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Research Paper 

 

Intercultural Communicative Competence Learning Outcomes in EAP: A Tool for 

Supporting Post-secondary Students with Life On and Off Campus 

 

Michael Henry Landry 

University of British Columbia 

 

Abstract 

 

The ongoing trend of internationalization at Canadian post-secondary institutions has led to a 

growing need for support for plurilingual students using English as an additional language 

(EAL). English for academic purposes (EAP) programs are one support offered in a wide range 

of contexts across post-secondary institutions in Canada. However, there has been little research 

to date related to the efficacy of intercultural learning objectives in these programs. Drawing on a 

wider study into student views on the inclusion of asynchronous online intercultural learning 

outcomes in an EAP program in British Columbia within a theoretical framework that included 

literature on additional language socialization, EAP in Canada, and intercultural communicative 

competence (ICC), qualitative research methods were used to generate data from online 

questionnaires, student e-Portfolios, focus groups, and individual interviews with students and 

instructor participants. Meaningful units of text in the data were coded, and the codes were 

gathered together into themes. A major theme identified in the data in connection to EAL 

development and additional language socialization was that of life on and off campus, 

particularly in terms of academic transitions, friendships, and community engagement. The 

findings point to the benefits of including intercultural learning outcomes in EAP. 

 

Introduction 

 

The importance of retaining adaptability and cultural sensitivity during intercultural interactions, 

while effectively managing one’s conduct and communication, has long been recognized as a 

crucial skill and a fundamental aspect of the future (OECD, 2019; Wright, 2003). As a result, 

there have been growing calls for the inclusion of components of intercultural education to equip 

all learners with cultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes that enable them to interact with diverse 

others (UNESCO, 2013). In post-secondary settings in British Columbia and across Canada, 

fostering such competencies is particularly important due to internationalization, which entails 

the provision of educational opportunities aimed at aiding students in the development of 

intercultural competencies and international awareness essential for navigating diverse 

environments both on and off campus (Knight, 2004; Knight, 2008). In Canada, the push for 

post-secondary institutions to internationalize has led to a significant increase in the number of 

international undergraduate students with diverse backgrounds who utilize English as an 

additional language (EAL) in universities where English serves as the medium of instruction and 

administration (Macdonald, 2019; Statistics Canada, 2016, Universities Canada, 2014).  

 

 For many of these students, their pursuit of undergraduate studies in Canada signifies a 

profound moment of transformation, bringing not only linguistic challenges but also broader life 

challenges. English for academic purposes (EAP) programs are one form of support available to 

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these learners to support their transformation. Generally speaking, EAP programs frequently set 

their objectives on fostering students’ EAL proficiency and equipping them with effective 

learning techniques for post-secondary studies (Hyland, 2006; Hyland & Hamp-Lyons, 2002). 

Despite this support, EAP learners who are still developing their intercultural competence may 

encounter difficulties when participating in group activities and applying critical thinking skills, 

which can potentially negatively impact their self-efficacy (a sense of competence) and academic 

progress (Jacob & Greggo, 2001; Martin, 2016). These negative impacts might result in 

difficulty for them to transition into post-secondary academic environments (Douglas et al., 

2022; Tweedie & Kim, 2015). Furthermore, these students may grapple with difficulties when 

participating in intercultural interactions, both within and outside the classroom context (Keefe 

& Shi, 2017; Zhang & Zhou, 2010; Zhou & Zhang, 2014). As a result, they may experience 

homesickness, feelings of isolation, and cultural disparities (Zhang & Zhou, 2010; Zhou & 

Zhang, 2014) as well as social detachment (Douglas et al., 2022). Consequently, there has been 

growing recognition of the significance of supporting EAP students in developing both their 

linguistic and Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) skills to help them participate in 

meaningful and authentic engagement within diverse campus and local communities in Canada 

(Douglas et al., 2022; Zhang & Zhou, 2010; Zhou & Zhang, 2014). In particular, the ability to 

draw upon ICC skills is regarded as particularly valuable for EAP students’ additional language 

socialization as it can play a pivotal role in enhancing their capacity to integrate into local 

communities should they choose to do so (Okuda & Anderson, 2018). Moreover, ensuring that 

these students acquire the intercultural communication skills to enhance their self-efficacy and 

join and contribute to their campus and local communities means providing affordances for them 

to develop linguistic and intercultural competencies. 

 

 Informed by a theoretical framework that drew on literature related to the processes of 

additional language socialization, EAP in Canada, and ICC, the primary aim of the larger study 

(Landry, 2023) from which this paper reports one key finding was to gain insights into the 

effects of online asynchronous ICC learning outcomes in a credit-bearing EAP program on the 

development of EAL skills and the social integration of undergraduate student participants 

within their campus and local communities at a university in British Columbia. To do so, the 

study employed qualitative case study research design (Duff, 2008; Yin, 2009) to illuminate the 

potential impacts of the online asynchronous ICC learning outcomes on EAL development and 

the student participants’ socialization into campus and local communities during and after their 

EAP program. The major overarching theme presented in this paper connected to how studying 

in online ICC modules impacted the student participants’ EAL development was life on and off 

campus. 

 

Literature Review 

 

Additional Language Socialization 

 

Broadly speaking, additional language socialization theory can serve as a framework for studies 

seeking to illuminate the development of linguistic, cultural, and communicative competence 

through interactions with others and the utilization of diverse language resources. The extent of 

access, acceptance, or accommodation that learners of an additional language encounter within 

their new communities can vary greatly from one individual to another (Duff, 2007). 

