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Theoretical Analysis, Classroom Practice, Opinion Essays 

 

An Apology for EGAP: The Benefits of a General Approach to English for Academic 

Purposes in Canadian Post-Secondary Contexts 

 

Paul Anthony Marshall 

University of British Columbia 

 

Abstract 

 

A wide range of English for academic purposes (EAP) programs are offered in British Columbia 

and across Canada. Understanding the advantages and disadvantages of an English for general 

academic purposes (EGAP) approach can provide important insights into how students might 

most benefit from their EAP program experiences. The insights in this article are based on a 

review of the literature related to EGAP in the Canadian context, with nine key sources 

informing an argument in favour of the general academic and holistic benefits that are often the 

focus of EGAP programs. It argues that that the benefits provided by discipline-specific input, 

terminology, and tasks characteristic of an English for specific academic purposes (ESAP) 

approach, while useful, should not take priority over student wellbeing. In Canadian post-

secondary settings, overall student wellbeing should be a key priority, and this priority can be 

achieved much more holistically by providing support of a cultural-, community-, campus-, and 

socio-emotional- nature. These are components typically present in many EGAP courses, but less 

typically emphasized in an ESAP approach.  

 

Introduction 

 

According to Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, international students contribute 

more than $21 billion to the Canadian economy annually and create the necessity for around 

200,000 jobs (IRCC, 2023). In 2022, over one million international students held study permits 

in Canada (CIMM, 2023). As international students make up an increasingly large proportion of 

students at Canadian universities (Cheng & Fox, 2008; El Masri & Khan, 2022; Liu, 2016), their 

wellbeing and retention is therefore more important than ever before, both to the students, 

themselves, and to the academic institutions that host them. Wellbeing is defined for the purpose 

of this paper as being related to concepts such as optimism, having a meaningful life, prosperity, 

success, thriving, and flourishing (Dodge et al., 2012). 

 

 There are a lot of obstacles for international students to overcome. They can be 

vulnerable due to loneliness (Wang & Zhou, 2021), financial and family pressure (Cheng & Fox, 

2008; El Masri & Khan, 2022), and homesickness and stress (Fritz et al., 2008). Living in an 

environment where they are initially lost, and unable to function with a full understanding of the 

language and culture, can lead to stress and affect confidence (Douglas et al., 2022; Tweedie & 

Kim, 2015), in the most extreme cases leading to drug use and suicide (Sasitharan, 2023). There 

has even been negative rhetoric in the national media, blaming international students for the 

recent housing crisis (Passifiume, 2023), perhaps contributing to a perceived hostile atmosphere 

for international students.  

 

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 Both the Canadian economy in general, and Canadian higher education institutions, 

benefit financially from international students. It seems reasonable to expect that educational 

institutions take responsibility for supporting these newcomers during challenging times 

(Avenido, 2023), if only to ensure that the supply of international students continues. One way to 

do this is through suitable university preparatory programs.  

 

 This essay offers an apology for EGAP, from the Greek “apologia,” meaning “a well-

reasoned reply; a ‘thought-out response’ to the accusations made” (Online Etymology 

Dictionary, n.d., para. 1), or “a formal defence of one’s opinions or conduct” (Oxford University 

Press, 1998). It will weigh in on the ongoing debate around whether international students are 

best served by English for general academic purposes (EGAP) or English for specific academic 

purposes (ESAP) university preparation programs. It will argue that although focusing student 

preparation on a specific program of study may be beneficial in terms of discipline-specific 

input, terminology, and tasks, overall student wellbeing should be the priority. This priority can 

be achieved partly through the inclusion of course content that focuses on general academic 

benefits such as the ability to use language effectively in context (known as pragmatic 

competence) with university faculty, staff, students, and other members of the campus 

community. Finally, it will show that student wellbeing can be supported much more holistically 

by providing support of a cultural-, community-, campus-, and socio-emotional- nature; 

components present in many EGAP courses but often not the focus in ESAP courses.   

 

What is English for Academic Purposes? 

