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Theoretical Analysis, Classroom Practice, Opinion Essays 

 

The Problem of Presentations:  

An EAP Lecturer’s Approach to Teaching Presentation Skills 

 

Jodie L. Martin 

University of British Columbia 

 

Abstract 

 

Presentations are often incorporated into higher education without any instruction on how to 

present, or the features by which presentations will be assessed. This lack of instruction risks 

disadvantaging many students judged by tacit criteria they may not meet, including English as an 

additional language students, first generation university students, and international and/or cross-

disciplinary students coming from educational contexts with different presentation styles and 

values. This paper presents one lecturer’s efforts to meet the needs of her students to develop 

presentation skills by focusing a significant portion of an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) 

course on presentations over four years. The paper outlines the curricular design for this focus, 

which included multiple presentations in multiple formats and an explicit Teaching and Learning 

Cycle (Rothery, 1994). Further, it presents some of the concepts and approaches that are used to 

shape an intersemiotic awareness of presentations, including the grammar of bullet point form, 

image-language relations, how to talk about complex slides, presentation delivery strategies, and 

how to scaffold practising in class. Finally, it concludes with some challenges about the formal 

evaluation of such presentations. It offers both design and activity descriptions for interested 

teachers to consider incorporating, whether in EAP or in other courses.   

 

Introduction 

 

Academic presentations are often incorporated into higher education assessment without 

instruction on how to present, or how the presentation is assessed. Indeed, in graduate degrees, 

presentation events form a type of quality control and hurdle task for research (Scott, 2022). 

Many students therefore risk being disadvantaged by tacit criteria, including English as an 

additional language students; first generation students who may be less familiar with professional 

and/or academic presentation styles; international students who may come from systems with 

different presentation styles and values; and mature age or retraining students coming from 

different disciplinary or professional backgrounds. In fact, an academic presentation is a complex 

interactive multimodal activity (Zhao et al., 2014) that instructors may struggle to fully 

deconstruct for students, especially when deeply embedded within a disciplinary field. 

Furthermore, there are many varieties of practices and principles underpinning what may be 

perceived as a good presentation as well as a multitude that may be considered bad in some 

fields, but not in others. A key challenge is ensuring that students are assessed on what they have 

been taught explicitly and not on conforming to an assessor’s cultural or cultivated expectations.  

 

 Within the field of English for Academic Purposes (EAP), oral presentations form a 

common assessment and even hurdle task for progression (Palmour, 2023). In British Columbia, 

the ability to deliver presentations accompanied by images and text is part of expected EAP 

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course outcomes (British Columbia Council on Admissions and Transfer, 2022). Research in 

EAP has explored how presentation skills are developed (Bankowski, 2010) and how strategies 

are used by students (Chou, 2011), as well as assessment processes around presentations 

themselves (Palmour, 2023). Nevertheless, students continue to be nervous about presentations 

(Mumford, 2018), and there is much for the conscientious practitioner to explore.  

 

 This paper presents one lecturer’s efforts to explicitly develop presentation skills in first 

year international science students in an EAP course. This paper summarizes the curricular 

design implemented, including multiple presentations and Teaching and Learning Cycles (TLC) 

(Rothery, 1994), and describes a number of useful approaches for dealing with the intersemiotic 

challenges of presentations, taking into consideration the complete presentation event including 

slide content and delivery, as well as classroom content and activities, and finally the assessment 

of presentations. As such, it aims to offer inspiration and strategies for other instructors for use in 

classes with different content, contexts, and cohorts. 

 

Teaching Context 

 

The curriculum described in this paper is taught within an enriched first-year EAP program that 

includes two Academic English courses, a writing-focused course and a science language-

focused course, over two 13-week semesters; this unit came in the second semester of the science 

language course. As the writing course was focused primarily on writing and research, the 

science language course could be focused on presentations. A need for instruction on 

presentations had been observed and supported anecdotally by students reporting a very wide 

range of previous experience with presenting; some students had never presented with slideshow 

software, while other students had presented in multiple formats in high school. The curriculum 

was intended, therefore, to provide both basic principles for students new to or nervous about 

presenting, as well as enhance the skills of experienced students and help them adapt to the 

requirements of academic presentations at a Canadian university. Furthermore, within this cohort 

program, students had multiple presentations, most significantly including a poster or slideshow 

presentation during a student research conference at the end of the 11-month program. The 

research conference provided a high visibility application to validate the focus of the semester.  