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Furthermore, learners navigate the process of additional language socialization in distinct and 

individualized manners, each harbouring their own ideal aspirations regarding proficiency and 

participation. Consequently, while some learners may effortlessly integrate into new 

communities, others may find it challenging. Enhanced access and acceptance within these new 

communities can be facilitated through guided assistance and structured support offered by 

instructors, peers, and members of their personal networks. In addition, individuals may also feel 

less motivated to engage with these communities if they fail to see the benefits it holds for their 

current or future lives (Duff, 2020; Duff & Talmy, 2011; Zappa-Hollman & Duff, 2015). Hence, 

the process of additional language socialization does not merely result in learners adopting 

specific target practices or values. Instead, it may lead to the emergence of hybrid practices or a 

complete rejection of certain norms, as learners grapple with accommodating or challenging the 

language and cultural standards of their target groups. Moreover, an individual’s willingness to 

invest in new communities can vary, depending on the perceived value of these communities in 

shaping their future paths, or due to practical and logistical considerations, such as time 

constraints or commitments to other communities (Duff, 2007; Norton, 2010). Thus, processes 

related to additional language socialization often involve personal agency and the creation of 

new modes of thinking and behaviour, which may ultimately give rise to hybrid or intricate 

identities in response to evolving cultural and societal contexts in which they find themselves 

(Duff, 2012; Duff, 2020; Lee & Bucholtz, 2015). Moreover, these identities often continue to 

evolve as individuals experience new things (Duff et al., 2019). In particular, they may choose to 

draw on their knowledge of context and culture, sense of agency, and resourcefulness as they 

interpret the verbal and non-verbal cues of others and adapt their speech to that of others in situ 

as they work towards their goals (Duff & Anderson, 2015). 

 

EAP in Canada 

 

EAP programs in Canada are diverse (Corcoran et al., 2022; Douglas & Landry, 2021) and 

unique in their approach to program delivery (Douglas & Landry, 2021; MacDonald, 2016). A 

recent systematic review encompassing 63 public universities in Canada unveiled that there was 

a total of 50 institutions offering 74 EAP programs at the time of the study (Douglas & Landry, 

2021). Across their various forms, these programs strive to enhance research methodologies, 

impart specific rhetorical expertise, instill foundational disciplinary concepts, instruct various 

citation styles, cultivate intercultural competencies, and promote critical thinking abilities (BC 

TEAL, 2013). A common facet of EAP instruction and learning often involves the adoption of 

content-based instruction, including variations like theme-based instruction. Content-based 

instruction (CBI) is seen as conducive to additional language development because it intertwines 

the teaching of subject matter with language learning objectives (Brinton et al., 2004; Lyster, 

2017; Snow, 2014).  

 

 Research has consistently reported numerous advantages and outcomes associated with 

EAP programs. Studies have indicated noticeable enhancements in writing, listening, speaking, 

and vocabulary skills (Crossman, 2018; Keefe & Shi, 2017; Tweedie & Kim, 2015). Literature 

on EAP programs has also linked learning outcomes to broader academic gains (Fox, 2005; 

Dyck, 2013) and heightened engagement with the local educational culture and study 

methodologies (Fox et al., 2006; Fox et al., 2014). For instance, students experience 

improvements in an array of essential skills such as goal setting, planning, communication, and 

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effective learning strategies (Fox et al., 2014; Landry, 2019) and the development of study skills 

and familiarity with academic culture (Cheng & Fox, 2008; Ranson, 2016). 

 

 Additionally, EAP programs can play an important role in facilitating students’ 

socialization and transition into higher education (Crossman, 2018; Van Viegen & Russell, 

2019). The literature has also emphasized the impacts of EAP on students’ social networks (Lee 

& Wesche, 2000), socio-cultural growth (Cheng & Fox, 2008; Ranson, 2016), and the cultivation 

of heightened motivation, self-assurance, and overall satisfaction among students (Keefe & Shi, 

2017; Raymond & Des Brisay, 2000). A study conducted by Keefe and Shi (2017) suggested that 

EAP programs have contributed significantly to the establishment of support networks among 

students, particularly in terms of forging friendships that bolster their academic progress. 

Tweedie and Kim (2015) have also observed that EAP students often have the opportunity to 

form friendships within their classes, especially with peers hailing from diverse countries and 

cultures.  

 

 Notwithstanding the many advantages presented above, EAP students encounter a 

multitude of challenges in post-secondary educational environments. Regarding academic 

literacies, these challenges encompass areas such as vocabulary development, academic reading 

proficiency, and assessment (Tweedie & Kim, 2015). Douglas et al.’s (2022) investigation also 

highlighted that EAP students may grapple with feelings of isolation, exacerbated by 

uncertainties about how to navigate social interactions beyond the confines of the EAP 

classroom. In particular, some students in this study expressed a sense of inadequacy in their 

social skills, particularly when it came to communicating with local students, leading to a 

perceived missed opportunity for meaningful engagement with others. Moreover, these lower 

levels of oral interaction in particular may result in fewer opportunities to build cross-cultural 

friendships (Ranta & Meckelborg, 2013).  

 

 The literature has underscored students’ perceptions that EAP programs sometimes fall 

short in cultivating the intercultural competencies necessary to understand the local culture and 

actively participate in the broader university community and local communities (Myles & 

Cheng, 2003; Tweedie & Kim, 2015). This apparent deficiency in sociocultural curriculum 

content seems at odds with the identified need, as articulated by Raymond and Parks (2002), for 

EAP programs to align their learning outcomes with the realities of students’ academic and 

social contexts in post-secondary settings. In the case of ICC, the alignment of these learning 

outcomes to the intercultural interactions in a variety of contexts on and off campus may serve to 

prevent some of the often cited challenges faced by EAP students, including students’ feelings of 

frustration or dissatisfaction in these environments both during their studies (Cheng & Fox, 

2008) and after they have completed their EAP programs (Keefe & Shi, 2017).  

 

Intercultural Communicative Competence 

 

On its own, intercultural competence typically involves affective, behavioural, and cognitive 

factors (Bennett, 2009; Deardorff, 2009; Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988). Two models of 

intercultural competence that informed this current study were Deardorff’s (2004) pyramid 

model of intercultural competence and Deardorff’s (2006) process model of model of 

intercultural competence. The pyramid model is compositional in nature, highlighting 

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hierarchical order to various motivational, cognitive, and skill-related aspects that contribute to 

intercultural competence, with elements at the lower end of the model enhancing the higher 

levels to help build intercultural competence (Peña Dix, 2022). The process model seeks to 

capture the relationships between these aspects. In particular, attitudes facilitate intercultural 

competence (i.e., appropriateness and effectiveness), including respect, openness, and curiosity. 

