




































 Drew & Mudzingwa 1 

BC TEAL Journal Volume 3 Number 1 (2018): 1–21 

 

The Portfolio-based Language Assessment Model:  

Perceptions of Adult Immigrant English Language Learners 

 

Ryan Drew 

 

Calisto Mudzingwa 

 

Abstract 

 

This research investigated students’ perceptions of the Portfolio-Based Language Assessment 

(PBLA) model used in the government-funded Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada 

(LINC) program. A mixed methods approach was used in order to obtain results with a broader 

perspective of the students’ perceptions of PBLA. Data were collected from 70 participants, 

using self-administered questionnaires with room for extensive comments. The participants were 

adult immigrants attending LINC classes at a non-profit organization in Metro Vancouver, 

British Columbia, Canada. Participants responded to questions on the usefulness of different 

features of PBLA and the PBLA model as a whole. Overall, the participants had positive 

perceptions of PBLA and indicated that it was helpful in their English language learning journey. 

It is hoped that this study will generate discussion amongst learners, educators, government 

officials, and scholars regarding the value of PBLA in the LINC program and how to improve its 

implementation. 

 

Introduction 

 

Over the decades, new and innovative assessment approaches have been used in different 

learning and teaching milieus—from elementary schools to tertiary institutions—and in the 

teaching of English as an Additional Language (EAL) to adult immigrants in not-for-profit 

organizations. Numerous studies have examined participants’ perceptions of these assessment 

and evaluation methods, particularly in tertiary institutions (Boud, & Falchikov, 2007; Dochy, 

Segers, & Sluijsmans, 1999; Entwistle & Entwistle, 1991). Entwistle and Entwistle’s (1991) 

seminal work established that students’ perceptions of the learning environment—which includes 

assessments and evaluation—influence how they learn. Despite these observations on the value 

and importance of students’ perceptions of the learning milieu, it has been observed that research 

on learners’ perceptions of PBLA is non-existent. This gap was the impetus for this study.  

 

Research Questions and Significance of the Study 

 

The central goal of this research was to document and analyze learners’ perceptions of the 

Portfolio-Based Language Assessment (PBLA) model, with the broad aim of gaining insights 

into the potential causes of such perceptions, their impact on students’ learning, and the 

implications. This research was guided by the following questions: 

 

(1) Which aspects of the PBLA model do participants perceive as beneficial to their learning 

of English? 

(2) What are the participants’ perceptions of the PBLA model as a whole?  



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 3 Number 1 (2018): 1–21 

 This paper’s target is to make significant contributions to the broader field of portfolio-

based assessment in general, and the PBLA model in particular, through a deeper understanding 

of learners’ perceptions of the PBLA model. Inevitably, this research is significant to 

Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada—the government funder of the Language 

Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC) Program—since to the best of our knowledge, this 

research is the first systematic study of students’ perceptions of the PBLA model that gives a 

voice to adult immigrant English language learners in Canada. We argue that students’ 

perceptions of PBLA, and the associated reasons for those perceptions are insightful, enhancing 

administrators and funders’ ability to identify areas that need improvement for the model to be 

more effective.  

 

Background 

 

This section discusses the LINC Program, the types of participants enrolled in the program, and 

the individual components of the PBLA model.  

 

Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada 

 

The federal government department, Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC), 

invests significant funding in English and French language classes for adult immigrants and 

refugees (Saint Germain, 2012). English language classes are called LINC, and have been 

offered since 1992. These classes are available throughout Canada, with the majority found in 

the densely populated urban centres. In rural regions, there is the option of distance learning. 

Singh and Blakely (2012) aptly articulate the objectives of the LINC program:  

 

The overall objective of both programs [LINC and CLIC (French)] has been to assist 

newcomers in developing the communication skills they need to better function in and 

contribute to all aspects of Canadian society —social, cultural, civic, and economic (p.7). 

 

 The LINC program offers classes from beginner up to advanced levels across Canada. 

Additionally, LINC also offers ESL Literacy classes for learners that are non-literate or semi-

literate in their first language with little or no formal education experience. It is indisputable that 

one of the greatest challenges for such an extensive language program is maintaining quality and 

consistency. Pettis (2014), for instance, observed that the 2008 and 2009 internal research reports 

for then Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC), now IRCC, found that assessment practices 

in LINC programs were neither well planned nor consistent. In addition, the variety of formats 

employed in the LINC program—online, face-to-face, full-time, part-time, and multi-level—

have resulted in various permeations of the curriculum along with regional modifications, further 

exacerbating the challenges of quality and consistency. To standardize assessment, IRCC 

instituted the PBLA model as the sole assessment method in all LINC programs across Canada 

in 2013, after successfully piloting the PBLA model in 2011.  