 

Table 1 

 

Iterations of EAP Unit on Presentations Over Four Years 

 

Year Classes Weeks Presentation Topic Presentations Presenters 

2020 2 13 Research paper students’ choice PechaKucha, 

poster, slideshowa 

1 

2021 3 7 Scientist of students’ choice PechaKuchab, 

slideshowb 

1 

2022 3 6 Scientist students’ choice 

drawing on texts by/about them 

PechaKucha, 

slideshow 

1 

2023 1 7 Topic from students’ science 

electives 

PechaKucha, 

slideshow 

1 then 2–

3 
a Delivered online due to the advent of emergency remote teaching in March 2020 
b Pre-recorded by students and uploaded due to remote teaching in 2020–2021 academic year  

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This paper describes the curriculum initially taught in early 2020 (January–April) and iterated 

over the following three years (see Table 1 above). The paper draws descriptions from various 

iterations as relevant. Ultimately, the fact that the design and approaches described below have 

been productively taught in both asynchronous and synchronous settings for in-person, pre-

recorded, and live online presentations demonstrates their usefulness.   

 

Curricular Design to Develop Presentation Skills 

 

A particular point of design in this curriculum was the choice to dedicate an extended period of 

time to presentations. While this is not possible in all contexts, it is hoped that outlining some of 

the pedagogical choices will demonstrate potential for selection. Two interrelated and 

overlapping choices behind the curricular design have been identified. 

 

Multiple Presentation Formats 

 

The first choice was that each semester involved two to three presentations, allowing students to 

incorporate feedback and compare different formats while presenting on the same topics. Three 

presentation formats were included in the initial iteration and sequenced with increasing 

complexity. Two—an academic poster and an academic slideshow presentation—were selected 

as they would be used in the students’ subsequent research conference. A third more informal 

style of presentation was added at the beginning to build up to the academic forms. These will 

each be described below with a summary of the key challenges and affordances. 

 

PechaKucha 

 

A PechaKucha is a type of informal presentation where a speech is delivered accompanied by a 

slideshow with only pictures (no text) and automatically timed progression. While the original 

format uses 20 slides for 20 seconds each (PechaKucha 20x20, 2021), for students and for time 

constraints, the format was adapted to nine slides for 20 seconds each (three minutes total). The 

PechaKucha served to be a highly effective presentation skill development activity as the format 

constraints meant that students had to carefully prepare and practice their presentation (see 

Metcalf et al. [2016] for further exploration of incorporating PechaKucha presentations). 

Furthermore, by limiting the semiotic modes in play, the instruction could be focused on images, 

speech, and presentation skills, without slide text or manual timing.  

 

Poster Presentation 

 

A poster is a common form of academic presentation, particularly for presenting work-in-

progress at conferences. It includes a large printed poster, with text, images, and data 

representations (graphs, diagrams, figures, etc.). The text may be presented in bullet point form, 

or concise sentences and paragraphs; the poster tends to follow generic stages of research 

reports. As an event, a poster presentation involves presenters standing in front of posters while 

audience members circulate and talk to presenters when interested.  

 

 As a pedagogic activity, the posters were projected on large monitors, allowing last 

minute edits and avoiding printing costs. The poster required succinct and clearly formatted text. 

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Students needed to interest audience members with conversation and design, as well as respond 

to questions. As an instructor, I was able to scaffold students’ presentations through 1:1 

conversations, and students who were nervous in performing in front of the class were less 

nervous in individual settings.  

 

Slideshow Presentation 

 

A slideshow is a common form of presentation within and beyond the academic sphere. It 

involves a slideshow controlled by the presenter with both text and images. The slides include 

headings and point form text, with paragraphs of full sentences typically not valued. The slide 

text can serve both as a prompt to the speaker and as a scaffold for the audience to follow the 

complexity of the content. Concluding the series of presentations with a slideshow presentation 

allowed students to appreciate both the complexity of the presentation and its comparative 

freedom in relation to the stricter format of the PechaKucha.  

 

 The three presentations therefore increased in formality and complexity in terms of 

semiotic modes involved in communication. Students could and did reuse content from one 

presentation to the next, but it invariably needed to be reframed and adapted. In recognition of 

the increasing complexity of the presentations, and also to increase the stakes as students 

developed skills, the presentations were allocated increasing marks. The repeated cycle of 

presentations allowed different features to be focused on in instruction and assessment.  

