







































 

 

 

 

 

The Influence of Class Teachers’ Leadership 

Behavior and Personal Characteristics on 

Student Academic Performance: A Study of 

Fuzzy Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis 

Citing H Middle School as a Case Study

Hongyan Zhao,
1
 Jiacheng Zhang

2
 

 
1. Grain Reserves at Jilin Directly Managed Storehouse, Nanjing 

210097, Jiangsu, China 

2. Jiangsu Huajie Education Group, Zhangjiagang 215600, Jiangsu, 

China

Abstract. Leadership behavior of classroom teachers has a significant 
impact on students’ academic success. However, little empirical 

research on this subject has been undertaken in China. By developing 
truth tables and doing necessary computations, this study examines the 

influence of differential combinations of parameters connected to class 

teachers’ qualities and leadership behavior on student academic 
performance. It has been discovered that the democratic leadership 

behavior displayed by class teachers is the most popular among students 

and is helpful to student academic achievement; the numerous 
combinations of linked characteristics have varying effects on student 

academic performance. The study compensates for a dearth of empirical 
research on the subject and sheds light on the process by which class 

teacher leadership influences student academic progress. 

Best Evidence in Chinese Education 2022; 10(2):1357-1373. 

Doi: 10.15354/bece.22.or042. 

How to Cite: Zhao, H., & Zhang, J. (2022). The influence of class teachers’ 

leadership behavior and personal characteristics on student academic performance: 

A study of fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis citing H Middle School as a 

case study. Best Evidence in Chinese Education, 10(2):1357-1373. 

Keywords: Leadership Behavior, Academic Performance, Class Teacher, Class 

Management, Qualitative Comparative Analysis



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No.2, 2022 1358 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

About Author: Hongyan Zhao, Central Grain Reserves, Jilin Directly Managed Storehouse, Nanjing 210097, 
Jiangsu, China. E-mail: hy15605173005@163.com  

Correspondence to: Jiacheng Zhang, Jiangsu Huajie Education Group, Zhangjiagang 215600, Jiangsu, China. E-

mail: 1983167366@qq.com 

Conflict of Interests: None. 
 

© 2022 Insights Publisher. All rights reserved. 

Creative Commons Non Commercial CC BY-NC: This article is distributed under the terms of the 

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License 

(http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of 

the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed by the Insights Publisher. 

mailto:hy15605173005@163.com
mailto:1983167366@qq.com


Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1359 

Literature Review and Questions 

China has been adopting the class teacher system throughout the country since 1949. In 

China, a class teacher is expected to oversee both the overall management of the class 

and the teaching of a single subject. Each class teacher applies their own distinctive 

leadership style to student management. Teacher leadership behavior has long been a 

source of contention in Western countries, coining the term “Teacher Leadership” in 

educational literature in the 1950s (Lieberman & Miler, 2004). Lambert and Harris 

(2003) argue that teacher leadership’s objective is to help and encourage students to 

acquire self-directed learning skills. Wu and Dai (2008) assert that teachers provide an 

example for pupils and influence them through their excellent moral character and 

knowledge. After reviewing prior research on teacher leadership, this study defines 

class teacher leadership as the all-encompassing effect a teacher can exert on students 

through the integration of personal teaching experience, expertise, teaching skills, and 

class management competence. 

Based on the fundamental variable of “power,” Lewin, an American manage-

ment scientist, divides teacher leadership into three categories: democratic, autocratic, 

and laissez-faire (Lewin, White, & Lippitt, 1939). Silins and Mulfold find that extensive 

follow-up research indicates that teacher leadership is directly related to student aca-

demic progress (Mulford & Kendall, 2004). According to Wu’s research, laissez-faire 

leadership is detrimental to student academic attainment, but democratic and autocratic 

leadership are good. However, further analysis reveals that the benefit of autocratic 

leadership is limited to the current course, whereas democratic leadership contributes to 

the overall learning of students (Wu & Chen, 1978). 

There is a debate regarding whether the personal attributes of teachers have an 

effect on student academic progress. Huang and Xin (2007) conducted a study to 

demonstrate that gender, duration of service, educational level, discipline, and qualifica-

tions of teachers have no significant effect on student academic performance. Nonethe-

less, Zhang and her colleagues report that student academic achievement varies by class 

and that teachers’ gender, length of service, commitments, and suitability of their disci-

plines for their posts all contribute significantly to student academic achievement after 

conducting a study of the influence of teachers’ personal characteristics on student 

school results using hierarchical linear modeling and extensive survey data on student 

academic achievement (Zhang, 2012). 

