









































Bioarchaeology International
Volume 4, Number 1: 15–36
DOI: 10.5744/bi.2020.1000

Copyright © 2020 University of Florida Press

Two Probable Cases of Infection with  
Treponema pallidum during the Neolithic Period 
in Northern Vietnam (ca. 2000– 1500 B.C.)
Melandri Vlok,a* Marc Fredrick Oxenham,b,c Kate Domett,d Tran Thi Minh,e 
Nguyen Thi Mai Huong,e Hirofumi Matsumura,f Hiep Hoang Trinh,e  
Thomas Higham,g Charles Higham,h Nghia Truong Huu,e and  
Hallie Ruth Buckleya

aDepartment of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
bSchool of Archaeology and Anthropology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
cSchool of Archaeology, University of Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
dCollege of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia
eInstitute of Archaeology, Hanoi, Vietnam
fSchool of Health Sciences, Sapporo Medical University, Sapporo, Japan
gOxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK
hSchool of Social Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
*Correspondence to: Melandri Vlok, Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, 270 Great King Street, 
Dunedin 9016, New Zealand 

e- mail: Melandri . vlok@postgrad . otago . ac . nz

This research was supported by a National Geographic Early Career Grant (EC- 54332R- 18), a Royal Society of 
New Zealand Skinner Fund Grant, and a University of Otago Doctoral Scholarship.

ABSTRACT Skeletal evidence of two probable cases of treponematosis, caused by infection with the bacterium Trepo-
nema pallidum, from the northern Vietnamese early Neolithic site of Man Bac (1906– 1523 cal B.C.) is de-
scribed. The presence of nodes of subperiosteal new bone directly associated with superficial focal cavitations 
in a young adult male and a seven- year- old child are strongly diagnostic for treponemal disease. Climatic 
and epidemiological contexts suggest yaws (Treponema pallidum pertenue) as the most likely causative trepo-
neme. This evidence is the oldest discovered in the Asia- Pacific region and is the first well- established pre- 
Columbian example in this region in terms of diagnosis and secure dating. The coastal ecology, sedentary 
settlement, and high fertility at the site of Man Bac all provided a biosocial context conducive to the spread 
of treponemal disease among inhabitants of the site. Co- morbidity with scurvy in both individuals demon-
strates that malnutrition during the agricultural transition may have exacerbated the expression of trepo-
nematosis in this community.

Man Bac is a site of great regional importance owing to its role during the Neolithic transition of Mainland 
Southeast Asia. During this transition, approximately 4,000 years ago, farmers migrating from southern China 
into Southeast Asia influenced a number of changes in subsistence and demography and potentially introduced 
new infectious diseases such as treponematosis to indigenous forager communities. The findings presented here 
may encourage reevaluation of existing Southeast Asian skeletal samples and demonstrate the importance of 
using weighted diagnostic criteria for future reporting of treponematosis cases.

Keywords: agricultural transition; Southeast Asia; yaws

Received 8 August 2019
Revised 24 February 2020

Accepted 24 February 2020



Two Probable Cases of Treponema pallidum16

Hai trường hợp nhiều khả năng mắc bệnh ghẻ cóc do nhiễm vi khuẩn Treponema pallidum, thuộc di chỉ Mán 
Bạc sơ kì đá mới Việt Nam (cal 1906– 1523 B.C.) được mô tả trên bằng chứng di cốt. Sự có mặt của các hạt xương 
mới dưới màng xương trực tiếp liên quan đến các lỗ ổ bề mặt ở một nam trẻ tuổi trưởng thành và một trẻ em 7 
tuổi là chẩn đoán nhiều khả năng cho bệnh này. Bối cảnh khí hậu và dịch tễ học cho thấy bệnh ghẻ cóc do nhiễm 
xoắn khuẩn Treponema pallidum pertenue là nguyên nhân phổ biến nhất. Bằng chứng trên được phát hiện muộn 
nhất ở khu vực Châu Á- Thái Bình Dương và là một ví dụ điển hình đầu tiên giai đoạn tiền Columbia trong khu 
vực này dựa vào chẩn đoán và định niên đại chính xác. Sinh thái biển, lối sống ít di động, và tỷ lệ sinh sản cao 
ở di chỉ Mán Bạc, tất cả đã tạo ra sự tương tác giữa các yếu tố sinh học và xã hội thuận lợi cho việc lây lan bệnh 
ghẻ cóc giữa các cư dân thuộc di chỉ này. Cùng với đó là sự mắc bệnh thiếu vitamin C (scurvy) ở cả hai cá thể 
trên chỉ ra rằng sự suy dinh dưỡng trong suốt quá trình chuyển tiếp nông nghiệp có thể trầm trọng hơn và biểu 
hiện bệnh ghẻ cóc ở cộng đồng này.

Mán Bạc là một di chỉ vùng quan trọng bởi vì nó nằm trong ranh giới giai đoạn chuyển tiếp Đá Mới của 
Đông Nam Á lục địa. Trong suốt bước chuyển này, khoảng 4000 năm cách đây, các cư dân nông nghiệp di cư từ 
miền nam Trung Quốc vào Đông Nam Á đã ảnh hưởng nhiều thay đổi trong phương thức sinh kế, dân số, và 
mang theo bệnh nhiễm trùng mới tiềm ẩn như là bệnh ghẻ cóc vào các cộng đồng nông nghiệp bản địa . Các 
phát hiện trình bày trên đây hi vọng sẽ là khởi đầu đánh giá lại về sự tồn tại các di cốt Đông Nam Á và minh họa 
tầm quan trọng của việc sử dụng tiêu chí chẩn đoán tin cậy về các trường hợp bệnh ghẻ cóc cho nghiên cứu tiếp 
theo.

In recent years, intensive archaeological and bio-
archae ol o gi cal research in Mainland Southeast Asia 
(MSEA) has described a unique agricultural transition 
that had a significant impact on the region’s genetics, 
demographics, social organization, and subsistence 
base (Lipson et al. 2018; Matsumura and Oxenham 
2014; Oxenham and Buckley 2016). Strong morpholog-
ical evidence for the admixture of local indigenous 
populations and migrants from southern China (Mat-
sumura and Oxenham 2013a, 2013b, 2014; Matsumura 
et al. 2008, 2019) has been supported by recent genome- 
wide ancient DNA analyses (Lipson et al. 2018; McColl 
et al. 2018). The evidence indicates that co- habitation 
and genetic admixture of agriculturalists and local for-
agers resulted in considerable social and demographic 
change at this time in MSEA (Lipson et al. 2018; McColl 
et al. 2018; Oxenham et al. 2011). While there remains 
a considerable focus on subsistence transitions and its 
impact on general health worldwide (Armelagos and 
Cohen 1984; Cohen and Crane- Kramer 2007; Snoddy 
et al. 2017; Temple 2010), less attention has been given 
to the mechanisms of infectious disease transmission 
from one population to another where substantial levels 
of mobility (including migration) have been demon-
strated. In these circumstances, interaction between 
two or more populations in so- called friction zones 
transpires (Bellwood and Oxenham 2008). Here ge-
netic admixture and social transition occurs between 
foragers and farmers. Epidemiological transitions may 
follow population interactions, as subsistence transi-
tions can cause micronutrient deficiencies, and contact 
between populations (as evidenced in MSEA) encour-
ages the spread of infectious disease from one group 
to another. The identification of specific infectious 

diseases (such as leprosy, tuberculosis [TB], and trepo-
nemal disease) and the consequent epidemiological 
impact within the chronological, social, and environ-
mental context of friction zones offers important in-
formation on human and pathogen co- evolution in 
the changing biosocial contexts of Southeast Asia over 
time. An example of the possible introduction of in-
fectious disease with increased population interac-
tion has been suggested in the case of leprosy and TB 
at a late Iron Age site in northeast Thailand (Tayles 
and Buckley 2004) but has not been explored in other 
regions or during periods of agricultural transitions 
in this region.