 

Teaching and Learning Cycle Sequencing 

 

The second choice is potentially the most important. The course was designed to follow the 

Teaching and Learning Cycle (TLC) (Rothery, 1994), a strategy for literacy development in 

particular, involving staged removal of scaffolding (see Figure 1).  

 

Figure 1 

 

Teaching and Learning Cycle for Presentations 

 

  

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The TLC moves from modelling and deconstruction of a target text, to joint reconstruction 

between students or students and instructor, and concludes with independent construction by the 

student alone. In the science language course, each cycle takes 3–4 weeks (9–12 hours of class 

time), depending on scheduling constraints. In the first stage, the presentation style is 

demonstrated by a graduate teaching assistant, or with recordings of previous students’ work, 

and particular features are taught with a focus on principles and procedures. Class time is then 

dedicated to working on presentations, with students receiving advice from instructor and peers. 

Most important was the third stage dedicated to practising, and various activities were created, 

ranging from peer review of slides or scripts, to phone-recorded practices where students 

presented to each other and reviewed their recordings. Finally, students completed the 

performance through delivering the presentation in class, whether in person or online. 

 

 The TLC was key to building skills in the students, through emphasizing the procedural 

knowledge behind creating presentation products as well as the practices and interactions 

required for delivery (see Martin, 2024 for fuller discussion). It also highlights the importance of 

firstly deconstructing the characteristics of a presentation format, and providing space and time 

to practise delivery before the final presentation.   

 

Useful Approaches for the Intersemiotic Challenges of Presentations 

 

What is valued in academic presentations varies greatly by field and object of study. Some fields 

accept slides full of text while others spurn them. Some fields appreciate or require illustration 

through images, while others consider them superficial or incidental to meaningful 

communication (Zappa-Hollman, 2007). Nevertheless, there are a number of aspects of 

presentations that can be addressed in the classroom during the modelling and deconstruction 

stage, with appropriate acknowledgement of the diversity of standards of achievement. In this 

section, I briefly describe aspects of presentations I have chosen to focus on, and the approaches 

that I find useful, drawing on research, experience with presentations, and my ability as a linguist 

and educational researcher to analyze semiotic events. These therefore reflect my personal 

experiences and preferences, as well as the forms of my field. How they relate to either 

successful presentations by students in other classes, or successful communication more 

generally is still to be explored. 

 

Grammar of Bullet Point Form 

 

Academic presentation slides make significant use of bullet points for visual language, yet many 

students are either unaware of the language conventions, or only have a tacit and partial 

knowledge. I suspect also the conventions are strongly yet implicitly influenced by the left-to-

right, top-to-bottom language and page organization which may be different for students who 

speak languages that are written right-to-left, for example. Further, many skilled and strong 

presenters are unaware of the logic of bullet point form unless transgressed.  

 

 Grammatically, a bullet point often takes the form of either an extended noun group, or 

an abbreviated clause without a grammatical subject, or with the grammatical subject given by a 

heading or major point. Slide text is often relatively objective, with evaluative and subjective 

language conveyed by speech instead (Scott, 2022). Bullet points are also organized logically 

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and hierarchically through the use of indentations and sub-points, with groups of bullet points 

typically taking the same grammatical form (e.g., three sub-points as noun groups) to reinforce 

taxonomies conveyed through the nesting. The headings for each slide or for sections operate as 

a departure point for the whole slide, and all language can be understood as relating to it. Figure 

2 both demonstrates and describes point form grammar1.  

 

Figure 2 

 

Point Form Grammar Slide 

 

 
 

 Classroom activities included taking a paragraph and summarizing it as bullet points, and 

taking a bulleted list of disparate things and asking students to group them in different ways 

(Figure 3). It is also valuable to draw attention to how explicit organization of bullet points helps 

the audience understand the presenter.  

 

Figure 3 

 

Selected Sides of Point Form Activities 

 

  
 

1 Point form is used in these materials as it is a common term in Canada where they were used. Bullet point form is 

used elsewhere in this article to avoid confusion in other countries and dialects. 

