Impact of Pet Companionship on Student Development: A Meta-Analysis Peixuan Li, Jijun Yao, Yifan Xu, Fangru Zhou Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210024, China Abstract: Animal companionship has been found to have a positive influence on human well-being, and the presence of pets can have a subtle yet significant impact on the healthy development of students. Pet companionship takes various forms across different fields in China and other regions worldwide, and the impact of such companionship remains uncertain. Hence, it is imperative to investigate the impact of diverse forms of companionship and animals on multiple facets of student growth and development. This study employed meta-analysis methodologies to examine 47 effect sizes derived from 12 domestic and international studies on pet companionship. The aim was to investigate the overall trends of the influence of pet companionship on student development as well as the effects of diverse types of companionship and pets on different aspects of student development, including physical and mental health, social-emotional abilities, and academic performance. The objective was to enhance the exploration of approaches for maximizing the utilization of various forms of pet companionship. Furthermore, this research suggests a systematic and incremental approach to enhancing the function of pets within households, educational institutions, and medical facilities. Adequate content and organization are essential for scientific advancement and the development of students. In this particular context, it is possible to optimize the impact of pet companionship on the development of students. Best Evidence in Chinese Education 2023; 14(1):1727-1743. Doi: 10.15354/bece.23.or077 How to Cite: Li, P., Yao, J., Xu, Y., & Zhou, F. (2023). Impact of pet companionship on student development: A meta-analysis. Best Evidence in Chinese Education, 14(1):1727-1743. Keywords: Pet Companionship, Student Development, Meta-Analysis Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No.1, 2023 1728 About the Authors: Peixuan Li, School of Educational Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210024, China. E-mail: pxli_edu@163.com Yifan Xu, School of Educational Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210024, China. E-mail: nnu_xuyifan@163.com Fangru Zhou, School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210024, China. E-mail: frzhou_psy@163.com Correspondence to: Jijun Yao, School of Educational Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210024, China. E-mail: yaojijun_njnu@163.com Finding: Undergraduate Talent Training Program of Nanjing Normal University, College Students’ Innovation and Entrepreneurship Competition of Jiangsu Province. Conflict of Interests: None. © 2023 Insights Publisher. All rights reserved. Creative Commons Non Commercial CC BY-NC: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed by the Insights Publisher. mailto:pxli_edu@163.com mailto:nnu_xuyifan@163.com mailto:frzhou_psy@163.com mailto:yaojijun_njnu@163.com http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1729 Introduction ETS serve as companions to children in various ways, including by providing constant companionship at home, participating in animal-assisted classes at school, and engaging in animal-assisted therapy. They are valuable friends for students. However, there are certain opinions that challenge the efficacy of pet compan- ionship. Parents express concerns that the act of raising pets may have adverse effects on the physical well-being and socio-emotional growth of students, ultimately impeding their overall healthy development. Furthermore, the adoption of pet companionship is confronted with various uncertainties and hazards, including but not limited to the po- tential harm that pets’ self-defense mechanisms may pose to infants and young children, gender-based discrepancies in attitudes towards pets among male and female students (Bosacki & Tardif-Williams, 2019), and the adverse impact that inadequate pet raising and care by families may have on student growth and development. Given the ambigui- ty surrounding the effects of pet companionship on student development, parents and society require empirical data to address inquiries pertaining to the potential benefits of pet companionship on student development, as well as the optimal type of pet compan- ionship that may promote students’ holistic growth, in order to facilitate informed deci- sion-making. This study employs a meta-analysis methodology to investigate the influ- ence of pet companionship on student development, drawing on both domestic and in- ternational research on the subject. The study aims to examine the effects of various types of companionship and provide insights into the role of pet companionship in pro- moting healthy development among students in family, school, and medical