to be solved by the recognized healer of their own community by using the plants found in their surroundings, and so, they had cultural belief in folk medicine. Though the indigenous population is less as compared to the immigrants, the existing knowledge on ethnomedicine is rich, which may be due to the social interaction among the communities (Gaoue et al., 2017), resulting in accumulation and sharing of knowledge among themselves (Medeiros et al., 2012). The similarities in the uses of plants with the findings of the previous researchers (Oli et al. 2005; Poudel, 2009; Subba et al., 2016; Bhattarai, 2017; Bhattarai, 2018) from the same region indicates the highly reliable pharmacological effectiveness of the reported plants. In the case of herbaceous plants, the whole parts were used for preparation of remedies. Fresh parts were preferred if remedies contain essential oils, the concentration of which could be lost on drying (Giday et al., 2009). The plant parts were dried and stored for future need as well. The common use of young leaves and tender shoots could be due to the relative ease of collection, simplicity of preparation, and are more likely to have alkaloids with more medicinal value than older ones (Coley et al., 2003). The leaves of the herbaceous plants were shown to be the most commonly utilized parts in other studies (Malla et al., 2015; Bhattarai & Khadka, 2016) as well. On the contrary, some studies carried out in the highland areas of western Nepal (Rokaya et al., 2010; Budha-Magar et al., 2020), central Nepal (Shrestha et al., 2014; Tamang et al., 2017) and eastern Nepal (Limbu & Rai, 2013; Shrestha et al., 2016) reported that roots were the most widely used parts, and this might be related to the culture and environmental condition of the area. Moreover, collecting leaf parts for medicinal Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 18 Bhattarai purpose is usually not a threat to the survival of plants as compared to the use of whole parts, roots, and stem barks (Giday et al., 2003; Bekalo et al., 2009). In the study area, the removal of under ground parts was one of the major causes of declination and rare occurrence of the population of Asparagus racemosus, Etlingera linguiformis and Rauvolfia serpentina. In this study, paste was the most common form of preparation followed by raw/chewable, juice, decoction, powder, cooked, tea, infusion, ash, fume/scent/vapour, chew stick, fomentation and adhesive tape. All these preparations resemble the findings of the previous studies (Rokaya et al., 2010; Bhattarai, 2018; Adhikari et al., 2019; Khadka et al., 2020) carried out in Nepal. Such a diverse preparation may contain single or multiple plant species. Meragiaw et al. (2016) reported that combined use of several plant species to treat specific ailments was considered important to increase the strength and effectiveness of the remedies. It was also found that one species might be used to treat a single ailment or a number of ailments. In general, one ailment can be cured by using several plant species. The idea that several species can be used for the same purpose are predicted to experience less impact as the use pressure is diffused across a greater number of species (Albuquerque & de Oliveira, 2007). The use of individual medicinal plants to cure a single disease was less in number. Limbu & Rai (2013) reported that oral and topical modes of administrations were easiest and most effective in delivering bioactive compounds into the body. In this study, medications for fracture were reported to be applied by multiple modes (oral and topical) for betterment and fast recovery. Threat to medicinal plants and their conservation Different people have different perception regarding the available plants. Some perceive them as nothing, just natural objects to earn money, whereas others take them as resources for their socio-cultural and other use value in their life (Poudel, 2009). In the present study area, medicinal plants used by the community were found to be unsustainable. Only 18% of the plants were either domesticated in kitchen garden or cultivated in farm land. The plants with additional use value in terms of timber, fodder and firewood were found to be the most threatened. In addition to this, logging, grazing, forest encroachment, illegal collection, and forest fire were accelerating the threatened rate of all the plant species. The loss of resources and habitat has disrupted the social and ecological context within which the communities have made use of their traditional knowledge (Venkataraman & Latha, 2008). The knowledge of medicinal plant species for their