Knowledge (cultural self-awareness, deep cultural knowledge, sociolinguistic awareness) 

enhances the motivation and skills (listening, observing, evaluating, analyzing, interpreting, 

relating) components (Deardorff, 2006). 

 

 The concept of ICC entails “the ability of an individual to interact with a member of a 

different social group in another language” (Byram, 2021, p. 19). To conceptualize ICC, Byram 

(1997, 2021) introduced a compositional model. Byram’s model consists of three language-

oriented components: linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, and discourse 

competence. These components are complemented by intercultural elements (savoirs) 

encompassing knowledge, education, attitudes, and skills. In terms of language, linguistic 

competence pertains to the learner’s ability to employ the standard form of the target language. 

Sociolinguistic competence involves creating and interpreting meaning during interactions. 

Discourse competence entails the ability to employ strategies for interpreting and producing 

various forms of language in real-world usage while being attentive to and adhering to the 

cultural conventions of the target community, or negotiating conventions when creating 

intercultural texts. 

 

 Byram (2021) has also acknowledged that ICC is a developmental process, positioning it 

as a model for the acquisition of ICC within an educational context. Moreover, his model 

incorporates delineations of three locations of learning (Byram, 2021). These learning settings 

encompass opportunities provided by i) classroom instruction featuring dialogues between 

teachers and learners, ii) fieldwork assignments given by teachers and carried out by learners, 

and iii) independent study initiatives undertaken by learners in their daily lives beyond the 

classroom (Byram, 2021). Through active engagement with diverse cultures, learners are 

encouraged to critically assess the varying perspectives presented and contemplate how these 

representations influence their comprehension of various topics and concepts (Risager, 2007). 

 

 With regards to fostering ICC, a fundamental aspect of instructional strategies for 

developing ICC highlighted in the literature involves the simultaneous teaching of both cultural 

content and methodologies for coping with intercultural interaction (Byram, 2021; Risager, 

1991; Singh & Doherty, 2004). Key strategies for supporting learners with ICC development 

include providing opportunities for them to work with roleplays and critical incidents (Byram, 

2021; Hiratsuka, et al., 2016; Kumaravidavelu, 2008; Snow, 2015), facilitated encounters, or 

scaffolded opportunities for diverse communities to come together (Bhowmik & Chaudhuri, 

2021; Douglas, 2015; Douglas et al., 2022; Garson, 2017; Jund, 2010), ethnographic approaches 

(Roberts et al., 2000; Senyshyn, 2019; Urban, 2012), online intercultural exchanges (Çiftçi, 

2016; Galante, 2015; Lee & Song, 2019; Lewis & O’Dowd, 2016; Wu & Li, 2019; Zhang & 

Zhou, 2019), and ongoing critical reflection (Kramsch, 2009; Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013).  

  

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ICC in EAP in Canada 

 

Although ICC in EAP has been under-researched in Canada (Douglas & Rosvold, 2018), studies 

investigating the experiences of EAP learners in the Canadian context have underscored the 

demand for more sociocultural content and highlighted the necessity for EAP programs to create 

opportunities for students to engage with ICC learning objectives and cultivate intercultural 

competencies through increased intercultural interactions during their EAP studies (Douglas et 

al., 2022; Tweedie & Kim, 2015. This preparation is vital to equip them for dynamic and diverse 

academic and non-academic contexts in Canada (Galante, 2015; Keefe & Shi, 2017; Tweedie & 

Kim, 2015). For example, the students in Galante’s (2015) study who participated in an 

intercultural digital literacy project and created and shared videos of critical incidents that 

commonly occur in intercultural interaction seemed to demonstrate higher levels of cultural 

sensitivity which could help enhance their ability to adapt and integrate into new cultures. Such 

understandings imply that program providers and instructors should dedicate more space to ICC 

development in EAP. In particular, Bhowmik et al. (2020) have advocated for EAP instructors to 

act as “culture brokers for learners” and assist learners with grasping the expectations of 

academic assignments in new academic cultures through consciousness-raising activities (p. 21).  

 

 Despite the above calls for increased ICC learning outcomes in EAP, there are three main 

challenges to including more ICC learning outcomes that have been cited in the literature. 

Firstly, not all language educators may feel personally comfortable addressing some of the more 

politically charged aspects of language and culture teaching (Byram, 2021). Secondly, finding 

adequate time within the syllabus without overwhelming students can be a daunting task 

(Bickley et al., 2014; Byram, 2021; Young & Sachdev, 2011). Thirdly, instructors may grapple 

with a lack of clear guidance on what to incorporate and how to effectively implement elements 

of intercultural educational outcomes (Bickley et al., 2014; Young & Sachdev, 2011).  

 

Research Questions  

 

In light of the above, this current study aimed to build on existing research into understanding 

the processes which occur during undergraduate plurilingual students’ socialization into a new 

academic setting and life in the local community. The overarching research question of this study 

explored the relationship between ICC and learning EAL in a post-secondary EAP setting and a 

supporting question asked: What are students’ perspectives on how these ICC modules influence 

their additional language socialization and participation in the wider campus and local 

community, both during their EAP studies and after, as they continue with their undergraduate 

programs? 

 

Methods 

 

Study Setting  

 

The study was conducted within an EAP program situated in a rapidly growing urban area in 

British Columbia that has been experiencing rising rates of migration from various parts of 

Canada and across the globe. The objectives of the program extend beyond enhancing the 

English language skills of the learners. In particular, the program aimed to help the learners 

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engage in campus life and become active members of the local community. To do so, the 

program employed a combination of synchronous classroom instruction, asynchronous online 

learning, individual tutoring sessions, and access to language labs, with the modules described in 

this study representing a portion of the asynchronous online learning outcomes. In addition, the 

program consisted of two levels: Level 1 and Level 2. However, the scope of this study 

specifically concentrated on students enrolled in Level 2. The students who entered Level 2 had 

attained a level of English proficiency corresponding to IELTS scores ranging from 6.0 to 6.5 or 

TOEFL iBT scores between 80 and 89. Each semester within the EAP program encompassed 

roughly 240 hours of comprehensive programming. In the context of EAP Level 2, students were 

engaged in a weekly schedule comprising 20 hours of EAP programmatic content. In an 

academic week, there were 12 hours of weekly classroom instruction that followed a paired-

skills approach, including reading and writing classes (6 hours weekly) and listening and 

speaking classes (6 hours weekly). Additionally, there were 3 hours per week allocated to online 

asynchronous learning that consisted of two modules: i) Campus Life Skills and ii) ICC. Each of 

these modules entailed 1.5 hours of self-directed study. Furthermore, the program dedicated 3 

hours to language labs.  