contexts. Literature Review Definitions of Core Concepts Pet Companionship The teenage period is a crucial life stage that has the potential to positively impact an individual’s lifelong physical health, learning behavior, and emotional well-being. Ad- ditionally, pets can play an important role in adolescents’ learning, therapies, families, and overall quality of life. Studies on the subject of pet companionship have been carried out in multiple countries, focusing mostly on three areas. The first is having pets in daily life. Accord- ing to statistics, at least one pet is owned by 68% of US families (American Pet Prod- ucts Association, 2016) and 46% of UK families (Pet Food Manufacturers Association, 2016). According to epidemiological studies, families with children are more likely than other types of households to own pets (Westgarth et al., 2010; Melson, 2003). Since most students spend their time at home, companion animals play a significant role in daily human interaction. The second is animal-assisted therapy, which dates back to the founding of the Quaker Rehabilitation Center in the UK in 1792, where patients might P Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1730 feel joy and responsibility through the employment of animals in treatment plans (Boris & Gerald, 1997). Animals act as co-therapists in animal-assisted therapy, collaborating with medical professionals to establish a secure therapeutic environment that treats hos- pitalized children with serious illnesses by lowering their anxiety (Lang et al., 2010). The third is bringing dogs into the classroom. Human-animal interaction (HAI) social support theory contends that pets can be a source of comfort and safety for students, acting as transitional objects to ease pain and problematic behaviors (Peter et al., 2002; Triebenbacher, 1998). Students’ stressful experiences at school can result in maladap- tive behaviors in their homes and social lives. Students may benefit from the motivation and education that come from having animals in the classroom. In contrast to other nations, pet companionship has recently gained popularity in China. People’s spiritual and material worlds have increasingly become richer as China’s economic development and urbanization intensify. Pets are deeply involved in different parts of students’ lives in such a setting. According to Huang Qin, young stu- dents’ attachment to dogs can help them cope with loneliness (Huang, 2009). Mean- while, Wang Jiaojiao and her colleagues work on dog-assisted intervention in reading for special education children, employing methodologies like one-on-one reading and dialogue-based reading (Wang et al., 2020). However, there is still a scarcity of research in this sector in China, and some parents fear that having a pet interferes with their child’s growth. The present study delineates the notion of pet companionship as a tripartite construct encompassing the following components: cohabitation in daily routines, ani- mal-assisted therapy, and academic accompaniment. The assessment of students’ social adaptation, physical health, and learning ability constitutes the measurement of these three distinct dimensions. Student Development In Mingyuan Gu’s (1998) Education Dictionary, “development” is defined as a persis- tent and irreversible change in cognition, personality, physical condition, and socializa- tion that occurs over the course of an individual’s entire existence. In the context of education, student development theory is an extension of human development theory. Education, whose primary purpose is to cultivate individuals, encompasses a variety of activities that contribute to the formation and development of knowledge, abilities, physical and mental health, and ideological and moral qualities. The level of a student’s physical and mental health is the basis of their devel- opment. Individuals who are physically and mentally healthy actively experience posi- tive emotions such as happiness, have excellent social adaptability, and are able to real- ize their full potential. They are vital and capable of contributing to society (Liu, 2001). Studies have indicated that in certain nations and regions, the development of comprehensive abilities has consistently placed emphasis on knowledge acquisition as a key priority and a fundamental criterion for talent quality. In light of societal progress and its consequent transformations, it is insufficient to depend solely on the cognitive capacities of individuals to fulfill their developmental requisites (Wang & Tan, 1998). Within this particular context, social-emotional competencies have garnered significant attention from the general public and have emerged as a central and focal point for de- Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1731 veloping talent in the 21st century. Social-emotional skills pertain to the intrinsic attrib- utes of individuals