correct identification and treating various ailments was found low among the young generations as in the previous studies conducted by Luintel et al. (2014), Bhattarai (2018) and Pradhan et al. (2020) in Nepal. The knowledge of medicinal plants use was largely associated with common ailments in the area. However, the plants for the treatment of nervous problems, genito-urinary system disorders, pregnancy/birth related problems, cancer, etc. were rare, and were familiar only to the traditional healers and a few local community members. This indicates the issue of knowledge erosion due to modern medicine and other reasons including socio-cultural issues and over exploitation as indicated by Wanjohi et al. (2020) in Kenya. In the study area, the local government should ensure adequate income to the community healers and support in cultivation of medicinal plants for effective conservation of biodiversity and traditional knowledge. Comparison of the reported uses and novelty of work The comparison of uses with different existing studies showed that there are novel uses of some plants which were still not yet reported. By comparing the uses of 116 plants, 7 plants were newly reported as ethnomedicinal plants in Nepal, because these were not reported as medicinal plants in the previous available literatures so far. The documentation on ethnomedicinal use of Caryota urens, Cissus repanda, Etlingera linguiformis, Gladiolus sp., Ocotea lancifolia, Pterospermum acerifolium and Syzygium kurzii were newly reported in Nepal, but were already reported in other countries. However, Ghimeray et al. (2010) reported the food value of stem-pith and terminal leaf bud of Caryota urens from Ilam. Similarly, 5 plants have novel uses against ailments which were not reported elsewhere. The uses of Mussenda macrophylla in leucoderma, Tetrastigma bracteolatum in diphtheria, Pogostemon benghalensis in mental disorder, Premna barbata in jaundice and Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 19 Bhattarai Ziziphus jujuba in measles were not reported elsewhere, and so these need to be confirmed further. Out of the 116 plants, 104 plants have similar uses in different parts of Nepal with 13 plants having additional uses which were unreported in Nepal, but were already reported by a number of international literatures. The plant Achyranthes aspera was found additionally to be used against pneumonia which was reported by Hasan (2014). Similarly, Alstonia scholaris was used for female sterility (Choudhary et al., 2017) and against sores (Pankti et al., 2012), Asparagus racemosus was used against fracture (Bantawa & Rai, 2009) and in cancer (Mitra et al., 2012). Likewise, Butea monosperma against cancer, Cassia fistula against snake bite, Curcuma longa in sprain and fracture, Mimosa pudica against jaundice, Neolamarckia cadamba against inflammation, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis against high blood pressure, Oroxylum indicum against sore throat, Sapindus mukorossi against boils and skin lesions, Smilax ovalifolia against diarrhea/dysentery and Uncaria sessilifructus against arthritis and fracture were also reported and supported by international literatures. Traditional knowledge and intellectual property rights Traditional knowledge (TK) is a knowledge that consists of tradition-based innovations and creations that originate from indigenous and local communities, and are used within themselves. Because its generation, preservation and transmission are based on cultural traditions, it is integral to the cultural identity of the social group in which it operates and is preserved (Girsberger, 2004). TK is collective in nature, and is often considered as the property of the entire community and not belonging to any single individual within the community. It is transmitted orally through elders or specialists, and often to only a selected people within a community (Hansen & Van Fleet, 2003). Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are the legal protections given to protect TK. TK, its protection and its interrelationship with IPRs have been the subject of international debate for several years. This debate covers issues mainly in protection of the environment and conservation of biological diversity; access to genetic resources and fair & equitable sharing of the benefits arising from their use; and the rights of indigenous and local communities. IPRs should guarantee both an individual’s and a group’s right to protect and benefit from its own cultural discoveries, creations, and products. TK and natural resources are still under the threats of both unethical uses by outsiders as well