Due to the diversity of class management systems in other countries and in 

Taiwan, the majority of research on this topic focuses on teacher leadership rather than 

class teacher leadership. While discussions on class teacher leadership are prevalent on 

the mainland, most of them are theoretical in nature. The scant amount of extant empir-

ical research mostly uses regression analysis to analyze the association between class 

teacher leadership and student academic achievement, excluding multi-angle examina-

tions of significant elements in various combinations. Given that academic achievement 

is not only a reflection of students’ efforts in learning but also of the effectiveness of 

class management and teacher leadership behavior (Zhu, 2008), investigations into the 

influencing mechanisms of various combinations of relevant factors are critical for class 

management and teaching efficiency improvement. To accomplish this, we use fuzzy 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1360 

set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) to examine the terminal exam results of 24 

grade seven classes at Lianyungang H Middle School and, using truth tables, summa-

rize the influencing mechanisms of various combinations of class teachers’ personal 

characteristics and leadership behavior. 

Research Design 

Investigation Subjects and Processes 

The subjects of the research are class teachers and students from 24 seventh-grade clas-

ses at Lianyungang H Middle School. H Middle School, a nine-year private boarding 

school, has long been ranked first in the district in terms of student academic achieve-

ment, despite the fact that its tangible and intangible conditions are not up to par with 

those at other district schools. Additionally, students at this school come from typical 

socioeconomic families and are entitled to more time for sports and recreation than their 

peers at other schools. Thus, the school’s academic advantage cannot be explained sole-

ly by resource advantages and students’ time investment in studying. We make the cau-

tious assumption that the lead originates from the school’s distinctive management 

methods and culture. 

In April 2019, we performed two four-day investigations into the school life of 

students and the routine administration of class teachers at H Middle School. To con-

firm the validity of our findings, we used two cameras to capture classroom observa-

tions and as many instances of teacher-student interaction as feasible. To ascertain the 

leadership styles of the 24 class teachers, 1,293 questionnaires were sent to all seventh-

grade students, and 1,105 effective ones were extracted after screening. Additionally, 

we interviewed the 24 class teachers to elicit additional demographic characteristics and 

examples of good classroom management and instruction. The studies enabled us to 

comprehend the school’s distinctive management practices and culture, as well as to 

gather data for our subsequent examination of the school’s academic accomplishment 

advantage. 

We collect the average scores on each class’s second semester terminal exams 

and utilize them as a dependent variable in this study. Each academic year, the institu-

tion reorganizes its classes. To maintain equity, the school makes an effort to balance 

students’ average academic levels and the overall strength of the teachers assigned to 

each class. However, each class may have only one class teacher, and they may differ, 

providing an ideal control situation and enabling us to conduct important studies of the 

correlations between class teachers’ qualities and student academic attainment using a 

consistent baseline. 

Research Instruments and Methodology 

The Teacher Leadership Behavior Questionnaire (hereinafter referred to as the TLBQ) 

was developed by Professor Wu of Taiwan Normal University for the purpose of as-

sessing seventh graders’ perceived and expected classroom teacher leadership behavior. 

This questionnaire is a customized scale of teacher leadership behavior developed by 

Wu in consultation with Lewis’ theory of leadership behavior (Wu & Chen, 1978). The 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1361 

scale is a highly reliable and valid instrument that has gained widespread acceptance in 

academia. This scale has been cited in over 2000 publications as a research instrument. 

Professor Wu approved the questionnaire’s use in this study and the investiga-

tion’s findings. Our questionnaire divides class teacher leadership behavior into three 

categories: democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire leadership, each of which is com-

prised of 20 questions. Each question has a score associated with it if the answer is 

“yes,” but not if the answer is “no.” The total scores for each category include both per-

ceived and expected class teacher leadership behavior. The category that receives the 

highest scores is the leadership style that the class teacher is supposed to exhibit. 

