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Writing a Manuscript-Style Dissertation in TESOL/Applied Linguistics 

 

Tim Anderson 

University of Victoria 

 

Tomoyo Okuda 

University of British Columbia1 

 

Abstract 

 

This paper draws on autoethnographical insights and genre analysis in offering an introductory 

guide for writing a manuscript-style master’s level thesis or doctoral dissertation in TESOL and 

Applied Linguistics fields. We report on our own recent experiences writing, defending, and 

preparing for publication from our own manuscript-style dissertations during and following our 

doctoral study, both conducted at the same major Canadian research university. While other 

work in TESOL and Applied Linguistics areas have addressed the manuscript-style format 

amidst more general discussions of thesis and dissertation writing (e.g., Paltridge, 2002; 

Paltridge & Starfield; 2007), this article concentrates specifically on the unique characteristics of 

this dissertation structure and the genre-features, processes, and considerations around planning, 

composing, presenting, and publishing in this format. The intended audience of this paper is 

primarily graduate students and supervisors in TESOL and Applied Linguistics, although other 

stakeholders involved in graduate-level writing across various disciplines can also benefit from 

our discussion. Our central goal in writing this article is therefore to provide an introductory 

discussion regarding the nuances inherent in this format of dissertation compared to other 

traditional monograph forms. 

 

Introduction 

 

The dissertation, as an essential component of the doctorate, is a topic that inspires great interest 

from students seeking guidance about how to plan and design their research, analyze their data, 

and, importantly, how to organize and write the dissertation text itself. The study described in 

this paper contributes to this endeavour by drawing on genre analysis and autoethnographical 

insights in offering an introductory guide for writing a manuscript-style dissertation2 in TESOL 

and Applied Linguistics (T/AL) disciplines. A substantial body of literature exists addressing 

masters’ level thesis and doctoral dissertation writing, from general guidebooks targeting both 

students and supervisors to more focused studies analyzing the specific and sometimes unique 

genre characteristic of individual sections. For brevity, we focus primarily on titles particular to 

TESOL and Applied Linguistics fields or those that address the specific dissertation format 

(macrostructure) concentrated on in this article.  

 

A manuscript-style dissertation consists of stand-alone manuscripts that have either been 

published (sometimes as a requirement), are in various stages of submission, or are written and 

organized in the form of a publishable paper. This style, in all its formats, has been referred to 

                                                   
1 Current institution: Analytical Measures, Inc. 
2 Although we focus on the PhD education-based dissertation in this paper, insights can be applied to masters’ level 

and other disciplinary contexts as well.  

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variously, including manuscript-style, article-style, manuscript-model, manuscript-option, PhD 

by publication, thesis/dissertation by publication, PhD by portfolio, the Scandinavian model, the 

“sandwich” model, and the article-compilation format. Although sharing basic similarities in that 

the thesis or dissertation is comprised of (mostly) stand-alone manuscripts embedded within a 

central document, some models have slightly different structures, conventions, and requirements 

that are dictated by the institutional policies where the dissertations were composed or other 

social influences that shape genre expectations across disciplines and research settings (see also 

Mason & Merga, 2018a). For example, doctoral programs may require some (or all) of the 

articles to be published prior to being eligible to graduate, while others do not. Co-authorship of 

dissertation manuscript-chapters may also be allowed in some universities, and indeed might be 

standard depending on the authorship/research practices in the discipline (i.e., lab-based 

environments with multiple collaborators on projects). As a result, some manuscript-style 

dissertations will be comprised of multi-authored and previously published (or accepted/in-press) 

manuscripts while others will be manuscript-style chapters that have the potential to be published 

following the doctoral defence. These nuances will be more greatly discussed below, as will 

some of the limiting or challenging aspects of published versus publishable manuscript chapters.  

 

The intended audience of this paper is primarily graduate students and supervisors in 

TESOL and Applied Linguistics, although other stakeholders involved in graduate-level writing 

across various disciplines can also benefit from our discussion. Our central goal in writing this 

article is therefore to both reflect on our experiences and, in so doing, provide an introductory 

discussion regarding the nuances inherent in this format of dissertation compared to other 

traditional monograph forms. This article might also be seen as a product of the shifting nature of 

the doctorate and the academic job market, and is premised around the intended function of 

graduate school as a vessel of academic socialization and means (at least partially) to prepare 

students for careers after graduate school. Writing manuscript-style dissertations not only 

socializes students into an important academic genre (primarily the journal article) and all its 

composite features, but it helps position students as emerging (legitimate, published) scholars 

writing for international audiences. The forthcoming discussion begins with a review of relevant 

literature followed by some key issues encountered by the two authors during our own 

dissertation writing processes, with particular focus on how we navigated the unique genre 

expectations of this macrostructure.  