 

 The ICC modules were grounded in Byram’s (1997, 2021) locations of learning for ICC 

development and the principles of content-based language instruction. The curriculum for the 

ICC modules was structured around a set of predefined learning outcomes that closely 

corresponded with the five dimensions of intercultural communication outlined in Byram’s 

(1997) ICC model, in addition to the attitudes, knowledge, skills, and outcomes as delineated in 

Deardorff’s (2004; 2006) pyramid model and process model of intercultural competence. The 

modules were designed to deliver classroom instruction via online input and exercises accessible 

through the university’s learning management system. Each module integrated tasks aimed at 

prompting students to engage in fieldwork and contemplate their independent learning 

experiences. There were a total of five modules, with each module spanning two weeks. Each 

week, the students dedicated approximately 1.5 hours to asynchronous learning tasks. Two 

graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) served as tutors for the module. In addition to releasing the 

content on the learning management system, the tutors provided support across various touch 

points, both in person in labs and during office hours as well as virtually within the modules or 

via email, as a way to guide learning and generate buy-in for the modules. The introduction of 

these modules took place during the students’ orientation of their program, and the students 

completed the modules between Weeks 1–11 of the 12-week program.  

 

Participants  

 

The student participants were selected from the two groups of EAP Level 2 students (n=36). An 

overview of the linguistic profile of the student participants is presented below in Table 1. The 

recruitment of student participants took place at two distinct points within the academic year. 

The initial recruitment phase was conducted in November 2021 and included students who had 

successfully finished EAP Level 2 along with the ICC modules during the Fall Semester 

spanning from September to December 2021. The second recruitment phase took place in March 

2022 and comprised students who had completed EAP Level 2 and the ICC modules in the 

subsequent Spring Semester from January to April 2022. Additionally, the two GTAs (n=2) 

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responsible for facilitating the ICC modules during both semesters of the 2021–22 academic year 

were also recruited as participants to help triangulate the data and provide pedagogical insights.  

 

Table 1 

 

First Language of the Student Participants 

 

First Language Group 1 Group 2 Total 

Chinese/Mandarin 17 8 25 

Japanese 1 1 2 

Spanish 1 1 2 

Portuguese 2 0 2 

Russian 2 0 2 

Thai 0 1 1 

Cantonese 1 0 1 

French 1 0 1 

Total 25 11 36 

 

Data Collection  

 

The data for this study were generated using qualitative questionnaires, focus groups, individual 

interviews, and document analysis, specifically the analysis of student e-Portfolios. This 

multifaceted data collection approach, informed by the concept of triangulation proposed by 

Lincoln and Guba (1985), aimed to enhance the validation of findings and bolster the overall 

trustworthiness of the study by enriching the thematic understanding of the participants’ 

experiences with the modules, shedding light on the complexity inherent in their experiences 

(Braun & Clarke, 2022; Duff, 2020; Tracy & Hinrichs, 2017). Furthermore, the qualitative 

questionnaire, e-Portfolios, and focus groups were administered near the end of the EAP 

program, yielding proximal findings related to the students’ module experiences. In contrast, 

individual interviews with student participants were conducted after they had completed the EAP 

program and an entire semester of undergraduate studies, with the aim of providing insights into 

potential distal impacts. The interviews with the GTAs were conducted after the students had 

completed their EAP program. 

 

Data Analysis  

 

The data sets were analyzed using thematic analysis in a manner that combined elements of 

Saldaña’s (2013) conceptualization of coding and Braun and Clarke’s (2006, 2022) approach to 

thematic analysis. Moreover, the analysis of the data was further informed by other studies that 

employed a thematic approach to data analysis (Douglas, 2015; Douglas, 2020; Douglas et al., 

2020; Douglas et al., 2022; Pilin et al, 2020; Riley & Douglas, 2016). In addition, the approach 

to analyzing media such as posters and images that constituted the student participant e-

Portfolios drew on the work of Sillars (2022). In particular, signs within the imagery that could 

communicate meaning were identified to illuminate individual meanings of texts, signs, and 

symbols and their possible connections between these elements across the larger representation 

of the data item. Presented in the form of qualitative narrative accounts, the results aimed to 

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provide a rich description of the research site as well as the findings related to the research 

questions. In the accounts, participants are identified with numbers to preserve their anonymity, 

but also to distinguish between different participants’ representative quotes. Some minor edits 

have been carried out in the representative quotes (e.g., removing repeated words and hesitation 

markers) for ease of readability.   

 

Results 

 

Life on and Off Campus 

 

A major overarching theme connected to the research question regarding how the student 

participant’s experiences in the ICC module impacted their additional language socialization and 

participation in the wider campus and local community, both during their EAP studies and after 

their EAP program, identified in the data was the theme of Life On and Off Campus. As shown 

below in Figure 1, this overarching theme contained the supporting themes of Academic 

Transitions, Friendships, and Community Engagement. 

 

Figure 1 

 

Overarching Theme and Supporting Themes 

 

 
 

Academic Transitions 

 

In connection to the student participants’ lives on and off campus, the students in the study 

appeared to indicate that the ICC modules impacted their academic transitions. First, the modules 

appeared to provide opportunities for the students to realize they were not alone in facing 

challenges connected to their academic transition. Participant 34 wrote that it was “really 

interesting to get to know people that are going through an assimilation process similar to yours 

(international students) but have different approaches in lifestyle, food and way of perceiving 

things due to their cultures.” Similarly, Participant 33 wrote in their letter from their future self in 

their e-Portfolio that “with ICC, I got to know that all the concerns and worries I had had in my 

first year, everyone had them once before too.”  