 

Adult Immigrant English  

 

The total number of immigrants welcomed into Canada in the period from July 2015 to July 

2016 was a total of 320,9322 (Statistics Canada 2016). Figure 1 summarizes the top source 



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 3 Number 1 (2018): 1–21 

countries for permanent residents in 2016. Those immigrants who already have strong English or 

French language skills, or who originate from countries that use either of the two official 

languages in Canada, in most cases, would not need language training.  

 

 
 

Figure 1. Top source countries of permanent residents to Canada (Statistics Canada, 2016)  

 

 British Columbia (BC) welcomed 42,832 new immigrants in 2016 (Gov’t of BC, 2016). 

This accounted for 14.5% of the total immigration to Canada. For BC, the top source countries 

were China, the Philippines, India, the United Kingdom, South Korea, Taiwan, the United States, 

and Iran (Gov’t of BC, 2016). About 27.5% of those coming to BC did not possess the minimum 

language requirement for citizenship in either English or French. 

 

Portfolio-Based Language Assessment (PBLA)  
 

O’Malley and Valdez Pierce (1996) define “portfolio assessment [as] a systematic collection of 

student work analyzed to show progress over time with regard to instructional objectives” (p.5). 

Zubizarreta (2009) defines the assessment portfolio as: 

 

A flexible, evidence-based tool that engages students in a process of continuous 

reflection and collaborative analysis of learning . . . the portfolio captures the scope, 

richness, and relevance of students’ learning. . . [It] focuses on purposefully and 

collaboratively selected reflections and evidence for both improvement and assessment of 

students’ learning (p.16).  

 

Regarding the PBLA model, Pettis, (2014), says that PBLA is: 

 

… a comprehensive, systematic, authentic, and collaborative approach to language 

assessment that engages teachers and students … Together, teachers and students 

collaborate to set language-learning goals, compile numerous examples of language 

proficiency and learning in a variety of contexts over time, analyze the data, and reflect 

on progress (p.7). 

 

PBLA borrowed from various portfolio types, particularly from the European Language Portfolio 

Model and the Collaborative Language Portfolio Assessment (CLPA). PBLA has these features: 

 

1. Baseline Information 

2. Assessments which are sub-divided into teacher assessments, self-assessment and peer 

assessment 



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3. Self-Reflection 

4. Student-Teacher Conference 

 

First, Baseline Information includes the participant’s Canadian Language Benchmark 

(CLB) scores, needs assessment results, autobiography, and a goal statement (Pettis, 2014). Once 

EAL learners enter a LINC class, they complete an autobiography; writing about themselves—

when they came to Canada, what they did in their country of origin, and what they are doing in 

Canada, among other things. They also complete a needs assessment, which details their reasons 

for learning English and their broad goal for participating in the course.  

 

 The second component, which is the cornerstone of PBLA, embodies the assessments, 

viz., teacher assessments, peer assessments, and self-assessments or skill using tasks. Teacher 

assessments are administered and graded by the teacher. With peer assessments, learners grade 

each other’s assessments, while for self-assessments, learners evaluate their own work. Skill 

using activities are supported tasks that are used in a formative way for learners to improve 

performance. In all cases, the evaluation is based on criteria set by the teacher that align to the 

CLB.  

 

 Self-reflection is another feature of PBLA. Participants reflect on what they learned in 

class, the types of activities they engaged in, and they determine the activities they found most 

beneficial. The student-teacher conference is the final component of the PBLA assessment cycle. 

At the end of the course, the teacher and each learner independently review the collection of 

artefacts in the learner’s portfolio. The teacher completes a progress report, and during 

conferencing comes to an agreement with the participants that the progress report accurately 

reflects the learner’s English learning progress or lack thereof (O’Malley & Valdez Pierce, 1996; 

Pettis, 2014). Figure 2 below summarizes the main aspects of the PBLA. 

 

 
Figure 2. The PBLA Model 

 

Set Language 
Learning 

Goals

Teacher 
Assessment

Peer and 
Self-

Assessment

Self-
Reflection

Student-
Teacher 

Conferences



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Research Methods 

 

This research project employed a mixed-methods approach combining quantitative and 

qualitative data collection and analysis. The mixed-methods approach provided a comprehensive 

analysis of the learners’ perceptions of PBLA, which either the qualitative or quantitative 

approach alone could not have achieved.  

 

Data Collection 

 

A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data. The questionnaire collected 

qualitative data as well since participants were asked to write comments, and some wrote 

extensive comments. The questionnaire included a section on Classification Information such as 

personal questions relating to country of origin and the participants’ level of education. The core 

of the questionnaire comprised specific questions about PBLA. Each question had four parts: 

 

1. Previous experience with a particular aspect of PBLA; 

2. A Yes/No question on whether that part of PBLA was helpful;  

3. A rating of the question, How helpful is it?(the aspect of the PBLA);  

4. A reason for the rating. The four parts were, however, listed as four separate questions 

for ease of reference.  