that are indicative of their personality traits. In contrast to academic achievement, there is a lack of consensus on the definition of social-emotional compe- tencies. The framework for social-emotional skills developed by the OECD is the most commonly employed among the diverse definitions available. The framework is found- ed upon the Big Five personality traits, encompassing five distinct dimensions, namely task performance, emotional regulation, collaboration, open-mindedness, and interac- tions with others. The aforementioned domains provide a systematic summary of the trajectory of non-cognitive skill development in students. In China, there was a time when academic performance was the primary meas- ure of student development, and the concept of holistic student development was not given much consideration. This lack of understanding at the practical level of education has led to intense competition, which is not conducive to the establishment of a positive educational environment. The demand for the incorporation of non-cognitive factors and the advancement of holistic student development has been on the rise. In light of this context, the Chinese government has released a series of official papers aimed at advancing the reform of enhancing the comprehensive competencies of students. In 2021, a set of guidelines was implemented to alleviate the onerous workload of compul- sory education students, including the Double Reduction Policy, with the aim of miti- gating the burden on students and fostering their holistic growth. This study categorizes student development into the growth of cognitive and non-cognitive abilities based on physical and mental health, depending on the afore- mentioned analyses. Non-cognitive abilities are assessed using the OECD framework of social-emotional skills, which includes self-control, emotional control, sociability, self- efficacy, and other abilities in social-emotional domains. Cognitive abilities are as- sessed by students’ learning capacity and academic performance. The Impact of Pet Companionship on Student Devel- opment The impact of pet companionship on student development has been extensively re- searched, yielding varying conclusions. On the bright side, there are studies that show how having a pet can positively impact student development. Interacting with animals in settings like home, school, or hospital can have a positive impact on students’ emotional regulation, empathy, and stress relief, according to research by Anderson et al. (2006), Chubak et al. (2017), and Paul & Serpell (1996). It’s great to see that animal-assisted education has become in- creasingly popular in recent years. This approach has been shown to have many positive effects on students, including the development of empathy, stress reduction, positive emotional development, stronger classroom cohesion, increased pro-social behavior, and fostering better attitudes toward learning (Brelsford et al., 2017; Nancy et al., 2017). This is a promising trend that can benefit students in many ways. It’s great to know that early pet ownership can potentially reduce the risk of allergies and asthma in students, according to studies. It’s great to know that exposure to pets in the first year of life can lower the risk of allergic rhinitis at age 7-9 and asthma at age 12–13 (Hesselmar, 1999). Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1732 In hospital settings, the presence of animals can help alleviate pain during medical pro- cedures and make hospitalization easier for pediatric patients (Hoffmann et al., 2009). Conversely, alternative evidence suggests that the companionship of pets may not be advantageous or may even have adverse effects on the growth and progress of students. Salo et al. (2004) conducted research on Chinese adolescents and revealed a higher incidence of persistent coughing in households that owned cats and dogs, partic- ularly among children under the age of six. A study conducted on Bulgarian students aged 2–8 years revealed a favorable association between the existence of cats or dogs in their households during birth and their present-day susceptibility to asthma, rhinitis, and eczema, as reported by Naydenov et al. (2008). Pets have the potential to elevate the concentration of airborne allergens, thereby amplifying the susceptibility to allergic respiratory ailments such as asthma. Therefore, it can be argued that the effects of pet companionship on student de- velopment are ambiguous. This uncertainty is largely attributable to multiple factors. In other words, other factors moderate the effect of pet companionship on student devel- opment. Based on this, this study used CMA 3.0 to conduct a comprehensive meta- analysis of domestic and international studies on pet companionship and student devel- opment in order to identify the general patterns of the effect of pet companionship on students’ physical