 

First coined by the British Council in 1975 (Alqahtani, 2011), the purpose of English for 

academic purposes (EAP) has traditionally been to provide multilingual students from language 

backgrounds other than English with the skills they need to become successful in their academic 

careers in English-speaking countries. Since the earliest days of EAP, as it is such an important 

part of academic life, writing has always been a key focus. Over the decades, oral skills, such as 

presentations, discussions, debates, and all the subskills that these necessitate, have been 

included to a greater extent in some EAP courses. Additionally, the receptive skills; reading and 

listening, have also been increasingly integrated over the years. All in all, the key focus of EAP 

is to prepare students for new academic and cultural contexts by focusing on student needs in 

terms of language, communication, and study skills related to post-secondary studies in English 

(Hyland & Hamp-Lyons, 2002). 

 

 In British Columbia, a number of higher education institutions offer EAP courses to 

students whose first language is not English. Students can take EAP alongside undergraduate 

courses and there are sometimes optional elective modules. These courses incorporate activities 

aimed at increasing wellbeing such as conversation, pronunciation, culture, and a variety of 

others with holistic objectives (English Language Institute, 2023; Thompson Rivers University, 

n.d.; University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, n.d.; University of Victoria, 2024; 

Vancouver Island University, n.d.).  

  

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The EGAP vs ESAP Debate 

 

EAP has a short history, relative to the teaching and learning of English as an additional 

language (EAL) in general (Benesch, 2001). Perhaps for this reason, there seem to be very 

diverse opinions about whether it is more beneficial for students to study EAP that is specific to 

their major course (i.e., ESAP) or EAP that is general (i.e., EGAP). In fact, since “at least the 

1980s” (Bodin-Galvez & Ding, 2019, p. 79) there has been a dichotomy between EGAP and 

ESAP in the research literature. Advocates for each approach have criticized the ideological 

basis of the other, with some coming out strongly against “the death of General EAP” (Johnson 

& Tweedie, 2021, p. 102). Numerous studies, both in Canada and abroad, have produced results 

in support of ESAP, while others have come down in favour of EGAP. At least one study 

(Fedorova, 2021), would prefer to replace EAP altogether with general English. As is often the 

case, contextual factors play a significant role in each study, the results obtained, and the 

conclusions drawn.  

 

 Cheng and Fox (2008) found “little consensus” (p. 311) among EGAP and ESAP 

research in Canada. One common approach of research studies evaluating EAP is to compare 

students’ GPA with grades from their English courses (e.g., Crossman, 2018; Dyck, 2013; 

Johnson & Tweedie, 2021; Van Viegen & Russell, 2019). However, this approach ignores 

qualitative factors, such as wellbeing, and focuses entirely on academic performance. In contrast, 

another section of research is aimed at the collection of student perceptions or experiences (e,g., 

Douglas et al., 2022; Landry, Tweedie & Kim, 2015), and approach that can provide insights into 

the qualitative experiences of the students in these studies. Still more studies either focus on, or 

have findings which focus in some way on the acculturation of international students (Tweedie & 

Kim, 2015; Wilson-Forsberg et al., 2018; Zhang & Zhou, 2010; Zhou & Zhang, 2014).  

 

 It is also noticeable that many studies focus entirely or mostly on Chinese International 

students (Dyck, 2013; Landry, 2019; Ranson, 2016; Raymond & Des Brisay, 2000; Raymond & 

Parks, 2002; Zhang & Zhou, 2010; Zhou & Zhang, 2014). While Chinese students make up a 

large proportion of the international student community, it remains to be seen whether this 

proportion of the research is representative of the proportion of international students that are 

Chinese in origin (Cheng & Fox, 2008). El Masri & Khan (2022), for example, show that both 

Indian and Chinese international students comprise just over 50% of the total.  

 

What are the Main Supporting Arguments for EGAP? 

 

There is sometimes the misconception that the main approach underpinning EGAP is that it is 

focused on multidisciplinary academic skills. However, there is great proven value in providing 

international students with other general English skills. Myles and Cheng (2003) stated that 

“…international graduate students have difficulties adapting to a wide range of social and 

academic situations within the university community” (p.247). The skills needed to overcome 

this difficulty in adapting may not be essentially academic but might directly contribute to 

student wellbeing, and therefore indirectly increase the likelihood of their academic success.  

