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The Efficacy of Teaching Independent Study Skills Within  

English for Academic Purposes Programs 

 

Michael Henry Landry 

Ryerson University 

 

Abstract 

 

While teaching students how to become independent learners offers great promise for their future 

academic success, research has yet to offer detailed insight into students’ evaluation of learning 

such strategies. The Study Skills for Independent Learning module was introduced as part of a 

Canadian university English for Academic Purposes (EAP) bridging program. The objective of 

the module was to help international students who had been conditionally accepted into their 

undergraduate programs acquire skills they could employ to become more independent learners 

during their undergraduate studies. The study set out to collect students’ perceptions of the 

module to better assess the efficacy of teaching independent study skills in an EAP context. Data 

were gathered from an analysis of the module’s overview and learning objectives, questionnaires 

from a group of students enrolled in the EAP program (n =7), and feedback from a retrospective 

focus group (n = 5) that consisted of students who had taken the module the previous year and 

had just completed the first semester of their undergraduate programs. Data were transcribed, 

coded, and organized into themes for analysis. Time management, reflective skills, and strategies 

for maintaining focus were identified as three transferable skills taught in the module. 

 

Introduction 

 

In Canada, the average percentage of international students studying at tertiary institutions across 

the provinces has increased dramatically. Statistics Canada (2016) has reported that “the 

international student population at Canadian universities grew 88% between 2004–2005 and 

2013–2014, while the comparable growth rate for Canadian students was 22%” (p. 3). In British 

Columbia alone, the number of international students studying in the province has nearly 

doubled in the past five years while the number of domestic students has steadily declined. 

(British Columbia Data Catalogue, 2017). For universities offering English-medium programs, 

the implications of this demographic shift are immense. Not only are there linguistic 

considerations, but also possible cultural differences regarding approaches to teaching, learning, 

and classroom roles which must be addressed by both students and schools to help facilitate 

acculturation (Douglas & Rosvold, 2018). One strategy many universities have implemented to 

bridge these considerations is to offer preparation programs, such as English for Academic 

Purposes (EAP) courses, to international students using English as an additional language (EAL) 

who have not already met the English language proficiency levels required for direct admission 

into their academic programs. These programs help these students attain the required English 

language proficiency, and they teach learning strategies for how to successfully participate in 

postsecondary studies in a different language and culture (Jund, 2010). A common element of 

these courses is the emphasis they place on teaching learners academic skills; in other words, not 

just what to learn but how to learn—a concept referred to as “learner training” (Hall, 2011, p. 

248). However, research to date has provided limited insight into student views on learner 

training in EAP programs. In light of this reality, the higher education community in Canada can 



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benefit from becoming more aware of these perceptions to better inform EAP curriculum design 

and facilitate successful internationalization at postsecondary institutions in Canada.  

 

The current study took place at a Canadian university in Atlantic Canada. The purpose of 

this investigation was to evaluate a Skills for Independent Learning module that was part of a 

larger EAP program. The module is content-based, and its main aim is to help perspective 

undergraduate students acquire the study skills that support academic success at English-medium 

universities. To carry out this evaluation of the model, the study set out to answer the following 

research questions:  

 

1. How does the Study Skills for Independent Learning module facilitate 

independent learning?  

2. What value do students using EAL place on learning these study skills in an EAP 

context while preparing to enter undergraduate programs at a Canadian 

university? 

 

Learner Autonomy and Independent Learning 

 

Learner autonomy, or independent learning, is achieved when learning takes place without 

direction from the teacher. Teaching learners to become more independent involves creating 

greater learning by giving the control over learning to the student (Allwright, 1988); however, 

success depends on how learners “capitalize on opportunities inside and outside the classroom” 

(Crabbe, 1993, p. 444). The Assessment of Higher Education Learning Outcomes (AHELO) 

initiative of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), has 

identified key generic skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, analytical reasoning, and 

written communication as integral to success in postsecondary studies (Tamburri, 2013).  