 

Manuscript-Style Dissertations 

 

An abundance of handbooks, book chapters, university and faculty guides, and journal articles 

exist that address thesis and dissertation writing across various disciplines, countries, and 

perspectives (c.f. Paltridge, 2002; Paltridge & Starfield, 2007). The Journal of English for 

Academic Purposes and English for Specific Purposes have published widely in this area, with 

research addressing the specific genre features of individual dissertation/thesis sections, 

including the generic structures of abstracts (El-Dakhs, 2018), rhetorical “moves” in purpose 

statements (Lim, Loi, Hashim, & Liu, 2015), the rhetorical structures in introductions, 

conclusions, and discussions (Bunton, 2005; Hopkins, & Dudley-Evans, 1988; Kawase, 2018), 

how authors comment on results (Basturkmen, 2009), communicative resources in research 

questions (Lim, 2014), and authorial stance and genre structure in acknowledgment sections 

(Chan, 2015; Hyland, 2004). All point to the propensity and even expectation of certain genre 

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features across individual sections of theses and dissertations, and how these features can differ 

from other forms of academic writing (including published journal articles).  

 

Two book-length monographs (Bitchener, 2009; Paltridge & Starfield, 20073) have 

addressed these issues more extensively for students and their supervisors in T/AL, and both 

approach the writing process from conception to completion with attention to the requisite genre 

features in and across individual sections of the thesis/dissertation, as well as offering advice to 

help with the supervision of graduate students’ writing. Bitchener (2009) focuses on the first-

time writer of an applied linguistics master’s-level thesis, but the author’s attention to general 

structure and other genre features are directly applicable to PhD dissertations as well. Although 

highly informative, this work focuses exclusively on a traditional IMRD4 thesis, with most of the 

individual chapters addressing the sections typically seen in this thesis model. Paltridge and 

Starfield (2007) present a comprehensive guidebook for the thesis and dissertation supervision of 

additional-language graduate students. Here the authors include specific mention of dissertations 

comprised of “a compilation of research articles” (p. 72). This section of the book is partly 

informed by a previous article, Paltridge (2002), which analyzed 30 masters’ theses and PhD 

dissertations written by English-as-an-additional-language students in various disciplines at an 

Australian university. Drawing on prior work (Dong, 1998; Dudley-Evans 1999; Thompson, 

1999), Paltridge categorized four general thesis and dissertation macrostructures from that 

analysis, summarized in Table 1 below: 

 

Table 1 

 

Thesis and dissertation structures (Paltridge, 2002) 

Macrostructure Description 

Traditional: simple Reports on a single study; IMRD structure 

Traditional: complex Reports on more than one study; modified IMRD structure, typically 

with separate introductory, literature review, and methods chapters 

followed by chapters reporting on the individual studies  

Topic-based  Reports on a series of “subtopics” under the broad research topic of 

the thesis, organized as separate interior chapters, bookended with an 

introduction and conclusion.  

Compilation of 

research articles  

A thesis comprised of published or publishable research articles, 

typically preceded by an introductory chapter and completed with a 

concluding chapter.  

 

 Although now somewhat removed in terms of when this article was published (and 

therefore might not be representative of more current practices in T/AL thesis structures), 

Paltridge found only one thesis in this study that fit into the “compilation of research articles” 

category: a PhD dissertation in the dental sciences. Other research has recorded this thesis 

structure to be more widely prevalent in the sciences. The proclivity towards this type of thesis 

structure in these disciplines is exemplified in Dong (1998) who reported that 38% of the 169 

                                                   
3 A second edition (Paltridge & Starfield, 2019) was forthcoming at the time of this article’s final submission.  
4 Introduction-methods-results-discussion 

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American science graduate students investigated were writing manuscript-style theses. As Dong 

notes:  

 

The article-compilation format gives graduate students on-the-job training, preparing them 

for what they will be expected to do in their fields after they receive the Ph.D. degree. In 

addition, the article format reduces the time for publication if dissertation chapters can be 

submitted directly for journal publication, without requiring extensive pruning and 

reformatting; therefore, it meets the need for timely knowledge dissemination and it starts 

to accumulate credits for the student’s professional career. (p. 371)  

 

 Although attention to the manuscript-style format is sparse in T/AL fields, there has been 

more focus in other disciplines and research settings. Gustavii (2012), addressing a “hard 

sciences” audience, refers to this macrostructure as a “compilation” thesis, and differentiates 

between two distinct types: (1) the Scandinavian model, where reprinted journal articles are 

included as appendices following a general summary of the thesis, and; (2) the sandwich format, 

where reprinted articles are embedded between a separate introduction and conclusion chapter. 