As mentioned previously, the predominant methodology used in current empir-

ical studies of teacher leadership is correlation analysis based on regression techniques, 

which makes it difficult to conduct a detailed analysis of the combinatorial factors and 

influencing mechanisms affecting the effects of teachers’ personal characteristics and 

leadership behavior on student academic performance. The current study attempts to 

compensate for this shortcoming by utilizing qualitative comparative analysis (QCA), a 

method of research pioneered by Ragin, a sociologist, in 1980. The purpose of this 

method is to derive combinations of correlated factors from case studies using truth ta-

bles (Du, 2017). In comparison to regression analysis, QCA is more focused on the suf-

ficient and necessary conditions necessary for the achievement of a research result and 

is less susceptible to the negative effects of autocorrelation and multicollinearity. Addi-

tionally, QCA places a premium on examining the combinatorial factors underlying a 

social phenomenon. As a result, it has been applied in a wide variety of fields in China 

and other countries, including sociology, political science, and managerial economics. 

However, QCA is almost entirely absent from educational research in China. As a result, 

it should garner increased interest from the Chinese educational community. 

QCA is composed of three fundamental techniques: fussy set QCA (fsQCA), 

crisp set QCA (csQCA), and multi-value QCA (mvQCA). Considering the sample size, 

this study opts for fsQCA as the primary technique. By establishing sufficient and nec-

essary relationships between explanatory and outcome variables, researchers can inves-

tigate the multifactor combinations influencing a particular case using fsQCA (Ragin & 

Pennings, 2005). A specific result is believed to be the result of a number of influencing 

factors, and the purpose of fsQCA is to define the causal relationship between the rele-

vant influencing factors and the specific result. In fsQCA, a case can be thought of as a 

collection of conditions and results. By examining the effects of various combinations 

of conditions on the results, researchers can determine which conditions are sufficient 

and which are necessary for the outcome variables (Ragin, 2009). fsQCA examines the 

relationship between explanatory and outcome variables using consistency and cover-

age indicators. Using consistency indicators, we can determine whether an explanatory 

variable is a sufficient or necessary condition. Typically, when the consistency of the 

explanatory variable exceeds 0.8, it can be considered a sufficient condition for the out-

come variable. When the explanatory variable’s consistency is greater than 0.9, it is 

considered a necessary condition for the outcome variable. After determining the con-

sistency of the results, the coverage indicator is used to determine the degree of expla-

nation for a combination of causal factors (Gao et al., 2018). 

Selection and Treatment of Variables 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1362 

Academic achievement is influenced by a variety of factors. Based on the analysis of 

the existing literature and sample, this study selects five condition variables, or inde-

pendent variables, among which class teachers’ leadership behavior is the most im-

portant. The four demographic characteristic variables are class teachers’ gender, sub-

ject, length of service, and marital status. The average of each class’s scores is used as 

the outcome variable, or dependent variable. 

We collect data on the independent variables via questionnaires and in-depth 

interviews. The application of Wu’s TLBQ yields data on the leadership behavior of 24 

class teachers in grade seven at H middle school (Table 1), indicating that all of them 

practice democratic leadership, albeit at varying levels of proficiency. This is a com-

pletely unexpected result that has never been observed in any of our previous studies. In 

class, we always encountered a certain number of teachers exhibiting autocratic leader-

ship behavior in the schools we investigated previously. Autocratic leadership is even 

prevalent among class teachers in some schools. According to our interviews, the ma-

jority of the 24 class teachers at H Middle School is relatively young and has enjoyed 

harmonious relationships with their students. As a result, we assume that democratic 

leadership behavior on the part of class teachers results in fruitful teacher-student rela-

tionships. Additionally, prior research indicates that harmonious teacher-student rela-

tionships are critical for increasing student academic achievement (Zhou, Gu, & Yao, 

2018). Given this, we propose another hypothesis: that class management under demo-

cratic leadership contributes to H Middle School’s position as the district’s top per-

former in terms of student academic achievement. 

The A-E difference refers to the score difference between the actual and ex-

pected values for each category of class teacher leadership behavior in Table 1. A posi-

tive A-E difference indicates that the class teacher’s actual leadership behavior exceeds 

students’ expectations in this category, whereas a negative A-E difference indicates that 

the class teacher’s actual leadership behavior falls short of students’ expectations. Inter-

estingly, despite the fact that all 24 class teachers receive the highest score for demo-

cratic leadership behavior, the majority of classes report a negative A-E difference for 

this category, indicating that despite democratic leadership behavior’s predominance in 

class management in grade seven, it has fallen short of students’ expectations. Students 

anticipate that their teachers will conduct class management in a more democratic man-

ner. 