 

Similarly, learner autonomy is required for successful additional language acquisition 

(Benson, 2011). Additional language learners may also need opportunities to produce output and 

recognize the accuracy of content and language. Little (2007) maintained that language 

acquisition and learner autonomy can be simultaneously achieved by employing pedagogical 

approaches which promote learners’ exploration, interpretation, and participation as these 

approaches are more likely to encourage their application of known and unknown ideas and 

information to new experiences.  

 

Teachers play a key role in the process of fostering independent learning. Teachers must 

employ a bilateral approach to instruction so that material covered in the classroom is 

accompanied by tasks which compel the learner to transfer knowledge and skills from the 

classroom to their lives (Crabbie, 1993). It is only through the application of content that self-

regulation and independent learning occur (Benson, 2011). According to Cotteral (2017), in 

order for teachers to facilitate such self-directed learning, they must provide learning 

environments or specific “affordances” which allow independence and autonomy to thrive 

(p.103). Cotteral (2017) listed the five essential affordances which must be established in any 

learning environment for learner autonomy to flourish as “engagement,” “exploration,” 

“personalization,” “reflection,” and “support” (Cotteral, 2017, p.103). According to Cotteral 

(2017), engagement involves activities that the learners find meaningful and connect with. 



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Exploration pertains to building a “genuine sense of learner inquiry” beyond teacher-generated 

“display” questions designed to elicit a predetermined response (Cotteral, 2017, p.104). 

Reflection combines task-specific reflection with planning for future learning. Support requires 

instructors to “anticipate” what learners may be able to achieve on their own and to provide 

support when tasks may exceed the learner’s current learning resources (Cotteral, 2017, p. 104). 

 

Content-based Instruction 

 

In Content-based Instruction (CBI), the target language is taught via subject matter rather than 

through the explicit teaching of the language (Valeo, 2013). Materials for a CBI course contain 

language which will be useful for study in a particular field (Brinton et al., 1989). Content-based 

programs may focus on the teaching of subjects such as science, history, and mathematics in a 

target language (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Content-based lessons are focussed primarily on the 

teaching of subject matter while focus on language form is viewed as secondary. Therefore, CBI 

has come to represent an extension of communicative approaches, which put a much larger 

emphasis on the meaning of language over (grammatical) accuracy. Instruction of CBI also 

includes, sometimes exclusively, authentic material from the targeted discourse community and 

culture (Stryker & Leaver, 1997). According to Lightbown and Spada (2006), by framing 

language learning in this way, students are still able to progress as long as this input is 

comprehensible. The linguistic complexity that many authentic texts contain means that teachers 

need to carefully consider how to introduce concepts and adjust the complexity of the tasks. To 

enhance comprehension and production, CBI courses need to have curricular redundancies so 

that students have the opportunity to repeat the material at different times and across subject 

matter. Horizontal and vertical redundancy is easily facilitated in CBI as, when a course is 

focused on one subject, there is a greater chance for the “recycling” of vocabulary to take place 

across topics and throughout the duration of the course, which leads to greater familiarity and 

fluency later on (Brinton et al., 1989).  

 

In terms of assessment, the level of importance that CBI programs usually place on 

meaning and communicative competence means that assessments must be as “real-life” as 

possible (Stryker & Leaver, 1997, p. 23). This real-life application is motivating for learners; 

however, the knowledge resources which the students bring to the course and how they might 

limit or enhance task completion and assessment performance need to be carefully considered 

(Briton et al., 1989). 

 

The Study 

 

The participants described in this study participated in the first level of an EAP program at a 

Canadian university. As part of the curriculum, students were required to participate in a content-

based module entitled Skills for Independent Learning. The students studied the module four 

hours a week for twelve weeks. The study collected feedback from two groups of participants for 

a total sample size of twelve (n =12) students. The participants in both groups were students 

using EAL who had not previously studied English outside of their home countries. Seven of the 

participants had just completed the module and were still enrolled in EAP studies at the 

university (shown below in Table 1). This cohort consisted of students from China (n = 6) and 

Ecuador (n = 1).  