 

 The questions were provided in succession and were logically sequenced. For example: 

Questions 1, 2, 3, and 4 focused on goal setting. Similarly, questions 9, 10, 11, and 12 focused on 

peer assessment. Please see the included questionnaire in Appendix A for the specific wording of 

the questions. In the data analysis, each aspect or feature of PBLA was presented as a sub-

heading and the responses to the core questions pertaining to PBLA were presented under that 

subheading. As an illustration, questions 1, 2, 3, and 4, which focused on goal setting, were all 

analyzed and presented under the sub-heading Goal Setting. Likewise, questions 9, 10, 11, and 

12, which focussed on peer-assessment, were analyzed and discussed under the sub-heading 

Peer-Assessment. The questionnaire is included as Appendix A, for ease of reference.  

 

Participation in the Study 

 

This section discusses ethical considerations and the participants in the study.  

 

Ethical Considerations 

 

All the participants were adult LINC students who were informed that they were not obligated to 

participate in the research. They were also informed that they could choose to opt out at any 

point. Those who participated did this voluntarily. Furthermore, the organization where the 

students attended LINC approved the research to be conducted with its clients. 

  



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The Participants 
 

The participants were adult immigrants attending LINC classes at a non-profit organization in 

Metro Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. We chose this organization because it has one of 

the largest LINC programs in the region, dating back to 1988. Its teachers were trained on the 

implementation of PBLA.  

 

 LINC 5 students were chosen because they were considered ideal; they could read and 

understand the survey questions and needed minimal help. The total number of participants was 

70 (81% women and 19% men). The higher ratio of women is microcosmic of the LINC 

program; women participate more in these classes than men. Dempsey, Xue, and Kustec (2009) 

for instance observed that in the LINC program “…females account for the majority of 

completions during 2005-2008, … roughly 70 percent of the total. The gender composition also 

indicates that the performance of females is relatively better as compared to males” (p.16).  

 

 The respondents came from diverse countries and the breakdown was as follows: China, 

57%; Korea, 9%; Iraq, 6%; Taiwan, 4%. A graphic representation of the participants’ countries 

of origin is provided in Figure 3. 

 

 
Figure 3. The Participants Countries of Origin (n=70) 

 

Participants had varied educational backgrounds and 70% of the respondents had at least some 

post-secondary education whilst 8.6% had completed a Master’s Degree. A summary of the 

educational backgrounds of the participants is provided in Figure 4. 

 

 
Figure 4. Educational background of participants (n=70)  

China Korea

Taiwan Afghanistan

Hong Kong Iraq

India Vietnam

Bangladesh Bulgaria

Greece Iran

Japan Poland

Sri Lanka Thailand

Other

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

No School

High School

Bachelor's Degree

Doctorate Degree

Participants



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 The learner length of enrolment in the LINC program varied: 40% of the participants had 

been attending LINC classes for seven months or more and 35.7% for four to six months. 75.7% 

had been attending LINC classes for more than four months. The relatively lengthy participation 

in the LINC program provided participants with sufficient time to experience all aspects of the 

PBLA model. A full breakdown of participants’ length of enrolment is provided in Figure 5. 

 

 
Figure 5. Length of learner enrolment (n=70) 

 

Results 

 

This section provides the results followed by the section on analysis and discussion. 

 

Setting Language Learning Goals 

 

In response to the question on whether the participants had previous experience with goal setting, 

38.6% of the respondents answered in the negative, 7.1% did not provide any responses, and 

54.3% answered in the affirmative. In response to the question on the usefulness of setting 

language-learning goals, 77.1% indicated that it was “helpful” or “very helpful.” Only 1.4% 

indicated that goal-setting was not helpful, and 5.7% of respondents did not answer the question. 

The results are summarized in Table 1. The bold part represents the highest number of responses, 

and this bolding is done for all the other tables below.  

 

Table 1 

Helpfulness of Setting Goals 

Rating Responses 

Very helpful 30% 

Helpful 47.1% 

A little helpful 15.7% 

Not helpful 1.4% 

No response 5.7% 

 

5

12

25

14 14

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0-1 mths 2-3 mths 4-6 mths 7-12 mths over 1 yr

Participants



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 A sample of the participants’ perceptions on goal-setting is provided below verbatim to 

avoid appropriating the participants’ voices. 

 

 “It’s my incentive. I can make a plan for my language learning.” 

 “This goal can remind me English first.” 

 “It’s a clear direction for me to learning English.” 

 “That’s record my every improved steps. I don’t know ‘how to English learning’ PBLA 

help me and show my rating, now I know my skill level.”  

 

Teacher Assessment 

 

Regarding the question whether participants had any prior experience with teacher assessments, 

65.7% responded in the affirmative, 25.7% indicated that they had no previous experience with 

teacher assessment, and 8.6% did not answer the question. On the usefulness of the Teacher 

Assessments, 82.9% responded that teacher assessments were helpful or very helpful for their 

language learning. Only 1.4% indicated that it was not helpful, and 5.7% did not respond to the 

question. The responses are summarized in Table 2.  