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Image-Language Relations 

 

Depending on the field, images may be commonly used in presentations, strictly held to be 

illustrative, or dismissed as ornamental. Images have complex interactions with accompanying 

language. Drawing on Roehrich’s (2016) framework of logical relations between images and 

language in textbooks, image choice can be presented in a number of ways, simplified here. 

 

 From elaborating logical relations (for example, such as), we can show how images can 

illustrate what is conveyed in language. The clearest application is when a presentation is on a 

topic, such as an animal, a technology, or a place, an image of this item accompanies the 

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description. While straightforward, it is a use of images that students repeatedly forget when 

immersed in projects.  

 

 From enhancing logical relations (where, when, why), we can show how images can 

provide additional details to language or language can provide contextual detail for the image. 

For example, when talking about an object, an image may provide the location, time, and effect 

of that object. This is particularly useful for explanations of processes or complex descriptions. 

Thus, within a scientific context, showing the methodology of an experiment might be more 

helpful than simply describing it; that is, showing how the experiment was conducted, and by 

what means.  

 

 From extending logical relations (and, but, then), we can show how images supplement 

or contrast language. One productive explanation I found of this was the way that gifs or memes 

are used—it is not that the image depicts the exact subject but rather that the image conveys a 

sentiment that extends what is being talked about. Similarly, we can add layers of information 

through images.  

 

 While this framework was somewhat productive by itself, its efficacy was enhanced in 

the second iteration of this course when logical grammatical relations in language had been a 

major focus in the first semester. This highlights how teaching about presentations can build on 

and integrate language- and writing-focused instruction for multimodal effects. Productive 

activities included taking a graduate teaching assistant’s PechaKucha presentation, slide by slide, 

and mapping how the language related to the image. This particularly was useful in explaining 

visual metaphors the students hadn’t understood (such as the use of a figure bending over 

backwards when the teaching assistant spoke about being flexible) or purposeful errors (such as 

displaying a technical microscopic image without explaining what it showed).  

 

Speech as Data Commentary of Slides 

 

One of the challenges of academic presentations in particular is increasing complexity in 

displaying data, images, or even text. A common problem occurs when students who have been 

working on a topic at length choose to display an image and do not explain it to the audience. To 

address this issue as well as give students a clear strategy, a concept from the parallel writing 

course was borrowed. In the writing course, students write Data Commentaries of graphs and 

tables involving three stages: indicative summary (summarizing what the graph depicts), 

highlighting statement (identifying noteworthy features of the graph), and explanation 

(explaining the causes or consequences of the noteworthy features). When showing a slide which 

in some way may challenge the audience’s typical reading strategies, the presenter can deploy a 

similar genre structure: an indicative summary of what the slide shows, a highlighting statement 

pointing out key features (often while pointing through gestures or the mouse), and finally an 

explanation of the content.  

 

 A simple in-class strategy to illustrate this use of Data Commentaries is to use an image 

from the picture book Where’s Wally (Waldo for North Americans) (Handford, 1987). The 

image purposefully includes a lot of interesting characters doing interesting things to distract the 

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audience. However, by following the stages, a presenter can quickly and efficiently direct the 

audience’s attention to the relevant feature. For example: 

 

• INDICATIVE SUMMARY: This picture shows a circus.  

• HIGHLIGHTING STATEMENT: I will tell you a story about the green lady next to the 

lion in the top right corner. 

• EXPLANATION: She is a key figure in the history of circuses as she advocated for 

hazard pay for those working with animals.  

 

Giving students strategies for presenting complex slides works in tandem with strategies for 

decreasing the complexity in slides.  

 

Presentation Delivery Strategies 

 

There are two overlapping challenges for the responsible instructor evaluating presentations: fear 

of public speaking is widespread, and public speaking is often constructed as something 

requiring innate talent. My response is to try to breakdown the procedures and practices of 

presentation, such that anyone has the tools to talk about anything to any audience (see Martin, 

2024). While this section draws on my personal experiences, and family lore of a line of public 

speakers and singers, I believe the valid point for teaching is that affecting these behaviours 

involves a physical component. That is, students need to physically try out speaking in different 

ways to understand their efficacy. One way I have summarised the features is through excessive 

use of alliteration, referred to as the seven Ps of presenting: 

 

• Pitch—high or low 

• Pace—fast or slow 

• Pause—for effect  

• Project—volume and direction 

• Posture—shoulders back, chin up, open body language 

• Peer—both eye contact and look at peers not just the teacher 

• Practice—as preparation and as polish 

 