This article describes two cases of specific infectious 
and nutritional disease from the site of Man Bac in 
northern Vietnam and explores the social, biological, 
and ecological contexts that may have encouraged the 
spread of infectious disease during the Neolithic de-
mographic transition in MSEA.

Materials and Methods

The site

Man Bac is a Phung Nguyen period early Neolithic 
habitation site with an associated cemetery located in 
Ninh Binh province in northern Vietnam, known for 
complex incised designs on pottery vessels, intricate 
stone craftwork, and interaction with Chinese Neo-
lithic farming societies (Oxenham et  al. 2011). Cul-
tural material reflects both foraging and agricultural 
subsistence (Oxenham et al. 2011). Excavated in 1999, 
2001, 2004/5, and 2007, the cemetery component of the 



Vlok et al. 17

site consists of 101 individuals of exceptional skeletal 
preservation. Rib samples from four individuals from 
Man Bac have been dated to 1906– 1523 cal B.C. (Int-
Cal13, 95% CI, with marine reservoir effect applied; 
Online Supplement). While insufficient collagen yield 
meant direct dates could not be derived from the two 
individuals of focus in this paper, all burials were 
found within a secure single stratigraphic layer (Oxen-
ham et al. 2011). The burial layer was found below 
two occupation layers. Cultural material from all 
layers are contemporaneous, suggesting an associa-
tion between the three layers. Charcoal from the oc-
cupation layers dates to 2016– 1524 cal B.C. (95% CI; 
Oxenham et al. 2011). As such, Man Bac is the only 
well- documented example of an early Neolithic settle-
ment in Southeast Asia where local indigenous people 
coexisted with migrants from southern China who 

introduced agricultural practices to the region ap-
proximately 4,500 to 3,500 years ago (Bellwood and 
Oxenham 2008; Matsumura 2011a, 2011b).

It is not possible to estimate the population density 
of the Man Bac community, because the number of 
burials is not likely representative of the numbers in 
the living population and the full extent of the site has 
not been excavated. However, the Man Bac cemetery 
sample is characterized by a high fertility ratio and 
high rate of natural population growth, with 47.5% of 
individuals under the age of five years (McFadden 
et al. 2018). All burials, with the exception of three 
flexed inhumations, were in a supine extended position 
(Fig. 1), which is the normative pattern of burial at this 
time throughout Southeast Asia (Higham et al. 2011). 
Grave goods and ritual tooth removal (ablation) suggest 
age- based social hierarchy and affinal relationships 

Figure 1. The burial position and associated artifacts of M20 (left) and M29 (right). Both individuals were buried extended and supine. The burials 
are in excellent skeletal condition with the exception of the cranium of M29, which was not present during excavation. (Image: M. Oxenham)



Two Probable Cases of Treponema pallidum18

that may have affected the distribution of resources 
within the community (Tilley and Oxenham 2016). 
Archaeological remains reveal a mixed or transitional 
subsistence based on foraging and agricultural prac-
tices, similar to other Phung Ngyuen period settle-
ments. A diet of both terrestrial and aquatic protein 
resources is indicated by stable isotope collagen values, 
with more than 50% from aquatic resources (Oxenham 
et al. 2011). The presence of domesticated pig (Sus scrofa) 
dominates the zooarchaeological assemblage (R. K. 
Jones et al. 2019; Oxenham et al. 2011).

Today, Man Bac is situated approximately 25 km 
from the coast (Oxenham et al. 2011). However, given 
high sea levels in the mid- Holocene, Man Bac was 
likely much closer to the coast within an estuarine 
zone (Tanabe et al. 2006). The variety of faunal sources 
indicate that the inhabitants of Man Bac were exploit-
ing a number of ecological zones, including forests, 
grasslands, lowlands, and marine and estuarine envi-
ronments (Sawada et al. 2011; Toizumi et al. 2011). The 
site forms part of the Phung Nguyen complex, a series 
of sites found within the Ninh Binh region along the 
Red River Delta. The presence of contemporaneous 
pottery suggests extensive interaction between the 
sites farther inland along the river, as well as shared 
archaeological material with agricultural sites in 
southern China (Bellwood 2005; Nguyen 2008). The 
type site of Phung Nguyen is approximately 160 km 
from today’s coastline, which represents the possible 
extent of interaction of farming settlements within 
northern Vietnam, although this site is dated to 
slightly later at around 1500 B.C. (Khoach 1980). Evi-
dence of housing styles was not excavated at Man Bac. 
However, they may have been similar to other Phung 
Nguyen habitation sites where large houses on stilts 
(see Oxenham et al. [2015] for a discussion of built 
structures in the slightly later site of Rach Nui in 
southern Vietnam) appear to have been built, possi-
bly for similar reasons as constructed in mountainous 
regions of Vietnam today, to keep out snakes and small 
animals (Khoach 1980).

Concerning the general health of people buried at 
Man Bac, previous research has demonstrated high 
levels of non- specific stress; 92.3% of males and 53.8% 
of females presented with cribra orbitalia, and 64.9% 
of the total assemblage presented with linear enamel 
hypoplasia of the incisors or canines (Oxenham et al. 
2011). Forty- two percent of individuals had localized 
primary canine hypoplasia, which may be related 
to deficiencies of calcium, Vitamin A, or Vitamin D 
during gestation (McDonell and Oxenham 2014). 
Therefore, stress from parasitic, dietary, or infectious 
origin was commonplace during childhood for many 
of the individuals from Man Bac. The detailed paleo-
pathology analysis of the total sample will be pre-
sented in forthcoming publications.

Methods for age and sex estimation

The age and sex of individuals from Man Bac were 
previously reported by Domett and Oxenham (2011). 
Adult sex estimations were based on standard meth-
ods for qualitative morphological estimates from the 
skull and pelvis (Acsádi et  al. 1970; Buikstra and 
Ubelaker 1994; Phenice 1969). Non- adult age estimates 
were based on standards for the timing of dental cal-
cification and eruption (Moorrees et al. 1963; Ubelaker 
1999). Where teeth were not available for age assess-
ment in non- adults, long bone lengths were compared 
to non- adults with dental estimates available, as well 
as to standards for long bone estimates in non- adults 
by Scheuer and Black (2000). Adult age estimation fol-
lowed Suchey- Brooks standards for the pubic sym-
physis (Brooks and Suchey 1990).

