







































 

 

 

 

 

Impact of Pet Companionship on Student 

Development: A Meta-Analysis

Peixuan Li, Jijun Yao, Yifan Xu, Fangru Zhou 

 
 Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210024, China 

 

Abstract: Animal companionship has been found to have a positive influence on 

human well-being, and the presence of pets can have a subtle yet significant impact 

on the healthy development of students. Pet companionship takes various forms 

across different fields in China and other regions worldwide, and the impact of such 

companionship remains uncertain. Hence, it is imperative to investigate the impact 

of diverse forms of companionship and animals on multiple facets of student growth 

and development. This study employed meta-analysis methodologies to examine 47 

effect sizes derived from 12 domestic and international studies on pet 

companionship. The aim was to investigate the overall trends of the influence of pet 

companionship on student development as well as the effects of diverse types of 

companionship and pets on different aspects of student development, including 

physical and mental health, social-emotional abilities, and academic performance. 

The objective was to enhance the exploration of approaches for maximizing the 

utilization of various forms of pet companionship. Furthermore, this research 

suggests a systematic and incremental approach to enhancing the function of pets 

within households, educational institutions, and medical facilities. Adequate content 

and organization are essential for scientific advancement and the development of 

students. In this particular context, it is possible to optimize the impact of pet 

companionship on the development of students. 

Best Evidence in Chinese Education 2023; 14(1):1727-1743. 

Doi: 10.15354/bece.23.or077 

How to Cite: Li, P., Yao, J., Xu, Y., & Zhou, F. (2023). Impact of pet companionship 

on student development: A meta-analysis. Best Evidence in Chinese Education, 

14(1):1727-1743. 

Keywords: Pet Companionship, Student Development, Meta-Analysis 

 

 

 

 

 



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No.1, 2023 1728 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

About the Authors: Peixuan Li, School of Educational Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210024, 

China. E-mail: pxli_edu@163.com  

Yifan Xu, School of Educational Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210024, China. E-mail: 
nnu_xuyifan@163.com 

Fangru Zhou, School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210024, China. E-mail: 

frzhou_psy@163.com  

Correspondence to: Jijun Yao, School of Educational Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210024, China. 
E-mail: yaojijun_njnu@163.com  

Finding: Undergraduate Talent Training Program of Nanjing Normal University, College Students’ Innovation 
and Entrepreneurship Competition of Jiangsu Province. 

Conflict of Interests: None. 
 

© 2023 Insights Publisher. All rights reserved. 

Creative Commons Non Commercial CC BY-NC: This article is distributed under the terms of the 

Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 License 

(http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of 

the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed by the Insights Publisher. 

mailto:pxli_edu@163.com
mailto:nnu_xuyifan@163.com
mailto:frzhou_psy@163.com
mailto:yaojijun_njnu@163.com
http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/


Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1729 

 

Introduction 

ETS serve as companions to children in various ways, including by providing 

constant companionship at home, participating in animal-assisted classes at 

school, and engaging in animal-assisted therapy. They are valuable friends for 

students. 

However, there are certain opinions that challenge the efficacy of pet compan-

ionship. Parents express concerns that the act of raising pets may have adverse effects 

on the physical well-being and socio-emotional growth of students, ultimately impeding 

their overall healthy development. Furthermore, the adoption of pet companionship is 

confronted with various uncertainties and hazards, including but not limited to the po-

tential harm that pets’ self-defense mechanisms may pose to infants and young children, 

gender-based discrepancies in attitudes towards pets among male and female students 

(Bosacki & Tardif-Williams, 2019), and the adverse impact that inadequate pet raising 

and care by families may have on student growth and development. Given the ambigui-

ty surrounding the effects of pet companionship on student development, parents and 

society require empirical data to address inquiries pertaining to the potential benefits of 

pet companionship on student development, as well as the optimal type of pet compan-

ionship that may promote students’ holistic growth, in order to facilitate informed deci-

sion-making. This study employs a meta-analysis methodology to investigate the influ-

ence of pet companionship on student development, drawing on both domestic and in-

ternational research on the subject. The study aims to examine the effects of various 

types of companionship and provide insights into the role of pet companionship in pro-

moting healthy development among students in family, school, and medical contexts. 

Literature Review 

Definitions of Core Concepts 

Pet Companionship 

The teenage period is a crucial life stage that has the potential to positively impact an 

individual’s lifelong physical health, learning behavior, and emotional well-being. Ad-

ditionally, pets can play an important role in adolescents’ learning, therapies, families, 

and overall quality of life. 