and mental development. Research Process Literature Retrieval Meta-analysis is a secondary analysis that re-analyses the findings by incorporating data from the extant literature (Zeng & Yao, 2020). The following keywords are crucial to the literature search: “pet raising,” “stu- dent development,” “physical health,” “mental health,” “higher order thinking skills,” “social emotion,” “animal assisted therapy,” “school,” and “study” on various databases like the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), the Web of Science, SpringerLink, and Google Scholar. After retrieving 7,127 pertinent studies, 12 were ultimately added to produce 47 effect sizes (Figure 1). Literature Inclusion Criteria Meta-analyses require consistent inclusion criteria to retrieve and screen studies related to a particular topic and then to construct a literature pool that satisfies the requirements of the research topic and meta-analysis in order to support subsequent research. In order to better select relevant literature for this study, it was necessary to first define pet com- panionship and the research topic. This study defines pet companionship as activities in which pets accompany humans, such as the raising of pets at home, the incorporation of pets in the classroom, and animal-assisted therapy. The focus of this study is the influ- ence of pet companionship on student development, and the intervention is whether or not pet companionship will be utilized. The target audience consists of students younger than 18 years of age. On this basis, the following inclusion criteria were developed: Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1733 Figure 1. Literature Screening Process. definition of pet companionship, research topic, research subjects, literature characteris- tics, and statistical requirements for the meta-analysis. i. The study’s intervention measures are pet companionship or animal-assisted thera- py, and the target population is students under the age of 18. ii. The research findings should pertain to student development, including aspects such as academic achievement, physical and mental health treatment, motor skills, and the enhancement of social and emotional skills. iii. For the purpose of this study’s timeliness, the included studies must have been published between 2000 and 2021, regardless of form, in Chinese or English. iv. The design of the study should be experimental or quasi-experimental, with exper- imental and control groups. The sample size for large-scale survey reports should be greater than 250. v. The sample sizes of the experimental and control groups should be comparable to prevent biases resulting from a significant difference between the two categories of groups. vi. To calculate effect sizes, the study should provide information such as the mean, standard deviation, sample size, t-value, and p-value. vii. Pretest differences should not be excessively large, and the effect size d should not exceed 0.5. Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1734 Literature Coding As previously stated, a meta-analysis is a statistical technique that involves synthesizing an extensive body of literature, albeit with inherent heterogeneity across various studies. Consequently, it is imperative to encode the pertinent research for subsequent examina- tion, and the precise codes are explained as follows: i. Type of literature: Journals are coded as Q, whereas other types are coded as X. ii. Type of pet companionship: Home pet ownership is recorded as FAM, whereas an- imal-assisted therapy, animal-assisted education, multifaceted content, and unre- ported are coded as AAT, EDU, mix, and un, respectively. iii. Type of output: academic ability is coded as study, social skills are coded as social skill, physical health is coded as physical health, mental health is coded as mental health, and other elements are coded as other. iv. Type of companion animal: dogs are coded as dog, horses as horse, mixed animal species are coded as mix, and unreported animals are coded as un. v. Gender: Males are coded as M, females as F, males and females together are coded as mix, and those who were not reported are coded as un. vi. Students at risk: Students who have a low health level are coded as PD, those who have behavioral issues (such as truancy, violence, etc.) are coded as BD, those who have both of the aforementioned issues are coded as mix, and those who have not been reported are coded as un. vii. Length of research: Research that is not less than 12 weeks in length is coded as > 12, less than 12 weeks in length is coded as < 12, and not reported is coded as unre- ported. viii. Intervention intensity: low (≤ 30 minutes per week), medium (30-75 minutes per week), or high (> 75 minutes per week). According to the literature, the precise in- formation should be written down, and the unreported data is coded as unreported. ix. Age