as bio-piracy without sharing benefits and assuring rights of the knowledge and practices (Aryal et al., 2016). Therefore, there is an urgent need for registration and patenting of knowledge along with comprehensive studies for documentation and sustainable management of the existing resources. In this study, different types of formulations of 116 plant species with 5 spp. of novel uses, including 7 newly reported ones should be registered as community asset. These findings should be scientifically confirmed for protectiong their IPRs. Conclusion Present study area is rich in medicinal plants where 7 species were newly reported in Nepal with medicinal potentials. Several plant species were threatened due to unsustainable harvesting, deforestation, habitat degradation, urbanization and cultural transformation. The uses of medicinal plants to cure ailments were found less frequent due to availability of modern medicine along with inappropriate government policies. Threfore, there is an urgent need to develop a database of medicinal plants, legal provisions for registration of TK, and creating intellectual property rights through scientific validation of TK. This provisions help for benefit sharing and conservation of ethnobotanical knowledge. Acknowledgments I am grateful to the Department of Plant Resources (DPR) for providing opportunity to carry out this study. I am thankful to the participants and local community of Mai Municipality, Ilam for their sharing of information. I would like to thank Mr. M. K. Khadka for preparing map of the study area; Mr. D. Bam, Mr. G. Dhimal, Mr. M. Rai, Mr. K. B. Khati and Mrs. J. Niraula for helping in the field work and plant collection; and Dr. M. B. Rokaya and Dr. R. M. 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(2002). WHO traditional medicine strategy 2002–2005. World Health Organization, Geneva. The Plant list. (2013). Www. Theplantlist. Org. Retrieved on September 14, 2020.https://www.theplantlist.org Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 24 Bhattarai Annex 1: List of ethnomedicinal plant species documented in Mai Municipality, Ilam S. N. Botanical name; Family; Local name Plant category; Type Parts used Preparation type Mode of application Ethnomedicinal uses Other uses 1 Acacia pennata (L.) Willd.; Leguminosae; Arari Kanda D; Sh Root-bark Paste Topical Sprain, fracture Barrier, hedge; fodder 2 Achyranthes aspera L.; Amaranthaceae; Datiwon/apamarga D; H Root Paste Oral Pneumonia; fever; typhoid; sore throat; to fasten the expulsion of placenta after birth Forage; used in Hindu culture, "Teej" Raw Topical (tied on outer end of placenta) To accelerate the expulsion of placenta after birth (Cattle), abortifacient (root inserted in uterus) Topical Skin diseases (wound and lesions) Stem Chew-stick Topical (As tooth brush) Relieve from dental problems and pyorrhoea 3 Acorus calamus L.; Acoraceae; Bojho Mo; H Rhizome Raw (chewable) Oral Cough, Deepening of voice, stomach disorder (diarrhoea and dysentery) Plant pest control 4 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa; Rutaceae; Bel/Sitalu D; T Leaf, tender shoot Raw Oral Bad breath; anthelmintic, mild laxative Wild fruit; fruit used as polisher to smoothen the "Nepali-kagaj" by rubbing because fruit contains latex., leaves offered to Shiva Root, leaf Paste Oral Pneumonia and fever of children Fruit Juice, raw Oral Diabetes; gastritis, diarrhoea 5 Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume; Amaranthaceae; Iteen jhar D; H Leaf Juice Topical Cut-wound Ornamental 6 Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M.King & H.Rob.; Compositae; Kali jhar/Ilame jhar D; H Leaf Juice Topical Cut-wound Forage 7 Aloe vera* (L.) Burm. f.; Asphodelaceae; Ghyu Kumari Mo; H Gel Raw Topical Burn and scalds, cut and wound Gel is used as substitute of shaving creamOral Gastritis, high blood pressure, diabetes, piles, constipation, jundice, ulcer Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 25 Bhattarai S. N. Botanical name; Family; Local name Plant category; Type Parts used Preparation type Mode of application Ethnomedicinal uses Other uses 8 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.; Apocynaceae; Chhatiwon D; T Tender shoot Juice Oral Sore throat Fodder; wood is used to make "madal", "dhol", and "theki"as it is light. Trunk is used as feeding container for cattle. Bark Powder, raw Oral Tonic (promote weight gain in cattle); cause sterility effect on female cattle. Paste Topical Healing cracks and sores, boils 9 Antidesma acidum Retz.; Phyllanthaceae; Archal D; Sh Tender shoot, leaf Raw Oral Stinging irritation on tongue by eating Clocosia sp. Fruit