Gustavii provides a brief yet informative beginner’s guide for science-based PhD students 

interested in this format, yet provides little attention to specific genre-level details as well as 

other strategic and transitional issues that might arise during the planning, writing, and 

publishing stages. Gustavii’s discussion also presumes the individual articles within the 

dissertation will be typically co-authored manuscripts, with the doctoral students serving as lead 

authors. The discussion is also grounded in disciplinary traditions that are familiar with (and 

increasingly expect) manuscript-style dissertations, and some of the tensions and unfamiliarity 

that might arise in other fields (like T/AL) are not present in this guide.   

 

As noted above, a common version of the manuscript-style macrostructure is referred to 

as the “PhD by Publication”—also called “Thesis/Dissertation by Publication”—and typically 

refers to dissertations consisting of a number of published or publishable papers with an 

introduction and conclusion chapter binding these papers together. This genre has become 

widespread in Europe, the UK, South Africa, Australia, Canada, and the United States, in fields 

notably in the sciences, but can also be seen to a lesser degree in the humanities and social 

sciences (Dowling et al., 2012; Jackson, 2013; Lee, 2010; Park, 2007; Pretorius, 2017). Although 

this macrostructure, regardless of its label, remains roughly the same, policies such as the 

number of papers, publication status of the manuscript, and co-authorship can vary considerably 

across institutions. Mason and Merga (2018b) analyzed the prevalence of this dissertation model 

in humanities and social sciences disciplines in select Australian universities and reported on the 

average number of manuscript-chapters per dissertation (4.5 across the 636 dissertations 

analyzed), the publication status of these chapters (the majority being published/accepted), the 

types of manuscripts (mostly journal articles), and authorship/contribution practices (typically 

co-authored). Jackson (2013) notes that some Australian universities offer “PhD by prior 

publication” programs in which students can include publications prior to candidature. Peacock 

(2017) further details this distinction by noting the “prospective or retrospective” PhD by 

publication; the former (more popular in European contexts) referring to a compilation of 

publications accrued during the doctorate and the latter which is comprised of prior publications. 

Despite the global emergence of this dissertation model, however, very little has been written 

about this macrostructure in North American, and in particular Canadian, contexts despite its 

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growing popularity in education-based disciplines (Anderson, Alexander, & Saunders, in press) 

and recent calls to allow better diversity in dissertation writing in Canadian universities (Porter et 

al., 2018).  

 

Research has also reported on the benefits and challenges of PhD by publication from 

doctoral students’ writing and supervisors’ mentoring perspectives (Dowling et al., 2012; Lee, 

2010; Niven & Grant, 2012; Park, 2007; Protorius, 2017). Some challenges can include the 

lengthy peer-review process (which may impact degree completion) and the unfamiliarity of 

mentoring students in this non-traditional dissertation format. Nonetheless, if supervisors are 

experienced at mentoring a PhD by publication dissertation, the benefits may supersede these 

challenges. Doctoral students have reported that they were able to build their scholarly identities 

as novice researchers writing this dissertation style since their doctoral work was legitimized 

through the rigorous peer-reviewing process and eventually became “high-circulation published 

scholarship” (Dowling et al., 2012, p. 293) compared to traditional dissertations that can remain 

partially or entirely unpublished. Some also report the PhD by publication model is a way of 

easing the anxieties of a highly competitive job market in which expectations of publications 

prior to entering the market has become increasingly intense (Dowling et al., 2012; Robins & 

Kalnowski, 2008).  

 

The authors of this paper also recognize the potential limitations or even critiques of this 

dissertation macrostructure, some that are research informed and others more anecdotal, the latter 

which seem fitting to explore within the context of this duoethnography. Both of us either 

directly or indirectly heard critiques about our decisions to write this type of dissertation, mostly 

from other graduate students in our department—that it was “easier” than the traditional (IMRD) 

format disproportionately used both in our fields more generally and, specifically, in our own 

department. Niven and Grant (2012) acknowledge that the PhD by publication model faces 

criticism as a potential “easy way out” due to a lack of consensus about what precisely this 

dissertation model should consist of and, particularly, how many chapters it should contain. We 

also add that practices and protocols involving co-authorship of these manuscripts is of interest, 

particularly in STEM5 (or STEM-informed education fields), and how much doctoral writers are 

expected to contribute to their own dissertations in terms of research design, analysis, and 

authorship. Dowling, Gorman-Murray, Power, and Luzia (2012) under a more critical lens ask if 

“the PhD by publication produces academics as neoliberal subjects” (p. 303) due to the 

publication-seeking aims of authors within the “publish or perish” demands of modern academe. 

Paré (2017) notes as well that “manuscript dissertations anticipate a particular trajectory for 

students: one that leads towards an academic career in an institution of higher education” (p. 

411). As such, this dissertation macrostructure might be less appropriate for some doctoral 

students depending on their future trajectories in non-academic contexts.  