The participation activity I use refers to the Goldilocks2  zone: have students pair up and stand 

opposite each other and take turns talking to each other. Students speak too fast, too slow, just 

right; too loud, too soft, just right; too high, too low, just right; and finally curl forward, crossing 

their arms, chin on their chest and try to speak loudly, and then shoulders back, chin up, open 

arms. It is certainly ridiculous, but the student who is too afraid to speak up is invited to yell; the 

student who speaks really fast finds out how much to slow down; the nervous students curling in 

on themselves learn how extending their throats lets them speak louder. This activity therefore 

provides a shared vocabulary for giving feedback after the first presentation as students usually 

only have one or two issues to remember.  

  

 
2 For multinational audiences, it is likely that the story of Goldilocks and the Three Bears needs to be told, or the 

astronomical concept of the Goldilocks zone for habitable planets. 

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Practising 

 

Practice makes for a better presentation. One thing I have realized after several years of teaching 

presentations is that there are two types of practice: practice as part of preparation, and practising 

to polish. That is, a presenter practises while crafting the presentation to see if it works or if 

something is missing, and to find the flow. Once the presentation is complete, practising shifts to 

polishing transitions and refining delivery techniques like pronunciation, pausing, and gesture.  

 

 Creating opportunities for practising in the classroom can be a challenge. Scheduling 

specific lessons for practice was helpful but still faced two problems: students who came 

completely unprepared, and students who skipped the class on purpose. Nevertheless, it can be a 

lightbulb moment. I ask students to present to small groups, with one group member videoing the 

student practising on the presenter’s phone, while the others made notes for feedback on relevant 

parameters (e.g., images, language, or delivery). An important point was to scaffold students to 

watch the recordings with a strategy I heard somewhere years ago. First, they watch it without 

sound, and so see themselves and any fidgets they may not be aware of. Then they listen to the 

recording without watching to hear how they speak and identify issues. If there is time, they 

watch the video with sound, and pause after every slide to consider the cohesion, although this 

step seems to have had less impact than it might. Finally, they watch and listen to the whole 

presentation.  

 

 The fun thing about first year students is that they often have never seen themselves 

present. They can be genuinely surprised to find out they unconsciously play with their hair, or 

swing their arm, or turn their back to their audience. Breaking this down as procedure rather than 

personal failing hopefully provides scope to change this practice.  

 

Final Thoughts and Open Questions 

 

A principle of my teaching—and undoubtedly of many others’—is that I try to never assess 

students on anything I haven’t taught them. My goal therefore is to fairly assess them for the 

procedures and practices I have taught, and make explicit the valued features and common errors 

(see Martin, 2024). However, it has been challenging to generate an effective assessment process 

both in terms of the criteria given to students and the method of assessment. An issue with my 

early rubrics was that in an attempt to discourage certain fundamental mistakes, I found myself 

giving the majority of students full marks for simple targets. After engaging with a productive 

holistic assessment process (see Walton & Martin [2023] for a full discussion), I developed a 

hybrid rubric (see Appendix A), which retained the criteria of a rubric, but did not set the bands 

of achievement, allowing for description of achievement to be emergent from each class. I offer 

this rubric because these items tend to be tacit, and more importantly, I present the process of 

assessment and the logic behind the rubric. 

 

 This assessment practice strongly emphasizes form and delivery over specific content. 

Within the EAP classroom it can be productive to say, “Present on what you want; just present it 

well,” although this risks providing too much scope (Mumford, 2018). At the same time, 

crossover with other courses can be powerful, especially when other expert assessors can 

participate. For this rubric to work, I have found it productive to record live presentations. This is 

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partly because I know I personally focus first on relatively superficial elements, such as errors in 

slide design or presentation delivery, and struggle to focus on the content. Further, as students 

typically present successively, it can be cognitively exhausting to evaluate completely in the 

moment. Recording allows live engagement with the presentation while reviewing details 

afterwards.  

 

 The rubric identifies four topics from class and describes a number of expected features. 