Variables are coded as shown in Table 2 for ease of expression in the follow-

ing discussion. 

Empirical Analysis and Discussion 

Calibration of Variables 

Calibration of variables is a critical step in qualitative comparative analysis, but is not 

required in regression analysis. Calibration of continuous variables is carried out in 

fsQCA in order to convert them to membership scores between 0 and 1 (Pan, 2018). 

Calibration anchors should be chosen with regard to the study’s theoretical principles 

and sample data distribution. Typically, the 10% quantile, 20% quantile, and upper 

quantile serve as candidates for the first anchor, the mean and median values serve as 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1363 

Table 1. The results of Class Teacher Leadership Behavior Questionnaire. 

Class Types of Value Autocratic Laissez-Faire Demo-Cratic 

1 Actual value  412 149 783 

Expectation value 326 208 821 

A-E difference 86 -59 -38 

2 Actual value 289 53 692 

Expectation value 227 90 727 

A-E difference 62 -37 -35 

3 Actual value 404 83 768 

Expectation value 240 168 843 

A-E difference 164 -85 -75 

4 Actual value 500 87 737 

Expectation value 297 192 860 

A-E difference 203 -105 -123 

5 Actual value 310 85 616 

Expectation value 240 185 742 

A-E difference 70 -100 -126 

6 Actual value 481 201 865 

Expectation value 405 306 890 

A-E difference 76 -105 -25 

7 Actual value 375 115 914 

Expectation value 330 135 904 

A-E difference 45 -20 10 

8 Actual value 433 126 972 

Expectation value 342 199 1004 

A-E difference 91 -73 -32 

9 Actual value 529 230 799 

Expectation value 429 258 851 

A-E difference 100 -28 -52 

10 Actual value 598 90 758 

Expectation value 291 202 986 

A-E difference 307 -112 -228 

11 Actual value 640 83 711 

Expectation value 335 191 972 

A-E difference 305 -108 -261 

12 Actual value 519 125 905 

Expectation value 348 174 997 

A-E difference 171 -49 -92 

13 Actual value 366 92 902 

Expectation value 298 129 934 

A-E difference 68 -37 -32 

14 Actual value 436 120 869 

Expectation value 253 171 1027 

A-E difference 183 -51 -158 

15 Actual value 335 75 875 

Expectation value 255 147 914 

A-E difference 80 -72 -39 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1364 

16 Actual value 429 239 857 

Expectation value 361 280 838 

A-E difference 68 -41 19 

17 Actual value 444 93 838 

Expectation value 248 165 901 

A-E difference 196 -72 -63 

18 Actual value 431 85 984 

Expectation value 355 144 1004 

A-E difference 76 -59 -20 

19 Actual value 518 97 916 

Expectation value 340 200 961 

A-E difference 178 -103 -45 

20 Actual value 365 103 990 

Expectation value 291 139 984 

A-E difference 74 -36 6 

21 Actual value 378 110 903 

Expectation value 306 166 926 

A-E difference 72 -56 -23 

22 Actual value 351 137 892 

Expectation value 313 189 919 

A-E difference 38 -52 -27 

23 Actual value 519 157 657 

Expectation value 281 225 893 

A-E difference 238 -68 -236 

24 Actual value 457 140 657 

Expectation value 349 181 824 

A-E difference 108 -41 21 

 

 

 

 

Table 2. Variable Coding and Descriptions. 

Types of 

Variables 
Variables Variable Codes Meaning And Descriptions 

Condition 

Variables 

Leadership behavior DEMOCRACY Level of democracy (low,medium, high) 

Gender  GENDER male/female  

Subject SUBJECT Key subject/non-key subject 

Length of teaching Length Length of teaching (short, medium, high) 

Marital status MARRIAGE Married/unmarried 

Outcome 

Variable 
Average scores of each class SCORE Average scores (low, medium, high) 

 

 

 

 

 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1365 

Table 3. Quantile Analysis of Continuous Variables. 

 Average Scores Levels of Democracy Length of Teaching 

N 
Valid  24 24 24 

Missing  0 0 0 

Mean values 556.83 0.60 2.38 

Median values 559.95 0.60 1.00 

Percentiles  

10 541.15 0.55 1.00 

20 551.20 0.58 1.00 

25 552.20 0.59 1.00 

30 553.90 0.59 1.00 

50 559.95 0.60 1.00 

70 562.30 0.61 2.50 

75 563.08 0.61 3.00 

80 563.50 0.61 4.00 

90 566.35 0.62 6.00 

Data source: Output results by software SPSS. 