 

Table 2 

Helpfulness of Teacher Assessment 

Rating Responses 

Very Helpful 40% 

Helpful 42.9% 
A little helpful 10% 

Not helpful 1.4% 

No response 5.7% 

 

The following captures the participants’ perceptions: 

 

 “This help me to see something I don’t see.”  

 “Because she knows what I make mistek.” 

 “Sometimes, I know some problems, but I can’t achie the claim.” 

 “Is very important opinion the profesinal to improve my level in English.” 

 

Peer Assessment  

 

On the question of peer assessments, 48.6% of the participants indicated that they had previous 

experience with assessing their peers in class, 41.4% indicated that they lacked previous 

experience, and 10% of the participants did not respond to this question. Out of the 70 

participants, 55.7% indicated that they found peer assessments “helpful” or “very helpful.” Table 

3 provides a summary of the responses.  

  



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Table 3 

Helpfulness of Peer Assessment 

Rating Responses 

Very Helpful 18.6% 

Helpful 37.1% 
A little helpful 22.9% 

Not helpful 11.4% 

No response 10% 

 

The participants’ comments below provide insights into their perceptions of peer assessments.  

 

 “Sometimes this is not real assessment.” 

 “Sometimes classmates didn’t give me advise.” 

 “This help me a little, because I am not sure that my classmades assesst me correct, and I 

not sure that I assesst their work correct.” 

 “I think it helps my know what my level in my classmates’ eyes is.” 

 

Self-Assessment 

 

Half of the respondents (50%) indicated that they had previous experience with self-assessment, 

and 38.6% indicated that they did not have previous experience with self-assessments. On the 

question of how helpful self-assessments were to their English language learning, 58.7% 

responded that it was “helpful” or “very helpful” and 24.3% indicated that self-assessment was 

only “a little helpful.” The tally of the responses is presented in Table 4.  

 

Table 4 

Helpfulness of Self-Assessment 

Rating Responses 

Very Helpful 21.4% 

Helpful 37.1% 
A little helpful 24.3% 

Not helpful 4.3% 

No response 12.9% 

 

The participants’ comments provided below demonstrate some of the participants’ low regard for 

self-assessments.  

 

 “A person can’t know own mistake in learning English.” 

 “I think I assess myself is not objective.” 

 “I know which is my weakness, but I cann’t improve quickly.” 

 “It help me to think more before doing the next step. It helps me understand myself 

better.” 

  



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Self-Reflection 

 

On the question of self-reflection, 60% of the respondents had previous experience with self-

reflection and 27.1% did not, with 12.9% not responding to the question. In response to the 

question on the helpfulness of self-reflection in their language learning, 70% responded that it 

was “very helpful” or “helpful” with only 2.8% saying it was not. A summary of the responses is 

presented in Table 5.  

 

Table 5 

Helpfulness of Self-Reflection 

Rating Responses 

Very Helpful 18.6% 

Helpful 51.4% 
A little helpful 20% 

Not helpful 2.8% 

No response 7.1% 

 

Consistent with the relatively high percentage (70%) of the participants who said they found self-

reflection helpful, most of the comments were very positive, and a sample is provided below: 

 

 “I can see things that I don’t know.” 

 “Studying consolidation is very useful to me.” 

 “Reflecting is very important because I know what is my level and what I need work 

about one topic.” 

 “Can help teacher lear about the student’s learning” 

 “I can review my learning.” 

 “It can help you to remember some words and sentences that you have learnt.” 

  “I can review information which I learned currently.” 

 

Student-Teacher Conferences 

 

Out of the 70 participants, 65.7% of the respondents indicated that they had previous experience 

with Student-Teacher Conferences and 24.3% had not, while 10% did not answer the question. 

Regarding the helpfulness of Student-Teacher Conferences in English language learning, 84.3%, 

indicated that they found this aspect of the assessment model as “helpful” or “very helpful” and 

only 1.4% indicated that it was “not helpful.” The tallied results are presented in Table 6.  

 

Table 6 

Helpfulness of Conferences 

Rating Responses 

Very Helpful 45.7% 
Helpful 38.6% 

A little helpful 4.3% 

Not helpful 1.4% 

No response 10% 

 



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A sample of the comments below are in line with the high numbers of participants who 

considered the Student-Teacher Conferences “helpful” and “very helpful.” 

 

 “After talking with the teacher, I know my weakness,that I can work hard on this and do 

it better.” 

 “Can help me to know more about my self.” 

 “It’s a deep impressure for me.” 

 “My teacher’s encourage is helpfuly my mental.” 

 “Teacher can give me many useful advices which is special for me.” 

  “I’m very lazy and teacher stimulate my studing.” 