Studies on the subject of pet companionship have been carried out in multiple 

countries, focusing mostly on three areas. The first is having pets in daily life. Accord-

ing to statistics, at least one pet is owned by 68% of US families (American Pet Prod-

ucts Association, 2016) and 46% of UK families (Pet Food Manufacturers Association, 

2016). According to epidemiological studies, families with children are more likely than 

other types of households to own pets (Westgarth et al., 2010; Melson, 2003). Since 

most students spend their time at home, companion animals play a significant role in 

daily human interaction. The second is animal-assisted therapy, which dates back to the 

founding of the Quaker Rehabilitation Center in the UK in 1792, where patients might 

P 



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1730 

 

feel joy and responsibility through the employment of animals in treatment plans (Boris 

& Gerald, 1997). Animals act as co-therapists in animal-assisted therapy, collaborating 

with medical professionals to establish a secure therapeutic environment that treats hos-

pitalized children with serious illnesses by lowering their anxiety (Lang et al., 2010). 

The third is bringing dogs into the classroom. Human-animal interaction (HAI) social 

support theory contends that pets can be a source of comfort and safety for students, 

acting as transitional objects to ease pain and problematic behaviors (Peter et al., 2002; 

Triebenbacher, 1998). Students’ stressful experiences at school can result in maladap-

tive behaviors in their homes and social lives. Students may benefit from the motivation 

and education that come from having animals in the classroom. 

In contrast to other nations, pet companionship has recently gained popularity 

in China. People’s spiritual and material worlds have increasingly become richer as 

China’s economic development and urbanization intensify. Pets are deeply involved in 

different parts of students’ lives in such a setting. According to Huang Qin, young stu-

dents’ attachment to dogs can help them cope with loneliness (Huang, 2009). Mean-

while, Wang Jiaojiao and her colleagues work on dog-assisted intervention in reading 

for special education children, employing methodologies like one-on-one reading and 

dialogue-based reading (Wang et al., 2020). However, there is still a scarcity of research 

in this sector in China, and some parents fear that having a pet interferes with their 

child’s growth. 

The present study delineates the notion of pet companionship as a tripartite 

construct encompassing the following components: cohabitation in daily routines, ani-

mal-assisted therapy, and academic accompaniment. The assessment of students’ social 

adaptation, physical health, and learning ability constitutes the measurement of these 

three distinct dimensions. 

Student Development 

In Mingyuan Gu’s (1998) Education Dictionary, “development” is defined as a persis-

tent and irreversible change in cognition, personality, physical condition, and socializa-

tion that occurs over the course of an individual’s entire existence. In the context of 

education, student development theory is an extension of human development theory. 

Education, whose primary purpose is to cultivate individuals, encompasses a variety of 

activities that contribute to the formation and development of knowledge, abilities, 

physical and mental health, and ideological and moral qualities. 

The level of a student’s physical and mental health is the basis of their devel-

opment. Individuals who are physically and mentally healthy actively experience posi-

tive emotions such as happiness, have excellent social adaptability, and are able to real-

ize their full potential. They are vital and capable of contributing to society (Liu, 2001). 

Studies have indicated that in certain nations and regions, the development of 

comprehensive abilities has consistently placed emphasis on knowledge acquisition as a 

key priority and a fundamental criterion for talent quality. In light of societal progress 

and its consequent transformations, it is insufficient to depend solely on the cognitive 

capacities of individuals to fulfill their developmental requisites (Wang & Tan, 1998). 

Within this particular context, social-emotional competencies have garnered significant 

attention from the general public and have emerged as a central and focal point for de-



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1731 

 

veloping talent in the 21st century. Social-emotional skills pertain to the intrinsic attrib-

utes of individuals that are indicative of their personality traits. In contrast to academic 

achievement, there is a lack of consensus on the definition of social-emotional compe-

tencies. The framework for social-emotional skills developed by the OECD is the most 

commonly employed among the diverse definitions available. The framework is found-

ed upon the Big Five personality traits, encompassing five distinct dimensions, namely 

task performance, emotional regulation, collaboration, open-mindedness, and interac-

tions with others. The aforementioned domains provide a systematic summary of the 

trajectory of non-cognitive skill development in students. 

In China, there was a time when academic performance was the primary meas-

ure of student development, and the concept of holistic student development was not 

given much consideration. This lack of understanding at the practical level of education 

has led to intense competition, which is not conducive to the establishment of a positive 

educational environment. The demand for the incorporation of non-cognitive factors 

and the advancement of holistic student development has been on the rise. In light of 

this context, the Chinese government has released a series of official papers aimed at 

advancing the reform of enhancing the comprehensive competencies of students. In 

2021, a set of guidelines was implemented to alleviate the onerous workload of compul-

sory education students, including the Double Reduction Policy, with the aim of miti-

gating the burden on students and fostering their holistic growth. 