 

 The benefits of EGAP can perhaps most usefully be divided into specific academic 

benefits, general academic benefits, and student wellbeing benefits, which can also be indirectly 

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academically beneficial. In claiming to prove the value of EGAP or ESAP, the academic benefits 

cited are typically focused on writing (Flowerdew, 2016) and do not consider either the speaking 

and listening or the extralinguistic components of EAP courses. But clearly, some of the main 

benefits of EGAP courses lie in these often-overlooked general academic benefits and their 

effect on student wellbeing.  

 

 The need for general skills has been supported by students and researchers alike; students 

have stated their preference for more interaction with members of the host community (Tweedie 

& Kim, 2015), and coaching in and practice of suitable communication with English-speaking 

individuals (Scollon et al., 2012). Additionally, Boz et al. (2018) found that such communication 

with the host community is often overlooked by university preparation courses which generally 

adhere too strictly to content that is academically beneficial. Examples of some of the general 

academic benefits of EGAP courses could be learning and practising how to communicate with 

lecturers and supervisors, asking university support staff for help, socialising with other students, 

and so on (Tweedie & Kim, 2015). Landry (2019) also found that the teaching of independent 

study skills such as time management, reflective skills, and strategies for maintaining focus were 

considered useful by students in EGAP courses. 

 

 It is also significant that almost all research into EGAP and ESAP emphasises how 

essential context is in making decisions about course content (Bodin-Galvez & Ding, 2019; de 

Chazal, 2012). This being the case, it is difficult to argue against the idea that effective academic 

English courses ought to incorporate aspects of the context outside the classroom as well as 

inside. This approach allows students to benefit from local insights, which might include 

knowledge of colloquialisms, slang, and cultural norms, and could be applicable within or 

outside an educational institution. This recognition of the wider context is likely to have a 

significant impact on the ability of international students to communicate in all contexts because, 

according to Myles and Cheng (2003), “studies have also shown that NNES students do not 

always follow the norms of politeness and appropriateness in various speech acts common to 

their host culture community” (p. 250). 

 

 Moving onto the purely wellbeing-oriented benefits of EGAP, well-designed courses 

emphasize friendship and social support between international students, and encourage 

interactions with and guidance from teaching assistants who have knowledge and experience of 

the institution, local area and local culture. Forging interactions and connections such as these 

has been found to be significant for social adjustment (Jackson et al., 2013; Misra et al., 2003).  

 

What are the Main Supporting Arguments for ESAP? 

 

ESAP is based on the idea that students require more specific skills for certain areas of study in 

higher education that are not applicable to all fields of study. Some examples of these might be 

describing statistical data or a knowledge of a particular referencing convention. Proponents of 

ESAP (e.g., Bodin-Galvez & Ding, 2019) sometimes believe that the students would be wasting 

their time learning general essay structures, vocabulary, and so on, because they will only have 

to replace this learning with the discipline-specific conventions of their field later on. EGAP 

course designers and teachers can, of course, take these things into consideration and provide 

examples exhibiting, and activities practising, the norms in a variety of fields.   

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 One of the main arguments used by ESAP proponents is that those in favour of EGAP are 

usually forced into their conclusions due to contextual constrictions rather than ideological 

factors (Bodin-Galvez & Ding, 2019). In some contexts, EGAP is a contingency option due to 

the reality that there might also be an insufficient number of students to justify EAP courses that 

are specific to certain fields of study. While this might be true, this argument ignores the general 

academic and wellbeing benefits, such as communicating with university faculty and staff, which 

were described in the previous section. 

 

 In another argument, Pojanapunya (2019) identified vocabulary that is inter-disciplinary 

and discipline-specific within a variety of academic publications. She concluded, in support of a 

focus on ESAP, that more lexis is discipline-specific than inter-disciplinary and that this is even 

more significant for the hard sciences than social sciences.  