and tender shoot is eaten directly or used to make pickle because of its sour taste; fodderRoot Paste Topical Skin lesions "khatira"; cut- wound 10 Artemisiaindica Willd.; Compositae; Titepati D; Sh Leaf Juice Topical Scabies, skin lesions (wounds), Religious and incense; livestock pest controlTender shoot Raw Oral Fever 11 Artocarpus lakoocha Wall. ex Roxb.; Moraceae; Badhar D; T Latex Adhesive tape with "Nepali paper". Topical Boils Wild fruit; fodder; construction materials 12 Asparagus racemosus* Willd.; Asperagaceae; Kurilo Mo; H Flower Decoction with cow- urine Oral Cancer Tender shoot used as vegetable; used in rituals Tender shoot Cooked Oral Tonic, lactation stimulant Tuberous root Paste (along with stem of P. paniculata, root of D. multiflorum, U. sessilifructus, A. pennata, seed of L. sativum; slug and red soil) Topical In fracture 13 Azadirachta indica A. Juss.; Meliaceae; Neem D; T Leaf, bark Decoction Oral Fever Furniture, construction; plant pest control; ornamental Paste, powder Topical (for bathing) Skin diseases and lesions 14 Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn.; Leguminosae; Bhorla/ Gokarne D; Lianas Tender shoot Juice Oral Dysentery, diarrhoea Seed is roasted and eaten; fodder; stem used as rope, leaves used to make plate during religious work, also used to make special type of rain-coat called "ghum"; in the past, the large pods were used as slippers. Seed Roasted, baked Oral Cough and cold, tonic Bark Raw (chewable) Oral Pyorrhoea 15 Bombax ceiba L.; Malvaceae; Simal D; T Flower Paste Oral Diarrhoea, dysentery Flowers are used as vegetable; timber, fibre 16 Brucea javanica (L.) Merr.; Simaroubaceae; Bhaki-amilo D; T Fruit Powder Oral Dysentery Fodder; fruit used as souring agent in pickle. Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 26 Bhattarai S. N. Botanical name; Family; Local name Plant category; Type Parts used Preparation type Mode of application Ethnomedicinal uses Other uses 17 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.; Leguminosae; Palans D; T Bark Paste Topical Sprain, fracture Flowers are used to offer Gods; stem is used as "samidha" (fire wood) or used to make "suro" (a spathula shaped tool) for religious works. Used as "buti"by pregnant women in the belief of prevention of miscarriage). Juice Oral Cancer Flower, Leaf Paste Topical Burn 18 Calamus erectus Roxb.; Arecaceae; Phyakre Mo; Sh. Ripe fruits Raw Oral Tonic Wild fruit; used for making baskets and comb 19 Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl; Lamiaceae; Guyelo D; T Bark Paste, raw (chewable) Oral Muscular pain, body pain Wild fruit; fodder; fierwood Fruit Raw Oral Fever 20 Calotropis gigantea (L.)Dryand.; Asclepiadaceae; Ank D; Sh Leaf Fomentation (heated lightly on fire) Topical Muscular pain, inflammation and fracture Social use; fibre and fur 21 Caryota urens L.;Arecaceae; Machha Jode/ Rangbang Mo; T Leaf, bark Paste Topical Cut-wound, boils, snake bite Ornamental 22 Cassia fistula L.; Leguminosae; Raj brikchha D; T Seed, Fruit pulp Paste Topical Snake bite Fodder; furniture, construction materials; leaf is used to ripen banana and jack fruit; Ornamental Fruit-bark Ash Topical (as tooth powder ) Dental problems Fruit pulp Raw Oral Diarrhoea, vomiting (in diarrhoea pulp from basal portion of fruit is eaten whereas in vomiting, pulp from apical portion is eaten) Seed, Fruit pulp Infusion Oral Painful urination (dysuria), hematuria; constipation 23 Centellaasiatica (L.) Urb.; Apiaceae; Ghodtapre D; H Leaf Juice, Paste Topical Cut and wound, used against caterpillar sting ("Dhokre" infection) Curry; forage Raw Oral Heat illness (burning urination), gastritis, pneumonia, fever, jaundice, tonic, urinary problems Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 27 Bhattarai S. N. Botanical name; Family; Local name Plant category; Type Parts used Preparation type Mode of application Ethnomedicinal uses Other uses 24 Cheilocostus speciosus (J.Koenig) C.D.Specht; Costaceae; Bet lauri Mo; H Stem Juice Oral Sore throat, urinary problems Stem is used during the ritual, "Kirati" use the stem during "Kul puja/Shiva puja". 