This study categorizes student development into the growth of cognitive and 

non-cognitive abilities based on physical and mental health, depending on the afore-

mentioned analyses. Non-cognitive abilities are assessed using the OECD framework of 

social-emotional skills, which includes self-control, emotional control, sociability, self-

efficacy, and other abilities in social-emotional domains. Cognitive abilities are as-

sessed by students’ learning capacity and academic performance. 

The Impact of Pet Companionship on Student Devel-

opment 

The impact of pet companionship on student development has been extensively re-

searched, yielding varying conclusions. 

On the bright side, there are studies that show how having a pet can positively 

impact student development. Interacting with animals in settings like home, school, or 

hospital can have a positive impact on students’ emotional regulation, empathy, and 

stress relief, according to research by Anderson et al. (2006), Chubak et al. (2017), and 

Paul & Serpell (1996). It’s great to see that animal-assisted education has become in-

creasingly popular in recent years. This approach has been shown to have many positive 

effects on students, including the development of empathy, stress reduction, positive 

emotional development, stronger classroom cohesion, increased pro-social behavior, 

and fostering better attitudes toward learning (Brelsford et al., 2017; Nancy et al., 2017). 

This is a promising trend that can benefit students in many ways. It’s great to know that 

early pet ownership can potentially reduce the risk of allergies and asthma in students, 

according to studies. It’s great to know that exposure to pets in the first year of life can 

lower the risk of allergic rhinitis at age 7-9 and asthma at age 12–13 (Hesselmar, 1999). 



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1732 

 

In hospital settings, the presence of animals can help alleviate pain during medical pro-

cedures and make hospitalization easier for pediatric patients (Hoffmann et al., 2009). 

Conversely, alternative evidence suggests that the companionship of pets may 

not be advantageous or may even have adverse effects on the growth and progress of 

students. Salo et al. (2004) conducted research on Chinese adolescents and revealed a 

higher incidence of persistent coughing in households that owned cats and dogs, partic-

ularly among children under the age of six. A study conducted on Bulgarian students 

aged 2–8 years revealed a favorable association between the existence of cats or dogs in 

their households during birth and their present-day susceptibility to asthma, rhinitis, and 

eczema, as reported by Naydenov et al. (2008). Pets have the potential to elevate the 

concentration of airborne allergens, thereby amplifying the susceptibility to allergic 

respiratory ailments such as asthma. 

Therefore, it can be argued that the effects of pet companionship on student de-

velopment are ambiguous. This uncertainty is largely attributable to multiple factors. In 

other words, other factors moderate the effect of pet companionship on student devel-

opment. Based on this, this study used CMA 3.0 to conduct a comprehensive meta-

analysis of domestic and international studies on pet companionship and student devel-

opment in order to identify the general patterns of the effect of pet companionship on 

students’ physical and mental development. 

Research Process 

Literature Retrieval 

Meta-analysis is a secondary analysis that re-analyses the findings by incorporating data 

from the extant literature (Zeng & Yao, 2020). 

The following keywords are crucial to the literature search: “pet raising,” “stu-

dent development,” “physical health,” “mental health,” “higher order thinking skills,” 

“social emotion,” “animal assisted therapy,” “school,” and “study” on various databases 

like the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), the Web of Science, 

SpringerLink, and Google Scholar. After retrieving 7,127 pertinent studies, 12 were 

ultimately added to produce 47 effect sizes (Figure 1). 

Literature Inclusion Criteria 

Meta-analyses require consistent inclusion criteria to retrieve and screen studies related 

to a particular topic and then to construct a literature pool that satisfies the requirements 

of the research topic and meta-analysis in order to support subsequent research. In order 

to better select relevant literature for this study, it was necessary to first define pet com-

panionship and the research topic. This study defines pet companionship as activities in 

which pets accompany humans, such as the raising of pets at home, the incorporation of 

pets in the classroom, and animal-assisted therapy. The focus of this study is the influ-

ence of pet companionship on student development, and the intervention is whether or 

not pet companionship will be utilized. The target audience consists of students younger 

than 18 years of age. On this basis, the following inclusion criteria were developed:  

 



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1733 

 

 

Figure 1. Literature Screening Process. 