 

 

 

 

Table 4. Calibration Anchors for All Variables. 

Variable Types Variables 

Anchors 

Full Non-membership Median Point Full Membership 

Condition variables DEMOCRACY 0.5 0.60 0.62 

GENDER 0.00  1.00 

SUBJECT 0.00  1.00 

LENGTH 1.00 2.38 6.00 

MARRIAGE 0.00  1.00 

Outcome variable SCORE 541.15 556.83 566.35 

Data source: Analysis results by software SPSS. 

 

 

 

 

candidates for the second anchor, and the 90% quantile, 80% quantile, and lower 

quantile serve as candidates for the third anchor (Ragin, 2014). Table 3 illustrates the 

quantiles of variables in the current study. 

Based on the characteristics of the sample data distribution in this study, we 

chose the 10% quantile, the mean, and the 90% quantile as the first, second, and third 

anchors, respectively. The calibration anchors for each variable are illustrated in Table 

4. 

Except for the three dichotomous variables (GENDER, SUBJECT, and MAR-

RIAGE), the other three raw variables (DEMOCRACY, LENGTH, and SCORE) must 

be calibrated and converted to membership scores in the range of 0 to 1. Democracyfz, 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1366 

lengthfz, and scorefz are the regenerated codes that represent them. The following are 

the calibration formulas for the three variables: 

 

(1) democracyfz = calibrate (DEMORACY, 0.549792, 0.595870, 0.619352) 

(2) lengthfz = calibrate (LENGTH, 1, 2.38, 6) 

(3) scorefz = calibrate (SCORE, 541.150, 556.825, 566.350) 

 

Following calibration, all variables are represented by membership scores rang-

ing from 0 to 1, as illustrated in Table 5. 

Truth Tables 

Ragin suggests that a consistency threshold of 0.75 is the “minimum requirement” for 

admission, 0.8 is “acceptable,” and 0.85 is “very acceptable” (Ragin, 2005). We define 

the consistency threshold as 0.8 and the frequency threshold as 1, after consulting 

Ragin’s research and examining the distribution characteristics of the sample cases in-

cluded in this study (Du, 2017). When a case meets the consistency threshold of greater 

than 0.8, the outcome variable “average score” is coded as 1 (scorefz = 1). Otherwise, it 

is represented by the value 0 (scorefz = 0). “Scorefz = 1” indicates academic perfor-

mance improvement; “Scorefz = 0” indicates academic performance decline. The distri-

bution of truth tables for improved and degraded academic performance is shown in 

Tables 6 and 7. 

Analytical Results 

Empirical analysis using fsQCA generates three types of solutions: complex, intermedi-

ate, and parsimonious. In a complex solution, configurations do not undergo simplifica-

tion, resulting in the greatest number of factor combinations. When a complex solution 

is incorporated into the path analysis process, the results become extremely intricate. In 

comparison, the process of simplification inherent in the parsimonious solution tends to 

include all logical remainders without evaluating their validity, resulting in a simplified 

solution that is likely to be inconsistent with theories or actualities; another conse-

quence is that it may eliminate numerous indispensable and necessary conditions. 

Whereas the intermediate solution, based on the researcher’s theoretical and practical 

knowledge, will incorporate the relevant logical remainder into the results. In compari-

son to complex and parsimonious solutions, the intermediate solution has a significant 

advantage in that it prevents the elimination of necessary conditions, that is, any super-

set integral to the result and relevant necessary conditions (Du, 2017). fsQCA 3.0, de-

signed by Ragin et al., was used to process the data in this article. Tables 8 and 9 illus-

trate the intermediate solutions to the empirical analysis of improved and degraded stu-

dent academic achievement. 

According to Table 8, teachers can positively influence student academic 

achievement via three distinct pathways, with an overall consistency of 0.89. The first 

configuration (~lengthfz * MARRIAGE * SUBJECT) indicates that a married class 

teacher in charge of a key subject (in the context of China’s basic education, dominant 

subjects such as mathematics, Chinese, English, physics, and chemistry are referred to 

as “key subjects,” while others are referred to as “non-key subjects”) and with a short 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1367 

Table 5. Membership Scores of the Set after Variable Calibration. 