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Table 1 

 

Breakdown of Participants Who Completed Questionnaire 

Participant Gender Identity Major 

Student 1 Male Engineering 

Student 2 Female Neuroscience 

Student 3 Male Biochemical Engineering 

Student 4 Male Economics 

Student 5 Female Architecture 

Student 6 Female Sustainability 

Student 7 Male Finance 

 

The study also included five students who participated in a retrospective focus group, 

who had completed the module and graduated from their EAP program a year earlier, and who 

had just completed the first academic semester of their undergraduate programs (shown below in 

Table 2). The group consisted of students from China (n = 4), and Lebanon (n = 1). 

 

Table 2 

 

Breakdown of Reflective Focus Group participants 

Participant Gender Identity Major 

Student 8 Male Engineering 

Student 9 Male Music 

Student 10 Male Commerce 

Student 11 Male Mathematics 

Student 12 Male Accounting 

 

Methods 

 

When evaluating courses and materials, a variety of data sources are required in order to achieve 

triangulation of data collection (Allwright & Bailey, 1991). Therefore, three main data collection 

techniques were used in this study to provide an overview of participant perceptions of the Skills 

for Independent Learning module: an analysis of the module’s aims and objectives, 

questionnaires completed by current students, and a retrospective focus group. Once the data 

were collected, all of the information was organized based on Creswell’s (1998) 

recommendations of thematic coding and assigned categories that directly addressed the research 

question. Responses that were viewed as surprising or conceptually interesting to the researcher, 

participants, or audience were recorded and classified under categories using tables to highlight 

reoccurring themes across the participants. The quotes presented in the findings are 

representative of the main points that emerged from the analysis of the data. 

 

Student Questionnaire 

 

The purpose of the questionnaire (Appendix 1) was to provide insight from the seven participants 

who had recently finished the module. The questionnaire was open-ended to stimulate more 

detail and elaboration. In order to prevent the participants from feeling that their grades would be 



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affected in any manner, the questionnaires were completed once the participants had already 

finished Level One of the program. In addition, the participants also signed a release which 

stated that their contributions would have no bearing on their academic standing. After the 

questionnaire had been completed, they were collected and then analysed to identify key points 

from each question. 

 

Retrospective Focus Group 

 

A retrospective focus group was facilitated with the group of five participants who had 

previously taken the independent study module. The participants had completed the first half of 

their first term of full-time undergraduate studies. The purpose of the retrospective focus group 

was to gain insight regarding the application of strategies from the module and to provide 

personal views on the efficacy of learning those skills as part of their bridging program. An 

interview schedule (Appendix 2) was designed following an open-ended format in order to avoid 

leading questions and promote natural discussion. Participants were asked to sign a release form 

giving permission to use their comments for research. After the meeting, the recording was 

analysed and key points from each question were entered into a focus group summary so that the 

responses could be compared to the other data sources. The summary was also emailed to each 

of the participants in order to give them a chance to amend any of their comments.  

 

Findings 

 

Course Design 

 

A careful review of the “Module Overview” and “Learning Objectives” (ACT Education 

Solutions Limited, 2012, p.1) found that the module was aimed at international high school 

graduates using EAL preparing to attend undergraduate studies at an English-medium university. 

The module was created to address perceived knowledge and cultural gaps experienced by 

international students using EAL upon entering postsecondary studies. The module targeted 

students at an IELTS Band 5, and content and assessments were designed with this level of 

proficiency in mind. 

 

The module consisted of three major assessments: a semester planner, an interview, and a 

reflective journal. The students were also assessed for in-class participation and homework 

completion. Overall, the assessments in the course were designed to test the skills taught in the 

module (i.e. self-reflection, independent study, interview skills, and life skills to be successful). 

Table 3 below highlights the skills which are evaluated in each assessment. 