 

 

 

definition of pet companionship, research topic, research subjects, literature characteris-

tics, and statistical requirements for the meta-analysis. 

i. The study’s intervention measures are pet companionship or animal-assisted thera-

py, and the target population is students under the age of 18. 

ii. The research findings should pertain to student development, including aspects 

such as academic achievement, physical and mental health treatment, motor skills, 

and the enhancement of social and emotional skills. 

iii. For the purpose of this study’s timeliness, the included studies must have been 

published between 2000 and 2021, regardless of form, in Chinese or English. 

iv. The design of the study should be experimental or quasi-experimental, with exper-

imental and control groups. The sample size for large-scale survey reports should 

be greater than 250. 

v. The sample sizes of the experimental and control groups should be comparable to 

prevent biases resulting from a significant difference between the two categories of 

groups. 

vi. To calculate effect sizes, the study should provide information such as the mean, 

standard deviation, sample size, t-value, and p-value. 

vii. Pretest differences should not be excessively large, and the effect size d should not 

exceed 0.5. 



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1734 

 

Literature Coding 

As previously stated, a meta-analysis is a statistical technique that involves synthesizing 

an extensive body of literature, albeit with inherent heterogeneity across various studies. 

Consequently, it is imperative to encode the pertinent research for subsequent examina-

tion, and the precise codes are explained as follows: 

i. Type of literature: Journals are coded as Q, whereas other types are coded as X. 

ii. Type of pet companionship: Home pet ownership is recorded as FAM, whereas an-

imal-assisted therapy, animal-assisted education, multifaceted content, and unre-

ported are coded as AAT, EDU, mix, and un, respectively. 

iii. Type of output: academic ability is coded as study, social skills are coded as social 

skill, physical health is coded as physical health, mental health is coded as mental 

health, and other elements are coded as other. 

iv. Type of companion animal: dogs are coded as dog, horses as horse, mixed animal 

species are coded as mix, and unreported animals are coded as un. 

v. Gender: Males are coded as M, females as F, males and females together are coded 

as mix, and those who were not reported are coded as un. 

vi. Students at risk: Students who have a low health level are coded as PD, those who 

have behavioral issues (such as truancy, violence, etc.) are coded as BD, those who 

have both of the aforementioned issues are coded as mix, and those who have not 

been reported are coded as un. 

vii. Length of research: Research that is not less than 12 weeks in length is coded as > 

12, less than 12 weeks in length is coded as < 12, and not reported is coded as unre-

ported. 

viii. Intervention intensity: low (≤ 30 minutes per week), medium (30-75 minutes per 

week), or high (> 75 minutes per week). According to the literature, the precise in-

formation should be written down, and the unreported data is coded as unreported. 

ix. Age group: pre-adolescent years (6-12) are coded as preadolescence, adolescence 

(13–18) is coded as adolescence, and a combination of various stages is coded as 

mix, in accordance with the age distribution in established studies and the typical 

developmental model proposed by Broderick and Blewitt (2003). 

x. Sample size: Studies with sample sizes of less than 100, between 100 and 250, and 

greater than 250 are coded as < 100, 100-250, and > 250, respectively. 

Research Results and Analysis 

Heterogeneity Testing  

Although there is heterogeneity among different studies, a meta-analysis provides an 

opportunity to integrate a large body of literature and gain valuable insights. There are 

several effective methods for conducting heterogeneity tests, such as the Q statistic, H 

statistic, and I
2
 values. This study successfully utilized the Q statistic and I

2
 values to 

analyze the heterogeneity between the studies (Zeng & Yao, 2020). The Q statistic 

showed that there is some heterogeneity among the samples (Q = 80.563, p < 0.001), 

but the I
2
 values indicate that it is only moderate (I

2
 = 42.902). 



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1735 

 

Table 1. Margaret Coding Table. 