 

Life On and Off Campus

Academic 
Transitions

Friendships

Community 
Engagement

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 Also evident in the data was the potential role the modules played in contributing to the 

student participants’ academic readiness. For instance, Participant 20 wrote on their 

questionnaire that they “helped me get used to the university.” Reflecting on their experiences 

and transition, Participant 34 wrote on the questionnaire that the modules “helped me to 

reinforce my English skills and to practice intercultural communication to people from other 

cultures. So, I feel ready.” Participant 14 cited useful knowledge gained in the modules writing 

that “we learn to manage our time, to use a specific type of language, and question ourselves on 

different topics which is an important part in our academic years in university.” In addition, 

becoming familiar with a variety of academic genres was seen as important to their academic 

transition. In particular, Participant 24 wrote on their questionnaire that they “learned how to 

present presentations and how to write citations, so professors will not put me a bad grade.” 

These feelings were shared by some focus group participants. In particular, Participant 22 

commented during the first focus group that: 

 

I think everything I learned through ICC modules now help me a lot in Term 2 since I’m 

taking five courses now. And, yeah, I feel more confident compared to when I just came 

to here. Yeah, I feel more confident. 

 

 Commenting on the preparedness of the students, GTA 2 seemed to indicate that the 

students in the study had an advantage over other undergraduate students due to the content and 

skills they learned in the module, reflecting on the value of having a space to develop ICC on a 

multicultural campus and stating:  

 

We’ve become so normalized to it. We forget certain things. And, it would be really great 

to sort of share these different nuances between these different cultures because we have 

so many international students in our university who don’t go through this program. 

 

 In addition, for some, it seemed that the modules acted as a space to afford them some 

adjustment time. Namely, Participant 18 wrote that “it helps me to adjust and adapt to the rhythm 

of the class, is a good transition.” A member of the second focus group (Participant 33) also 

highlighted the value of learning about direct and indirect communication styles stating “because 

we will use in the future and through this task, it help me to better adapt and improve my 

communication skills I think.” During her individual interview, Participant 22 reflected back on 

what she had learned in the modules, increased self-efficacy, and current academic transition 

said: 

 

Before I came to Canada, before I started my university life, I was kind of worried, and I 

would say I was kind of shocked when I like received an email saying that I had to take 

like EAP because like that means my English was not good enough to study in university. 

But actually, EAP and ICC modules have helped me a lot in university because I was 

able to learn how to write essays and how to have small talk. And, I was able to develop 

my critical thinking skills and stuff. So, it was like really valuable I think. EAP including 

ICC modules provided me lots of great opportunities. 

 

 In the students’ letters from their future selves in their e-Portfolios, Participant 33 

commented on their transition, they reflected, “the [EAP] program assisted me in better 

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preparing for my university life at [name of university], whether it was with my English skills, 

socialization skills, or others” while another student wrote: 

 

Thinking back to the days in the [EAP] program, I’m happy and glad to be part of it. 

With additional and focused lessons, I see huge improvements in my English skills. With 

the Campus Success Skills and Intercultural Communication Skills sections, I was able to 

acquire essential university skills and found them very useful in my following years at the 

university. 

 

 Some students in the study outlined specific elements of the modules that supported their 

transition. During the second focus group, Participant 34 highlighted the knowledge of cultural 

symbols saying: 

 

There were modules that we had to identify the use of symbols in order to be part of a 

community as well as they identified visible and invisible aspects of culture. So, I believe 

those for me were the most important in order to transition to academic lifestyle and all 

that because it provided me the skills to do that. So, I got to practice. I got to learn. And 

also, I started to know more information about the campus itself.  

 

 Participant 22 also spoke about similar aspects of growth during her individual interview. 

She maintained that: 

 

The online modules helped me learn more about how university settings are, for example 

how to write, … critical thinking skills, how to analyze things, and how to compare and 

contrast different cultures. Especially, I want to major in international relations. And, 

now I’m taking some courses related to my major. So, I was able to develop my critical 

thinking skills through online modules in EAP. And, I think that has helped me a lot like 

here in [university]. 

 

 In one of the focus groups, two members commented on how the modules directly 

impacted other courses. For example, Participant 22 commented on leveraging their knowledge 

of aspects of Indigenous culture: 

 

Yeah, especially now, I’m taking Indigenous studies. And then, it’s a very new 

experience for me to learn about Indigenous cultures. So, now I can like compare and 

contrast my culture and then their culture and stuff. Because in Japan, there are also 

Indigenous people, but actually I didn’t learn about them in school. And, I’ve never 

learned about Indigenous people, not just in Japan but Indigenous people in general. So, 

yeah, it’s been a great experience for me. And then, ICC modules definitely it helped me 

with Indigenous studies. 

 

 Participant 21 also mentioned during the focus group how the module content helped him 

connect to discipline-specific concepts and contribute to group work. He noted: 

 

I’m currently take Geography [number] course, and there’s a workshop in the course and 

it’s ask us to talk about the, actually I forgot the English word exactly, it’s about the 

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placelessness and the placeness. And for the Modules 5, that is about talking about four 

different group of people and how they help or like let people get into the local 

environment since we are international students to Canada. So, for in this case, for that 

effect, I think the module helped me a lot for talking about those topics with the 

groupmates in the workshop. Also, it helped me a lot with the further assignment around 

those topics. 

 

 However, not all of the student participants appeared to be able to immediately transfer 

their experiences in the modules to their other credit-bearing courses, especially those facilitated 

completely online. During the second focus group, Participant 32 commented: 

 

To be honest, it didn’t affect cause I took Math first term, and Com Sci for this term. 

And, both of them can be taken online, so I don’t really have to talk to people. It’s a 

single task stuff. So yeah to be honest it didn’t affect that. But, I think it will in the future. 