Recording methods for abnormal variation 
(pathological changes)

Proliferative (lamellar and woven bone) and lytic le-
sions as well as bone deformities were recorded in the 
entire preserved skeleton. Lesions with the potential 
to contribute to diagnosis were also radiographed. A 
differential diagnosis was performed with the basis 
drawn from seminal literature in paleopathology 
(Brickley and Ives 2008; Lewis 2017; Ortner 2003; 
Snoddy et al. 2018; Weston 2012) as well as clinical lit-
erature concerning specific diseases (Hackett 1976; 
Jaffe 1972; Resnick 1995a). Lesions were characterized 
as diagnostic and suggestive of specific disease based 
on recommendations by Snoddy et al. (2018). A clini-
cal basis for diagnosis of specific disease has also been 
championed by Mays (2012), Ortner (2011), Snoddy 
et al. (2020), Zuckerman et al. (2016), and others (for 
treponemal disease, Powell and Cook advocated such 
criteria in their 2005 book, as do Baker et al. [2020]). 
In the Snoddy et al. (2018) criteria, lesions are only 
considered to be diagnostic (D) if there is strong clin-
ical basis or considerable body of paleopathological 
work supporting the diagnostic weight of the lesion. 
Lesions where there is no consensus in the clinical or 
paleopathological literature, but remain anatomically 
intuitive, were designated a suggestive (S) value. In ad-
dition, lesions that have been considered elsewhere as 
pathognomonic for disease are here scored as strongly 
diagnostic (SD) (after Brickley and Ives 2008). For a 
probable case of disease at least one strongly diagnos-
tic and/or two diagnostic lesions are required (Brick-
ley and Ives 2008; Snoddy et al. 2018). A possible case 
of disease requires a minimum of one diagnostic le-
sion and/or two suggestive lesions (Snoddy et al. 2018).

Clinically documented associated pathology was 
also considered in discussion of the disease expres-
sion, but it was not a primary deciding factor in the 



Vlok et al. 19

differential diagnosis due to their poor diagnostic 
strength in dry bone. These included generalized pro-
liferative bone changes which can be caused by mul-
tiple diseases. (See Online Table S5 for summary of 
diagnostic strength of lesions.)

Results

The lesions at Man Bac were predominantly bilateral, 
symmetrical, and discrete and affected both the post-
cranial and cranial remains. As the focus of this paper 
is the identification of specific infectious disease at Man 
Bac, the causes of the more generalized pattern of pro-
liferative lesions at Mac Bac will be reported at a later 
date but are likely a result of a number of etiologies.

A total of seven individuals (10%, 7/70) from Man 
Bac— two adults, two adolescents, and three children— 
share a similar skeletal pattern of diffuse proliferative 
new bone lesions consistent with systemic disease. 
Two of these seven individuals presented with wide-
spread subperiosteal new bone, endosteal enlarge-
ments in the long bone shafts, and focal superficial 
lytic lesions within nodes of subperiosteal new bone 
(localized enlargements of subperiosteal new bone). 
These two individuals are the focus here due to the di-
agnostic potential of their lesions, with a brief dis-
cussion of a further five cases with lower diagnostic 
strength. A differential diagnosis was conducted on 
MB05 M20 and MB07 H2 M29, which includes sys-
temic conditions known to produce lesions similar to 
those observed here: osteomyelitis (non- specific bone 
infection), leprosy, tuberculosis, brucellosis, mycosis, 
treponematosis, rickets/osteomalacia, and scurvy. A 
description of the bone pathology in these two indi-
viduals and a full differential diagnosis are presented. 
Detailed descriptions of lesions in all seven individu-
als are found in Online Table S5. Descriptions of skel-
etal lesions consistent with possible and probable 
treponemal disease in all affected Man Bac individu-
als can be found in Online Table S6.

M20

MB05 M20 (herein called M20) is a young adult male 
(15– 29 years old). The individual was buried east to 
west in a supine position with three ceramic pots char-
acteristic of the Phung Ngyuen period (Fig.  1). The 
skeleton is excellently represented, with all limbs, skull 
(and teeth), hands, and feet complete and 60% repre-
sentation of the ribs and vertebrae. The surfaces of the 
bones are in excellent condition. M20 presented with 
diffuse thick and remodeled new bone with endosteal 
enlargement of the entire shafts of the right humerus, 
tibiae, and fibulae (Fig. 2). Discrete nodes of new bone 
are present on the medial midshaft of the right tibia 

and on the distal third of both fibulae symmetrically. 
The new bone is present on the metaphyses and shafts 
of the tibiae and fibulae and the distal metaphysis of 
the right humerus. There are pathological pseudo- 
bowing deformities in the tibiae similar to bowing in 
a saber shin. While new bone is macroscopically only 
visible on the distal metaphysis of the right humerus, 
radiographs reveal endosteal enlargement of the entire 
shaft, suggesting prior osteoblastic activity that has 
since remodeled. Further discrete deposits of new 
bone can also be observed on the medial proximal left 
femur and medial and lateral proximal tibiae. Multiple 
superficial focal lytic lesions are present on the distal 
fibulae shafts, proximal right fibula, lateral metaphy-
sis of the left humerus, and the lateral aspect of the left 
calcaneus. The focal lytic lesions of the fibulae are asso-
ciated with discrete nodes of new bone and active new 
bone is observed around the margins of the lytic le-
sions. Two focal lesions of the right distal fibula have 
been damaged postmortem, so it is not possible to de-
termine whether the lesions are superficial or extend 
into the medulla. However, a small focal superficial le-
sion is present adjacent to the larger two lesions (Fig. 2f), 
supporting the interpretation that the lesions with 
postmortem damage do not extend beyond the exter-
nal cortical bone surface. The two focal lesions of the 
left distal fibula are clearly superficial, within a node of 
new bone and with smooth sclerotic margins (Fig. 2g).

No lytic or diffuse proliferative lesions were present 
on the cranial vault. Bilateral and symmetrical dis-
crete deposits of remodeled new bone and abnormal 
cortical porosity are present on the external greater 
wings of the sphenoid bones, temporal bone squama, 
and posterior and anterior zygomatic bones. The lesions 
are clearly discrete and do not represent diffuse inflam-
matory changes in the skull. There are also porotic 
lesions across the ectocranium (frontal bone, occipi-
tal bone, and parietal bones medial to the temporal 
lines) consistent with porotic hyperostosis, although 
the diploe is not exposed so this cannot be confirmed. 
Medium- grade cribra orbitalia was also observed (af-
ter Stuart‐Macadam 1985:392).

M29

MB07 H2 M29 (herein called M29) is a non- adult ap-
proximately seven years of age at death (Oxenham 
et al. 2011). M29 was buried supine; no clear grave 
goods were identified, but pottery sherds were present 
around the region of the sacrum (Fig. 1). The cranium 
was not present, and only the right side of the mandi-
ble (including teeth), remained. The individual’s post-
cranial axial skeleton is very well preserved, but the 
hands and feet were virtually absent (with the excep-
tion of a single preserved metacarpal). There were 
some hardened soil concretions on the surfaces of the 



Two Probable Cases of Treponema pallidum20

Figure 2. Expression of lesions related to infectious disease in M20. Preserved bones are outlined in black, with 
absent bones outlined in light gray. The skeletal extent of osteoblastic lesions is indicated by dark gray fill. 
(a) and (b) Superficial focal cavitations with smooth sclerotic margins not within distinct nodes of new bone 
on the anterior and posterior lateral epicondyle of the right humerus. (c) Remodeled cortical enlargements 
throughout the shafts of the tibiae with striated nodes of new bone on the distal fibulae. (d) Radiographs of 
the tibiae and fibulae: a distinct node of new bone with medullary intrusion is present on the medial middle 
shaft of the right tibia. The nodes of new bone of the distal fibulae are radiolucent due to the extent of 
pathological change to the internal cortex of the bone. (e) Superficial focal cavitation not within a distinct 
node of new bone on the proximal right fibula. (f) Two focal superficial cavitations on the lateral aspect of the 
right distal fibula within a distinct node of striated new bone. (g) Focal superficial cavitation on the medial 
aspect of the right distal fibula within a distinct node of striated new bone. (h) Focal superficial cavitation on 
the medial left calcaneal body, not within a distinct node of new bone. (Image: M. Vlok)



Vlok et al. 21

long bones and vertebrae, but this was minimal. Ani-
mal gnaw and puncture marks were observed on some 
of the lower limb bones.

