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BC TEAL Journal Volume 2 Number 1 (2017): 36-45 

Theoretical Analysis, Classroom Practice, Opinion Essays 

 

Trauma-informed Teaching Practice and Refugee Children: A Hopeful Reflection on 

Welcoming Our New Neighbours to Canadian Schools 

 

M. Gregory Tweedie 

University of Calgary 

 

Carla Belanger 

Calgary Board of Education 

 

Kimberley Rezazadeh 

Calgary Board of Education 

 

Karen Vogel 

Calgary Board of Education 

 

Abstract 

 

Given the Canadian government’s focus on refugee resettlement in light of global crises, many 

schools are receiving increased enrolment of students who have experienced the trauma 

associated with living in, and fleeing from, regions experiencing armed conflict. As well as the 

effects of complex trauma, children from these backgrounds will likely have experienced 

disrupted schooling during the migration process (e.g. in refugee camps), and as a consequence 

lack literacy in their first language. The authors assert that given the numbers of such students 

entering Canadian classrooms, it is important that educators have at least some knowledge of 

trauma-informed teaching practice. Illustrated through the journal entries of a student teacher, the 

implementation of Blaustein & Kinniburgh’s (2010) ARC Framework is described, as applied in 

one Canadian high school, in a classroom of newly-arrived refugees from war-torn countries. 

The effect of trauma on key areas of attachment, self-regulation, and developmental competence 

are considered, alongside illustrations of classroom intervention strategies. While acknowledging 

the challenges inherent in trauma-informed teaching practice, the article encourages a move 

away from a deficit perspective on children from refugee backgrounds, toward one of hope, 

befitting the resiliency such children bring to their new country.  

 

Introduction 

 

According to Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, our country admitted a total of 

26,172 refugees between November 2015 and March 2016. While the majority of these were 

settled in Ontario (41%), 13% and 9% were bound for Alberta and British Columbia, 

respectively (IRCC, 2017). While British Columbia on average receives 1,600 refugees annually 

(Government of British Columbia, 2017), the total number of Syrian refugees alone resettled in 

the province was (as of December 2016), 2,100 (ISS BC, 2016). Syrian households are typically 

larger than the Canadian ones, with BC arrivals reporting an average of six household members 

(ISS BC, 2016, p. 8). The relatively young age of Syrian refugees (60% of BC’s resettled 

refugees are under 19, for example) implies that growth in school enrollments is expected, and 



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 2 Number 1 (2017): 36-45 

the Alberta Education Annual Report for 2015-2016 indicates an enrollment of 1,250 resettled 

students with refugee experiences into Alberta schools (Government of Alberta, 2016). The 

numbers of such students arriving in our schools, in a compressed time frame, highlight the need 

for teachers to consider teaching practices which support the learning needs of children from 

refugee backgrounds. 

 

 Though the circumstances endured by many children with refugee experiences prior to 

entering our schools may seem crippling, the authors assert that we do well to avoid adopting a 

“deficit” lens through which to view these new students, who bring “strengths, abilities and 

qualities to share, with hope of thriving in a new country” (British Columbia Ministry of 

Education, 2015, p. 13). It is with this hopeful outlook that we as authors explore, through 

experiences shared in a student teacher’s reflective journal, how educators might build learning 

communities that support our newly arrived neighbours from refugee backgrounds. 

 

 Entry from a student teacher’s journal1. February 8, Period 4. Today the class of 

refugee kids are studying heart idioms in preparation for Valentine’s Day, a celebration which 

for most of these teenagers, will be another one of those “Canadian firsts” in a year that will 

have seen so many. Have a heart, heartache, a change of heart, wear my heart on my sleeve, learn 

by heart, cross my heart, warm-hearted, all heart… The students each choose a heart idiom, and 

use their beginning English literacy skills to write the idiom on a heart-shaped cut-out, which 

will then adorn the classroom bulletin board for a follow-up reading activity. As I circulate 

among the desks, observing, and giving spelling help when asked, I’m struck by how much care 

goes into the formation and placement of each letter, with colours carefully chosen—no one’s 

racing through this activity. As with every lesson in this class of new arrivals (most are from 

Syria), there’s that one poignant moment, when we chatty teachers look at a student’s work, 

and—very uncharacteristically—have nothing to say. One student has chosen, aptly, the idiom 

heartbroken for his card. “I am heartbroken,” his sentence reads, “because I haven’t seen my 

brother for 6 years.”  