 

 A final important facet related to the supporting theme of academic transitions seemed to 

connect to student participants’ understandings of the importance of multiculturalism and 

diversity at the university. Many of the students appeared to perceive developing ICC as a 

strategy to cope with multicultural environments on campus. For instance, Participant 18 

responded on the questionnaire, writing, “since [this] is a universal university, there are lots of 

people from all over the world, so it’s important to be sensitive about different peoples’ culture.” 

Another student who participated in a focus group commented (Participant 28) that “I think, after 

I learned the ICC, I know how to communicate with international students because I think this 

campus, like the demography, is like have a lot of different cultures’ people combined on this 

campus.” Similarly, another participant in the same focus group (Participant 32) stated, “On 

campus, there are so many people from different countries. So, I guess I learn the way to 

communicate to be respectful against their cultures and against their opinions as well.”  

 

 Some students in the study appeared to feel that adjusting to multicultural environments 

on campus was a universal challenge. Participant 33 wrote on the questionnaire that “everyone 

have culture shocks when arrive to a new places even though they are local students.” Similarly, 

Participant 9 commented during the first focus group comments on the importance of learning 

ICC in all language classes stating:  

 

It’s for all the people who is learning another language. Like when you’re not only for 

English, but for all the languages, they’re connected with different cultures. And, every 

different culture they have some different aspects or something. Like, you never want to 

get in touch with something bad like saying some dirty words or something impolite to 

people. It’s for all the language learners.  

 

 In a similar vein, one student closed the second focus group by stating the importance of 

ICC for everyone on campus: 

 

I think ICC shouldn’t be only limited to international students, but it should be 

compulsory for every university student because I believe it’s not our only international 

students’ job to adapt other peoples’ like culture. But, it’s also important for local 

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students to acknowledge international students’ culture. That will be creating a more 

welcoming community for everyone. 

 

Friendships 

 

The supporting theme of friendships was also identified in the data. In particular, the ICC skills 

development in the module seemed to support the participants’ ability to make friends. For 

example, Participant 29 felt that understanding communication styles was “one of the most 

important skills to get a new friend.” Participant 31 maintained that noticing cultural symbols of 

particular groups “helps me a lot to make friends in particular groups.” Notably, Participant 31 

expressed a further desire to build their intercultural awareness because they wanted to “know 

more, so I can make more friends.” Participant 8 commented that “I know how to make friends 

and interact with them.” Finally, Participant 13 reflected on the value of ICC writing “in my 

opinion, I think this can let each other to know and make friends with each other. Which is the 

best choice.” Participant 5 exemplified this stating “because I started to talk to different people 

from all around the world and make me proud to say I consider them friends.” In a letter from 

their future self, Participant 32 wrote that they “made some new friends who you have not seen 

yet. My friends are from many different countries, which I think is one of the privileges of 

studying at [name of university].” 

 

 In addition to leveraging ICC to make friends, the students in the study also seemed to 

use their ICC to maintain friendships. Participant 9 shared on the questionnaire, “I think I’m 

doing pretty well in connecting with my roommates.” Participant 28 commented on their ability 

to maintain friendships writing, “using English to communicate with my friend, who is in a 

different cultural feels so nice.” Expressing a similar sentiment, Participant 25 wrote, “I have 

made friends from different countries, such as Koreans, Japanese, and Vietnamese. And, I 

realized that their daily behaviours are different, so I was trying to respect our cultural 

differences.” One member of the first focus group (Participant 4) highlighted the relevance of 

ICC to managing relationships stating that it “helps you avoid the problems. I don’t know how to 

describe it. It helps.” 

 

 Finally, there seemed to be some evidence that these friendships also helped the students 

further adjust to life on and off campus. For example, Participant 24 commented on how they 

built their intercultural awareness via their friendships writing, “I found some friends from Asia, 

right now I know a little bit about national food, music, language.” During the first focus group, 

Participant 9 mentioned the academic benefits of their friendships saying: 

 

It’s also not about academic things, but it’s like daily life. So for me, … I have three 

roommates. And, we do have some homework, like asking you to get a video and choose 

someone to talk about something. I choose my roommate to help me finish the 

homework. I also go to my roommate to see if I can [get] some different opinions. 

 

 Participant 32 commented on the questionnaire about the impact of friendships on their 

ICC development writing, “talking to friends and sharing was the way I gained my intercultural 

communication skills.” During the second focus group, Participant 34 seemed to echo these 

impacts of the ICC modules and stated:  

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I believe so and even not really intercultural but I got to improve my conversational skills 

with my own friends and listening to their ideas and body language, like all the 

components that we got to learn in the modules, I actually put it into work with my own 

friendships here. 

 

 While some students focused on the benefits acquired from their friendships, other 

students highlighted what they contributed to their friendships after completing the modules. For 

instance, Participant 19 highlighted the importance of being an empathetic listener, commenting 

on the questionnaire that “when my friends share their stories with me, I can be a good listener to 

listen with their experience.” Similarly, Participant 31 seemed to comment on serving as a 

cultural and intellectual resource, “I can help some of my friends on their English.” 

 

Community Engagement 

 

Finally, community engagement was also a major supporting theme related to the participants’ 

lives on and off campus. In particular, the students in the study seemed to be empowered to join 

the campus community via clubs. For example, Participant 33 wrote that they were engaging in 

“club and some campus activities.” Participant 21 wrote, “I feel fun and I can participate.” 

According to Participant 19, joining clubs was seen as a way of expanding their network on 

campus. They wrote on their questionnaire that they “like to join the different activities in 

University because I can make a lot of friends.” Some clubs that students seemed to target were 

sports clubs like “going to the gym” and the “basketball” and “badminton” clubs. Cultural 

communities like the “Chinese Student Union” also seemed to be popular avenues for the 

students to engage on campus. The overall feeling of feeling empowered to join communities 

was encapsulated by Participant 17 who wrote, “No matter clubs or campus events, I am no 

longer afraid to join.” 