For example, for the PechaKucha assessment, the criteria are images, speech, delivery, and 

intermodal logic, while for the slideshow presentation the criteria are images & slide design, 

speech, slide text, and delivery, with values allocated to each element differently between the 

two presentation styles. Penalty marks were introduced for presentation format issues. For all 

presentations, running significantly short or long of the target time is penalized. In the 

PechaKucha, there are deductions for including text on the slides, and problems with timing and 

automation of slides. In the slideshow, using whole sentences or paragraphs on the slides, and 

not including references can each incur penalties. This use of penalties provides a productive 

moment to engage with students who have not followed instructions and made critical errors, 

while still evaluating what they have produced.  

 

 An open question remains about the efficacy of both presentation instruction and 

presentation knowledge and skills on student grades, and thus success. While there is some 

research in this area, the wide diversity of experiences and expectations requires context-based 

decision-making from a conscientious instructor. Anecdotally at least, I have received feedback 

from students that they were more confident and competent than their peers at the final 

conference, and from Science instructors that the quality of presentations when I taught a 

majority of the students had improved significantly from previous years. There are certainly 

more aspects of presentation that could be taught—my colleagues have found instruction on 

suprasegmental intonation patterns rather than pronunciation productive, which research has 

suggested to be potentially powerful (Pickering, 2004). 

 

 My advice for any instructors seeking to improve presentation instruction would be to 

consider how the Teaching and Learning Cycle could enhance content—by providing and 

deconstructing a model, or ensuring time to practice delivery. I would also suggest they choose 

one or two concepts to focus on based on issues they perceive in their students’ presentations. 

The concepts I have written about are based on a combination of research and aspects that seem 

to be tacit for both students and instructors. Presentations are usually low stakes assessment 

events; nevertheless, a student who has confidence and skills to share their message and engage 

the audience is a powerful sight, and one worth working towards.  

 

Acknowledgements 

 

The presentation curriculum described in this paper was originally conceptualized in 2019 in 

collaboration with Dr. Neil Leveridge and developed with the support of graduate teaching 

assistants Analise Hofmann and Dr. Connie Leung. The teaching materials I continue to use 

incorporate slides and concepts shared by Dr. Kelly Shoecraft and Dr. Jessica Scott. This paper 

benefited greatly from feedback from Academic English scholars and practitioners around the 

world, and I appreciate the support of Dr. Jessica Scott, Dr. Michael Maune, and Daniel 

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O’Sullivan, who all paid me the highest professional compliment by promptly stealing my 

teaching strategies.  

 

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Appendix A 

 

Hybrid Rubrics From PechaKucha and Slideshow Presentations 

 

PechaKucha Rubric 

 

Criteria Specific Feedback Pts 

Images 

High quality, clear, aesthetically pleasing, interesting and 

engaging, no watermarks or low resolution, no poor cropping. 

 10 

Speech 

Speech introduces topic clearly, uses informal and engaging 

language and manages technicality. 

 10 

Delivery 

Presenter engages audience effectively through pitch, volume, 

speed of speech, posture and eye contact. 

 10 

Intermodal Logic 

Images and language work well together creatively and 

logically. 

 5 

PechaKucha Penalties 

Does not adhere to PechaKucha format: uses text on screen; 

runs long or shot; slide transition is not 20 seconds or 

automatic (max -3) 

 (-3) 

 Total: 35 

 

Slideshow Rubric 

 

Criteria Specific Feedback Pts 

Images & Figures 

At least two images are used. High quality, clear, 

informative, no watermarks or low resolution, no poor 

cropping. 

 5 

Speech 

Speech introduces topic clearly, uses spoken academic 

language and manages technicality, explains slides with a 

data commentary when necessary. 

 10 

Delivery 

Presenters engage audience effectively through pitch, 

volume, speed of speech, posture and eye contact. 

 10 

Slide Text 

Uses point form grammar, slide titles, 

hierarchical/taxonomical organization, avoids whole clauses. 

 10 

https://doi.org/10.14288/bctj.v8i1.539
https://doi.org/10.1515/text-2014-0005


 Martin 42 

BC TEAL Journal Volume 8 Number 1 (2023): 29–42 

https://doi.org/10.14288/bctj.v8i1.539 

Slideshow Penalties 

Uses whole paragraphs or sentences on slides; presentation is 

more than 15 seconds shorter, or more than 30 seconds longer 

than target time; doesn't include images or APA referencing 

(max -3) 

 

 (-3) 

 Total: 35 

 

 

 
The BC TEAL Journal is licensed under a 

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. 

Copyright rests with the author(s). 

 

 

https://doi.org/10.14288/bctj.v8i1.539
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