  



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Table 3  

 

Description of Assessments 

Assessment Value Skills being tested 

Reflective Journal 50% Students are required to write 15 short (150-word) entries in 

which they reflect on various topics: Communication, 

reflection, and noticing skills. Language is secondary, but needs 

to be intelligible. 

Personal Statement 

and Interview 

25% A 15-minute interview in which students answer questions 

relating to the course’s subject matter and university life. The 

context is a university admissions interview. The students 

practice interview skills for life and are assessed on those skills, 

as well as their ability to communicate effectively, respond to 

questions, and their knowledge of their own strengths and 

weaknesses and where to seek support on campus. 

Semester Planner 15% Students design a semester planner for their Level One 

deadlines. The planner assesses their ability to plan and manage 

their own time and work backwards from deadlines. 

(ACT Education Solutions Limited, 2012, p. iv) 

 

Student Views on the Acquisition of Independent Study Skills 

 

Questionnaire responses from the participants enrolled in the module revealed that they had 

learned primarily time management skills and reflective practices. All of the respondents 

reported that they felt they were better able to organize their time due to the semester planner. 

Four of the participants felt that they had benefited from writing the reflective journal. Two of 

the participants commented that they found it helpful to reflect and learn from mistakes. In 

particular, one participant wrote that they had “learned to know if I’m learning or not and how to 

be an active learner” though journaling.  

 

The members of the retrospective focus group who had completed the module the year 

before, and had completed their first semester of undergraduate studies, also commented on the 

importance of learning time management skills. For example, when asked about how the module 

connected to their current situations, the participants all agreed that managing deadlines was 

paramount.  

 

Members of the retrospective focus group also placed high value on learning reflective 

skills. During the group discussion, they all stated that they applied journaling to their studies 

because it helped them combine class content with their ideas. One of the members said that 

reflective writing was a requirement of his engineering program, so having that previous 

experience gave him confidence to approach this course requirement.  

 

The reflective focus group participants also commented that the strategies for note-taking 

and synthesizing information were important independent study skills. Two participants stated 

that they incorporated the practice of independently studying before their lessons and then 

deciding if they needed to attend the lecture or take initiative and ask a professor or tutor for 



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 4 Number 1 (2019): 1–12 

support. The same participants mentioned that skills such as revision and reading before lectures 

were both beneficial. The participants specifically mentioned that, in a typical class, a professor 

might cover as many as forty pages of the textbook. Therefore, building these study skills 

beforehand was useful. Two of the participants also thought that note-taking and revision were 

useful and something they applied to their daily practice. One of those students said, “[f]or me, 

after the class, I just re-do my notes again in my way and not the professor’s way. That helps me 

to learn.” Another student added, “[y]eah, I do my own notes as well. I do the key notes or a 

cheat sheet after each chapter, so I can prepare for a test.”  

 

The participants from the retrospective focus group also mentioned that the module’s 

focus on how to identify and address problems associated with university life was useful to their 

current studies. For example, one participant stated: 

 

“in Engineering we have lots of help from the teacher assistants if I need help, but for the 

other [things] like what hurts me, or if I have a bad friend or something like that. How to 

avoid walking with them, and how to put more priorities [on] studying, yeah I learned 

that in the [module] as well. High school don’t teach me that.”  

 

Regarding this same theme, another participant commented that “[w]hen I have 

something, and I don’t know anything about it, and it’s stressful, I usually go to the gym for 

running. That’s one way I learned from the course—that I can get the stress away from me.” 

 

In addition to these approaches to coping with the above challenges, two participants 

thought that the module’s focus on researching the university’s support services and taking 

responsibility for their own learning struggles beforehand also helped their transition into their 

programs.  

 

Discussion and Conclusion 

 

While the sample size was small, the two cohorts of students in this study lend voice to the 

notion that such courses do help EAP students take ownership over their learning. The findings 

indicate that both groups of participants felt that the Study Skills for Independent Learning 

module helped them to enhance their study skills. Moreover, their responses suggest that the 

participants in the retrospective focus group, in particular, were able to apply what they had 

learned to real-world situations. More specifically, the abilities of managing time, reflecting on 

learning, and dealing with social pressures at university, were three key facets of the module 

which the participants believed directly impacted their studies. These findings suggest that the 

students exercised, to some extent, Bruner’s (1986) “reflective intervention” in that they were 

able to adopt roles and exercise some control over their learning (p.132).  