 

 There was also a feeling amongst the student participants that their ICC development 

helped them participate in the local community. While Participant 9 still experienced some 

difficulty saying “still a little bit difficult to integrate,” other students seemed to have leveraged 

their ICC to engage in the wider community. For instance, Participant 27 responded on the 

questionnaire that they could “join in the local community.” Despite mentioning experiencing 

challenges integrating into local communities, Participant 9 still mentioned in the first focus 

group that they were now applying ICC and viewed it as helpful to the process of joining 

communities. The participant commented that “sometimes you can’t just realize [you’re using it] 

when you’re chatting with some local people.” They continued to explain that you can use ICC 

“to chat with your roommates with local people and get more information back.” More 

specifically, Participant 9 felt that it played a role when shopping, saying “definitely use for like 

shopping and that kind of stuff. Like, we’re not going to town so many times. Like every time go 

there just for the shopping, like for the food.” Similarly, Participant 17 seemed to feel that it 

helped them leverage interaction stating “Yes, that is a good point for me to understand local 

people and get close to the local communication.” Participant 24 highlighted how one’s ability to 

leverage the knowledge, skills, and attitudes associated with ICC can impact the interlocutors 

stating, “People will be nicer to you if they one time recognize that you know at least something 

about their culture.”  

 

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 However, individual agency also seemed to play a role in the students’ levels of 

engagement in their local communities. Some students in the study expressed no desire to 

participate, with Participant 16 writing, “I’m not interested,” and Participant 27 commenting, “I 

don’t feel like joining.” In addition, for some, the biggest hurdle to students joining campus 

communities appeared to be the workload connected to their studies. When asked about their 

ability to join campus and local communities, Participant 20 wrote, “I focus a lot in my courses.” 

Other students expressed a similar sentiment, with Participant 4 referring to “too many course 

work and getting used to the environment here,” and Participant 6 commenting that they “do not 

have sufficient time” to join clubs and communities.  

 

 In relation to shaping the communities around them, one of the e-Portfolio assignments 

asked students to share with the university ideas for how to enhance the experiences of 

international students at the university. These responses were shared online via the university’s 

Wiki as a way to help shape the community. The students were asked to summarize their ideas in 

a graphic. Figure 2 below from one participant contains many of the common ideas identified in 

the data regarding actions each stakeholder can take to help the socialization of international 

students at the university. 

 

Figure 2 

 

Participant e-Portfolio Submission (Module 5.2 Shaping Communities Assignment) 

 

 
 

 The participants’ submission in Figure 2, along with others shared in the study by the 

student participants, seemed to point to the different ways each group plays a role and shares 

responsibility in influencing international undergraduate students as they socialize into the 

university and local community. One interesting insight was shared by Participant 3, who 

commented on their poster for the same e-Portfolio assignment that international students should 

aim to “share similar difficulties” and “become the staunchest emotional backing of each other.” 

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Participant 32 also seemed to echo this call for international students to contribute to local 

communities and the university by “sharing their niche skills.” 

 

Discussion and Implications 

 

The processes related to the socialization of international EAP students into campus and local 

communities can be challenging. Therefore, this study explored the impact of online 

asynchronous learning outcomes in EAP on the student participants’ EAL development and 

socialization into campus and local communities. In terms of supporting the students with their 

transition into various communities on and off campus, the asynchronous ICC learning outcomes 

appeared to have a significant impact on the participants' academic transitions, friendships, and 

ability to engage in the campus and local community. 

 

 The findings of this study align with previous research (Lee & Wesche, 2000; Keefe & 

Shi, 2017; Ranson, 2016; Raymond & Des Brisay, 2000) that indicated positive links between 

EAP and students’ confidence in their ability to succeed in English-speaking university settings. 

For instance, Ranson’s (2016) study demonstrated that students can improve their language and 

time management skills while gaining familiarity with university environments in EAP 

programs. In this current study, many participants seemed to utilize the ICC modules as a 

sandbox to practice and refine specific skills and to explore the visible and invisible aspects of 

culture. This phenomenon resonates with Cheng and Fox’s (2008) conceptualization of EAP 

programs as a supportive sanctuary, as students in both studies expressed similar reflections 

about the role of EAP programs in aiding their transition to university life in Canada. The 

findings suggest that incorporating similar ICC learning outcomes into other EAP programs 

could further enhance students’ overall academic readiness by providing opportunities to develop 

multiple transferable skills simultaneously within a comfortable environment, given the 

demonstrated correlation between ICC, critical thinking, and group work engagement (Martin, 

2016). 

 

 The asynchronous ICC learning outcomes also seem to have a significant impact on the 

participants’ social networks. This finding echoes earlier studies that have also suggested that 

EAP programs can assist in building social networks (Lee & Wesche, 2000). This current study 

extends these understandings by demonstrating how providing students with opportunities to 

develop ICC skills can aid in both the establishment and maintenance of friendships. 

Specifically, many participants applied observation and noticing skills to understand cultural 

differences and show respect for these distinctions. Additionally, they appeared to hone their 

skills to engage with others by leveraging their cultural knowledge. In alignment with findings 

from other studies (Zappa-Hollman & Duff, 2015), the student participants in this study both 

received and provided support within these networks of practice, benefiting them academically 

and emotionally, which further facilitated their socialization on campus and in broader 

communities. The findings of this current study are encouraging as many international students 

desire to have lasting relationships with local students and individuals from diverse backgrounds 

(Zhou & Zhang, 2014).  

 

 The asynchronous ICC learning outcomes also appeared to boost community engagement 

among the participants, shedding light on their integration into the community. First and 

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foremost, students felt empowered to become part of campus communities, with school clubs 

being frequently mentioned examples. These findings align with those from Ranson’s (2016) 

study and underscore how the modules contributed to the students' overall sense of belonging in 

the educational setting. They effectively applied the ICC skills acquired in the modules, as 

indicated by their statements that they would instinctively use these skills in various contexts, 

demonstrating their ability to transfer this knowledge and develop automaticity. Additionally, 

comments alluding to locals being more receptive when the students displayed cultural 

knowledge, for example, it was interesting that Participant 4 felt this knowledge in interaction 

could result in people being nicer to them and how Participant 9 felt that such knowledge 

resulted in them getting more information back from their interlocutors, suggest that the students 

effectively utilized their semiotic resources to position themselves in interactions to some extent. 