 

We are not sure if our manuscript-style dissertations were easier or more difficult to write 

compared to a traditional IMRD style, or if people believe we were accomplices in the neoliberal 

encroachment on higher education. We wanted to take a chance and write a model of dissertation 

that was (and remains) non-standard in our disciplines and, most certainly, rare and even partly 

maligned in our former department. We saw the value in learning how to write article-style 

manuscripts from our supervisors and mentors, all leading international scholars with extensive 

                                                   
5 Science, technology, engineering, math 

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publication records, and our decisions to use this macrostructure was partly informed by this 

desire. Tim used this model strategically, to better position himself for the upcoming academic 

job market, but also because it was a conceptual, theoretical, and rhetorical challenge that he was 

intrigued by and wanted to unravel. Tomoyo, who was open to both academic and non-academic 

job markets, had another rationale to pursue this model. She saw many PhD graduates struggle to 

turn their 300-page dissertation into publishable articles and their work not getting published in 

the end. She saw this model as an effective way to circulate her research and make an impact to 

scholars and practitioners in the field of Applied Linguistics/TESOL. We therefore counter the 

claim that we were neoliberal actors or apologists, or at least offer an alternative perspective. The 

suggestion that certain types of dissertations (including manuscript-styles) can produce 

academics as neoliberal subjects neglects the agency of doctoral students who choose this 

dissertation format out of their individual decisions to express their research however they 

choose, to seek better dissemination possibilities, and to grow as scholarly writers within their 

academic communities.  

 

Methodology 

 

Aligned with Burri (2017), our paper draws on autoethnographical insights to frame our doctoral 

student experiences, in this case the dissertation process from conceptualization of the 

dissertation macrostructure to publication of the manuscript chapters. Autoethnography is a 

research methodology that focuses on the experiences and interpretations of author-researchers 

and draws on both autobiography and ethnography (Denzin, 2012; Paltridge, 2014). The authors 

in particular looked to the emergent approach of duoethnography: the process of collaboratively 

co-constructing dialogue on a shared topic, where two researchers’ individual experiences and 

interpretations are presented both distinctly and as juxtaposed narratives within a newly emerged 

“third space” (Norris, 2008; Norris, Sawyer, & Lund, 2012; Sawyer & Norris, 2013). Drawing 

on duoethnography allowed us time and space for our own experiences to unfold while providing 

the richness of collaboration to inform both of our reflections and analyses of our respective 

dissertation writing experiences.  

 

Embedded deeply within these dissertation experiences were concerns about navigating 

the features and macrostructure of a manuscript-style dissertation—a dissertation type that is 

prolific in many STEM fields, but which is much less common for qualitatively-focused single-

author dissertations in Canada (which both of ours were). The second theoretical foundation 

guiding this paper is informed by a genre-based approach in analyzing linguistic features, 

rhetorical moves, and structural components that we found to be vital in the writing of our 

dissertations. Genre can be broadly defined as “a staged goal-oriented social process” (Martin, 

2009, p. 10) and has come to inhabit integral roles in ESP (English for Specific Purposes), SFL 

(Systemic Functional Linguistics), and New Rhetoric studies; each placing different emphasis on 

the primacy of context versus text, but all foregrounding the importance of genre as a socially 

and culturally embedded practice that shapes language expectations and use (Hyland, 2002). As 

Hyland (2002) notes, “genres are abstract, socially recognized ways of using language (p. 114). 

Due to the infrequency of this macrostructure within our T/AL fields, we lacked initial 

knowledge about the expectations of this dissertation structure. The remaining discussion details 

some of these experiences and how we in turn navigated our dissertation writing processes.  

 

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The Context and Authors 

 

The authors both attended the same TESOL doctoral program at a Canadian research university 

in the province of British Colombia (Canada), with Tim graduating in 2016 and Tomoyo in 

2017. The core structure of our doctoral programs included 1–2 years of course work, 

comprehensive examinations (comprised of three major papers related to their research), and a 

dissertation proposal with a public defence, after which we advanced to “doctoral candidacy” 

and ABD (all-but-dissertation) status. We then collected data based on empirical studies and 

wrote our dissertations followed by a public oral examination involving three committee 

members, two university examiners, an external examiner, and a dissertation chair. After passing 

our oral defences, completing the required revisions, and submitting the final versions of our 

dissertations to the university, our status as students came to an end. We also shared the same 

three committee members, with different lead supervisors; the relevancy of which is discussed 

later in this paper. This contextual information is important to situate our distinct but also 

overlapping experiences and the structure of our programs within the forthcoming discussion.  