Classes  
Average 
Scores 

Levels of 
Democracy Gender  Subjects  

Lengths of 
Teaching 

Marital 
Status 

CASEID scorefz democracyfz GENDER SUBJECT lengthfz MARRIAGE 

Class1 0.81 0.38 0.00 1.00 0.30 0.00 

Class2 0.96 0.47 0.00 1.00 0.05 0.00 

Class3 0.87 0.91 0.00 1.00 0.30 1.00 

Class4 0.77 0.72 1.00 0.00 0.79 1.00 

Class5 0.68 0.69 1.00 1.00 0.79 1.00 

Class6 0.89 0.63 0.00 1.00 0.05 0.00 

Class7 0.44 0.79 1.00 0.00 0.99 1.00 

Class8 0.50 0.89 0.00 1.00 0.05 0.00 

Class9 0.88 0.95 0.00 0.00 0.63 0.00 

Class10 0.35 0.95 0.00 1.00 0.63 0.00 

Class11 0.82 0.96 1.00 1.00 0.05 1.00 

Class12 0.98 0.94 0.00 1.00 0.05 0.00 

Class13 0.78 0.90 0.00 1.00 0.05 0.00 

Class14 0.64 0.79 0.00 1.00 0.05 1.00 

Class15 0.13 0.64 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 

Class16 0.12 0.53 1.00 0.00 0.79 1.00 

Class17 0.01 0.73 0.00 1.00 0.05 0.00 

Class18 0.37 0.53 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 

Class19 0.02 0.45 0.00 1.00 0.05 0.00 

Class20 0.77 0.27 1.00 1.00 0.05 1.00 

Class21 0.95 0.22 0.00 1.00 0.05 1.00 

Class22 0.93 0.05 0.00 1.00 0.05 0.00 

Class23 0.27 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 

Class24 0.25 0.02 1.00 0.00 0.30 0.00 

Data source: Results processed by software fsQCA. 

 

 

 

 

Table 6. The Truth Table for Improved Academic Results When Scorefz = 1. 

Ideal 
Cases 

Level of 
Democracy 

Length of 
Teaching 

Marital 
Status Subject Gender 

Number of Cases 
with Membership 
Score > 0.5 

Con-
sistency 

Class 9 1 1 0 0 0 1 1.00 

Class 21 0 0 1 1 0 1 1.00 

Class 20 0 0 1 1 1 1 1.00 

Class 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.99 

Class 3 
& 14 

1 0 1 1 0 2 0.91 

Class 11 1 0 1 1 1 1 0.91 

Data source: Results processed by software fsQCA. 

 

 

 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1368 

Table 7. The Truth Table for Degraded Academic Results When Scorefz = 0. 

Ideal 
Cases 

Level of 
Democracy 

Length of 
Teaching 

Marital 
Status Subject Gender 

Number of Cases 
with Membership 
Score > 0.5 

Con-
sisten
cy 

Class 
1, 2, 
19, & 
22 

0 0 0 1 0 4 0.78 

Class 
10 

1 0 0 1 0 1 0.74 

Class 
6, 8, 
12,13 & 
17 

1 0 0 1 0 5 0.71 

Class 
4, 7,  
16, & 
18 

1 1 1 0 1 4 0.64 

Class 
15 

1 0 0 0 0 1 0.51 

Class 
24 

0 0 0 0 1 1 0.36 

Class 
23 

0 0 0 0 0 1 0.33 

Data source: Results processed by software fsQCA. 

 

 

 

Table 8. Empirical Analysis of Improved Student Academic Achievement 
When Scorefz = 1. 

Configuration Raw Coverage Unique Coverage Consistency 

~lengthfz*MARRIAGE*SUBJECT 0.29 0.20 0.87 

democracyfz*lengthfz* 
~MARRIAGE*~SUBJECT*~GENDER 

0.05 0.05 1.00 

democracyfz*MARRIAGE*SUBJECT*GENDER 0.12 0.03 0.92 

Solution Coverage: 0.37 

Solution Consistency: 0.89 

Data source: Results processed by software fsQCA. 

 

 

 

Table 9. Empirical Analysis of Degraded Student Academic Achievement 
When Scorefz = 0. 