 

Refugee Arrivals: Meet Our New Neighbours 

 

Article 1 of the 1951 Refugee Convention, of which Canada is a signatory, defines a refugee as 

someone who,  

 

owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, 

membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of his 

nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the 

protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country 

of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such 

fear, is unwilling to return to it (UNHCR, 2007, p. 14). 

 

The above circumstances make it important to distinguish refugees from immigrants, a 

distinction sometimes lost in the perception of the general public. Though both groups will 

experience the many challenges of settling in a new place, immigrants are likely to have 

                                                
1 On condition of anonymity, permission has been granted by a student teacher to use excerpts from a reflective 

journal, submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirements of a teaching practicum field experience course.  



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 2 Number 1 (2017): 36-45 

developed familiarity with their new country before arrival, often precipitated by pre-move 

visits. This period of preparation for immigration means that their children are less likely to have 

interrupted schooling, as arrangements for basic needs are often made in advance of the move to 

Canada (British Columbia Ministry of Education, 2015).  

 

 Contrast this with the situation of many children from refugee backgrounds. Prolonged 

time periods in refugee camps may have led to interrupted schooling, with the consequence of 

illiteracy and innumeracy in their first language (L1), and the effects of trauma from war and 

involuntary displacement (Block, Cross, Riggs, & Gibbs, 2014). These reflect the reality of 

forced migration for refugees, juxtaposed with the choice of destination and timing of settlement 

exercised by immigrants.  

 

 Canada has been recognized for its leadership in providing protection for refugees 

(Canadian Council for Refugees, 2016), and Canadian educators have acknowledged the crucial 

role of teachers and schools in the resettlement process. The literature includes explorations of 

issues surrounding refugee education across a range of Canada’s provinces: Prince Edward 

Island (MacNevin, 2012); Ontario (Feuerverger, 2011); Manitoba (Kanu, 2008; Stewart, 2012); 

Alberta (Miles & Bailey-McKenna, 2016; Wilkinson, 2002); and Newfoundland (Li & Grineva, 

2017); as well as from a diversity of research methodologies such as case studies (e.g., 

Beauregard, Papazian-Zohrabian, & Rousseau, 2017) and narrative inquiries (e.g., Kovinthan, 

2016).  

 

 Entry from a student teacher’s journal. February 6, afternoon. Heavy snowfall today, 

with -20 C weather coming out of nowhere. All the buses were late, and when they did finally 

come, were packed full and so didn’t do any pick-ups at bus stops where kids from our class 

were waiting. Got word that one refugee student from our class had been taken to the hospital - 

severe frostbite while waiting for the bus. His winter clothes were the same as the Canadian-

born kids (read: underdressed for the weather) but students who grew up here knew to find 

somewhere indoors to wait after the first bus passed without stopping. My mentor teacher threw 

out the lesson plan that morning and taught everyone the “skin test”: seeing pale yellow or white 

means one’s skin is in the early stages of frostbite.  

 

Trauma-informed Teaching Practice 
 

The impact of war and its aftermath on children’s well-being in the areas of health, mental 

health, and cognition has been well-documented (e.g., Williams, 2007; Wolmer, Hamiel, & Laor, 

2011). Teachers typically rely on school psychologists to support children’s particular mental 

health concerns (Reinke, Stormont, Herman, Puri, & Goel, 2011), and such supports may be 

effective when two or three refugee children from war-torn regions enter a classroom. But when 

the entire class consists of children who have experienced the horrors of war first-hand (as is the 

case in some Canadian classrooms at present), it is important that teachers have at least some 

awareness of trauma-informed teaching practice.  

 

 In traumatic events, “the victim is rendered helpless by overwhelming force,” which may 

“overwhelm the ordinary systems of care that give people a sense of control, connection, and 

meaning” (Herman, 1997, p. 33). Terr (2003) distinguished one-time traumatic incidents (Type I) 



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 2 Number 1 (2017): 36-45 

from Type II events (also known as repetitive or complex trauma) which recur for an extended 

period of time, typically making recovery more difficult (Courtois & Ford, 2014, p. 11).  