group: pre-adolescent years (6-12) are coded as preadolescence, adolescence (13–18) is coded as adolescence, and a combination of various stages is coded as mix, in accordance with the age distribution in established studies and the typical developmental model proposed by Broderick and Blewitt (2003). x. Sample size: Studies with sample sizes of less than 100, between 100 and 250, and greater than 250 are coded as < 100, 100-250, and > 250, respectively. Research Results and Analysis Heterogeneity Testing Although there is heterogeneity among different studies, a meta-analysis provides an opportunity to integrate a large body of literature and gain valuable insights. There are several effective methods for conducting heterogeneity tests, such as the Q statistic, H statistic, and I 2 values. This study successfully utilized the Q statistic and I 2 values to analyze the heterogeneity between the studies (Zeng & Yao, 2020). The Q statistic showed that there is some heterogeneity among the samples (Q = 80.563, p < 0.001), but the I 2 values indicate that it is only moderate (I 2 = 42.902). Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1735 Table 1. Margaret Coding Table. Litera- ture Companion- ship Type Doc Typ e Output Type Ani- mal Gen- der Age Sample Size Students in Crisis Pro- gram Length Interven- tion Intensity Amy, 2017a AAT Q Mental Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low Amy, 2017b AAT Q Mental Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low Amy, 2017c AAT Q Mental Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low Andrea, 2013b EDU Q Mental Dog Mix pre- adolescence <100 un >12 High Andrea, 2013c EDU Q Mental Dog Mix pre- adolescence <100 un >12 High Andrea, 2013d EDU Q Behav- ior Dog Mix pre- adolescence <100 un >12 High Andrea, 2013e EDU Q Behav- ior Dog Mix pre- adolescence <100 un >12 High Andrea, 2013f EDU Q Behav- ior Dog Mix pre- adolescence <100 un >12 High Andrea, 2013g EDU Q Mental Dog Mix pre- adolescence <100 un >12 High Anne, 2015 FAM Q Mental Dog Mix pre- adolescence >250 un un un Carie, 2009a AAT Q Physical Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low Carie, 2009b AAT Q Physical Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low Carie, 2009c AAT Q Physical Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low Carie, 2009d AAT Q Physical Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low Carie, 2009e AAT Q Physical Dog Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Low Cris- tiano, 2021 EDU Q Mental Dog Mix pre- adolescence <100 un <12 High Deborah, 2017 EDU Q Study Dog Mix pre- adolescence <100 un <12 Medium Davis, 2009a AAT Q Mental Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium Davis, 2009b AAT Q Mental Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium Davis, 2009c AAT Q Mental Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium Davis, 2009d AAT Q Mental Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium Davis, 2009e AAT Q Mental Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium Davis, 2009f AAT Q Mental Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium Davis, 2009g AAT Q Mental Horse Mix Mix <100 PD <12 Medium Edward, 2017a EDU Q Study Dog Mix pre- adolescence <100 un <12 Medium Edward, 2017b EDU Q Study Dog Mix pre- adolescence <100 un <12 Medium Edward, 2017c EDU Q Study Dog Mix pre- adolescence <100 un <12 Medium Edward, 2017d EDU Q Study Dog Mix pre- adolescence <100 un <12 Medium Chris- tian, 2012a FAM Q Physical Dog M pre- adolescence >250 un un un Chris- tian, 2012b FAM Q Physical Dog M pre- adolescence >250 un un un Chris- tian, 2012c FAM Q Physical Dog F pre- adolescence >250 un un un Chris- tian, 2012d FAM Q Physical Dog F pre- adolescence >250 un un un Chris- tian, 2012e FAM Q Behav- ior Dog M pre- adolescence >250 un un un Chris- tian, 2012f FAM Q Behav- ior Dog F pre- adolescence >250 un un un Chris- tian, 2012g FAM Q Behav- ior Dog M pre- adolescence >250 un un un Chris- tian, 2012h FAM Q Behav- ior Dog F pre- adolescence >250 un un un javascript:; javascript:; Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1736 Jessa, 2016a FAM Q Mental Dog Mix adolescence >250 un un un Jessa, 2016b FAM Q Mental Dog Mix adolescence >250 un un un Jessa, 2016c FAM Q Mental Dog Mix adolescence >250 un un un Julie, 2008a EDU Q Behav- ior Dog Mix pre- adolescence >250 BD <12 Middle Maria, 2016a AAT Q Mental Dog Mix Mix <100 mix >12 Low Maria, 2016c AAT Q Social Skill Dog Mix Mix <100 mix >12 Low Marta, 2017a FAM Q Mental Dog Mix adolescence >250 un un un Megan, 2021 FAM Q Mental Mix Mix Mix 100- 250 un un un Shu li, 2016a FAM Q Physical Mix Male Mix >250 un un un Shu li, 2016b FAM Q Physical Mix F Mix >250 un un un Table 2. Overall Effect Size and Heterogeneity Testing Results of the Impact of Pet Companionship on Students’ Development. K Q I² (%) ES 95%CI p-value Fixed-effect model 47 80.563 (p = 0.001) 42.902 0.222 0.189 