Configuration Raw Coverage Unique Coverage Consistency 

~lengthfz*~MARRIAGE*~GENDER 0.48 0.16 0.67 

~democracyfz*~lengthfz*~MARRIAGE*~SUBJECT 0.05 0.02 0.34 

democracyfz*lengthfz*MARRIAGE*GENDER 0.29 0.00 0.64 

democracyfz*lengthfz*MARRIAGE* 
~SUBJECT*GENDER 

0.12 0.12 0.64 

Solution Coverage:0.62 

Solution Consistency: 0.59 

Data source: Results processed by software fsQCA. 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1369 

tenure is beneficial for improving student academic performance. The second configu-

ration (democracyfz * lengthfz * ~MARRIAGE * ~SUBJECT * ~GENDER) implies 

that an unmarried female class teacher who has taught a non-core subject for many 

years and possesses supreme democratic leadership capability can help raise student 

academic achievement. Configuration three (democracyfz * MARRIAGE * SUBJECT 

* GENDER) demonstrates that a married male class teacher in charge of a critical sub-

ject and possessing a high capacity for democratic leadership has a beneficial effect on 

student academic attainment. 

As per Table 9, teachers can have a negative effect on students’ academic 

achievement in four ways, with an overall consistency of 0.59. The first configuration 

(~lengthfz * ~MARRIAGE * ~GENDER) indicates that an unmarried female class 

teacher with a short tenure has a detrimental effect on student academic performance. 

Configuration two (~democracyfz * ~lengthfz * ~MARRIAGE * ~SUBJECT) indicates 

that an unmarried class teacher with a low capacity for democratic leadership, a short 

tenure, and responsibility for a non-core subject can have a detrimental effect on student 

academic achievement. Configuration three (democracyfz * lengthfz * MARRIAGE * 

GENDER) implies that a married male class teacher with a high capacity for democratic 

leadership and oversight of a critical subject may be detrimental to student academic 

achievement. Configuration four (democracyfz * lengthfz * MARRIAGE * ~SUBJECT 

* GENDER) suggests that a married male class teacher with a strong capacity for dem-

ocratic leadership and extensive experience teaching a non-core subject may have a 

negative impact on student academic achievement. 

Discussions 

The empirical findings in Tables 8 and 9 indicate that seven distinct combinations of 

factors are associated with student academic performance. We discover that the variable 

“democracy level” is included in every combination, regardless of whether it is associ-

ated with increased or decreased academic achievement. As a result, we can conclude 

that the influence of classroom teachers’ democratic leadership behavior on student ac-

ademic performance is contingent upon additional factors. It varies depending on the 

unique combination of conditions. 

In terms of other variables, the marital status and length of service of class 

teachers have a significant effect on student academic performance. Unmarried class 

teachers with relatively short tenures exhibit insufficient maturity and consistency in 

their leadership behavior. As a result, they are unable to communicate with students as 

effectively as married class teachers with extensive teaching experience. This may have 

a detrimental effect on students’ academic performance. Additionally, different combi-

nations of gender and leadership behavior have varying effects on student academic 

performance. Related configurations indicate that female class teachers with a high ca-

pacity for democratic leadership have a greater positive effect on student academic per-

formance than their male counterparts, which may be explained by gender characteris-

tics such as caution and rigor. 

fsQCA is the primary methodology used in this study. It circumvents the sam-

ple size constraints inherent in quantitative and qualitative analysis and compensates for 

the shortcomings of traditional causality analysis. In traditional qualitative research, 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1370 

findings are derived solely from questionnaires and superficial interviews conducted 

following observations and are almost certainly influenced by the researchers’ subjec-

tivity, making it difficult to conduct in-depth analysis of the issue’s inherent mecha-

nisms. On the other hand, in QCA, sample selection is more flexible in response to the 

uniqueness of the cases, and scientific deduction can also be used to ensure the objectiv-

ity and robustness of the conclusions. In comparison to Statistical Product and Service 

Solutions (SPSS) as a quantitative analysis tool, QCA can enquire more objectively and 

comprehensively into the complexity of causal relationships, thereby ensuring the valid-

ity of investigation results. 

Moreover, we would like to point out a weakness in our study, namely the rela-

tively low consistency in our empirical analysis of degraded student academic achieve-

ment, which impairs the validity and robustness of our conclusion in this area. We in-

tend to expand our research on this aspect of the subject in the future in order to provide 

school administrators with additional resources for selecting appropriate class teachers. 