 

 Entry from a student teacher’s journal. My mentor teacher quote of the week: 

“Teaching this class requires a lot of emotional stamina.”  

 

 Complex trauma affects cognition in children, which can directly impact success in the 

classroom. Growing up in conditions of constant threat, with all resources focused on survival, 

may result in an adolescent who has difficulty thinking clearly and working reasonably through a 

problem to consider multiple alternatives. Over-responses to sensory stimuli are a result of 

growing up under extreme stress, and an adolescent who has experienced complex trauma may 

be hypersensitive to sounds, touch, or light. When experiencing what would be considered 

ordinary levels of stress in a Canadian school, children with refugee experiences may exhibit the 

physiological effects of extreme stress, even “shutting down” entirely (National Child Traumatic 

Stress Network, n.d.).  

 

 Downey (2013) identified four characteristics of complex trauma which have direct 

impact upon academic performance: reduced cognitive capacity; sleep disturbance; memory 

difficulties; and language delays (pp. 12–13). Reduced cognitive capacity through hyperarousal 

may lead to difficulties retaining information and maintaining attention on a task. Exposure to 

the trauma of war while growing up may have developed a sleep avoidance pattern, with the 

child fearing what will happen if they go to sleep, or recurring nightmares as trauma is relived 

may prevent restful sleep. A student retaining these sleep patterns in their new Canadian 

environment will inevitably be drowsy during lessons, often sleeping in class and thus missing 

learning opportunities. With respect to memory difficulties, children who have experienced 

complex trauma may be overwhelmed with memories of traumatic events, which impact upon 

their ability to “hold” one set of information while working on another, a skill required, for 

example, in solving mathematical problems. Finally, given that complex trauma restricts the 

ability to “listen and retain information, to understand complex concepts and to express ideas and 

thoughts” (Downey, 2013, p. 13), refugee children may be developmentally behind their peers in 

regard to their first language, let alone the challenges of acquiring proficiency in a second.  

 

 Entry from a student teacher’s journal. February 10, Friday. Everything seemed to be 

going well in the weekly quiz: students were engaged in the task and for the most part the 

classroom of newly arrived refugee adolescents (mostly from Syria) was unusually calm. Then, 

out of the blue (at least to the teachers), sobs erupted from one student, and the calm suddenly 

disintegrated. Two of the boys became fiercely angry and announced they were going home. One 

of the girls spoke to the sobbing student in a threatening tone, then closed her book and 

resolutely refused to work. Another student who’d been engaged in the task suddenly appeared 

panic and needed “fresh air”, and this set off a flurry of requests for washroom and water 

breaks. My mentor teacher tried valiantly to get the quiz back on track, but emotions were now 

running high across the room. She circulated among the desks, trying to identify how to best help 

the sobbing student, while attempting to calmly diffuse the rising tide of anger. So much for 

“summative assessment” …  

 



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 2 Number 1 (2017): 36-45 

 It is tempting, when considering the devastating impacts of complex trauma, to envision 

only a bleak picture of what a classroom of children from refugee backgrounds might look like, 

and, like the student teacher quoted above, feel woefully inadequate for the task. Yet, there are 

many teachers across Canada who are refusing to accept a “deficit” viewpoint—neither of 

refugee children as learners, nor of themselves as educators—and, despite the many challenges, 

persist in creating classrooms of hope. I was fortunate to have the opportunity to participate in 

one such classroom daily for several weeks, and the remainder of this article is devoted to a 

description of how a team of dedicated teachers are striving to warmly welcome their new 

neighbours to a Canadian high school, told through the eyes of a student teacher. 

 

The ARC Framework—Applied 

 

The acronym ARC (attachment, regulation, and competency) is used to describe a framework of 

strategies addressing these three core issues in assisting a child’s recovery from complex trauma 

(Blaustein & Kinniburgh, 2007, 2010; Kinniburgh, Blaustein, Spinazzola, & van der Kolk, 

2005).The teaching team described in this article utilize classroom practices informed by the 

ARC Framework, but readers should not infer that the teachers are continually consulting a 

manual on what to do next—there isn’t time! In fact, the creators of ARC distinguish their 

framework from other “manualized” approaches, preferring instead to call it a “guideline” to 

inform practice, while being cognizant of the uniqueness of each context (Kinniburgh et al., 

2005, pp. 425–426).  