Nevertheless, workload emerged as a significant limiting factor limiting engagement. 

 

 The findings of this study have implications for integrating ICC outcomes into EAP 

learning objectives for scholars and practitioners. Firstly, since EAP programs often grapple with 

questions regarding the overall efficacy of incorporating ICC into their already packed 

curriculum, the findings of this current study make the case for EAP programs to consider 

making ICC a fundamental learning outcome within their curriculum. More specifically, the 

findings of this current study indicate that using online asynchronous modules can help programs 

efficiently carve out space for ICC outcomes without detracting from other essential skills.  

 

 The study’s findings also align with the recommendations of previous inquiry (Douglas 

& Landry, 2021; Douglas et al., 2022) that has advocated for EAP programs to assist students in 

balancing their workload and work-life equilibrium. The online asynchronous modules at the 

centre of this investigation represent one approach that a post-secondary EAP program employed 

to offer students access to cultural knowledge through meaningful interaction while 

simultaneously addressing conventional EAP elements via in-person instruction. Nevertheless, 

given the students’ concerns regarding workload, the students’ comments seem to give voice to 

the findings of an earlier study (Douglas et al., 2022) which advised EAP programs to impose 

limitations on the total number of hours and embrace a less-is-more approach, concentrating on a 

reduced number of activities that encourage richer learning experiences. For example, programs 

might choose to follow the model outlined in this study, allocating 1–1.5 hours of asynchronous 

online study each week, with this time reallocated from other aspects of the curriculum that may 

not address key sociocultural skills.  

 

 A final implication relates to the students’ expressed desires to connect with peers from 

diverse backgrounds, including local students, despite time constraints. These findings echo the 

results from earlier studies (Douglas et al, 2022) that suggested EAP programs should consider 

offering opportunities for EAP students to engage in cultural exchanges with other members of 

the broader student community. These initiatives can take various forms, such as encouraging 

students to participate in mentorship programs or promoting extracurricular activities like 

cultural events, club activities, or service learning. However, it is essential for programs to 

ensure that these efforts are not tokenistic in nature. For example, even though Participant 17 

mentioned feeling less afraid to engage in new campus clubs and communities, as other studies 

(Boye & Byram, 2018; Hua & Kramsch 2016) have recommended, program providers should 

critically assess these services and partnerships to guarantee the active participation of students 

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from outside the EAP program and avoid reinforcing power imbalances in interactions. 

Consequently, programs should complement these services with instructional support before and 

after each event, focusing on functional language and communication strategies that empower 

students to position themselves appropriately in these interactions (Boye & Byram, 2018). 

 

Limitations and Future Directions 

 

The present study explored how online asynchronous ICC modules within an EAP program 

influenced language development and additional language socialization at a university in British 

Columbia. This study contributes to understanding how ICC outcomes impact processes of 

additional language socialization in the Canadian context by revealing the multifaceted role the 

ICC modules played in assisting students with their transition into various academic and 

community contexts.  

 

 Despite these valuable insights, it is essential to recognize a number of limitations in its 

design. One limitation relates to the study’s limited sample size which restricts the 

generalizability of its findings to contexts beyond the one under investigation. An additional 

limitation pertains to the absence of interactional data. A lack of detailed analysis of discourse 

interactions prevents a comprehensive understanding of ICC development and how the students 

used these skills in interaction. Furthermore, the study’s reliance on self-reported data, lacking 

quantitative assessments, precludes the measurement of ICC development. A fourth limitation 

concerns the study’s timeframe, constrained by the author’s doctoral program, which limited data 

collection to the first year of student participation, precluding an exploration of the long-term 

effects of ICC modules. Extending the research period to encompass subsequent years could 

shed light on the enduring nature of language learning, ICC development, and language 

socialization processes, as well as their potential impact on individual trajectories over time.  

 

 This study aimed to shed light on the connections between online asynchronous ICC 

learning outcomes in post-secondary EAP programs and additional language socialization, 

offering potential advantages and mixed findings. To advance this research, there are several 

avenues for future exploration. Firstly, researchers could expand the study by investigating the 

impact of similar learning outcomes across different delivery methods and learning contexts. For 

example, future studies could delve more deeply into exploring the impact of synchronous versus 

asynchronous delivery on the development of ICC. A future study might explore which version 

(synchronous vs. asynchronous) might have more impact. This expansion could also involve 

conducting research across multiple sites to identify trends or contradictions. Additionally, future 

studies could gather more interactional data to better understand how ICC development unfolds 

in real-life situations. Furthermore, given the potential for individuals to over- or underestimate 

their intercultural competence, larger-scale studies with mixed-methods or quantitative designs, 

using established instruments such as Hammer et al.’s (2003) Intercultural Development 

Inventory (IDI), could yield more nuanced findings. Future inquiries might also focus on specific 

aspects related to friendships. Understanding how these profound relationships shape their 

academic, personal, and professional journeys may be an intriguing avenue for future research. 

Lastly, research into ICC in EAP could contribute to teacher development by investigating how 

completing similar ICC modules might influence EAP instructors’ perspectives and practices. 

 

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Conclusion 

 

The reported findings in this paper draw from a larger study, carried out as part of a doctoral 

research project, aiming to investigate the impact of asynchronous online modules containing 

ICC learning outcomes on the language development and socialization of student participants in 

EAP programs both during and after the EAP programs (Landry, 2023). The findings recounted 

here help to expand the literature on ICC in EAP by uncovering how these modules supported 

participants’ lives on and off campus by contributing to the student participants’ academic 

transitions, social networks, and engagement within different communities. Despite some 

limitations, the findings suggest that online asynchronous delivery of ICC learning outcomes is 

valuable to EAP students, providing both proximal and distal benefits. In programs grappling 

with already packed curricula, these findings underscore the advantages of employing context-

specific, ICC learning outcomes through asynchronous online modules to support students’ EAL 

development and additional language socialization.  

 

Acknowledgements 

 

This article reports findings from my Ph.D. dissertation project (Landry, 2023). I wish to thank 

the project participants, my graduate supervisory committee, and the anonymous reviewers for 

helping me to bring this article to publication. 

 

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