0.256 0.000 Random-effect model 47 0.237 0.183 0.291 0.000 Analysis of the Effects of Pet Companionship on Stu- dent Development The heterogeneity test results revealed that the samples in this study had a modest amount of heterogeneity. Table 1 displays the results of the study using the fixed-effect model, with a combined effect size of 0.222 (p < 0.05), and Table 2 displays the results using the random-effect model, with a combined effect size of 0.237 (p < 0.05). Cohen defines small, medium, and high impact sizes, respectively, as 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8. There- fore, having a pet as company has a minor but distinctly positive effect on students’ growth. Analysis of the Moderating Effects As mentioned previously, the samples in this study were heterogeneous (Q = 80.563, p < 0.001), which may be closely related to the type of pet, the type of pet companionship, and the diverse backgrounds of the participants. In order to identify the origins of heter- ogeneity, it was necessary to assess the moderating effects in this study. Based on the results of the random-effect model analysis and the subgroup analysis, this study inves- tigated the origins of heterogeneity in pet companionship at both the individual and re- search project levels. Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1737 As previously stated, student growth is primarily represented in physical health, mental health, academic output, social-emotional abilities, and behavior. Table 3 shows the results of an in-depth analysis of the types and forms of student development out- puts undertaken in this study to investigate the unique effects of pet companionship on student development. Pet companionship has a significant favorable impact on academ- ic output (d = 0.098, p = 0.667), physical health (d = 0.199, p < 0.001), mental health (d = 0.259, p < 0.001), and behavioral performance (d = 0.244, p = 0.018), but the effect sizes are small. Pet companionship has a medium impact size and has a considerable beneficial influence on social-emotional skills (d = 0.595, p < 0.001). The findings indi- cate that pet companionship improves students’ academic achievement while also en- couraging physical and mental health as well as behavioral performance, and it plays an important role in strengthening students’ social-emotional abilities. Previous research has focused on the effects of pet companionship on students’ physical health rather than the development of social-emotional abilities, according to the current study. Some of the studies included in this investigation did not report potential influencing factors such as participants’ families’ economic situation and the gap between times of pet companionship, resulting in the loss of some sources of heterogeneity in this study. As indicated in Table 4, characteristics including participant gender, age, and physical and mental health may contribute to heterogeneity at the individual level. The beneficial effect on male participants among teenagers (d = 0.189, p < 0.001) is margin- ally bigger than that on female participants (d = 0.152, p < 0.001). Participants who are preadolescent (d = 0.280, p < 0.001) and adolescent (d = 0.205, p < 0.001) in age do not experience any negative effects from pet companionship. In particular, it has a modest effect on preschool participants and a large favorable effect with relatively moderate effect sizes on preadolescent and adolescent participants. The strongest effect of pet companionship is on elementary school kids (d = 0.399), with a small effect size in the preadolescent period, whereas the poorest effect is on secondary school students (d = 0.099). Regarding the hazards that teenagers face, pet companionship has a statistically significant favorable effect on students who are at health risk (d = 0.215, p < 0.001) and behavioral risk (d = 0.717, p < 0.001). Pet companionship also has a good impact on children who are at risk for both physical and mental health, with an effect size of 0.207. The effects on students with behavioral risk and mental health crises are medium. As demonstrated in Table 5, heterogeneity at the research project level may be related to elements like the kind of pet, the kind of pet partner, and the degree of the intervention. Horses, a common form of pet, have a beneficial impact on participants and have an effect size that is statistically significant (d = 0.344, p < 0.001), although dogs and other pets similarly significantly improve student development but with small- er effect sizes (d = 0.239, p < 0.001). Animal-assisted therapy, animal-assisted educa- tion, and pet companionship at home all had substantial benefits on various aspects of pet companionship; the corresponding effect sizes are 0.215, 0.385, and 0.202, with animal-assisted education surpassing the other two. Low-intensity interventions (d = 0.245, p = 0.005), medium-intensity