Litera-
ture 

Companion-
ship 
Type 

Doc 
Typ
e 

Output 
Type 

Ani-
mal 

Gen-
der 

Age 
Sample 
Size 

Students 
in 
Crisis 

Pro-
gram 
Length 

Interven-
tion 
Intensity 

Amy, 
2017a 

AAT Q Mental  Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low 

Amy, 
2017b 

AAT Q Mental  Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low 

Amy, 
2017c 

AAT Q Mental  Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low 

Andrea,  
2013b 

EDU Q Mental  Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

<100 un >12 High 

Andrea,  
2013c 

EDU Q Mental  Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

<100 un >12 High 

Andrea,  
2013d 

EDU Q 
Behav-
ior 

Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

<100 un >12 High 

Andrea, 
2013e 

EDU Q 
Behav-
ior 

Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

<100 un >12 High 

Andrea,  
2013f 

EDU Q 
Behav-
ior 

Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

<100 un >12 High 

Andrea, 
2013g 

EDU Q Mental Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

<100 un >12 High 

Anne, 
2015 

FAM Q Mental Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

>250 un un un 

Carie, 
2009a 

AAT Q Physical  Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low 

Carie, 
2009b 

AAT Q Physical  Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low 

Carie, 
2009c 

AAT Q Physical  Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low 

Carie, 
2009d 

AAT Q Physical   Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low 

Carie, 
2009e 

AAT Q Physical  Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low 

Cris-
tiano, 
2021 

EDU Q Mental  Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

<100 un <12 High 

Deborah, 
2017 

EDU Q Study Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

<100 un <12 Medium 

Davis, 
2009a 

AAT Q Mental  Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium 

Davis, 
2009b 

AAT Q Mental  Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium 

Davis, 
2009c 

AAT Q Mental  Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium 

Davis, 
2009d 

AAT Q Mental  Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium 

Davis, 
2009e 

AAT Q Mental  Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium 

Davis, 
2009f 

AAT Q Mental  Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium 

Davis, 
2009g 

AAT Q Mental  Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium 

Edward, 
2017a 

EDU Q Study Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

<100 un <12 Medium 

Edward, 
2017b 

EDU Q Study Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

<100 un <12 Medium 

Edward, 
2017c 

EDU Q Study Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

<100 un <12 Medium 

Edward, 
2017d 

EDU Q Study Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

<100 un <12 Medium 

Chris-
tian, 
2012a 

FAM Q Physical Dog M 
pre-
adolescence 

>250 un un un 

Chris-
tian, 
2012b 

FAM Q Physical Dog M 
pre-
adolescence 

>250 un un un 

Chris-
tian, 
2012c 

FAM Q Physical Dog F 
pre-
adolescence 

>250 un un un 

Chris-
tian, 
2012d 

FAM Q Physical Dog F 
pre-
adolescence 

>250 un un un 

Chris-
tian, 
2012e 

FAM Q 
Behav-
ior 

Dog M 
pre-
adolescence 

>250 un un un 

Chris-
tian, 
2012f 

FAM Q 
Behav-
ior 

Dog F 
pre-
adolescence 

>250 un un un 

Chris-
tian, 
2012g 

FAM Q 
Behav-
ior 

Dog M 
pre-
adolescence 

>250 un un un 

Chris-
tian, 
2012h 

FAM Q 
Behav-
ior 

Dog F 
pre-
adolescence 

>250 un un un 

javascript:;
javascript:;


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BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1736 

 

Jessa,  
2016a 

FAM Q Mental Dog Mix adolescence >250 un un un 

Jessa,  
2016b 

FAM Q Mental Dog Mix adolescence >250 un un un 

Jessa,  
2016c 

FAM Q Mental Dog Mix adolescence >250 un un un 

Julie, 
2008a  

EDU Q 
Behav-
ior 

Dog Mix 
pre-
adolescence 

>250 BD <12 Middle 

Maria, 
2016a 

AAT Q Mental  Dog Mix Mix <100 mix >12 Low 

Maria, 
2016c 

AAT Q 
Social 
Skill 

Dog Mix Mix <100 mix >12 Low 

Marta, 
2017a 

FAM Q Mental Dog Mix adolescence >250 un un un 

Megan, 
2021 

FAM Q Mental  Mix Mix Mix 
100-
250 

un un un 

Shu li, 
2016a 

FAM Q Physical  Mix Male Mix >250 un un un 

Shu li, 
2016b 

FAM Q Physical  Mix F Mix >250 un un un 

 

 

 

 

Table 2. Overall Effect Size and Heterogeneity Testing Results of the Impact 
of Pet Companionship on Students’ Development. 

 K Q I² (%) ES 95%CI p-value 

Fixed-effect model 47 80.563 
(p = 0.001) 

42.902 
0.222 0.189 0.256 0.000 

Random-effect model 47 0.237 0.183 0.291 0.000  

 

 

 

 

Analysis of the Effects of Pet Companionship on Stu-

dent Development 

The heterogeneity test results revealed that the samples in this study had a modest 

amount of heterogeneity. Table 1 displays the results of the study using the fixed-effect 

model, with a combined effect size of 0.222 (p < 0.05), and Table 2 displays the results 

using the random-effect model, with a combined effect size of 0.237 (p < 0.05). Cohen 

defines small, medium, and high impact sizes, respectively, as 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8. There-

fore, having a pet as company has a minor but distinctly positive effect on students’ 

growth. 