M29 presents with diffuse multi- layered new bone 
across the diaphyses of all limb bones bilaterally, and 
on the single preserved metacarpal (Fig. 3). Nodes of 
subperiosteal new bone are present at the midshafts of 
the right radius and ulna, proximal left ulna, entire 
shafts of tibiae, and distal fibulae. Multiple lytic lesions 
with sclerotic margins, observed radiographically, are 
present on the proximal left ulna, midshafts of the 
right radius and ulna, and inferior medial left clavi-
cle. The lytic lesions of the midshaft of the right ulna 
and radius have some postmortem damage to the floor 
and margins. However, the preserved margins of the 
lesions indicate they did not penetrate the cortex. The 
lytic lesions on the distal fibulae do penetrate the cor-
tex to the medullary canal. Radiographs also show 
well- remodeled proliferative new bone on the anterior 
crest of the tibiae, indicating so- called saber shin. A 
unilateral enlargement of the sternal end of the left 
clavicle without any macroscopic presence of thick 
subperiosteal new bone deposit is evident, and a thin 
cortex is appreciated from the radiograph. Symmetri-
cal mixed active and remodeled new bone and abnor-
mal cortical porosity is present in the supraspinous 
fossae of the scapulae. Although the cranium is absent, 
remodeled abnormal cortical porosity of the right cor-
onoid process of the mandible is observed. Radio-
graphically, all the long bones present with radiodense 
metaphyseal plates in association with zones of radio-
lucency in the metaphyseal region.

Deformity of some long bones is also present in 
M29. Symmetrical swellings of the distal metaphyses 
and slight cupping of the femora occur (Fig. 4c). There 
is slight bilateral medial “true” bowing of both tibiae 
confirmed by radiographs with slight posterior pro-
trusion of proximal metaphyseal plates, suggesting 
depression and deformity (Fig. 4g). Further, there is 
lateral bowing of the proximal third of the humeral 
shafts, and depression and deformity of the metaphy-
ses of the humeral heads (Fig. 4d).

Discussion

Differential diagnosis

The differential diagnosis of the types and skeletal 
pattern of the lesions in these Man Bac individuals 
included bone cancers, osteomyelitis, tuberculosis, 
brucellosis, mycosis, leprosy, and treponematosis. 
These diseases are included in the differential diag-
nosis due to the combination of proliferative and de-
structive lesions in the disease pathophysiology. The 

bone response to metastatic cancers may produce a 
combination of extensive subperiosteal and lytic re-
sponse. However, these conditions are less likely to 
cause such widespread involvement of the skeleton as 
that observed here and are not known to cause multi-
ple and widespread superficial cavitations (Ortner 
2003:363– 382, 503– 544). Cancers such as multiple my-
eloma or Langerhan’s cell histiocytosis (LCH), which 
can result in systemic multifocal destruction of the 
skeleton, most often appear as punched- out lytic le-
sions without sclerosis and can be ruled out (Ortner 
2003:362, 377). M20 and M29 do not appear similar 
to a possible case of multiple myeloma or LCH identi-
fied by Domett and Buckley (2012) in pre- Angkorian 
Cambodia, and marginal sclerosis of the lytic lesions 
are rare and subperiosteal new bone deposits are not 
characteristic of these diseases (Ortner 2003:363, 377). 
Because bone cancer in archaeological contexts is ex-
tremely rare (Ortner 2003:363– 382, 503– 544), the 
presence of two individuals in the collection with sim-
ilar bone lesions (M20 and M29) further demon-
strates that cancer can be ruled out as a possible cause.

While subperiosteal and endosteal enlargement are 
non- specific inflammatory responses to various dis-
eases and trauma (Weston 2012), the widespread and 
non- uniform nature of the enlargements in the Man 
Bac cases are more consistent with that of a systemic 
infection than metabolic or traumatic etiologies. The 
subperiosteal new bone lesions of metabolic disease 
tend to be uniform and symmetrical, unlike the ma-
jority of the lesions of M20 and M29 (Brickley and Ives 
2008; Pitt 1995; Resnick 1995b; Snoddy et al. 2018). Fur-
thermore, subperiosteal new bone from trauma is 
most often localized, also unlike that observed in M20 
and M29 (Rana et al. 2009). However, some of the sub-
periosteal lesions in both M20 and M29 are symmet-
rical, and a metabolic etiology contributing to the 
overall expression of subperiosteal lesions in both in-
dividuals is not ruled out and is discussed further 
below.

Pyogenic osteomyelitis is a non- specific infection of 
the bone producing a characteristic suite of lesions of 
bone death from loss of blood supply (sequestrum), 
combining a lytic lesion (circular pus- draining cloaca) 
and a proliferative healing response (involucrum) 
(Ikpeme et al. 2010). The major causative agents are 
Staphylococcus or Streptococcus bacterial species, al-
though other pathogens can infect bone (Acosta et al. 
2004; Ikpeme et al. 2010). Initial transmission generally 
occurs through soft tissue infection of open wounds 
and, less frequently, secondary to respiratory, food- 
borne or water- borne diseases (Giaccai and Idriss 1952; 
Honda and McDonald 2009; Jaffe 1972:1015– 1046; 
Miller et al. 1963; Vohra et al. 1997). The pathogenic 
agent enters the bone through the bloodstream and 



Figure 3. Expression of lesions related to infectious disease in M29. Preserved bones are outlined in black, with 
absent bones outlined in light gray. An undetermined metacarpal is also present but not demonstrated in the 
figure, as its skeletal position is unknown. The skeletal extent of osteoblastic lesions is indicated by dark gray 
fill. (a) Subperiosteal new bone deposit on the distal shafts and metaphyses of the humeri. (b) There are slight 
cortical enlargements visible on radiographs throughout the humeral shafts. (c) Remodeled enlargement of 
the medial left clavicle. The metaphyseal plate is bulging. (d) Radiographs do not demonstrate a distinct 
cortical enlargement of the left medial clavicle. The internal trabeculae appear radiolucent, and a distinct oval 
lytic lesion with a radiodense sclerotic margin is present on the inferior margin of the medial metaphysis. 
Some increased calcification is present on the medial metaphyseal plate. (e) Diffuse subperiosteal new bone 
deposit across the radii and ulnae. (f) Two oval cavitations within nodes of new bone on the midshafts of the 
right radius and ulna. While significant damage has occurred to the lesion floor, the margins of the lesion are 
preserved and indicate superficial cavitation. (g) Large node of new bone on the proximal left ulna. Radio-
graphs demonstrate a small oval lytic lesion with sclerotic margins within the node. (h) Prolific subperiosteal 
new bone across the tibiae and fibulae. Fibular cortical enlargements are thickest toward the distal shaft. Note 
the rounded margins of the anterior shaft of the tibiae indicating saber shin deformity. (i) Radiograph of the 
right tibia demonstrating cortical enlargement of the anterior crest indicating saber shin. (j) An unknown 
metacarpal with significant postmortem damage. However, it is clear that the entire shaft of the metacarpal 
has undergone prolific pathological change indicative of dactylitis. The internal margins of the cortex are 
porous. (k) and (l) Focal cavitations of the right and left distal fibulae. Margins of the lesions are smooth and 
within nodes of new bone. The surrounding bone has undergone complete prolific pathological change with 
the internal cortex appearing porous. Osteoblastic lesions considered in the diagnosis of nutritional disease 
are presented in Figure 4. (Image: M. Vlok)