Conclusions and Suggestions 

Conclusions 

The following major conclusions are drawn as a result of sample and data collection: 

variable selection and calibration; the creation of truth tables; and empirical analysis of 

the results. 

1. Democratic teacher leadership is a successful and popular mode of classroom 

management. The results of the questionnaire and subsequent analysis indicate that 

democratic leadership behavior ranks highest, while laissez-faire teacher leader-

ship ranks lowest. The majority of students at H Middle School anticipate their 

class teachers exercising democratic leadership. In regular class management, 

teachers here use a democratic leadership style to interact with students and allow 

students to exercise discretion, which helps develop students’ ability to learn inde-

pendently and self-directedly. Democratic leadership behavior on the part of class-

room teachers has been shown to be an effective means of fostering an excellent 

school and class climate and increasing students’ self-motivation to learn. 

2. Overall, class instructors with insufficient service time are detrimental to student 

academic performance. However, when key-subject teachers serve as class teach-

ers concurrently, the element of service time has little effect on student academic 

performance. According to research on classroom teacher development, classroom 

teachers often go through stages of adaptation, exploration, creation, and sustained 

development during their careers (Qi, 2013). When young class teachers are still in 

the discovery period, their leadership conduct is insufficiently consistent to have a 

good effect on student academic performance. Additionally, we discover dispari-

ties in the focus of work and expectations for students between key-subject instruc-

tors and non-key-subject teachers through interviews with class teachers. The for-

mer places a higher premium on classroom discipline and academic accomplish-

ment, whereas the latter places a higher premium on students’ mental and physical 

wellness. This may account for why key-subject teachers can have a greater impact 

on students’ academic progress. 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1371 

3. Except for male teachers with extended tenures, only class teachers with a high 

level of democracy can contribute positively to student academic performance. 

Teachers with a high level of democracy are more willing to disrupt the typical 

teacher-dominated classroom structure and urge pupils to participate more actively 

in classroom activities. They are frequently excellent listeners and cultivators of 

optimal teacher-student connections, which are crucial for improving student aca-

demic success (Ning, 2016). Additionally, our findings indicate that classes taught 

by female teachers have higher average test scores than classes taught by male 

teachers. This could be because female instructors are better at managing the de-

gree of democracy and being more severe with pupils when necessary, whereas 

male instructors tend to allow themselves too much leeway when exercising demo-

cratic leadership. This explains why a high degree of democracy in class manage-

ment by male teachers with long tenure is detrimental to student academic perfor-

mance advancement. 

4. The effect of marital status and gender on academic achievement varies according 

to how they interact with other factors. In general, married female teachers can 

have a greater impact on students’ academic performance. 

Suggestions 

Based on the multifactor combinations identified through empirical analysis and the 

difficulties expressed during interviews, this paper makes numerous recommendations 

for maximizing the influence of class teacher leadership behavior in enhancing student 

academic achievement. 

1 It is strongly suggested that experienced teachers be appointed as class teachers. 

Class teachers with extensive teaching experience are capable of managing demo-

cratic leadership effectively in order to optimize class management and so contrib-

ute to the improvement of student school results. 

2 A mentoring program or a pattern of double-class teachers might be created to as-

sist those new and inexperienced class teachers in swiftly growing. Not only does 

the mentorship program or double class teacher pattern relieve class teachers of 

their responsibilities, but it also provides students with appropriate support to im-

prove their academic level. 

3 To promote teacher-student interactions, democratic class teacher leadership 

should be strongly fostered in schools. According to a previous study, democratic 

and fair-minded teachers are capable of persuading pupils to exert greater effort in 

their learning and achieve greater success (Pekrun, 2009). Democratic teacher 

leadership conduct may completely activate students’ initiative in learning and aid 

in their development of self-efficacy and self-esteem, equipping them with the 

bravery to confront problems in learning and the capacity to achieve continuous 

academic progress. 

 

 

 

 

 



Zhao & Zhang. Class Teachers’ Leadership Behavior and Student Academic Performance. 

BECE, Vol.10, No. 2, 2022 1372 

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quality in Jiangsu Province. School Admin- istration, 336 (11):41-45. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Received: 30 January 2022 

Revised: 16 February 2022 

Accepted: 10 March 2022 

 

 

 

 

 


	OriginalArticle-HongyanZhao-BECE_Title_Mar2022
	OriginalArticle-HongyanZhao--BECE_MaintextMar2022