Analysis of the Moderating Effects 

As mentioned previously, the samples in this study were heterogeneous (Q = 80.563, p 

< 0.001), which may be closely related to the type of pet, the type of pet companionship, 

and the diverse backgrounds of the participants. In order to identify the origins of heter-

ogeneity, it was necessary to assess the moderating effects in this study. Based on the 

results of the random-effect model analysis and the subgroup analysis, this study inves-

tigated the origins of heterogeneity in pet companionship at both the individual and re-

search project levels. 



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1737 

 

As previously stated, student growth is primarily represented in physical health, 

mental health, academic output, social-emotional abilities, and behavior. Table 3 shows 

the results of an in-depth analysis of the types and forms of student development out-

puts undertaken in this study to investigate the unique effects of pet companionship on 

student development. Pet companionship has a significant favorable impact on academ-

ic output (d = 0.098, p = 0.667), physical health (d = 0.199, p < 0.001), mental health (d 

= 0.259, p < 0.001), and behavioral performance (d = 0.244, p = 0.018), but the effect 

sizes are small. Pet companionship has a medium impact size and has a considerable 

beneficial influence on social-emotional skills (d = 0.595, p < 0.001). The findings indi-

cate that pet companionship improves students’ academic achievement while also en-

couraging physical and mental health as well as behavioral performance, and it plays an 

important role in strengthening students’ social-emotional abilities. Previous research 

has focused on the effects of pet companionship on students’ physical health rather than 

the development of social-emotional abilities, according to the current study. Some of 

the studies included in this investigation did not report potential influencing factors 

such as participants’ families’ economic situation and the gap between times of pet 

companionship, resulting in the loss of some sources of heterogeneity in this study. 

As indicated in Table 4, characteristics including participant gender, age, and 

physical and mental health may contribute to heterogeneity at the individual level. The 

beneficial effect on male participants among teenagers (d = 0.189, p < 0.001) is margin-

ally bigger than that on female participants (d = 0.152, p < 0.001). Participants who are 

preadolescent (d = 0.280, p < 0.001) and adolescent (d = 0.205, p < 0.001) in age do not 

experience any negative effects from pet companionship. In particular, it has a modest 

effect on preschool participants and a large favorable effect with relatively moderate 

effect sizes on preadolescent and adolescent participants. The strongest effect of pet 

companionship is on elementary school kids (d = 0.399), with a small effect size in the 

preadolescent period, whereas the poorest effect is on secondary school students (d = 

0.099). Regarding the hazards that teenagers face, pet companionship has a statistically 

significant favorable effect on students who are at health risk (d = 0.215, p < 0.001) and 

behavioral risk (d = 0.717, p < 0.001). Pet companionship also has a good impact on 

children who are at risk for both physical and mental health, with an effect size of 0.207. 

The effects on students with behavioral risk and mental health crises are medium. 

As demonstrated in Table 5, heterogeneity at the research project level may be 

related to elements like the kind of pet, the kind of pet partner, and the degree of the 

intervention. Horses, a common form of pet, have a beneficial impact on participants 

and have an effect size that is statistically significant (d = 0.344, p < 0.001), although 

dogs and other pets similarly significantly improve student development but with small-

er effect sizes (d = 0.239, p < 0.001). Animal-assisted therapy, animal-assisted educa-

tion, and pet companionship at home all had substantial benefits on various aspects of 

pet companionship; the corresponding effect sizes are 0.215, 0.385, and 0.202, with 

animal-assisted education surpassing the other two. Low-intensity interventions (d = 

0.245, p = 0.005), medium-intensity interventions (d = 0.259, p < 0.001), and high-

intensity interventions (d = 0.345, p < 0.001) all significantly affect student develop-

ment, and the effect is stronger as the intensity rises. 

This study also examined the moderating effects of literature type, sample size, 

and the period of publication in order to further understand how the characteristics of  



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1738 

 

Table 3.  Analysis of Heterogeneity of Student Development Output Types. 

 K Q ES 95% CI p 

Type of output 

Physical 12 

3.245 
(p = 0.518) 

0.199 0.143 0.256 0.000 

Mental 21 0.259 0.186 0.332  0.000  

Social skill 5 0.595 -0.038 1.228 0.000  

Behavior 8 0.244 0.042 0.446 0.018 

Study 5 0.098 -0.362 0.558 0.677 

 

 

 

 

Table 4. Analysis of Heterogeneity at the Individual Level. 