interventions (d = 0.259, p < 0.001), and high- intensity interventions (d = 0.345, p < 0.001) all significantly affect student develop- ment, and the effect is stronger as the intensity rises. This study also examined the moderating effects of literature type, sample size, and the period of publication in order to further understand how the characteristics of Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1738 Table 3. Analysis of Heterogeneity of Student Development Output Types. K Q ES 95% CI p Type of output Physical 12 3.245 (p = 0.518) 0.199 0.143 0.256 0.000 Mental 21 0.259 0.186 0.332 0.000 Social skill 5 0.595 -0.038 1.228 0.000 Behavior 8 0.244 0.042 0.446 0.018 Study 5 0.098 -0.362 0.558 0.677 Table 4. Analysis of Heterogeneity at the Individual Level. K Q ES 95% CI p At-risk Students PD 15 35.766 (p < 0.001) 0.203 0.075 0.330 0.001 HD 1 0.717 0.555 0.880 0.000 Mix 3 0.319 -0.043 0.680 0.084 Un 28 0.207 0.159 0.246 0.000 Age Pre-adolescence 22 0.858 (p = 0.651) 0.262 0.153 0.371 0.000 Adolescence 5 0.205 0.145 0.266 0.000 Mix 20 0.208 0.139 0.277 0.000 Gender F 5 Q=9.828 (p = 0.007) 0.152 0.086 0.218 0.000 M 7 0.189 0.121 0.258 0.000 Mix 53 0.291 0.208 0.374 0.000 Table 5. Analysis of Heterogeneity at the Project Level. K Q ES 95% CI p Type of Pet Companionship AAT 18 3.021 (p = 0.221) 0.215 0.095 0.336 0.000 EDU 13 0.373 0.185 0.585 0.000 FAM 16 0.195 0.153 0.251 0.000 Pet Breeds Dog 37 0.276 (p = 0.871) 0.243 0.175 0.312 0.000 Horse 7 0.200 0.023 0.376 0.026 Mix 3 0.224 0.144 0.303 0.000 Intervention Intensity Low 10 1.844 (p = 0.605) 0.245 0.074 0.416 0.005 Middle 14 0.259 0.066 0.453 0.000 High 7 0.345 0.119 0.571 0.000 Un 16 0.202 0.153 0.251 0.000 Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1739 Table 6. Heterogeneity Analysis of Literature Characteristics and Study Char- acteristics. K Q ES 95% CI p Sample size <100 30 0.897 (p = 0.639) 0.243 0.142 0.344 0.000 100-250 1 0.341 0.131 0.551 0.001 >250 19 0.233 0.158 0.308 0.000 Figure 2. Funnel Plot of Standard Error by Std Diff in Means. the literature and studies may also be significant factors affecting heterogeneity. The outcomes are displayed in Table 6. Since all of the included studies were journal arti- cles, this study did not examine them. In terms of sample size, medium sample sizes (100-250 samples) have the largest effect sizes (d = 0.341), followed by small sample sizes (< 100 samples) (d = 0.243), and big sample sizes (> 250 samples) (d = 0.233). Both small and large sample sizes have non-significant effect sizes. Robustness Testing Publication Bias Publication bias indicates that the studies included in the meta-analysis are the result of journal selection, and this selective bias typically results in positive meta-analysis re- sults. Consequently, it is essential to evaluate the scientific validity of the results. This Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1740 study used funnel plots and Egger’s Regression coefficient to assess the results of a me- ta-analysis, as these are common methods for evaluating meta-analysis results. The fun- nel plot for this study is depicted in Figure 2, which is approximately symmetrical, and the effect sizes of the study samples are primarily concentrated in the middle and upper effective areas of the funnel plot. The Egger’s Regression coefficient indicates an insig- nificant Egger test result (t = 0.71642, p1 = 0.23872, p2 = 0.47744 > 0.01) and, conse- quently, a low probability of publication bias in this investigation. Sensitivity Analysis In this study, the fail-safe N was 1,463 (α = 0.05, p < 0.000), indicating that 2,622 addi- tional studies would be required to render the results non-significant or to refute the conclusions. As a result, the findings of the study were relatively robust. Discussion Throughout the course of human history, animals have served as valuable aides, confi- dants, and associates, with such companionship being prevalent across various global societies. Currently, cats and dogs have emerged as the most popular domesticated ani- mals. Several studies have indicated that the presence of pets can potentially augment the physical and psychological well-being of individuals, particularly adolescent stu- dents, and foster their social aptitude. However, a counterargument posits that pets may exacerbate the ailments of adolescent students. Hence, there is an exigent requirement for pertinent evidence to address the crucial inquiry of whether the companionship of pets fosters the physical and psychological growth of students. Furthermore, given the significance of pet companionship in facilitating school education and hospital treat- ment, it is imperative for educational institutions and healthcare facilities to compre- hend the specific attributes of pet companionship that can enhance the physical and mental growth of students. This understanding is crucial for the