25 Cinnamomum tamala* (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm.; Lauraceae; Tejpat D; T Leaf, bark Raw (chewable), tea Oral Stomach disorders, cough- cold Condiment 26 Cissus repanda (Wight & Arn.) Vahl; Vitaceae; Pani lahara D; Lianas Sap Raw (drinkable) Oral Pneumonia; Reduce heat illness (hyperthermia) Fodder; stem used as rope 27 Citrus aurantifolia* (Christ.) Swingle; Rutaceae; Kagati D; Sh Fruit Juice Oral Indigestion, anorexia Fruit, pickle; souring agent 28 Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.; Lamiaceae; Bhanti D; Sh Root Paste Topical Snake bite 29 Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm.; Lamiaceae; Dhusuro D; T Root Juice Oral Pneumonia, fever Leaves and inflorescence used for ripening of banana. Leaf Juice Topical Corneal opacity in cattle Flower Decoction with newly delivered cow-urine Oral Menstrual disorder 30 Curcuma aromatica Salisb.; Zingiberaceae; Kalo haledo/ ban besar Mo; H Rhizome Paste, raw (chewable) Topical Sprain and fracture Used in "buti" Oral Food poisoning ("nas-kapat"), indigestion, heat illness (hyperthermia) 31 Curcuma longa* L.; Zingiberaceae; Besar Mo; H Rhizome Powder, tea Oral Fever, cough- cold, liver disorder (jaundice) Condiment Paste Topical Wound, inflammation 32 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.; Convolvulaceae; Binajadi D; Cl Whole plant Paste Oral Jaundice 33 Desmodium multiflorum DC.; Leguminosae; Bhatamanse D ; Sh Root Paste Oral Muscular pain, body pain Fodder 34 Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. Ex Griseb.; Dioscoreaceae; Vyakur D; Cl Root/ Tuber Paste Oral Diphtheria (in cattle) Vegetable 35 Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. Ex Roem. & Schult.; Caryophyllaceae; Abijalo D; H Leaf, stem Fume/scent, warm- juice Dropped in nostril or scent inhaled Nasal bleeding, sinusitis Forage Juice Oral Pneumonia Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 28 Bhattarai S. N. Botanical name; Family; Local name Plant category; Type Parts used Preparation type Mode of application Ethnomedicinal uses Other uses 36 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.; Compositae; Bhringa raj/Bhumi raj D; H Root, stem, leaf Juice, paste Topical, oral Cut and wound; fracture Use as dye for making ink and colouring hair.Juice Oral Heat illness (hyperthermia), urinary problems (burning urination) 37 Elaeocarpus serratus* L.; Elaeocarpaceae; Rudrakshya D; T Bark Juice Oral Jaundice Sacred plant Seed Paste Oral Pneumonia, ulcer 38 Etlingera linguiformis (Roxb.) R.M.Sm.; Zingiberaceae; Madhu Mo; H Fresh Rhizome Raw Oral Cough-cold, sore throat, tonsilitis, burning sensation in stomach Rhizome used as flavouring agent in alcohol preparation due to its pleasant smell; fodder Dried rhizome Raw Oral Deepening of voice 39 Euphorbia heterophylla L.; Euphorbiaceae; Dudhe D; H Latex Raw Topical Cut-wound Forage 40 Euphorbia royleana* Boiss.; Euphorbiaceae; Siudi D; T Latex, stem- Pulp. Raw Topical Conjunctivitis or cloudiness of eye (latex is applied carefully on temper of opposite side of infected eye) Protect house from thunder and lightning; bio- fence Baked (mix latex or stem pulp with rice grain, cover in leaf and baked on hot ash.) Oral Anorexia, stomach disorder, food poisoning ("Nas-kapat") 41 Ficus racemosa L.; Moraceae; Dumri D; T Latex Raw Topical Skin lesions, boils Ripe fruits are eaten; fodder 42 Gladiolus sp.; Iridaceae; Tarbare phool Mo; H Stem-bulb Paste Oral Diarrhoea and dysentery Ornamental 43 Gonostegia hirta (Blume ex Hassk.) Miq.; Urticaceae; Chiple D; H Root Paste Topical Fracture, inflammation Vegetable; forage 44 Hibiscus sabdariffa* L.; Malvaceae; Lalchan/Belchan D; H Fruit Infusion Oral Diarrhoea and dysentery (of both man and cattle) Seeds are roasted to make pickle; fibre 45 Justicia adhatoda L.; Acanthaceae; Asuro D; Sh Flower Tea Oral High blood pressure Hedge plant, leaves used as compostLeaf Decoction Oral Fever Paste Topical (for bathing) Skin lesions 46 Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.; Lythraceae; Bot dhairo D; T Bark Paste Oral Fracture Fodder; fire wood 47 Lasia spinosa (L.) Thwaites; Araceae; Morange sag Mo; H Leaf Cooked as curry Oral Piles, used as anthelmintic Vegetable Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 29 Bhattarai S. N. Botanical name; Family; Local name Plant category; Type Parts used Preparation type Mode of application Ethnomedicinal uses Other uses 48 Lepidium sativum* L.; Brassicaceae; Chamsur D; H Seed Cooked with milk Oral Fracture, body ache Vegetable 49 Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth ex Schult.; Campanulaceae; Eklebir D; H Root Paste Oral Food poisoning ("Nas-kapat") for adults, not for children. 50 Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw.; Lygodiaceae; Lahare unu, Janai laharo Pt; Cl Whole plant Paste Topical Sprain and fracture, cut and wound Tender shoot used as vegetable; fodder; used as bedding materials of cattle; used in "buti"for children. 51 Maesa macrophylla Wall. ex Roxb.; Primulaceae; Bhogate D; Sh Tender shoot Paste Oral Dysentery Seeds are used as substitute of millet for preparation of local alcoholic beverage; root is used as fermenting agent. 