 K Q ES 95% CI p 

At-risk Students 

PD 15 

35.766 
(p < 0.001) 

0.203 0.075 0.330 0.001  

HD 1 0.717 0.555 0.880 0.000  

Mix 3 0.319 -0.043 0.680 0.084 

Un 28 0.207 0.159 0.246 0.000 

Age 

Pre-adolescence 22 
0.858 
(p = 0.651) 

0.262 0.153  0.371 0.000 

Adolescence 5 0.205 0.145  0.266  0.000  

Mix 20 0.208  0.139 0.277 0.000 

Gender 

F 5 
Q=9.828 
(p = 0.007) 

0.152 0.086 0.218 0.000 

M 7 0.189 0.121 0.258 0.000 

Mix 53 0.291 0.208 0.374 0.000 

 

 

 

 

Table 5. Analysis of Heterogeneity at the Project Level. 

 K Q ES 95% CI p 

Type of Pet Companionship 

AAT 18 
3.021 
(p = 0.221) 

0.215 0.095 0.336 0.000  

EDU 13 0.373  0.185 0.585 0.000 

FAM 16 0.195  0.153 0.251 0.000  

Pet Breeds 

Dog 37 
0.276 
(p = 0.871) 

0.243 0.175 0.312 0.000  

Horse 7 0.200 0.023 0.376 0.026  

Mix 3 0.224 0.144 0.303 0.000  

Intervention Intensity 
 

Low 10 

1.844 
(p = 0.605) 

0.245 0.074 0.416 0.005 

Middle 14 0.259 0.066 0.453 0.000 

High 7 0.345 0.119 0.571 0.000 

Un 16 0.202 0.153 0.251 0.000 

 

 

 

 

 



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1739 

 

Table 6. Heterogeneity Analysis of Literature Characteristics and Study Char-
acteristics. 

 K Q ES 95% CI p 

Sample size 

<100 30 
0.897 
(p = 0.639) 

0.243 0.142 0.344 0.000  

100-250 1 0.341  0.131  0.551 0.001  

>250 19 0.233 0.158 0.308 0.000  

 

 

 

 

 
Figure 2. Funnel Plot of Standard Error by Std Diff in Means. 

 

 

 

 

the literature and studies may also be significant factors affecting heterogeneity. The 

outcomes are displayed in Table 6. Since all of the included studies were journal arti-

cles, this study did not examine them. In terms of sample size, medium sample sizes 

(100-250 samples) have the largest effect sizes (d = 0.341), followed by small sample 

sizes (< 100 samples) (d = 0.243), and big sample sizes (> 250 samples) (d = 0.233). 

Both small and large sample sizes have non-significant effect sizes. 

Robustness Testing 

Publication Bias 

Publication bias indicates that the studies included in the meta-analysis are the result of 

journal selection, and this selective bias typically results in positive meta-analysis re-

sults. Consequently, it is essential to evaluate the scientific validity of the results. This 



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1740 

 

study used funnel plots and Egger’s Regression coefficient to assess the results of a me-

ta-analysis, as these are common methods for evaluating meta-analysis results. The fun-

nel plot for this study is depicted in Figure 2, which is approximately symmetrical, and 

the effect sizes of the study samples are primarily concentrated in the middle and upper 

effective areas of the funnel plot. The Egger’s Regression coefficient indicates an insig-

nificant Egger test result (t = 0.71642, p1 = 0.23872, p2 = 0.47744 > 0.01) and, conse-

quently, a low probability of publication bias in this investigation. 

Sensitivity Analysis 

In this study, the fail-safe N was 1,463 (α = 0.05, p < 0.000), indicating that 2,622 addi-

tional studies would be required to render the results non-significant or to refute the 

conclusions. As a result, the findings of the study were relatively robust. 

Discussion 

Throughout the course of human history, animals have served as valuable aides, confi-

dants, and associates, with such companionship being prevalent across various global 

societies. Currently, cats and dogs have emerged as the most popular domesticated ani-

mals. Several studies have indicated that the presence of pets can potentially augment 

the physical and psychological well-being of individuals, particularly adolescent stu-

dents, and foster their social aptitude. However, a counterargument posits that pets may 

exacerbate the ailments of adolescent students. Hence, there is an exigent requirement 

for pertinent evidence to address the crucial inquiry of whether the companionship of 

pets fosters the physical and psychological growth of students. Furthermore, given the 

significance of pet companionship in facilitating school education and hospital treat-

ment, it is imperative for educational institutions and healthcare facilities to compre-

hend the specific attributes of pet companionship that can enhance the physical and 

mental growth of students. This understanding is crucial for the optimization of animal-

assisted therapy and animal-assisted education. This study employed meta-analysis 

techniques to examine the impact of pet companionship interventions on the develop-

ment of adolescent students. Specifically, the study analyzed 12 studies to identify gen-

eral patterns and test the effectiveness of various types of pet companionship. The find-

ings may contribute to the optimization of animal-assisted therapy, animal-assisted edu-

cation, and pet companionship in domestic settings. 