 

 The results for Setting Language Learning Goals, Teacher Assessment, Peer Assessment, 

Peer Assessment, Self-Assessment, Self-Reflection and Student-Teacher Conferences are 

summarized and presented in Figure 6. 

 

 
Figure 6. Ranking of the least and most helpful components of the PBLA 

 

Helpfulness of the PBLA Model as a Whole 

 

In response to the question if they found the PBLA model as a whole helpful in their language 

learning, 88.6% of respondents either “agreed” or “strongly agreed” and only 5.7% felt that it 

was not helpful. Another 5.7% were undecided in their opinion as to whether the assessment 

model helped their language learning. The results are summarized in Table 8.  

 

Table 8 

Helpfulness of the PBLA Assessment Model 

Rating Responses 

Strongly Agree 27.1% 

Agree 61.4% 
Undecided 5.7% 

Disagree 2.8% 

Strongly Disagree 2.8% 

 

Some of the comments that the participants provided were insightful: 

 

 “The PBLA assessment can show my English learning progress, and it’s very 

comprehensive.” 

 “I think my English has a big progress.” 

0.00% 20.00% 40.00% 60.00% 80.00% 100.00%

Conferences

Teacher Assessment

Goal-Setting

Self-Reflection

Self-Assessment

Peer-Assessment

Percentage of Responses



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 “PBLA assessment model is new situation for our English language learning. I think can 

help us to study.” 

 “PBLA assessment can help my English level to have big progress.”  

 “Is very important because PBLA help to decide what area I need work hart.” 

 “I can adjust by myself during time I study, which I didn’t get well I try more about this.” 

 

Discussion 

 

This section provides an analysis and discussion of the results, including the emerging themes 

and patterns from the participants’ comments.  

 

Setting Language Learning Goals 

 

More than two thirds of the participants (77.1%) valued goal-setting in the classroom and 

considered it to be helpful to their English language learning. Goal-setting is a vital component 

of the PBLA assessment model as it encourages participants to close the gap between their 

current and desired performance (Black & Wiliam, 2006). Based on the participants’ comments, 

they perceived goal setting as helpful in three ways: First, it kept them focussed. Second, it was 

an incentive to do better. Third, it helped participants keep track of what they would have 

achieved. Finally, it gave participants an opportunity to develop transferable skills which could 

be used in other aspects of their lives. 

 

Assessments: Teacher-assessments, self-assessments, and peer-assessments 

 

Of the three assessments, teacher assessments were considered the most helpful, with self-

assessments and peer-assessments receiving almost the same percentage in terms of how learners 

viewed their helpfulness in their learning of English. Out of the 70 participants, 82.9% said the 

teacher assessments were “helpful” and “very helpful,” with 58.5% saying the same for self-

assessments and 55.7 % saying the same for peer assessments. Consistent with the numbers, 

participants felt teacher-assessments were most helpful. The literature is replete with evidence of 

how learners value teacher assessments more than any other form of assessments (Black and 

Wiliam, 2006; Hu, 2010; Nunan, 1988; 1989). A detailed analysis and discussion of each type of 

assessment is provided below, beginning with teacher assessments.  

 

 Teacher assessments. Teacher assessments garnered the most significant amount of 

positive perceptions, with 82.9% of the participants indicating that teacher assessments were 

“helpful” or “very helpful” for their language learning. The pattern that emerged from the 

participants’ comments indicated a strong belief in teachers’ input as being much more valuable 

for language learning than either self-assessments or peer assessments. Cultural factors were at 

play; the majority of participants were from China 57% (see Figure 2). Studies have affirmed 

that in China, the teacher is regarded as the expert and the fountain of knowledge (Biggs, 1996; 

Stevenson & Lee 1995; Stigler & Stevenson, 1991;Watkins & Bigg, 1996; Wang & Lin, 2009; 

Xiao & Dyson, 1999). The teaching and assessment processes are typically dominated by the 

teacher, so ultimately Chinese learners prefer and anticipate teacher-assessments over any other 

type.  

 



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 Consistent with the above observation, participants’ written comments reinforced the 

view that they considered the teacher as the only one who could help them in their language 

learning because the teacher is a professional and is a reservoir of knowledge. This comment 

from a participant expresses these sentiments and is representative of a common theme: “Is very 

important opinion the profesinal to improve my level in English.” 

 

 Self-assessments. Self-assessments came second, after the teacher assessments with 

58.5% of the participants saying they found self-assessments “very helpful” and “helpful.” The 

low numbers could be attributed to the fact that a significant number of participants indicated 

that they did not have previous experience with self-assessments: 38.6%. Self-assessments were 

something new to these participants; consequently, they needed explicit teaching on the value of 

self-assessments and how to conduct the assessments. Closely related is the fact that perhaps 

teachers were not adequately preparing participants for self-assessments by explaining the value 

of self-assessments nor teaching learners how to do self-assessment. In the literature, scholars 

have found the need to explicitly teach learners how to conduct self-assessments. Black and 

Wiliam (1998), for instance, in describing school children, observed that “the main problem is 

that pupils can assess themselves only when they have a sufficiently clear picture of the targets 

that their learning is meant to attain” (p.143). Although Black and Wiliam’s study focused on 

children, the same could be said for adult learners who participated in this study (see also, 

Brindley, 2001). It is safe to conclude that there is need for teachers to explain self-assessments 

clearly for learners to be able to do it and to appreciate its value.  