 

From a design perspective, the subject matter and language appeared to be both suitable 

in terms of the motivational profiles and proficiency levels of these participants. The feedback 

from the questionnaires and retrospective focus group reveal that the participants felt the course 

provided them with the conceptual background and practice they needed to improve their study 

skills to succeed at university. The fact that the materials target an IELTS Band 5 is promising 

since it may encourage instructors teaching EAP courses to incorporate activities which focus on 



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 4 Number 1 (2019): 1–12 

enhancing independent study skills into their approach, even at a pre-intermediate level. This 

positive evaluation is also important given that EAP students may come from a different “culture 

of learning” than the one they face during their studies abroad (Jin & Cortazzi, 2006, p. 8). The 

importance of academic and cultural acculturation is often taken for granted or overlooked 

entirely by EAP course designers (Cheng & Fox, 2008; Dooey, 2010). Having clear academic 

and social expectations as part of EAP design can be key to future student success (Huang, 

2010).  

 

Responses also focused on the need to cope with life at university. One major challenge 

facing university students is how to navigate the informal interactions that occur within the realm 

of their studies. Students using EAL often have a reluctance to speak due to a lack of confidence, 

or they have feelings of exclusion due to their linguistic proficiency (Dooey, 2010). The findings 

of this study indicate that teaching students strategies to cope with these perceived deficiencies 

and where to find help if needed is a key element of successful independent learning.  

 

These findings may also lend voice to similar studies (Dooey, 2010) which found that 

students using EAL see value in opportunities to engage with their academic community as early 

as possible. This interaction could be exposure to content and assessments which are similar to 

that which they will encounter when they enter their target community (Thomas, 2012). In 

addition to note-taking and synthesis activities, the findings of this current investigation indicate 

that certain programs, such as engineering, try to reinforce reflective practices as a valuable 

professional skill. Perhaps, strides could be made to identify further transferable skills which 

could be integrated into a larger EAP curriculum. This inclusion could occur either as a separate 

study skills/professional skills module, such as in this study, or as streamed discipline-specific 

assignments as part of a wider EAP or English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) course.  

 

Limitations and Future Studies  

 

Although the data collection methods provided a variety of views on the module, they could have 

been made stronger in three ways. Given the small sample size, it is difficult to draw conclusions 

which can be generally applied. While Gay et al. (2012) maintain that qualitative research’s main 

objective is to understand what occurred and identify reasons for why that occurred across the 

particular population, future studies could look at a wider and more diverse sample to see if 

conclusions could be more broadly applied. In addition, more data sources such as undergraduate 

faculty, admissions staff, and student counsellors from the university could have been involved 

to collect data regarding other means of student support on campus. Adding more perspectives 

would lead to a more refined investigation into beliefs surrounding the connection between 

language proficiency, acculturation, and academic readiness. 

 

Additionally, the questionnaire and interview schedules could be redesigned to include a 

student-specific needs analysis to more explicitly elicit the participants’ own views on what it 

means to be an independent learner. This needs analysis could also contain questions that ask 

participants to reflect on their existing knowledge and comment on their abilities to engage 

within their target communities. One drawback of modules focusing on learner autonomy, such 

as the one in this study, is a possible perception that students using EAL should not rely on their 

existing knowledge resources, rather, they need to adapt to the host culture’s norms; placing the 



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 4 Number 1 (2019): 1–12 

students in a deficit framework. Douglas and Rosvold’s (2018) synthesis of key themes found in 

two decades of scholarly work pertaining to intercultural communicative competence (ICC) 

identified problematic calls for EAL students in EAP programs to change their behaviours to 

accommodate the behaviours of the host culture. The authors recommended that EAP course 

designers and instructors move away from such an ethnocentric approach to acculturation and 

towards a more ethnorelative one (Douglas & Rosvold, 2018). Such an approach would 

encourage both students and the academic community to share the responsibility to adapt. Issues 

of acculturation identified in this study primarily appeared within the context of the discourse 

community and independent study skills.  