The findings of this study suggest that the presence of pets has a noteworthy 

and favorable influence on the physical health (d = 0.199, p < 0.001), mental health (d = 

0.259, p < 0.001), and social-emotional skills (d = 0.595, p < 0.001) of students. Fur-

thermore, its positive impact on social-emotional skills surpasses that of physical and 

mental health. The study suggests that the effect on academic development is not statis-

tically significant (d = 0.098, p = 0.677). Regarding the category of animal companions, 

research indicates that the association between students and horses and dogs as pets 

yields more substantial outcomes, with effect sizes of 0.200 and 0.243, respectively that 

are statistically significant. Regarding the category of animal companionship, animal-

assisted therapy, animal-assisted education, and domestic pet companionship have no-

table impacts, exhibiting effect sizes of 0.215, 0.373, and 0.195, respectively. The find-



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1741 

 

ings of this study exhibit conformity with certain assessments of the association be-

tween humans and pets conducted in other nations. Notwithstanding the uniformity of 

the impact’s orientation, the magnitudes of the effects observed in this study deviate 

from those reported by certain researchers. 

This study places a greater emphasis on China’s present circumstances within 

the Chinese context in comparison to other meta-analyses on pet companionship con-

ducted in other nations. Hence, the outcomes of this investigation hold greater signifi-

cance for the advancement of pet companionship within the educational and medical 

domains in the current phase of China. Additionally, they are crucial for the enhance-

ment of pet companionship in the entire country. 

Conclusions and Suggestions 

The present study employed meta-analytic procedures to scrutinize the phenomenon of 

pet companionship across a total of 12 studies, with the aim of examining the impact of 

such companionship on the physical health, mental health, and social-emotional compe-

tencies of students. This study conducted an analysis of the sources of heterogeneity 

present in the individual-level and research project-level studies that were included in 

the study. The findings indicate that (i) regarding the developmental stage, pet compan-

ionship has a better effect on preadolescent students than on adolescent students (d = 

0.205); (ii) pet companionship has a significant positive effect on students with physical 

health risk (d = 0.203, p = 0.001) and behavioral risk (d = 0.717, p < 0.001), and the 

effect on those with behavioral risk is more significant and reaches a medium level; (iii) 

animals such as horses (d = 0.200) and dogs (d = 0.243) have significant positive effects 

on adolescent development; (iv) in terms of the type of pet companionship, animal-

assisted therapy, animal-assisted education, and pet companionship at home all have 

significant effects, with effect sizes of 0.296, 0.373, and 0.195, respectively; (v) in 

terms of intervention intensity, low intensity (d = 0.245, p = 0.005), medium intensity 

(d = 0.259, p < 0.001), and high intensity (d = 0.345, p < 0.001) all significantly pro-

mote student development; (vi) the effect sizes of medium sample sizes (100-250 sam-

ples) are the greatest (d = 0.341), and the effect sizes of small sample sizes (d = 0.243) 

and large sample sizes (d = 0.233) are small.  

The identification of overarching trends in the effects of pet companionship on 

the physical and mental development of students has the potential to enhance the effica-

cy of pet companionship in domestic settings, animal-assisted education in academic 

institutions, and pet-assisted therapy in clinical contexts. The analysis indicates that in 

China, when engaging in pet companionship, it is crucial to consider the physical and 

mental well-being, as well as the social-emotional growth, of individuals in order to 

enhance their holistic development. The significance of pets in facilitating the develop-

ment of children should not be disregarded. Furthermore, it is imperative to enhance the 

function of companion animals strategically and systematically in various settings, such 

as households, educational institutions, and medical facilities, when they are in the 

company of students. The appropriate content and organization of pet companionship 

are essential for both scientific advancements and the development of students. Fur-

thermore, the lack of proper planning in pet companionship can result in unanticipated 

outcomes. 



Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. 

BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1742 

 

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Received: 23 April 2023 

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Accepted: 07May 2023 

 

 

 

 

 

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	OR-JijunYao-BECE_TitleMay_2023
	OR-JijunYao-BECE_MaintextMay2023