Vlok et al. 23

Figure 4. Expressions of lesions related to nutritional disease in M29. Preserved bones are outlined in black, 
with absent bones outlined in light gray. An undetermined metacarpal is also present but not demonstrated 
in the figure, as its skeletal position is unknown. The skeletal extent of osteoblastic lesions possibly related to 
nutritional disease is indicated by dark gray fill. (a) Mixed active and remodeled discrete deposit of subperios-
teal new bone and abnormal cortical porosity medial to the coronoid process of the mandible. (b) Symmetri-
cal mixed active and remodeled discrete deposit of subperiosteal new bone in the supraspinous fossa of the 
scapulae. (c) Bilateral swelling and slight cupping of the distal femur. (d) Depression of the humeral heads 
which are reminiscent of coxa vara deformities of the femoral heads (see Brickley and Ives 2008:102). 
(e) Trummerfeld (scurvy) line and white line of Frankle on the distal radius and ulna. These radiographic 
changes were identified in all metaphyses of long bones. (f) Slight medial bending deformities of the tibial 
shafts. (g) Posterior bending of the proximal metaphyseal plate of the tibia. (Image: M. Vlok)



Two Probable Cases of Treponema pallidum24

infiltrates through nutrient arteries (Jaffe 1972:1015– 
1020). Proliferation within bone generally begins in 
the metaphyseal region, eventually spreading to the 
cortex through the Haversian canals (Ikpeme et al. 
2010; Jaffe 1972:1020). Osteomyelitis can result in nodes 
of new bone only, like treponemal disease (Hackett 
1976:424). However, it is particularly diagnostic in its 
pyogenic form. Substantial deposits of subperiosteal 
new bone occur particularly in the long bones, re-
sulting in a shell of new bone termed the involucrum 
(Ikpeme et al. 2010; Kharbanda and Dhir 1991). Dis-
ruption to blood supply by the involucrum results 
in bone death (sequestrum) (Ikpeme et  al. 2010; 
Kharbanda and Dhir 1991). Finally, cloacae develop 
within the involucrum in order to drain pus that has 
accumulated within the medullary canal (Ikpeme 
et al. 2010; Kharbanda and Dhir 1991). Dactylitis, as 
observed in M29, is known to occur in osteomyelitis, 
but it is frequently associated with direct infection to 
the surrounding soft tissue due to trauma or localized 
infection (Jaffe 1972:1018). Osteomyelitis is rare in 
adults but can result from reoccurrence of infec-
tion from adolescence (Ortner 2003:187; Resnick and 
Niwayama 1995). However, the superficial focal cavi-
tations on the external cortex as observed in the left 
fibula of M20 are unknown to occur in osteomyelitis 
and are incompatible with the pathophysiology of clo-
acae in pyogenic bone infection. While necrotic ab-
scesses have been observed in osteomyelitis, they 
occur within the medullary canal and not the exter-
nal cortex (Jaffe 1972:1020). Although two lesions in 
the distal fibulae of M29 penetrate to the medullary 
canal and are reminiscent of cloacae, such lesions have 
also been observed in cases of treponemal disease 
where gummatous lesions are associated with ad-
vanced endosteal enlargement (Hackett 1975). It is 
clear the entire bone of the fibulae shafts has been in-
volved in this child with the inner cortex appearing 
porous. There is a lack of association of involucrum or 
sequestrae with the lytic lesions in M29, as would be 
expected with osteomyelitis, and more extensive pro-
liferative new bone response also would be expected 
(Hackett 1976:92). Furthermore, it would be unusual 
for cloacae to occur symmetrically, such as observed 
in M29, as formation of cloacae is determined by the 
nature of the involucrum development and therefore 
they do not appear in predictable patterns (Jaffe 
1972:1018; Roberts 2019:298). Systemic non- localized 
skeletal expression of both the lytic and proliferative 
lesions in M20 and M29 without focus of the infection 
in the metaphyseal regions of bone make osteomyelitis 
as the underlying cause extremely unlikely. However, 
given the non- specificity of osteomyelitis, particularly 
the non- pyogenic form, a secondary bacterial, viral, 
or fungal infection cannot be ruled out.

The Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) 
is a group of infectious slow- growing gram- positive 
bacteria that can cause granulomatous necrotizing ab-
scesses throughout the entire body, including bone 
(Flynn and Chan 2001; Haque 1990; Knechel 2009). 
The MTBC consists of Mycobacterium strains that 
infect a number of mammalian primary hosts but 
can all cause infection of humans. These include: 
M. tuberculosis (humans), M. bovis (domestic live-
stock), M. canetti (humans), M. microti (voles, hyrax, 
llama, rarely humans), M. caprae (goats), M. pinnipedii 
(seals and sea lions, rarely humans), and M. africanum 
(humans) (Roberts 2012). The most common form is 
M. tuberculosis, which is primarily a respiratory dis-
ease affecting the lungs (De la Rua- Domenech 2006; 
World Health Organization 2013). M. tuberculosis is 
most often spread through air droplets from coughing, 
sneezing, and talking (Knechel 2009; World Health 
Organization 2013), whereas zoonotic forms such as 
M. bovis tend to spread to humans through ingestion 
of meat or dairy (De la Rua- Domenech 2006).

In its chronic form, tuberculosis can cause systemic 
granulomatous skeletal destruction with minimal new 
bone response, predominantly in regions of trabecu-
lar bone and articular surfaces, such as the vertebral 
bodies (Jaffe 1972:956; Key 1940; LaFond 1958; Ortner 
2003:228). Therefore, bone destruction in tuberculo-
sis most commonly affects the spine above all other 
skeletal elements, followed in frequency by involve-
ment of the hip and knee joints (Jaffe 1972:956; LaFond 
1958; Ortner 2003:228). In the most advanced form, 
destruction of the vertebral bodies results in col-
lapse referred to as gibbus formation (or structural 
kyphosis) seen in Pott’s disease, which has been con-
sidered pathognomonic for tuberculosis (Davidson 
and Horowitz 1970; Jaffe 1972:958– 961; Turgut 2001). 
While circumferential deep focal destruction can oc-
cur in the long bones in tuberculosis, it is more char-
acteristic of childhood tuberculosis, and even then it 
is focused in long bone ends rather than shafts (Lewis 
2017:161; Ortner 2003:245; Teo and Peh 2004). Sclerotic 
margins of the superficial focal lesions on the exter-
nal shafts of the long bones of M20 and M29 accom-
panied by cortical enlargement is not reminiscent of 
the destruction of tuberculosis, which, while chronic, 
elicits minimal remodeling of the lesion margins (Jaffe 
1972:976). Proliferative new bone response is known 
to occur, particularly in the early stages of disease, as 
a systemic inflammatory response to the pathogen or 
due to psoas abscess formation adjacent to the lumbar 
spine, but is infrequently found in direct association 
with the destructive lesions in adults (Davidson and 
Horowitz 1970; Ortner 2003:232; Ridley et al. 1998). In 
the case of tuberculosis, dactylitis is rare but can 
occur in juveniles such as that observed in the single 



Vlok et al. 25

metacarpal of M29 (Teo and Peh 2004). However, in 
M29 the degree of expression is not severe and lacks 
the cystic destructive form more common to child-
hood tuberculosis (Lewis 2017:162; Teo and Peh 2004). 
As there is no evidence of spinal, trabecular, or joint 
involvement of which pathogens in the MTBC com-
plex are selective for, tuberculosis is ruled out as a pos-
sible cause for the lesions in M20 and M29.