 

 Another contributing factor to the relatively low numbers who considered self-

assessments helpful may have been cultural. It was difficult for some participants to overcome 

their preconceived notion that the teacher is the only expert. As a result, they could not consider 

themselves to be able to effectively analyze their own work.  

 

 Finally, the attitude of teachers towards learners assessing their own work is important as 

well. For instance, some teachers do not regard learners as capable of assessing their own work. 

Heritage (2007) observed that “if students are going to be successfully involved in monitoring 

and assessing their own and their peers’ learning, then they need to be regarded by their teachers 

as partners in learning” (p.145). Teachers need to engage in introspective activities to analyze 

their own preconceived notions they bring to the notion of self-assessments and how these could 

influence their learners. 

 

 Peer Assessment. Out of the three assessments, peer assessment was considered the least 

helpful with only 55.7% saying it was “helpful” or “very helpful.” We need to mention that the 

difference between self-assessment (58.5%) and peer assessments (55.7%) was only 2.8%. The 

same reasons that were applied to why learners did not find peer-assessments as helpful seemed 

to also be at play here. First, the number of participants who lacked previous experience with 

peer-assessments was significant, 41.4%. Second, akin to self-assessments, most participants 

came from backgrounds where learning was teacher-centred. Most participants were from China, 

where peer evaluation is not as valued as teacher assessment. Hu (2010) states that 

“…Chinese…students tend to be suspicious of activities like peer evaluation, as they believe it is 

the teacher’s job to evaluate and that peers are not qualified to correct others’ work” (p.100). The 

implication is that LINC teachers need to provide more guidance and support to learners on how 



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to engage in peer assessment, explicitly teaching about peer assessment and creating more 

opportunities for learners to see their peers as learning resources. In the same vein, Black and 

Wiliam (2006), for example, note that the topic of peer assessment is frequently overlooked by 

teachers and may leave teachers unsure as to how to prepare participants to engage in this 

assessment process.  

 

 One of the themes that emerged from the participants’ comments about peer-assessments 

was that it was perceived as “not real assessments.” This perception underscored a devaluation of 

this aspect as participants didn’t feel that their peers, (nor themselves) were competent or 

qualified enough to provide feedback. In addition to the factors raised above, how the teacher 

presented the peer-assessments could be another factor as well as. The lack of adequate 

preparation of participants on the assessment criteria could affect their attitude towards the 

assessments. Furthermore, teachers may not have adequately trained the learners on how to give 

feedback, including what to focus on when giving feedback. This may mean that teachers need 

more adequate training on how to teach learners to conduct self-assessments.  

 

 The negative comments notwithstanding, there were positive comments about peer-

assessments. Some participants indicated that they considered peer-assessments to be helpful in 

their language learning since it gave them a chance to know how their classmates viewed their 

performance; this was a source of motivation to meet the standards set by the teacher.  

 

Self-Reflection 

 

Self-reflection was perceived as helpful, with 70% of the participants saying it was helpful or 

very helpful. Although the written comments were positive, they betrayed a lack of 

understanding of the main purpose of self-reflection, that is, the goal of raising awareness of how 

to learn. While the participants found the process helpful, their comments demonstrated that they 

did not understand what self- reflection is intended to be in the PBLA model. For instance, the 

comments showed that the participants viewed self-reflection as revision, and this skewed the 

numbers. Here are sample comments from the participants: “It can help you to remember some 

words and sentences that you have learnt.” “I can review information which I learned 

currently.”  

 

 Similar to peer-assessment and self-assessment, a lack of understanding of self-reflection 

requires more explicit teaching on the concept of self-reflection so learners can engage in the 

proper activity for the purpose it is intended. Steadman (1998), for instance, noted that “helping 

students learn how to learn requires extra effort on the part of faculty” (p.32). Echoing the same, 

O’Malley and Valdez Pierce (1996) suggested that “ELL students may initially need more 

probing questions to get them to reflect upon their work and to express their evaluation of it” 

(p.43). In view of these observations, teachers should spend extra time during the self-reflection 

activities to challenge the participants to move away from more superficial notions of reflection.  

 

Helpfulness of the PBLA Model as a Whole  

 

Overall, participants perceived the PBLA Model as very helpful in their language learning. A 

combined total of 88.5% participants indicated that they found the model to be “very helpful” or 



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 3 Number 1 (2018): 1–21 

“helpful.” Based on the participants’ comments, repeated here for ease of reference, some 

participants held the perspective that the PBLA model could provide progress for their language 

learning. Consider the following comments, for example: “PBLA assessment can help my 

English level to have big progress” and “I can adjust by myself during time I study, which I 

didn’t get well I try more about this”.  