 

 Tim’s dissertation structure. Tim’s dissertation (Anderson, 2016) was comprised of six 

chapters: four interior “articles” connected by separate introduction and conclusion chapters, and 

was just over 67,000 words. The first interior chapter, following the introduction, was a 

conceptual discussion of supporting literature and analyses of statistical data relevant to his 

research setting: the internationalization of Canadian higher education. This article was 

published in 2015, before Tim’s oral examination of his dissertation in 2016. The other three 

interior chapters were organized thematically, revolving around the central findings from his 

analysis. Three research questions and one major guiding theoretical framework (language 

socialization) foregrounded the entire dissertation, while individual chapters used different 

complementary theories germane to the analysis and findings. The central theory was discussed 

in detail in the introductory chapter of the dissertation and to a smaller degree in each respective 

interior chapter. Each complementary theory was then addressed in the applicable interior 

manuscripts. As a result, the different chapters highlighted the experiences of different subsets of 

the seven research participants depending on what unique, relevant, or otherwise prominent 

issues were being analyzed (see Figure 1); all informed by the different configurations of 

theories. The three remaining chapters were submitted for review to T/AL academic journals 

following the final submission of the dissertation in March 2016. At the time of this present 

article’s completion, all four manuscripts from Tim’s dissertation are either published or in-press 

(Anderson, 2015; Anderson, 2017; Anderson, 2019; Anderson, in-press) in the following 

journals: Applied Linguistics, the Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, Linguistics and 

Education, and the Canadian Journal of Higher Education.  

 

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Figure 1. Tim’s dissertation structure by themes. 

 

 Tomoyo’s dissertation structure. Tomoyo’s dissertation (Okuda, 2017) was comprised 

of the same six-chapter structure as Tim (one introduction chapter, four manuscript chapters, and 

one concluding chapter), and was approximately 86,000 words. Since Tomoyo’s dissertation 

research was a case study with data collected from four distinct groups of participants 

(administrators, student group 1, student group 2, and student group 3), each of the four interior 

chapters stood alone as independent research studies focusing on the salient research themes 

derived from the data analysis (see Figure 2). Each chapter had both distinct theoretical 

frameworks and one overarching framework that synthesized and informed the findings of the 

independent research studies in the conclusion chapter. In consultation with her dissertation 

committee, she organized her research questions (for the entire dissertation) in a way that one 

question (RQ1) addressed the findings from the administrator group, and one question (RQ2) 

addressed the findings from the three student groups. The latter question (for the student groups) 

was further divided into three sub-questions (RQ2-1, RQ2-2, RQ2-3) for each respective chapter 

focusing on the specific research themes of each student group. Hence, there were four questions 

ultimately addressed in the four interior chapters. At the time of this present manuscript’s 

completion, all four of these manuscripts have been published or accepted for publication 

(Okuda, 2018a; Okuda, 2018b; Okuda, 2019a, Okuda, in press) in the Journal of Second 

Language Writing, Current Issues in Language Planning, and Global Perspectives on 

Educational Language Policies (book chapter), and Higher Education Research & Development.  

 

Ch.3 Theme 1 

Ch.4 Theme 2  

Ch.5 Theme 3  

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Figure 2. Tomoyo’s dissertation structure by participant groups. 

 

Writing a Manuscript-Style Dissertation in TESOL/Applied Linguistics 

 

The following sections now outline some of the central considerations around planning for, 

composing, defending, and publishing from a manuscript-style dissertation. This is informed by 

our experiences both during and following our programs, and aided with the benefit of reflection 

and introspection now that we have both completed our PhDs and have successfully published 

our respective manuscript chapters, including in several leading high-impact academic journals 

in our disciplines. We begin the following sections by first noting the importance of the 

introductory and concluding chapters within this macrostructure and potential deviations from 

more traditional monograph dissertation styles. Following this, we focus on the interior 

manuscript-chapters and address concerns related to organization, coherence, and repetition; 

issues that are important in traditional dissertation models as well but which become particularly 

relevant when seeking cohesion across separate “stand-alone” manuscripts (or studies) within the 

dissertation. We then discuss the structuring of our oral examinations at the end our doctoral 

programs and how we endeavored to create a unified “event” within the confines of a 20–30 

minute presentation while addressing four unique “manuscripts” embedded within our respective 

dissertations, each involving different groups of participants, theories, literature, and outcomes. 

Finally, we discuss the transitioning of these dissertation chapters to published articles or book 

chapters, the importance of committee and examiner structures, and additional considerations to 

be cognizant of during the manuscript-style dissertation process.  