Brucellosis is a bacterial zoonotic disease commonly 
associated with animal husbandry. Human disease is 
mainly caused by four species of Brucella: B. abortus, 
B. suis, B. canis, and B. melitensis (Al- Shahed et al. 
1994; Franco et al. 2007). The bacteria are transmitted 
mostly through consumption of animal products such 
as dairy, but they can be transmitted through skin le-
sions in circumstances of close contact with animals 
(d’Anastasio et al. 2011; Franco et al. 2007; Mehmet 
et al. 2002). The Brucella bacteria bind to cells of the 
mononuclear phagocyte system, a group of cells that 
includes bone marrow progenitors, blood monocytes, 
and macrophages found in hematopoietic regions of 
the body including in bone (Campbell et  al. 1994; 
Hume 2006). Once chronic, brucellosis can affect the 
skeleton in focal or diffuse forms (Al- Shahed et al. 
1994). Less has been described about the skeletal pa-
thology of brucellosis than of tuberculosis, and ques-
tions remain about how to differentiate definitively 
between the two, and whether this is even possible in 
many cases (Al- Shahed et al. 1994). As is the case in 
tuberculosis, focal destruction of the spine is a pri-
mary characteristic of this disease (Al- Shahed et al. 
1994). Brucellosis can cause widespread destruction of 
the skeleton, and skeletal involvement is common 
(Al- Shahed et al. 1994; Mehmet et al. 2002). Destructive 
lesions are often but not always accompanied by scle-
rotic reaction due to their slow development, which is 
not characteristic of tuberculosis (Roberts and Buik-
stra 2019: 421). Remodeling can result in the presence 
of parrot’s beak osteophytes on the superior margin 
of the anterior vertebral bodies (Al- Shahed et al. 1994). 
While collapse of the spine can occur, it is unusual for 
the destruction to advance to the severity seen in tu-
berculosis (Roberts and Buikstra 2019). Similar to tu-
berculosis, osteolytic lesions develop in regions of 
hematopoiesis, including the hip, knee, and ankle 
joints (Al- Shahed et al. 1994; Mehmet et al. 2002). Un-
like in tuberculosis, following the spine, the sacroiliac 
joint and knee are most commonly affected (Al- Shahed 
et al. 1994). For reasons similar to those stated in the 
consideration of tuberculosis, it is unlikely that bru-
cellosis is responsible for the skeletal appearance of 
disease observed in M20 and M29. Although brucel-
losis is known to result in focal lesions with sclerotic 
response, superficial lesions of the external cortex, 
particularly in relation to cortical enlargements of 

long bone shafts, have not been observed in the patho-
physiology of this disease.

Various fungal infections are known to result in 
skeletal involvement. Diseases including coccidioido-
mycosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, aspergillosis, 
and cryptococcosis rarely infect the musculoskeletal 
system but are more common in immunocompro-
mised individuals (Corr 2011). Transmission often 
occurs through open wounds or through the respira-
tory tract whereby hematogenous spread occurs (Corr 
2011). Infection is more common in the spine, but it 
can occur in any region of the skeleton, particularly 
in regions of hematopoiesis (Corr 2011; Toone and 
Kelly 1956). For this reason there is a predilection for 
axial skeletal involvement (Taljanovic and Adam 2011). 
When long bones are involved the metaphyses are 
more commonly affected, with joints affected if de-
struction is extensive, at times resulting in septic ar-
thritis (Taljanovic and Adam 2011). The pathological 
response is primarily in the form of focal punched- out 
or deep granulomatous osteolytic lesions with or with-
out sclerotic margins (Corr 2011; R. C. Jones and 
Goodwin 1981; Taljanovic and Adam 2011; Toone and 
Kelly 1956). Proliferative new bone response to the ex-
tent observed in M20 and M29 has not been reported 
for mycotic infections. However, given the systemic in-
flammatory response observed in fungal infections 
such as coccidioidomycosis, the potential for subperi-
osteal involvement in mycotic infections cannot be 
ruled out (Corr 2011; Taljanovic and Adam 2011). Fi-
nally, clinical reports of skeletal mycotic infections 
describe lesions that tend to be unilateral and asym-
metrical throughout the skeleton (R. C. Jones and 
Goodwin 1981; Taljanovic and Adam 2011; Toone and 
Kelly 1956). Given the predilection for the axial skel-
eton such as in the case of tuberculosis and brucello-
sis, destruction is associated with hematopoiesis in 
the skeleton, whereby deep osteolysis is more consis-
tent with the pathophysiology of this disease group 
rather than superficial lytic lesions in the appendicular 
skeleton as observed in M20 and M29. The symmet-
rical lytic lesion pattern in the Man Bac individuals is 
also not consistent with clinical reports of mycosis. 
Mycosis is therefore ruled out as a possible cause.

Leprosy is a bacterial infection caused by Mycobac-
terium leprae or M. lepromatosis that affects the skin, 
nasal mucosa, and peripheral nerves (Eichelmann 
et al. 2013; Saonere 2011). The symptoms of the disease 
vary along a spectrum and are highly dependent on 
individual immune response (Eichelmann et al. 2013). 
Tuberculoid leprosy is a milder form that is often non- 
contagious, whereas lepromatous leprosy is more sys-
temic, infectious, and results in more severe symptoms 
(Eichelmann et al. 2013; Saonere 2011). Major skeletal 
changes in leprosy involve naso- facial destruction 



Two Probable Cases of Treponema pallidum26

with inflammatory pitting, and resorption of the ter-
minal phalanges of the hands and feet secondary to 
loss of sensation from peripheral nerve or circula-
tory degeneration caused by the pathogen (Møller- 
Christensen 1961, 1978; Ortner 2003:264– 265). Slow 
progression of resorption of the naso- palatal margins, 
including the anterior nasal spine, and alveolar pro-
cess of the maxillary incisor area, with associated 
proliferative subperiosteal new bone and cortical pit-
ting, are considered strongly diagnostic features of 
this disease (Møller- Christensen 1961, 1978; Møller- 
Christensen et al. 1952). While new bone can occur in 
leprosy, particularly in the lower legs, and skin gran-
ulomas can also occur, leprosy is not known to cause 
focal granulomatous- like lytic lesions of the long 
bones such as that observed in M20 and M29 (Faget 
and Mayoral 1944). Osteomyelitis secondary to pe-
ripheral nerve destruction in advanced stages of the 
disease is well documented, but as described above, 
the superficial lytic lesions of M20 and M29 are not 
characteristic of osteomyelitis (Faget and Mayoral 
1944; Maas et al. 2002). The suite of cranial lesions ob-
served in M20 is not characteristic of leprosy, as nei-
ther destructive lesions of the cranium nor proliferative 
or cortical pitting lesions of the nasal region were ob-
served. Furthermore, no destructive changes to the 
preserved tubular hand and feet bones of M20 and 
M29 were observed. The absence of the cranium and 
the presence of only one metacarpal means leprosy 
cannot be ruled out as a co- morbidity in the case of 
the child. However, it is improbable that leprosy is re-
sponsible for lesions observed in both M20 and M29.