 

 Participants also indicated that the PBLA model could help guide their own learning 

activities as it enabled them to highlight areas they needed to work on by providing a 

comprehensive approach to assessing progress. This is captured in this comment which is 

representative of such perceptions: “Is very important because PBLA help to decide what area I 

need work hart.” The embedded and systematic different types of assessments facilitated 

improving language performance and allowed participants the opportunity to engage in the 

assessment process that aids in self-understanding.  

 

 A few participants (11.5%), however, responded negatively stating that PBLA activities 

wasted their class time. This means that teachers have to find a way to explain and demonstrate 

to learners that PBLA is part of their learning and they should not see it as separate from what 

they see or call “actual learning.” Along the same lines, Steadman (1998) identified that teachers 

were anxious that their learners would have this perception of PBLA.  

 

Student-Teacher Conferences  

 

In terms of numbers and comments, the student-teacher conference was by far the most valued 

aspect of PBLA. As mentioned above, the Student-Teacher Conference garnered the strongest 

support (84.3%). The respondents indicated strongly that they viewed this component as most 

helpful to their language learning. As such, this vital component should certainly continue to be 

embodied in the assessment model.  

 

 Student-Teacher Conferences are participant-centred, and involve a one-on-one meeting 

with the teacher, and this one-on-one meeting was a huge factor for the learners in perceiving the 

experience as helpful in their language learning. The teacher and the learner review artefacts in 

the portfolio, highlighting progress and discussing the strengths and weaknesses exhibited by the 

learner. The student-teacher conference provides information on what participants should work 

on to improve their English.  

 

Recommendations 

 

Teacher “buy-in” to the PBLA model is crucial, and the teachers’ own attitudes towards the 

model influences participants’ perceptions and experiences with portfolio-based assessment. 

Teacher buy-in stems from a more fulsome understanding of this assessment model as being 

integrated into the learning cycle. This calls for more training and refresher courses for teachers 

to enhance their teaching methods.  

 

 LINC teachers should be encouraged to incorporate much more explicit teaching of how 

to “do” peer-assessments, self-assessments, and self-reflections. Based on our findings, peer-

assessments, self- assessments, and self-reflections were relatively unfamiliar to quite a 



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 3 Number 1 (2018): 1–21 

significant number of participants. Teachers therefore, need to be patient, persistent, and 

consistent with the introduction and implementation of these practices to ensure that participants 

feel supported and capable of engaging in these activities.  

 

Limitations and Areas for Further Research 

 

It is important to mention the limitations of this study. The results may not be generalized 

beyond the research participants for several reasons: First, research was conducted in one 

organization, and the demographics of the participants were dominated by one particular group. 

The background of these participants may influence their perceptions of PBLA, and therefore 

skew the findings so that the findings may not be representative of ideas of others outside that 

group. Learners from a different country, for instance, may have different perceptions. Second, 

the participants were from one LINC level, viz., LINC 5. Learners from different levels, for 

example, LINC 1, may have different perceptions. Finally, the teacher’s buy-in from different 

organizations may be different due to different incentives and the way PBLA is implemented.  

 

 There is need for more research in PBLA with a larger group of language participants, 

covering more LINC levels, spanning across organizations, and even across several provinces. 

There should be a deliberate attempt to sample participants from diverse backgrounds. Such data 

would provide a more comprehensive picture of participants’ perceptions of the model and its 

effectiveness. The same methodology used in this research or a different one could be adopted.  

 

 Typical with any type of portfolio assessment, there is the issue of consistency: intra-

teacher consistency; inter-teacher consistency; and inter-organization consistency. Closely 

related to the issue of consistency is a single comment by one participant who stated that “not all 

assessments are good assessments.” This calls for research into the consistency and the quality of 

assessments. Studies similar to the exploratory study by Mudzingwa (2015) could be carried out. 

Using empirical evidence, Mudzingwa (2015) demonstrated how the PBLA model has the 

potential to bring a standardized assessment regime. The exploratory study compared actual 

assessments of LINC teachers for both consistency (inter-teacher consistency) and whether they 

met the PBLA standards, with the goal of providing empirical evidence regarding the 

standardization of actual PBLA assessments, or a lack thereof. The sample was small and 

findings could not be generalized, hence the need for more research.  