 

 Additionally, Flowerdew (2016), who conducted a review of research into ESAP writing, 

argued that certain conventions and practices are discipline-specific and therefore need to be 

taught separately in ESAP courses. He argued about the necessity for ESAP writing because 

each field of study has different vocabulary, styles of lab reports, and referencing systems. 

 

 Overall, it may seem that the decision to focus on ESAP is an appropriate one in contexts 

where international students have already decided on the degree program they will study or are 

allowed to study EAP and their major programs concurrently. This will allow them to focus on 

gaining the subject-specific knowledge that they need to succeed academically. However, the 

key benefits of an EGAP approach are outlined in the next section, showing how promoting 

general English language learning better prepares students for realising their overall potential.   

 

EAP Studies conducted in Canadian contexts  

 

For the purposes of this paper, a review of research conducted into EAP in the Canadian context 

was conducted. To carry out this review of the literature, the key words, and their acronyms, 

“English for academic purposes,” “English for general academic purposes,” “English for specific 

academic purposes,” and “Canada” were entered into the Educational Resources Information 

Center (ERIC) database. The literature found from this search reveals that multiple benefits of 

EGAP have been shown to exist in a wide variety of contexts from a range of perspectives. An 

overview of these articles is provided in Table 1.  

 

 Providing evidence for the acculturation benefits of EAP, Cheng and Fox (2008) used 

semi-structured interviews to collect the opinions of 56 multilingual students from language 

backgrounds other than English at three Canadian universities about how EAP courses assist 

with adjusting to the academic culture of where they are studying. They found that, overall, 

students who learned and applied social skills as well as learning strategies considered 

themselves successful in this acculturation process. Similarly, Fox et al. (2006) carried out 

volunteer semi-structured interviews with 13 undergraduates, five in-sessional general EAP 

students and 10 pre-university EAL students, one EAP instructor, and 10 discipline-specific 

professors all from a wide variety of majors and year groups from three universities. Employing 

a grounded theory approach to data analysis, seven groups of factors in academic acculturation 

were identified. The study concluded that EAL “students’ experiences are varied and their 

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academic acculturation depends on a lot of external and internal factors” (p. 87). Then, in a much 

larger follow-up study, Fox et al. (2014) surveyed 641 students studying in a wide variety of 36 

EAL and EAP programs at 26 Canadian universities, using questionnaires to gather perceptions 

on the impact of these courses. The responses were analyzed using quantitative methods to 

measure any moderating effect of these courses on academic and social engagement. Variations 

in language “programs were found to account for variations in strategies which mediated 

academic and social engagement. However, the impact was moderated by three personal 

background factors: anxiety, stress, and motivation” (p. 57). 

 

 Furthermore, several studies have suggested additional benefits which are not necessarily 

included under the title acculturation, but are also more likely to be included in EGAP, rather 

than ESAP courses. Landry (2019) collected questionnaires from seven general EAP (IELTS 

band 5) students studying a variety of undergraduate fields, who had completed a module titled 

Skills for Independent Learning. A focus group was conducted with five additional students who 

had completed the EAP and skills in independent learning course a year earlier. Results showed 

that “time management, reflective skills, and strategies for maintaining focus were identified as 

three transferable skills taught in the module” (p. 1). In a later study, Landry (2023) used 

questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, student portfolios, and interviews with teaching 

assistants to collect perceptions about the effectiveness of online asynchronous modules in 

intercultural communication for students studying in an EGAP program. Results suggested that 

the online course influenced students’ “language learning, intercultural competence, and 

socialization into new communities” (p. 1), which, in turn, led to increased wellbeing. 

 

 With evidence specifically related to student confidence, Keefe and Shi (2017) 

interviewed eight NNES students about the effectiveness of EAP courses in preparing them for 

their undergraduate courses at a Canadian university. Interviews were conducted during the EAP 

course and during the first term of undergraduate studies. Results showed that “students’ 

responses to the EAP program were mostly positive—all eight reported improvements and 

increased confidence in speaking and writing” despite challenges (p. 1). Challenges were 

perceived to be reduced by the EAP course. At the University of Manitoba, Dyck (2013) 

compared the grade point averages (GPAs) of international students with those of domestic 

students and compared international students from China who completed a general EAP course 

with those who met the English language requirements in other ways. Results showed that 

Chinese international students were equal to their Canadian counterparts in terms of grades 

initially, but that they began to fall behind in the second and third years. However, the study also 

showed that international students who completed EAP level 5 were actually performing better 

in terms of academic outcomes than the Canadian students on average.    