Treponematosis

Treponemal disease is a group of infections caused by 
a spirochete bacterium that primarily affects the skin 
but can also affect bones and other organs (Hook and 
Marra 1992). Four diseases, including yaws (Trepo-
nema pallidum pertenue), pinta (T. carateum), vene-
real syphilis (T. pallidum pallidum), and endemic 
syphilis (T. pallidum endemicum), have similar bacte-
rium morphology and share similar pathogenesis 
(Hook and Marra 1992; Marks et  al. 2014; Willcox 
1974). Pinta is the only treponemal disease that does 
not affect bone (Willcox 1974). Each treponeme occu-
pies a different ecological niche (Marks et al. 2014). For 
example, endemic syphilis is restricted to warm, arid 
regions of the world, whereas yaws thrives in subtrop-
ical and tropical regions (Willcox 1974). Yaws, pinta, 
and endemic syphilis are non- venereal treponemal 
diseases that are transmitted primarily by skin con-
tact, whereas venereal syphilis has evolved to be spread 
primarily through sexual contact (Willcox 1974). A 
primary skin lesion forms at the site of inoculation 

within a few weeks of initial infection and subse-
quently resolves itself (Peeling and Hook 2006). If left 
untreated, the disease almost always progresses to a 
secondary phase. In the secondary phase, the skin 
rash reappears, becoming more diffuse and is associ-
ated with swelling of lymph nodes (lymphadenopathy) 
(Peeling and Hook 2006). The secondary phase is then 
followed by an asymptomatic latent phase, where the 
infection is contained within granulomas by the im-
mune system (Hackett 1953b). Latency can last from 
three to 10 years beyond the initial infection (Hackett 
1953b). Following the period of latency, except in the 
case of pinta, a tertiary stage begins, where necrosis of 
the granulomas occurs, resulting in gummatous le-
sions of skin, internal organs, and bones (Hackett 
1953b; Powell and Cook 2005:15– 51). Formation of the 
tertiary stage has been historically documented to oc-
cur in one in three untreated cases (Hackett 1953b). The 
tertiary stage is distinctive for its gross destruction of 
the face, skull, limbs, and, in the case of venereal syph-
ilis, arterial vessels and organs (Hackett 1951; Peeling 
and Hook 2006). During the tertiary stage, secondary 
lesions stop forming (Hackett 1953b). While early 
treponemal lesions can heal within a few months, the 
late (tertiary stage) lesions can last for more than a year 
and leave permanent changes in bone (Hackett 1978).

These granulomatous, gummatous lesions are dis-
tinctive and specific to all treponemal diseases, and 
are universally accepted as strongly diagnostic in pa-
leopathology (Harper et al. 2011; Ortner 2003:286). The 
so- called caries sicca lesions on the skull are the most 
well recognized lesions of the disease and are clinically 
and paleopathologically documented in all skeletal 
forms of treponemal disease (Hackett 1951:159– 165, 
1974; Sandison 1980). Gumma outside of the cranium 
can develop as focal lesions termed “superficial cavi-
tations” within proliferative new bone on outer sur-
faces of long bones (Hackett 1976:362– 396, 429– 433). 
All tertiary lesions of treponemal disease are also as-
sociated with a sclerotic smoothing of the margins and 
base of the lesion (Hackett 1976:362– 396, 429– 433). 
Gross destruction of the palate and the nasal aperture 
can also occur (Hackett 1946). In the case of venereal 
syphilis, transplacental transmission, congenital syph-
ilis, causes distinctive bone and dental deformations 
in infants and young children up until puberty (Jaffe 
1972:908– 910; Lewis 2017:176– 177). Congenital forms 
are rarer in the endemic treponemes but have been re-
ported in endemic syphilis from the Ramadi District 
of Iraq, and in yaws in central Java, Indonesia (Akrawi 
1949; Csonka 1953; Engelhardt 1959). The three trepo-
nemes that affect bone cannot be distinguished by 
their skeletal expression (Harper et al. 2011).

As the above diseases are unlikely causes of the le-
sions, the presence of superficial cavitations within 



Vlok et al. 27

nodes of new bone in M20 and M29 strongly suggests 
that the etiology of the lesions expressed is treponema-
tosis (Fig. 5). The presence of saber shin and dactylitis 
supports this diagnosis. We also note here that the 
lytic lesions and distinct nodes of new bone in M20 
and M29 correspond with dissemination through 
lymph nodes argued by Buckley and Dias (2002) to be 
the primary form of noncranial dissemination of the 
Treponema pallidum spirochete into bone. Unilateral 
enlargement of the sternal end of the clavicle, as ob-
served in M29, has been noted in cases of late- onset 
congenital syphilis (Dax and Stewart 1939; Frangos 
et  al. 2011; Harper et  al. 2011; Lewis 2017:179; Yang 
1940). This so- called Higoumenakis sign presents as 
layers of proliferative new bone on the sternal end of 
the clavicle unilaterally (Frangos et al. 2011). The lack 
of macroscopic or radiographic trace of proliferative 
subperiosteal new bone or cortical enlargement on the 
sternal end of M29’s left clavicle makes the identifica-
tion of this pathology as a clear Higoumenakis sign 
difficult. However, a rationale for this is explained be-
low in consideration of co- morbidity with nutritional 
stress.

To allow for standardization of diagnosis of tre-
ponemal diseases, we here present threshold criteria 
for the designation of possible and probable cases 
(Table 1). Standard criteria have been presented previ-
ously by Harper et al. (2011) using a five- point system 
for inclusion or exclusion of cases. This system attri-
butes a score between 1 and 5, dependent on the spec-
ificity of the lesion to treponemal disease. Non- specific 
lesions such as subperiosteal new bone deposit are 
classified as a score of 1, and lesions specific to trepo-
nemal disease, such as gummatous lesions and late 
stage caries sicca of multiple skeletal elements, are pro-
vided a score of 5. However, the authors do not give a 
minimum point score required for a sufficient diagno-
sis of treponemal disease in dry bone. The standard-
ization presented here builds upon work by Harper 
et al. (2011) by introducing a “threshold approach” to 
diagnosis as recommended by Brickley and Ives (2008) 
for their criteria for diagnosis of scurvy, rickets, and 
osteomalacia and by Snoddy et al. (2018) for their cri-
teria for scurvy diagnosis. As described above, we have 
employed the minimum criteria of one strongly diag-
nostic or two diagnostic lesions for a probable diag-
nosis of treponemal disease, which both of these cases 
demonstrate.

A recent review of global evidence for treponemal 
disease by Baker et al. (2020) includes a diagnostic pro-
tocol similar to the one presented here. The Baker 
et al. (2020) protocol divides lesions into three diag-
nostic strengths, consistent with treponemal infection 
but not diagnostic (C), strongly suggestive (ST), and 
pathognomonic (P). The criteria presented by Baker 

et al. (2020) illustrate the consensus among paleopa-
thologists to work toward standards of diagnosis of 
treponemal disease. Each of the two cases presented 
here would score 5 out of 5 using the Harper et al. 
(2011) criteria for diagnosis and would be scored as 
having pathognomonic lesions using the Baker et al. 
(2020) criteria, all consistent with probable diagnoses 
using the threshold criteria presented here.

Nutritional disease

Not all lesions of M20 and M29 are consistent with in-
fectious disease only (Online Table S5). The discrete 
deposits of new bone and cortical porosity on the pos-
terior and anterior aspects of the zygomatic bones, 
and the external greater wings of the sphenoid bones 
and the temporal bone squama in M20 are more con-
sistent with repeated microtrauma and hematoma for-
mation characteristic of scurvy and not of treponemal 
infection, where diffuse subperiosteal new bone across 
the face and cranium would be expected (Samarkos 
et al. 2011; Snoddy et al. 2018). This individual also has 
evidence of anemia in the form of cribra orbitalia and 
porotic hyperostosis of the ectocranial vault, which 
may be a consequence of parasitic, infectious, and/or 
nutritional stress in childhood. A synergistic relation-
ship between infectious and nutritional diseases is 
well documented (Chan 2000; Larsen 1995; Mata 1975; 
Nussenblatt and Semba 2002; Pelletier et al. 1995; Rob-
erts 2000; Roberts and Brickley 2018; Ruiz et al. 1994), 
and co- morbidity between these would not be unex-
pected at Man Bac given the biosocial context of sub-
sistence transition occurring at the site (Larsen 1995; 
Oxenham et al. 2011).