 

 Entry from a student teacher’s journal. As a student teacher, I feel discouraged today - 

by my estimate, I currently have about 10% of the skills required to teach in this program. :-(  

 

Attachment  

 

Attachment (the “A” in the ARC Framework) refers to the nurturing relationship between 

children and their caregivers, which when secure, provides a solid base to establish identity and 

sense of self (Main, 1996). Children living in, or fleeing from, the inherently insecure conditions 

of war zones may experience disrupted or severed attachment and its consequences. Key to 

countering the effects of insecure attachment is the establishment of predictable and structured 

routines, in an environment where a sense of safety and security is paramount. Predictable 

classroom routines and rituals help to restore a sense of stability for children whose lives have 

been characterized by “extraordinary chaos and unpredictability” (Blaustein & Kinniburgh, 

2010, p. 38). 

 

 Entry from a student teacher’s journal. February 22. School fire drill scheduled for 2 

pm today. My mentor teacher is really concerned that the fire drill might be a trauma trigger for 

the students from refugee backgrounds. How could I not have thought of that??? Am I ever going 

to get it??  

 

 Following the completion of the drill she put everyone in a circle, and led the students in 

describing their feelings when they heard the alarm, and then when we all lined up outside in the 

snow for a head count. “I want everyone to feel safe,” she kept saying.  

 



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 2 Number 1 (2017): 36-45 

 I hope all that I’m observing here is somehow “going in” by osmosis—I can’t read from 

a manual while teaching …  

 

Self-regulation 

 

Children who experience complex trauma often, as a coping tool, learn to disassociate from their 

experiences, both emotionally and physically. Danger, experienced repeatedly in a war zone for 

example, will “activate” physiological and psychological survival resources, but “de-activate” 

higher cognitive functions (Kinniburgh et al., 2005, p. 428). These students may then have 

difficulty monitoring their emotions at school when (even relatively mild) stressful events occur; 

some children who have had traumatic experiences “shut down” when encountering the daily ups 

and downs of school life, while others seem to explode. Learning to identify and regulate 

emotional responses is a key focus of trauma-informed teaching practice.  

 

 Entry from a student teacher’s journal. March 1. Intense debriefing session today. My 

mentor teachers spent their lunch hour and the first period in the afternoon sorting out a 

simmering conflict. Some of the Syrian boys sit in the hallway during lunch hour, laughing and 

joking (probably too loudly) in Arabic. A group of Canadian-born kids passing by interpreted 

the Arabic talk as aggression, and some threats were exchanged. Rumours of an impending 

brawl spread through our class, and emotions reached a fever pitch. The lesson plan for the 

afternoon was ditched—again—and the teachers spent the first afternoon period with the class 

in a circle. Ms V. focused on getting the students to label emotions, using her ultra-calm voice: 

“M, how did you feel when that happened? …. Oh, M. felt angry. How about you, Y - how did 

you feel? … Oh, M felt angry, but Y felt scared.”  

 

 After most of the class had named their emotions (it turned out to be a pretty good 

vocabulary lesson, too!), Ms B. moved the group along: “So how can we solve this problem? 

What are your ideas? N, what are your ideas to solve this problem?” An hour later, a peaceful 

calm had settled over the classroom. Another crisis averted - for now …  

 

 Self-regulation describes “the capacity to effectively manage experience on many levels: 

cognitive, emotional, physiological, and behavioural”, and requires both an “ability to tolerate a 

range of arousal and affect”, as well as “an understanding of the interconnections among aspects 

of internal experiences (i.e., sensations, feelings, thought, behaviour)” (Blaustein & Kinniburgh, 

2010, p. 111). Clearly, these capacities do not develop overnight, and teachers (or their school 

leadership) solely focused on getting through the syllabus will encounter inevitable frustration. A 

patient, nurturing approach, with a willingness to see the ups and downs of daily school life not 

as interruptions to the real teaching but as invaluable teaching opportunities in and of 

themselves, will go a long way toward creating a welcoming learning environment for our new 

neighbours.  

 

 Entry from a student teacher’s journal. Quote of the week from my mentor teacher: 

“With these kids, the relationship is the teaching.” 