 

The Introductory and Concluding Chapters 

 

As noted, we both had separate introductory and concluding chapters that served as bookends for 

our dissertations. These chapters played vital roles in establishing the general context for the 

research and creating coherence across the interior chapters. For Tim, the introductory chapter 

(approximately 9,500 words) established the overarching context and rationale for his study, 

presented the three guiding research questions and key definitions and concepts, and contained 

detailed sections discussing the central theoretical framework, methods and methodologies, 

analytical approach, sampling techniques, researcher positionality, literature review, and 

Ch.1 

Administrators 

Ch.2 

Student group 1 

Ch.3 

Student group 2 

Ch.4 

Student group 3 

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participant profiles. The chapter then concluded with a description of the forthcoming chapters. 

The concluding chapter was a concise 9-page summary and reconnecting of the major findings, 

research contributions, challenges and limitations, and recommendations. Screenshots from the 

Table of Contents for these two chapters follow (Figures 3 and 4).  

 

 
Figure 3. Tim’s introduction chapter. 

 

 
Figure 4. Tim’s conclusion chapter. 

 

 Similar to Tim, Tomoyo’s introduction chapter (just over 9,000 words) presented the 

rationales, overall conceptual framework of the study, research questions, methodology (research 

site, methods, participant profiles), analytical methods, researcher positionality, and the 

organization of the dissertation. The 4,500 word concluding chapter included a summary of the 

key findings in relation to the research questions, a discussion of theoretical, methodological, and 

practical implications of the study, and ended with future directions for research. The key 

findings gained from the four interior chapters were discussed employing the overarching 

conceptual framework, which was key in producing a coherent dissertation.  

 

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Figure 5. Tomoyo’s introduction chapter. 

 

 
Figure 6. Tomoyo’s conclusion chapter. 

  

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The Interior Manuscripts: Organization, Coherence, Repetition 

 

A considerable amount has been written about general writing strategies and constituent genre 

features of individual dissertation chapters and journal articles in T/AL. In this section, we focus 

instead on some unique considerations for organizing the individual interior chapters, creating 

coherence within and across these chapters, and limiting potential repetition that can occur by 

having multiple stand-alone manuscript-chapters contained within a single dissertation. We draw 

on personal examples from our respective dissertations to underscore the discussion. 

 

 A major consideration of this dissertation genre involves the organization of the 

individual manuscript-chapters themselves. One approach is to plan and tailor these chapters for 

specific journals from the beginning of the writing process. To accomplish this, students will 

want to investigate the target journals thoroughly and determine, first, if the content aligns with 

the vision and direction of the journal and, second, organize the article appropriately and draw on 

relevant literature. Some journals, for example, will want a separate section that explicitly lists 

the research question(s), while others allow these to be borne out in less explicit ways, or at least 

embedded in different sections. How to structure and title the sections and subsections of these 

manuscript-chapters also requires consideration. Certain journals might have more rigid 

expectations of a traditionally empirical (IMRD) structure. Other journals, by contrast, will allow 

or even expect alternative and more “creative” headings and organization. Both of us organized 

our interior manuscript-chapters reporting on the empirical findings following an IMRD pattern 

(or slightly modified version). We felt that organizing chapters in this way helped create a 

coherent predictability across the distinct manuscript-chapters. For Tim, the first manuscript 

chapter of his dissertation was tailored specifically for the journal he published in. This in turn 

shaped several aspects of the chapter, including word length and aspects of the supporting 

literature that he drew upon.  

 

Alternatively, instead of having pre-determined journals in mind before writing the 

chapters, students can adopt a “write first” and then, depending on the outcomes, find a suitable 

journal later. The benefits of this approach include a more flexible, and possibly more organic, 

analysis and writing process unconstrained by pre-determined and journal-specific criteria. The 

challenges of this approach might include difficulty finding a journal that fits the tone and 

outcomes of an article and having to make considerable edits following completion of the 

dissertation to meet word length, formatting, and other requirements specific to individual 

journals. Tim followed this approach for three of his four interior manuscript chapters and found 

that it allowed the analysis and findings to be unconstrained by the either conscious or 

subconscious influence of trying to fit into the confines of a specific journal. The transitions of 

these chapters to publications, however, required some maneuvering, re-tailoring, and in the case 

of one article, rather substantial word-count edits (approximately 4,000 words), to fit into the 

expectations and requirements of the targeted journals. Tomoyo did not tailor her manuscript 

chapters to specific journals when she was writing her dissertation, but later did so to meet 

journal requirements. This included editing the word count, re-labeling sections, and following 

formatting expectations. 

 

 Creating coherence and interconnectedness across the stand-alone manuscript chapters is 

also worth attention. Bunton’s (1999) investigation into the metatextual moves in PhD 

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dissertations demonstrates the ways and importance of student-authors signposting their 

discussions through the use of lower and higher level metatextual references; i.e., text(s) used 

within the dissertation to refer to other smaller or larger internal and external texts. How these 

are used specifically in manuscript-style dissertations remains unaddressed in the literature, but 

several issues based on our experiences are of note. Similar to more traditional dissertations, 

referring to content discussed in other chapters of the dissertation, or making mention of the 

general findings of chapters themselves, were presented as variations of: “as noted in Chapter x.” 