 

 In Johnson and Tweedie’s (2021) study, they referenced the predicted “‘death’ of General 

EAP” (p. 102) that is common in the field; however, they found that standardized test scores, 

such as IELTS and TOEFL, are not a predictor of student success at the tertiary level. Rather, 

their findings showed that university preparation programs including EGAP were a predictor of 

student success at the tertiary level. They concluded from this that the prediction of “the death of 

General EAP” may have been “premature” (p. 101).  

  

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Table 1 

 

Studies Conducted in Canadian Contexts Showing the Benefits of EGAP 

 
Authors Key Information 

Cheng and Fox (2008) 

 

Qualitative 

56 non-native English-speaking students  

3 Canadian universities 

Learning and social skills contribute to academic success 

 

Dyck (2013) Quantitative 

GPA comparison of Chinese & domestic students, and Chinese EAP / 

non-EAP students 

 

Fox et al. (2006) Qualitative—grounded theory 

28 EGAP students 

Volunteer semi-structured interviews 

Many factors contribute to engagement with undergraduate study 

 

Fox, Cheng & Zumbo (2014) 

 

Quantitative 

641 students of 36 EAL & EAP programs 

26 Canadian universities 

Anxiety, stress & motivation influence social engagement 

 

Johnson and Tweedie (2021) 

 

Quantitative 

1918 International students 

1 Canadian university  

EAP courses contribute to academic achievement 

 

Keefe and Shi (2017) 

 

Qualitative 

8 NNES students 

Before & After interviews 

EGAP led to increase in spoken & written confidence 

 

Landry (2019) 

 

Qualitative 

12 international EGAP students who completed a Skills for Independent 

Learning course 

Transferable EGAP skills: time management, reflection, strategies for 

maintaining focus 

 

Landry (2023) 

 

Qualitative 

EGAP students 

Questionnaires, interviews, focus groups & student portfolios 

Online asynchronous learning & additional language socialization led to 

language, culture & socialization benefits and increased well-being 

 

Tweedie and Kim (2015) Qualitative 

7 undergraduate EAP students 

Support with acculturation is a perceived need in EAP curriculum 

 

 

 Finally, exploring student opinions about the shortfalls of some EAP courses, Tweedie 

and Kim (2015) used semi-structured interviews to survey perceptions about whether university 

preparation courses align with first-year undergraduate course requirements. Participants were 

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from a range of faculties and had all completed EAP courses before moving on to undergraduate 

study. Students’ responses indicated that they felt that more support with social issues, such as 

language and culture, was needed; hallmarks of an EGAP approach.  

 

Discussion 

 

It is an interesting and salient point, noted by Cheng and Fox (2008), that “conflict within the 

field of EAP is occurring at a time when Canadian universities are increasingly focused on 

program accountability and measurable outcomes” (p. 312). While it is of course essential to 

encourage accountability through measurable outcomes, the limitations of the measurable 

outcomes used may not only lead to the preference of ESAP programs over EGAP, but they may 

also disadvantage students.  

 

 One of the paradoxes of the recent investment in student wellbeing by governments and 

educational institutions in Canada, is that not only is there “no universally agreed-upon definition 

for wellness or wellbeing” (The Alberta Teachers’ Association, 2018, p. 20), but unfortunately 

for international students, general wellbeing is also not a directly measurable outcome (The 

Alberta Teachers’ Association, 2018). It would appear that such policies are dictated by the 

perception that wellbeing is generally considered a good idea, even if it is not measurable or 

provable. However, there are other outcomes that are measurable, with investment in them able 

to be held more accountable, leading to them competing favorably with investment in wellbeing. 