 

  



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 2 Number 1 (2017): 36-45 

Competencies 
 

Developmental competencies, representing the “C” in the ARC Framework, reflect the reality 

that the complex trauma experienced by children in zones of conflict typically interferes with 

normal developmental stages, and the competencies that accompany them. Difficulties with 

problem-solving, concentration, attention to tasks, and abstract reasoning (Kinniburgh et al., 

2005) are among the developmental competencies impinged upon by the experiences many of 

these children have encountered.  

 

 Entry from a student teacher’s journal. One of my mentor teachers used a what you 

had for breakfast prompt as a way to create an orderly procedure for putting away readers. 

When she found out three boys hadn’t had breakfast, she sent them to get some from the Foods 

classroom. Financial hardship often goes hand in hand with being a newly arrived refugee, and 

some of our kids come to school hungry. Felt conflicted about how I am often a slave to the 

lesson plan—get through the agenda at all costs!  

 

 Key to reconstructing these competencies is restoring a sense that children have control 

over their own outcomes and that an individual decision made today has direct effect on 

tomorrow’s consequences—something the uncertainty of life in a war zone quickly erodes. 

Teachers can foster this through deliberate use of the language of choice, decision, and 

consequence, and through activities that involve students in short- and longer-term planning 

toward concrete, achievable goals (Kinniburgh et al., 2005). One school utilized the expertise of 

a nearby retreat centre, which operated outdoor team-building camps focused on challenging 

activities requiring teamwork and goal orientation. There, students from refugee backgrounds, 

against the backdrop of Canada’s breathtaking natural beauty, worked together to plan, execute 

and evaluate activities like the scaling of rock walls or the safe negotiation of creek crossings.  

 

 Entry from a student teacher’s journal: My mentor teacher was coming back from a 

school outdoor activity, walking alongside a student, when a helicopter flew overhead (the city’s 

air ambulance). The student noticeably stiffened, so my mentor teacher asked, “How do you feel 

in Canada when you see a helicopter?”  

 

 “In Syria,” the student answered, “when you see a helicopter—it means run! Run fast! 

The helicopter will drop …” The student didn’t complete the sentence, and my mentor teacher 

avoided supplying the missing word. They walked the rest of the way back to the school in a 

reflective silence. 

 

Teacher Self-care 

 

Many educators report that teaching and learning with classrooms of children from refugee 

backgrounds is a deeply fulfilling, rewarding, and even life-changing experience. At the same 

time, however, it requires, as the mentor teacher quoted above notes, considerable emotional 

stamina. Student work towards the restoration of disrupted attachment, self-regulation, and 

developmental competence does not take place without many ups and downs, gains and losses, 

victories and setbacks, often with accompanying tears (on the part of students, and, occasionally, 

teachers). In the context of such emotional investment, it is essential that teachers cultivate habits 



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BC TEAL Journal Volume 2 Number 1 (2017): 36-45 

of self-care. Self-care strategies might include: finding colleagues especially skilled at listening; 

keeping a sunshine file of positive feedback; developing the ability to laugh at oneself; not 

neglecting hobbies that replenish; learning to breathe deeply in stressful situations; recognizing 

when one needs a break; custom-made cappuccinos every Friday; long walks; preventative time-

outs (for the teacher!) when classroom emotions are surging; after-work chats with supportive 

colleagues. Such battery rechargers are essential in maintaining the emotional stamina needed for 

this challenging, but deeply rewarding work.  

 

Conclusion 

 

This article has described, through the reflections of a student teacher, how the ARC Framework 

is being applied in one classroom. We argue that a focus on rebuilding attachment, self-

regulation, and developmental competencies in children from refugee backgrounds can provide 

such students a strong start to their Canadian school life. Evidence suggests that despite 

overwhelming odds, many children who have experienced trauma somehow not only learn to 

survive, but to thrive (Werner & Smith, 1992, 2001). Our new neighbours have witnessed first-

hand some of the worst that humankind has to offer, yet bring with them a remarkable sense of 

resilience and hope for a new life in a new country. Educators taking up the challenging task of 

teaching and learning with children who have experienced the traumas of war will, we assert, 

find this hope infectious.  

 

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https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022714
https://doi.org/10.1080/15595692.2012.691136
https://doi.org/10.1176/foc.1.3.322
http://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10
https://doi.org/10.1080/13676260220134430
https://doi.org/10.1080/09540260701349480
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2011.01.002
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