These metatextual references not only helped orient the reader, but created a general sense of 

coherence and cohesion across our long dissertations with several stand-alone manuscript 

chapters. In our dissertations, metatextual practices were also frequently (and importantly) 

employed to limit repetition of our research contexts, the participants, the methods and 

methodologies, the central theoretical framework(s), and our positonality and reflexivity; all of 

which were written about in detail in the introductory chapters. Instead of presenting very similar 

types of information in each respective interior chapter (as is typically expected in most stand-

alone journal articles), we used frequent metatextual resources to connect to our prior discussions 

(in previous manuscript-chapters or the introductory chapter; see Figures 7 and 8 for examples 

from our dissertations).  

 

The following example, from Tim’s dissertation, directs the reader to “see also Chapters 

1 and 2” for more thorough and nuanced discussions of graduate student internationalization 

trends in Canada, where this issue was addressed in substantial detail (Figure 7). While this 

glossing over of detail is insufficient for a stand-alone article, in order to limit repetition in his 

dissertation, these types of metatextual references were employed frequently. Similarly, 

Tomoyo’s example (Figure 8), “see Chapters 1 for more information,” indicates that the topic 

has already been discussed in detail in Chapter 1 and readers could refer back to this chapter to 

gain more information. This issue is especially relevant for student-authors who, after 

completion of their dissertations, endeavour to transition the chapters to stand-alone journal 

articles, a topic explored in more detail below. 

Figure 7. Metatext example (Tim). 

 

Metatext 1 

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Figure 8. Metatext example (Tomoyo). 

 

Structuring the Oral Examination: Making Separate Manuscripts a Cohesive “Event” 

 

How to structure the oral examination from a manuscript-style dissertation can likewise be a 

challenge. Both authors found it difficult to synthesize and seamlessly connect multiple different 

stand-alone “manuscripts” into a coherent and logical 20–30 minute presentation, especially 

when the separate chapters drew upon different bodies of literature, methodologies, theoretical 

and conceptual frames, and participants. For Tim, he addressed this by focusing on the one 

overarching theory that guided his research (language socialization) and used this to ground his 

oral defence presentation. Within this guiding frame, he then highlighted what he felt were the 

central and most unique findings across all the manuscript chapters, and connected the 

presentation together during the implications and conclusion portion of his talk. Tim recalls that 

his oral defence went well and his committee reacted positively. He felt that he managed to 

create a unified talk out of the four “separate” papers and present the most salient findings from 

his dissertation project. Organizing the oral defence presentation also posed challenges for 

Tomoyo, who had to present four independent studies within the 30-minute maximum time 

frame. Despite these challenges, her committee also reacted positively to her talk. Tomoyo 

particularly felt that frequently reviewing the research questions was important in signaling 

which research study she was talking about. She also found having a central conceptual 

framework was crucial in synthesizing her findings and making her dissertation study (and oral 

defence) coherent.  

 

Publishing  

 

Following completion of the dissertation and oral defence, if applicable, the manuscript chapters 

can now be prepared for submission to journals. Students will need to investigate on their own 

the specific requirements for individual journals, including word count limits, formatting 

requirements, preferred spelling, and so forth. Ensuring the structure of the article fits the 

requirements or preferences of the journal and drawing on appropriate literature should also be 

considered. In many cases, the long process of writing the dissertation and having it vetted by 

supervisors, committee members, and university and external examiners can result in chapters 

that have exceeded the word limits for many journals and have, additionally, drawn on a more 

Metatext 2 

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diverse set of literature to accommodate the committee and examiners’ requests. The focus 

should now shift towards accommodating and aligning the chapter towards the intended journal 

and its audience, and as a result certain changes will inevitably occur.  

 

The use of metatextual resources will also need attention during the transition of 

dissertation chapters to stand-alone articles. Since the readers of the individual articles do not 

have previous dissertation chapters to immediately draw upon, changes to the metatext that 

signpost other inter-dissertation texts will have to be addressed. Most obviously, references to 

previous chapters (i.e., “as noted in Chapter 1…”) will need to be modified to refer back to the 

dissertation itself or, if applicable, to other published or in-press articles stemming from the 

dissertation. In many cases, additional levels of detail (which, in our cases, were written about in 

the introduction chapters) will also need to be added to the respective manuscript-chapters in 

preparation for submission to journals, including the addition of considerably more detail about 

participant profiles, the research context, researcher positionality, sampling, methods and 

methodologies, and the theoretical and conceptual frames. When Tim, for example, submitted 

the three empirical chapters of his dissertation for review in academic journals, he added in 

additional detail about the overarching guiding theory that grounded his entire dissertation 

(language socialization) and more information regarding the specific context of his research (the 

internationalization of Canadian higher education). Additions were also made to enhance the 

discussion of each participant profile and the methods and methodologies; again, information 

that was addressed in detail in the introductory chapter of his dissertation, but which was limited 

(to prevent repetition) in the interior manuscript chapters. Tomoyo also needed to add more 

details about participants, the research site, methods, and data analysis, which were all 

mentioned in Chapter 1 and abbreviated in each manuscript chapter. She also made sure to 

include relevant articles published in her targeted journals to build on (and align herself with) the 

scholarly discussions within her discourse communities.   