This lack of measurability for qualitative aspects of students’ wellbeing might be a contributing 

factor to why the EGAP versus ESAP debate has not been settled in favour of the former. The 

remainder of this discussion section will therefore focus on the measurable benefits of EGAP.  

 

 Supporting this exploration of the benefits of EGAP, two studies are of particular 

importance (McMeniman & Evans, 1997; Sun & Chen, 1997). Despite the perceived greater 

specific academic benefits of ESAP courses, academic proficiency alone is insufficient for 

students to become comfortable in a new cultural setting (McMeniman & Evans, 1997; Sun and 

Chen, 1997). McMeniman and Evans (1997) stated that proficiency in dealing with interactions 

with local individuals is not generally gained through classroom language learning. For example, 

Sun and Chen (1997) interviewed Chinese international students in the United States and found 

that studying for and achieving impressive TOEFL scores had very little impact on their ability 

to communicate with people in the local community, either in academic or non-academic 

settings. In essence, these communication challenges mean that EAP courses with a narrow focus 

on standardised testing were failing students by not providing necessary education in how to 

survive socially in a new community and culture, and that this lack of educational outcomes 

related to community and culture might lead to serious consequences; they were ignoring the 

general academic benefits, and benefits for student wellbeing outlined above. 

 

 In terms of positive measurable benefits related to EGAP, in a study about acculturation 

at three universities in Canada, Cheng and Fox (2008) conducted semi-structured interviews with 

56 international students and found that “the students who characterized their academic 

engagement as successful had typically developed more strategic learning and social skills as 

part of their acculturation process” (p. 307). Studies by both Keefe and Shi (2017), and Douglas 

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et al. (2022) recorded positive student reactions to EGAP programs, with students citing 

improvements in confidence, friendships, and local culture as some of their reasons.   

 

Conclusion 

 

To summarise, “accusations made” (Online Etymology Dictionary, N.D.) against EGAP can 

sometimes be viewed as accusations against the holistic side of education and against welcoming 

international students to participate in Canada socially rather than just academically. It is hoped 

that this apology has managed to shed some light on the potential of EGAP in achieving a more 

compassionate and holistic approach to EAL teaching and learning for post-secondary students.   

It appears that educational institutions ascribing to an ESAP approach have judged that because 

students are linguistically able within a narrow academic set of outcomes, they must also be 

socially apt. As seen throughout the discussion above, in response to the results of research into 

students’ needs, EGAP provides international students with a human element that is above and 

beyond what is often provided by ESAP courses. While wellbeing is not necessarily a 

measurable outcome, the benefits for student wellbeing provided by EGAP courses are of 

overriding importance to international students.    

 

 University preparatory courses that focus on the specifics of a certain field of study may 

be useful in some contexts, but reduce language learning to a purely functional role, with the 

narrow goal of academic success. Courses such as these may serve a particular purpose, but they 

may also serve to neglect international students’ needs for higher-level, holistic skills and 

knowledge to allow them to live well in a new community. Not incorporating wellbeing as an 

aim in EAP courses in Canada would mean ignoring the benefits of international students 

developing a holistic set of skills related to linguistic, cultural, and social competence. This 

article calls on readers, whether teachers, administrators, and/or researchers, to embrace 

wellbeing for international students as a way to mitigate the loneliness, pressure, homesickness, 

and stress that may accompany their academic adventures in Canada and support them as they 

develop the well-rounded skills that accompany living well in a new place.   

 

 Finally, while many of the papers mentioned in this essay are pivotal works (Cheng and 

Fox, 2008; Keefe and Shi, 2017), there is a need to replicate some of the older studies to show 

whether the situations observed and the results obtained are still true today. It could also be 

valuable to the debate if research was conducted into the holistic and wellbeing benefits of ESAP 

programs.  

 

Acknowledgement 

 

Special thanks to my graduate supervisor, who has been nothing short of inspirational since my 

arrival in Canada. Much of this essay would have been impossible without the instruction and 

support that my supervisor has provided me with throughout my studies at UBC’s Okanagan 

School of Education.   

  

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