optimization of animal- assisted therapy and animal-assisted education. This study employed meta-analysis techniques to examine the impact of pet companionship interventions on the develop- ment of adolescent students. Specifically, the study analyzed 12 studies to identify gen- eral patterns and test the effectiveness of various types of pet companionship. The find- ings may contribute to the optimization of animal-assisted therapy, animal-assisted edu- cation, and pet companionship in domestic settings. The findings of this study suggest that the presence of pets has a noteworthy and favorable influence on the physical health (d = 0.199, p < 0.001), mental health (d = 0.259, p < 0.001), and social-emotional skills (d = 0.595, p < 0.001) of students. Fur- thermore, its positive impact on social-emotional skills surpasses that of physical and mental health. The study suggests that the effect on academic development is not statis- tically significant (d = 0.098, p = 0.677). Regarding the category of animal companions, research indicates that the association between students and horses and dogs as pets yields more substantial outcomes, with effect sizes of 0.200 and 0.243, respectively that are statistically significant. Regarding the category of animal companionship, animal- assisted therapy, animal-assisted education, and domestic pet companionship have no- table impacts, exhibiting effect sizes of 0.215, 0.373, and 0.195, respectively. The find- Li et al. (Nanjing, China). Pet Companionship and Student Development. BECE, Vol.14, No. 1, 2023 1741 ings of this study exhibit conformity with certain assessments of the association be- tween humans and pets conducted in other nations. Notwithstanding the uniformity of the impact’s orientation, the magnitudes of the effects observed in this study deviate from those reported by certain researchers. This study places a greater emphasis on China’s present circumstances within the Chinese context in comparison to other meta-analyses on pet companionship con- ducted in other nations. Hence, the outcomes of this investigation hold greater signifi- cance for the advancement of pet companionship within the educational and medical domains in the current phase of China. Additionally, they are crucial for the enhance- ment of pet companionship in the entire country. Conclusions and Suggestions The present study employed meta-analytic procedures to scrutinize the phenomenon of pet companionship across a total of 12 studies, with the aim of examining the impact of such companionship on the physical health, mental health, and social-emotional compe- tencies of students. This study conducted an analysis of the sources of heterogeneity present in the individual-level and research project-level studies that were included in the study. The findings indicate that (i) regarding the developmental stage, pet compan- ionship has a better effect on preadolescent students than on adolescent students (d = 0.205); (ii) pet companionship has a significant positive effect on students with physical health risk (d = 0.203, p = 0.001) and behavioral risk (d = 0.717, p < 0.001), and the effect on those with behavioral risk is more significant and reaches a medium level; (iii) animals such as horses (d = 0.200) and dogs (d = 0.243) have significant positive effects on adolescent development; (iv) in terms of the type of pet companionship, animal- assisted therapy, animal-assisted education, and pet companionship at home all have significant effects, with effect sizes of 0.296, 0.373, and 0.195, respectively; (v) in terms of intervention intensity, low intensity (d = 0.245, p = 0.005), medium intensity (d = 0.259, p < 0.001), and high intensity (d = 0.345, p < 0.001) all significantly pro- mote student development; (vi) the effect sizes of medium sample sizes (100-250 sam- ples) are the greatest (d = 0.341), and the effect sizes of small sample sizes (d = 0.243) and large sample sizes (d = 0.233) are small. The identification of overarching trends in the effects of pet companionship on the physical and mental development of students has the potential to enhance the effica- cy of pet companionship in domestic settings, animal-assisted education in academic institutions, and pet-assisted therapy in clinical contexts. The analysis indicates that in China, when engaging in pet companionship, it is crucial to consider the physical and mental well-being, as well as the social-emotional growth, of individuals in order to enhance their holistic development. The significance of pets in facilitating the develop- ment of children should not be disregarded. Furthermore, it is imperative to enhance the function of companion animals strategically and systematically in various settings, such as households, educational institutions, and medical facilities, when they are in the company of students. 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