52 Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre; Magnoliaceae; Chanp D; T Bark Paste Topical Cut-wound Furniture, construction; ornamental 53 Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Müll.Arg.; Euphorbiaceae; Sindure D; T Stem-bark Decoction Oral Gastric problems, diarrhoea, used against heat illness (hyperthermia) Fodder; fuel- wood. 54 Mangifera indica* L.; Anacardiaceae; Aanp D; T Bark Paste Oral Urinary problems (hematuria) Fruits and pickle; fodder; fuel wood; religious. Unripe Fruit Paste Oral Anorexia Ripe Fruit Paste Oral Tonic, piles 55 Melastoma melabathricum L.; Melastomataceae; Kaali angeri D; Sh Ripe Fruit Raw Oral Dysentery Ripe fruits are eaten raw. 56 Menthaspicata* L.; Lamiaceae; Pudina D; H Leaf Paste Oral Heat illness (burning urination), anorexia, breast engorgement of lactating women. Leaves are used as pickle. 57 Mimosa pudica L.; Leguminosae; Lajawati/Lajime D; H Root Paste Oral Fever; Pneumonia; menstrual problems Topical Wounds, sores; dental caries. Juice (along with stem- juice of Cuscuta) Oral Jaundice 58 Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae; Lankasaani D; H Root Juice Oral Urinary problems Ornamental Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 30 Bhattarai S. N. Botanical name; Family; Local name Plant category; Type Parts used Preparation type Mode of application Ethnomedicinal uses Other uses 59 Molineria crassifolia Baker; Hypoxidaceae; Dhotisaro Mo; H Root Paste Oral Urinary problems (hematuria); gonorrhoea Ornamental Topical Boils ("Baghe khatira") 60 Moringa oleifera* Lam.; Moringaceae; Sajiwon D; T Flower, leaf Raw (chewable) Oral High blood pressure; diabetes Fruit and tender shoot used as vegetable; fodder. Root Juice Topical Healing of wound of cattle (as alternative of Prunus leaf) Fruit Cooked as curry Oral Relieve from heat illness (hyperthermia) 61 Morus alba L.; Moraceae; Kimbu D; T Root Paste Oral Menstrual disorder Ripe fruits are edible; shade giving plant.Fruit Raw Oral Tonic 62 Mucuna macrocarpa Wall.; Leguminosae; Pangra D; Lianas seed Paste Topical Skin diseases, cure dandruff Fodder 63 Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.; Rutaceae; Mitha neem D; Sh Leaf Juice Topical/spray Lice repellent to control bugs and fleas. Leaves are used as condiments; fodder for goat; bedding material for cattle; soil erosion control. Cooked (condiment) Oral Tonic 64 Musa paradisica* L.; Musaceae; Kola/ Kera Mo; H Unripe fruit Raw Oral Diarrhoea Ripe fruits are edible, flowers and unripen fruits are used as vegetable; social use. Ripe fruit Raw Oral Tonic, constipation 65 Mussaenda macrophylla Wall.; Rubiaceae; Dhobini phool D; Sh Root Juice Oral Sore throat of infant Fodder; ornamental Stem Prepare paste with "Seto dubo" (Phalaris arundinacea) and mix with buffalo's curd Topical In leucoderma/ vitiligo ("seto dubi") 66 Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don; Myricaceae; Kaphal D; T Bark Fume (burn on fire) Inhale Sinusitis Wild fruit; fodder; material for furniture and construction. 67 Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser; Rubiaceae; Karam/Kadam D; T Bark Paste Oral Inflammation, fracture Construction material, social use (religious plant) 68 Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C. Presl; Nephrolepidaceae; Pani amala Pt; H Root/ Tuber Raw Oral Menorrhagia (over bleeding in menstruation); heat illness (hyperthermia), urinary problems Ornamental 69 Nyctanthes arbor- tristis* L. ; Oleaceae; Parijat D; T Flower Raw Oral High blood pressure Flowers are used as curry; religious plant. 70 Ocimum tenuiflorum* L.; Lamiaceae; Tulsi D; H Leaf, flower, whole plant Decoction Oral Fever; pneumonia; rashes on tongue or mouth. Religious plant Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 31 Bhattarai S. N. Botanical name; Family; Local name Plant category; Type Parts used Preparation type Mode of application Ethnomedicinal uses Other uses 71 Ocotea lancifolia (Schott) Mez; Lauraceae; Jhankri syauli D; T Leaf, tender shoot, bark Juice Oral Sore throat, constipation, piles, Painful urination (dysuria), respiratory problems Fodder; agricultural tools; faith healing 72 Oroxylum indicum* (L.) Kurz; Bignoniaceae; Tatelo/totala D; T Stem-bark Paste Topical Burn, wound, fracture Social useAsh Topical Fast healing of burnt wound Flower Ash Oral Pneumonia, sore throat 73 Phyllanthus acidus* (L.) Skeels; Euphorbiaceae; Kansi amala/ Madhise amala D; T Fruit Raw Oral Heat illness (hyperthermia) Fruits are eaten fresh or pickled. 