 

In addition, student testimonials eluded to some levels of acculturation relating to social 

relationships. Finley (2018) highlighted the importance of belongingness to language acquisition 

and successful integration. Future studies could look at further expanding current research on the 

belongingness of students using EAL in a higher educational setting in Canada to evaluate how 

those students perceive themselves within the greater academic community and how curriculum 

designers can incorporate themes related to belongingness in EAP curriculum design. Such a 

study would seem useful given that the value of helping students expand their cultural 

understanding through EAP program curriculum has been recognized as beneficial to academic, 

work, and social interactions (Galante, 2014). In terms of intercultural relations, future 

investigation could start with Bennett’s (1993) developmental model of intercultural sensitivity 

(DMIS) and explore the current level of the EAP students and interlocutors and identify ways in 

which program designers and administrators can address deficiencies on both sides by creating 

instructional materials which provide strategies for recognizing and addressing cultural 

misrepresentations and promote intercultural sensitivity. Such measures would likely enhance 

the process of acculturation by providing additional resources students can draw on to 

independently cope with university life and positively impact internationalization at the 

institutional level.  

 

Acknowledgements 

 

The author extends his thanks to the peer reviewers and the BC TEAL Journal editor for their 

valuable feedback and support throughout the publication process. 

 

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engagement and belonging in higher education at a time of change. London, UK: Paul 

Hamlyn Foundation. Retrieved from 

https://www.heacademy.ac.uk/system/files/What_works_final_report.pdf  

Valeo, A. (2013). Language awareness in a content-based language programme. Language 

Awareness, 22(2), 126–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2012.666247  

 

Appendix 1 

 

Questionnaire for Enrolled Students 

 

1) What is your opinion of the Skills for independent learning module? 

2) What have you learned from the Study Skills for Independent Learning Module? 

3) What is your opinion of the module text book in terms of content and level (difficulty)? 

4) What is your opinion of the Reflective Journal? 

5) What is your opinion of the Interview/Personal Statement and Resume Assessment? 

6) What is your opinion of the Semester Planner Assessment? 

7) If you could, what would you change about the course? 

8) If you could, what would you keep the same? 

 

Appendix 2 

 

Questions for Retrospective Focus Group 

 

1) Grand Tour) Tell me about your experience in the Skills for Independent Learning 

module. 

Follow-up: Did it meet your expectations?  

Probe: How has it met or how could it have better met your expectations? Or, what do 

you mean by “good”? 

 

https://doi.org/10.2167/illt040.0
https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/81-599-x/81-599-x2016011-eng.pdf?st=GC6yoj9z
https://www.universityaffairs.ca/news/news-article/trend-to-measure-learning-outcomes-gains-proponents/
https://www.universityaffairs.ca/news/news-article/trend-to-measure-learning-outcomes-gains-proponents/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2011.05.003
https://www.heacademy.ac.uk/system/files/What_works_final_report.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2012.666247


 Landry 12 

BC TEAL Journal Volume 4 Number 1 (2019): 1–12 

2) (Grand Tour) Tell me about your current situation  

Follow-up question: How has the module connected to your current situation as an 

undergraduate student? 

Probe: Any examples, anecdotes? 

 

3) How did you feel about the course materials? 

Follow-up/Probe: Which ones were good or bad, and why do you think they were so? 

Clarification: Were they easy or difficult? Was the level of language suitable to your 

level?  

Was the content of the course suitable to your situation? 

 

4) How did you feel about the assessments? 

Follow-up: Did they test your knowledge of the content and language? Or,  

What are their strengths or weaknesses? 

 

 

 
The BC TEAL Journal is licensed under a 

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. 

Copyright rests with the authors. 

 

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