 

Conclusion 

 

This research addressed an area of the PBLA model that has received no attention in the 

literature, namely, the learners’ perceptions on the usefulness of the PBLA model in their 

English language-learning journey. Participants had mixed views about the usefulness of various 

individual components of the PBLA model. The Student-Teacher Conference component was 

considered the most useful, perhaps because it is the most learner-centred as it gives participants 

a chance to meet with the teacher one-on-one. Teacher-assessments were second, and this 

ranking could be because of the demographic of the participants; in general, learners from China, 

who were the majority in the study, view the teacher as the source of knowledge. Also, it is 

indisputable that teacher assessments were the most commonly used assessment methods in most 

teaching and learning settings, and these were common to all the participants. In contrast, self-



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 3 Number 1 (2018): 1–21 

assessments and peer assessments were new to a relatively significant number of participants. 

This makes it imperative for teachers to explicitly teach how to conduct self-assessments and 

self-reflections and create opportunities for learners to see the value of these aspects. Overall, the 

participants indicated that PBLA was helpful in their language learning. In conclusion, it is 

hoped that this study will be an impetus for more studies of this nature since they inform us of 

the learners’ perceptions of PBLA, and equally important, are a window into how teachers are 

implementing PBLA in different parts of the country.  

 

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Appendix A: The Questionnaire 

 

Please tick () the best answer that describes your situation. 

1. In your previous language classes, did you write learning goals for your language learning? 

 Yes 

 No 

2. Does writing learning goals in PBLA help you in language learning? 

 Yes 

 No 

3. How helpful is it?     4 (very helpful) – 3 (helpful) – 2 (a little helpful) – 1 (not helpful) 

4. Provide a reason for your rating:  

 

5. In your previous language classes, did the teacher assess and provide feedback on your 

language learning? 

 Yes 

 No 
  



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 3 Number 1 (2018): 1–21 

6. Does teacher assessment and feedback in PBLA help you in language learning? 

 Yes 

 No 

7. How helpful is it?     4 (very helpful) – 3 (helpful) – 2 (a little helpful) – 1 (not helpful) 

8. Provide a reason for your rating:  

 

9. In your previous language classes, did students in the class assess each other’s language 

learning? 

 Yes 

 No 

10. Does student (peer) assessment in PBLA help you in language learning? 

 Yes 

 No 

11. How helpful is it?     4 (very helpful) – 3 (helpful) – 2 (a little helpful) – 1 (not helpful) 

12. Provide a reason for your rating:  

 

13. In your previous language classes, did you assess your own language learning? 

 Yes 

 No 

14. Does assessing your own language learning in PBLA help you in language learning? 

 Yes 

 No 

15. How helpful is it?     4 (very helpful) – 3 (helpful) – 2 (a little helpful) – 1 (not helpful) 

 

16. Provide a reason for your rating:  

 

17. In your previous language classes, were you asked to think about and reflect on your 

language learning? 

 Yes 

 No 

18. Does thinking about and reflecting on your learning in PBLA help you in language 

learning? 

 Yes 

 No 

19. How helpful is it?     4 (very helpful) – 3 (helpful) – 2 (a little helpful) – 1 (not helpful) 

20. Provide a reason for your rating:  

 

21. In your previous language classes, did the teacher meet with you to discuss your language 

learning? 

 Yes 

 No 

22. Does meeting and discussing with the teacher in PBLA help you in language learning? 

 Yes 

 No 

23. How helpful is it?     4 (very helpful) – 3 (helpful) – 2 (a little helpful) – 1 (not helpful) 

24. Provide a reason for your rating:  



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 3 Number 1 (2018): 1–21 

25. Overall, how would you rate the PBLA assessment model? (tick one) 

 Excellent 

 Above Average 

 Average 

 Below Average 

 Extremely Poor 

Please provide a reason for your answer:  

 

26. The PBLA Assessment model has helped improve your English language learning. (tick 

one) 

 Strongly Agree 

 Agree 

 Undecided 

 Disagree 

 Strongly Disagree 

Please provide a reason for your answer:  

 

Classification Information 

The following questions will be used to group the information only. All information will be kept 

confidential. 

 

Please tick () the best answer. 

a. Location/Office: 

 Redacted 

 Redacted 

 Redacted 

 Redacted 

 Redacted 

 

b. Class Level: 

 5 

 6 

 7 

 8 

 

c. Age: 

 17-24 

 25-34 

 35-44 

 45-54 

 55-64 

 65+ 

 

d. How long have you been studying in 

LINC? 

 0-1 month 

 2-3 months 

 4-6 months 

 7 months-1 year 

 Over 1 year 

 

e. Country of Origin: 

 China 

 Iran 

 Korea 

 Nepal 

 Russia 

 Other: ________________________ 

 

f. Level of Education: 

 Some High School 

 High School Completion 

 Some Post-secondary 

 Completed Post-secondary 

Certificate/Diploma 

 Completed Bachelor’s Degree 

 Completed Master’s Degree 

 Completed Doctoral Degree 



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 3 Number 1 (2018): 1–21 

g. Gender: 

 Male 

 Female 

 Other 

 

 

 

 

 
The BC TEAL Journal is licensed under a 

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. 
Copyright rests with the authors. 

 

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