74 Phyllanthus emblica L.; Phyllanthaceae; Amala D; T Fruit Raw Oral Cough-cold; tonic, tonic to teeth. Fruits are eaten fresh or pickled; twigs used as fire wood ("samidha") during fire ritual i.e. "Yagya/hom / hawan". Fruit/Bark Juice Oral Gastritis 75 Piper longum L. Piperaceae; Pipla D; Cl Stem Paste Oral Gastritis Condiment Fruit Cooked (in milk) Oral Cough 76 Piper mullesua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don; Piperaceae; Chabo D; Cl Stem, fruit Powder Oral Asthma, cough Fodder Stem Chew stick Topical (brush) Toothache, bad breath Leaves eaten or used as betel; fodder 77 Piper nigrum* L.; Piperaceae; Marich D; Cl Seed Powder, tea Oral Cough-cold CondimentChew to make powder in mouth Topical (breathe out scented warm air) Corneal opacity 78 Pogostemon benghalensis (Burm. f.) Kuntze; Lamiaceae; Rudhilo D; H Root Juice Oral Mental disorder Fodder; manure.Leaf, stem Tea Oral Stomach disorders; cough-cold and pneumonia Leaf Juice Topical Cut-wound, lice/ fleas repellent 79 Polygonum molle D. Don; Polygonaceae; Thotne D; Sh Stem Juice Topical Insect bite Tender shoot used as vegetable; fodderPaste Oral Diarrhoea 80 Poranopsis paniculata (Roxb.) Roberty; Convolvulaceae; Sikari laharo D; Lianas Stem Paste Topical, Oral Sprain, fracture, body pain, inflammation due to accident. Fodder Topical Cut-wound 81 Premna barbata Wall. ex Schauer; Lamiaceae; Gineri D; Sh Leaf Juice Topical Skin diseases, leaf juice is sprayed on fowl, cattle to remove fleas ("Sulsule"). Fodder; bedding material for cattle. Root Juice Oral Jaundice Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 32 Bhattarai S. N. Botanical name; Family; Local name Plant category; Type Parts used Preparation type Mode of application Ethnomedicinal uses Other uses 82 Psidium guajavaL*.; Myrtaceae; Amba/ Ambak D; T Bark Paste Oral Diarrhoea and dysentery Fruit plant 83 Pterospermum acerifolium (L.) Willd.; Malvaceae; Hatti paila D; T Root Decoction prepared by cooking along with stem of U. sessilifructus and P. paniculata; bark of O. indicum, T. chebula, S. robusta, L. parviflora, N. cadamba and T. tomentosa is eaten for 1-2 months. Oral Fracture, inflammation Fodder; fuel- wood; furniture, rope, leaf plate. 84 Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz; Apocynaceae; Chand marauwa/ Sarpa gandha D; Sh Root Raw (chewable) Oral Fever, malaria, jaundice, high blood pressure, mental disorder Ornamental Paste Topical Snake bite 85 Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.; Sapindaceae; Ritha D; T Seed Paste of kernel Topical Boils, pimples, skin diseases Fruits used as soap substitute, timber 86 Scoparia dulcis L.; Plantaginaceae; Chini jhar/Ambake jhar/Khareto jhar D; H Leaf, root Paste, raw Oral Sore throat, tonsillitis, green diarrhoea of infant ("saruwa"), diabetes, burning urination, heat illness (hyperthermia) Used to prepare fermenting cake, "marcha" Paste Topical Cut-wound and lesions 87 Senna sophera (L.) Roxb; Leguminosae; Tapre D; Sh Root, Leaf Paste Topical Cut-wound, skin diseases 88 Shorea robusta Gaertn.; Dipterocarpaceae; Saal/Sakhuwa D; T Bark Paste Oral Diarrhoea, dysentery; fracture Fodder; timber plant; fuel-wood; leaves used to make plates.Topical Fracture 89 Sida acuta Burm.f.; Malvaceae; Kuchi jhar/Satamuli D; Sh Root Juice Oral Sore throat, fever Fodder; used as fermenting agent; used as "buti" in the sickness of cattle. Raw (chewable) Oral anorexia, stomach disorders, food poisoning ("Nas- kapat") Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 33 Bhattarai S. N. Botanical name; Family; Local name Plant category; Type Parts used Preparation type Mode of application Ethnomedicinal uses Other uses 90 Sida rhombifolia L.; Malvaceae; Sano Khareto jhar D; Sh Leaf Paste Topical Wounds, boils, skin lesions, breast engorgement in cattle and women, Infection of caterpillar hairs. Used as broom Juice, tea Oral Headache, high blood pressure, deepening of voice, to cure internal wounds. Root Juice Oral Diarrhoea 91 Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex D.Don.; Smilacaceae; Kukur daino M; Cl Leaf Fomentation (heated on fire) Topical Sprain and fracture Tender shoot used as vegetable; used during the ritual in Shrawan 1st ("Luto phalne"),stem is hanged on ceiling in the belief of prevent from evil eyes ("ched- bhed"). Tender shoot Cooked as curry or decoction Oral Diarrhoea and dysentery 92 Solanum torvum Sw.; Solanaceae; Ban bihi D; H Whole plant Decoction Oral Urinary problems (hematuria) Fruit edible. Paste Topical Joint pain 93 Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi; Cucurbitaceae; Gol kankri D; Cl. Fruit Raw Oral Reduce heat illness (hyperthermia) Ripe fruits are eaten fresh; fodder. 94 Spatholobus parviflorus (DC.) Kuntze; Leguminosae; Debre lahara D; Lianas Stem and leaf Decoction Topical Cut and wound; fracture Fodder; fibre. 