 

Committee and Examiner Structure 

 

Another important consideration of using (or not using) this dissertation structure revolves 

around the students’ committee members and the university and external examiners. Since this 

dissertation format appears to be more rarely used in TESOL and Applied Linguistics settings in 

Canadian contexts, there could be resistance or misunderstanding of this dissertation 

macrostructure from those who have mostly experienced more traditional dissertation formats. 

While it is of utmost importance for students and their committee members to be in agreement 

when using this type of dissertation, finding university and external examiners who are accepting 

is also of prime importance, since the consequences of sending a dissertation out for examination 

and having an examiner disagree with the basic format could have negative consequences. A 

supervisor, in particular, who is supportive and understanding will also be invaluable in guiding 

selection of other committee members and examiners who have experience with, understand, or 

at the very least, are accepting of this type of dissertation structure. As mentioned previously, we 

shared the same three-person doctoral committee team with different lead supervisors. After 

consultation with our supervisors and committee members, we felt encouraged to use a 

manuscript-style format, which in turn allowed us to proceed optimistically knowing we were 

supported. Similar conversations continued during the discussions around internal and external 

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examiners, with both of us being fortunate to have world-leading scholars serve as our internal 

and external examiners who were familiar with this dissertation macrostructure.  

 

Additional Considerations 

 

In addition to the previously discussed benefits and challenges of this dissertation format, there 

are other potential issues to consider. First and foremost, students must consult university 

guidelines regarding the permitted dissertation structures, especially the rules regarding co-

authorship (of individual chapters, if applicable) and using previously published manuscripts (as 

opposed to including publishable manuscripts) in the final version of the dissertation. In the case 

of using previously published (or accepted/in-press) articles, this might well impact the type or 

amount of feedback given by the examining committee during the feedback process and oral 

defence. If, for example, an external examiner makes it a condition that a (previously published) 

chapter in the dissertation needs substantial edits before passing the dissertation as a whole, this 

might cause considerable tensions or challenges, including the possible existence of two similar 

manuscripts written by the same author—one as a published article and one as a dissertation 

chapter—with major or even contradictory differences. Because of this potentiality, we waited 

until after our oral defences to submit the core chapters reporting on empirical findings for 

review at journals. More positively related to the issue of feedback, we also felt that receiving 

detailed guidance and insights on drafts of our chapters from several well-established scholars 

considerably enhanced the quality of our manuscript chapters and socialized us into certain 

academic discourse practices (and identities) that benefitted our growth as writers, emerging 

scholars, and ultimately published authors. As a result, we ended up collaborating on a co-

written journal article (Okuda & Anderson, 2018) shortly after Tim had graduated (and when 

Tomoyo was writing her dissertation) that was published in one of the leading journals in our 

field, TESOL Quarterly. The skills we acquired from our dissertation experiences were directly 

applied in the planning, structuring, and writing of this paper.  

 

Conclusion 

 

We hope this paper makes a useful contribution in highlighting the diversity in dissertation 

options available for PhD students and can subsequently serve as an introductory framework for 

students and other stakeholders interested in writing a manuscript-style dissertation. We have 

endeavoured to address some key characteristics of this dissertation macrostructure that were 

encountered during our preparation, writing, and defending stages, as well as the ensuing 

transitions to publish these manuscripts as journal articles and book chapters. In today’s 

academic job market, leaving the doctorate with multiple published or publishable articles can be 

strategically crucial, and we believe that a manuscript-style dissertation can serve as one 

important pillar in that process.  

 

Acknowledgments 

 

The authors would like to acknowledge the two anonymous reviewers of this paper whose 

insights resulted in a stronger and more balanced discussion. We’d also like to express our 

gratitude to the Editor of the BC TEAL Journal, Dr. Scott Roy Douglas, for his dedication to 

open-access and the BC TEAL community at large. Finally, our enduring appreciation extends to 

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our doctoral supervisory teams, Dr. Patricia Duff, Dr. Ryuko Kubota, and Dr. Ling Shi, for 

supporting, mentoring, and encouraging us to take a chance with our dissertation writing.  

 

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