95 Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz; Anacardiaceae; Amaru D; T Fruit Raw Oral Pneumonia; dysentery Wild fruit 96 Stephania glandulifera Miers; Menispermaceae; Gujar gano/Tamarke D; Cl Root bulb Paste Oral Diabetes, kidney problems; stomach disorders Fodder; root bulb is used as feeding container for cattle; veterinary medicine 97 Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers; Menispermaceae; Batulpate D; Cl Leaf Powder Oral Cough Fodder Root/ Tuber Paste Oral Gastritis 98 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels; Myrtaceae; Jamun D; T Fruit Powder, ripe fruits-raw Oral (eaten with honey) Gastritis, diarrhoea Fruits edible; fodder; firewood; construction materials. Bark Paste Oral Chest pain Leaf Decoction Topical (massage) Body ache Seed Infusion Oral Diabetes 99 Syzygium kurzii (Duthie) N.P.Balakr.; Myrtaceae; Amaru/ ambake D; T Fruit Raw Oral Pneumonia Fruit plant Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 34 Bhattarai S. N. Botanical name; Family; Local name Plant category; Type Parts used Preparation type Mode of application Ethnomedicinal uses Other uses 100 Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston; Myrtaceae; Gulab jamun/Fandir D; T Fruit Raw (ripe fruits) Oral Relieve from heat illness (hyperthermia) Fruit plant; fodder; fuel-wood. 101 Tamarindus indica L.; Leguminosae; Imali/Titri D; T Fruit Raw Oral Indigestion, anorexia Ripe fruits are pickled; construction materialsSeed Powder Oral Diarrhoea and dysentery 102 Tectaria sp.; Tectariaceae; kali niguro Pt; H Root Paste Oral Diarrhoea and dysentery Young frond used as vegetable. 103 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.; Combretaceae; Barro D; T Fruit Powder/raw Oral Gastritis; cough Fodder; timber; fire-wood. 104 Terminalia chebula Retz.; Combretaceae; Harro D; T Fruit Powder/raw Oral Cough; gastritis and constipation. Timber; fire-wood. Bark Paste Topical Fracture 105 Terminalia tomentosa Wight & Arn.; Combretaceae; Saj/ asna D; T Bark Paste Oral Fracture; diarrhoea Fodder, timber, fire-wood. 106 Tetrastigma bracteolatum (Wall.) Planch.;Vitaceae; Charchare lahara D; Cl Stem Paste Oral Diphtheria Fodder 107 Thunbergia coccinea Wall. ; Acanthaceae; Kanase D; Cl Leaf, tender shoot Paste Topical Cut and wound Ornamental 108 Thysanolaena maxima* (Roxb.) Kuntze; Poaceae; Amliso Mo; Sh Root Paste Topical Boils Fodder; common broom grass and used in rituals; used in bio- engineering to control landslide. 109 Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.; Menispermaceae; Gurjo D; Cl Stem Decoction Oral Gastritis, urinary problems, tonic to cattle and human Fodder 110 Trichosanthes cucumerina L.; Cucurbitaceae; Ban ghiraula D; Cl Fruit pulp, Leaf Infusion of pulp (fibre), juice Oral Jaundice 111 Uncaria sessilifructus Roxb.; Rubiaceae; Bhainse kando D; Cl Root, stem, bark Paste Topical Arthritis, sprain and fracture Fodder for goat; root is used as one of the 7 kinds of spiny plant material to prepare "buti" for young children to cure "moch/runche lageko". 112 Vitex negundo L.; Lamiaceae; Simali D; Sh Leaf Rubbed; paste heated on fire Inhale scent; Inhale vapour Headache; sinusitis Fuel-wood; used as support for twiner and climber crops; hedge plant, landslide control. Decoction Oral Jaundice Infusion Oral Gout (joint problems due to uric acid) Banko Janakari, Vol 30 No. 2 35 Bhattarai S. N. Botanical name; Family; Local name Plant category; Type Parts used Preparation type Mode of application Ethnomedicinal uses Other uses 113 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz.; Lythraceae; Dhayero D; Sh Flower Juice, powder, raw Oral Dysentery; sore throat Fuel-wood; soil stability in steep land. 114 Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb.; Apocynaceae; Rani Khirro D; T Bark Decoction Oral Piles Timber, agricultural tools. 115 Zingiber montanum* (J.Koenig) Link ex A.Dietr.; Zingiberaceae; Phachhayang Mo; H Rhizome Raw (chewable) Oral Diarrhoea, food poisoning ("Nas- kapat") Protect from evil spirit ("Bhut pret lageko, bachha Jhaskane, sato jane bhaya ma rhizome ko buti badhne; dewa lageko ma nidhar ra sarir ma ghasne"). Raw Oral, topical Headache; nervous problems (contraction and nodule formation of nerves); joint pain; dizziness; fracture 116 Ziziphus jujuba Mill.; Rhamnaceae; Bayar D; Sh Root Decoction Oral Fever Wild fruit; used as bio-fence.Leaf Tea Oral Diabetes Seed Paste Oral Measles Note: Cl = Climber; D = Dicotyledon; H = Herb; Mo = Monocotyledon; Pt = Pteridophyte; Sh = Shrub; T= Tree; * = Domesticated plant (in kitchen-garden or farm-land).