Similar to M20, there are lesions present in M29 
that are more likely to result from metabolic or devel-
opmental defects than infection (Fig. 4). As outlined 
above, various deformities are present in the long 
bones of M29. While it is possible that the swelling of 
the distal femora is a result of the infection, the com-
bination of bending deformities, cupping, and swelling 
of distal ends of multiple long bones suggests alter-
native etiologies for these pathologies and is particu-
larly indicative of a demineralization disorder, such 
as rickets (Brickley and Ives 2008:103– 107). Interactions 
between infectious and nutritional diseases during 
childhood growth is an area of ongoing study in pa-
leopathology, and it is possible that a combination of 
these factors caused the long bone bowing identified 
in M29. The described porotic and new bone lesions of 
the mandible and scapulae are all diagnostic macro-
scopic signs of scurvy (Snoddy et al. 2018). The radio-
graphs also revealed ground- glass osteopenia, and 
Trummerfeld zones (radiolucent bands within the 
metaphyses) in association with white lines of Frankel 



Two Probable Cases of Treponema pallidum28

Figure 5. Strongly diagnostic and diagnostic macroscopic lesions for treponemal disease in M20 and M29. 
(a) Superficial focal cavitation of the medial left calcaneus (M20, diagnostic). (b) Superficial focal cavitation  
of the anterior lateral epicondyle of the right humerus (M20, diagnostic). (c) Superficial focal cavitation of the 
posterior lateral epicondyle of the right humerus (M20, diagnostic). (d) Superficial focal cavitations within a 
distinct node of new bone of the right distal fibular shaft (M20, strongly diagnostic). (e) Superficial focal 
cavitations within a distinct node of new bone of the right distal fibular shaft (M20, strongly diagnostic). 
(f) Focal cavitation of the right distal fibular shaft with sclerotic margins within a distinct node of new bone 
(M29, strongly diagnostic). (g) Superficial focal cavitation of the proximal right fibula (M20, diagnostic). 
(h) Focal cavitation of the right distal fibular shaft with sclerotic margins within a distinct node of new bone, 
same lesion as 5f. (M29, strongly diagnostic). (i) Focal cavitations of the right mid- ulnar and radial shafts with 
sclerotic margins within a distinct node of new bone (M29, strongly diagnostic). (Image: M. Vlok)



Vlok et al. 29

Table 1. Diagnostic criteria for identification of treponematosis (SD = strongly diagnostic, D = diagnostic, and S = suggestive). One SD lesion or  
two D lesions are required for diagnosis consistent with a probable case. One D lesion or two S lesions are required for diagnosis consistent with a 
possible case. Some lesions are provided for congenital cases and have been observed only in infants and children. The final column indicates which 
lesions were present in M20 and M29.

Lesion
Diagnostic 
Strength Differential Diagnosis Clinical Reference

Paleopathological 
Reference

Lesion 
Present

Caries sicca sequence stages 4– 8: 
circumvallate cavitation, radial scars, 
serpiginous cavitation, nodular 
cavitation, and caries sicca of the 
ectocranium

SD Hackett 1975, 
1976:362– 396

Harper et al. 2011 – 

Gummatous lesions on any skeletal 
element: focal superficial cavitations in 
direct relation with nodes or expansions 
(enlargements) of new bone

SD Hackett 1975, 
1976:429– 433

Harper et al. 2011 M20 
M29

Hutchinson’s incisors (congenital) SD Normal morphology Hackett 1976:441; 
Pessoa and Galvão 
2011; Stokes and 
Gardner 1923

Harper et al. 2011; 
Hillson et al. 1998; 
Lewis 2017:179

– 

Moon’s Molars (congenital) SD Growth disruption Hackett 1976:441 Harper et al. 2011; 
Hillson et al. 1998; 
Lewis 2017:179

– 

Congenital syphilis (Caffey’s) triad: 
osteochondritis, bilateral thick periosteal 
reaction of the long bones, and osteomy-
elitis of metaphyseal ends (early 
congenital)

D Non- specific osteomyelitis, 
infantile cortical hyperostosis, 
Paget’s disease

Caffey 1939; Jaffe 
1972:910

Lewis 2017:178 – 

Caries sicca sequence stages 1– 3: clustered 
pits, confluent clustered pits, focal 
superficial cavitation of the ectocranium 
or focal superficial cavitation of the 
cortex of long bones not within a distinct 
node or expansion (enlargement)

D Mycosis, tuberculosis, 
Langerhans’s cell histiocytosis, 
multiple myeloma, and other 
metastatic neoplasms

Hackett 1975, 
1976:362– 396

M20

Gross rhinomaxillary and palatal 
destruction (gangosa)

D Leprosy, tuberculosis, mycosis, 
destructive neoplasms, trauma, 
leishmaniasis

Fiumara and Lessell 
1970; Hackett 
1951:164– 168, 1975, 
1976:399– 401

Lewis 2017:175 – 

Wimberger’s corner sign (congenital): 
bilateral widening band of decreased 
calcification of the metaphyses leading to 
destruction

D Non- specific osteomyelitis, 
trauma, scurvy

Brackett and 
Standley 2019; 
Rasool and 
Govender 1989

Harper et al. 2011; 
Lewis 2017:178

– 

Mulberry (Fournier’s) molars D Mercury use, growth 
disruption

Harper et al. 2011; 
Hillson et al. 1998; 
Lewis 2017:179

– 

Thick periosteal new bone deposition and 
exostoses on the maxillae (goundou)

S Scurvy, osteomyelitis, leprosy, 
infantile cortical hyperostosis, 
Paget’s disease, genetic anemias

Buckley 2016:30; 
Harper et al. 2011; 
Lewis 2017:175

– 

Higoumenakis sign: unilateral enlarge-
ment of the sternal end of the clavicle 
(congenital)

S Trauma, non- specific 
osteomyelitis, normal variant

Dax and Stewart 
1939; Yang 1940

Frangos et al. 2011; 
Harper et al. 2011; 
Lewis 2017:179

M29

Saber shin (pseudobowing of the tibia 
without bowing of the medullary canal)

S Leprosy, osteomyelitis, various 
benign and malignant bone 
tumors, Paget’s disease, 
hyperflourosis

Hackett 1951:28 Harper et al. 2011 M20 
M29

Boomerang leg: true tibial bowing with 
bowing of medullary canal (until 
adolescence)

S Rickets, skeletal dysplasias, 
osteogenesis imperfecta, 
fracture

Harper et al. 2011; 
Lewis 2017:175

– 

Dactylitis (subperiosteal new bone 
enlargement of the hand and feet bones)

S Tuberculosis, non- specific 
osteomyelitis, genetic anemias

Hackett 1951:30; 
Rasool and 
Govender 1989

Harper et al. 2011; 
Lewis 2017:178– 179

M20 
M29

Charcot’s joint (resorption of weight 
bearing joints)

S Septic arthritis, diabetes, 
osteoarthritis, syringomyelia, 
tuberculosis

Hackett 1976; Johns 
1970; Sequeira 1994

Harper et al. 2011; 
Lewis 2017:179

– 

(continued)



Two Probable Cases of Treponema pallidum30

(radiodense lines on the metaphyseal plates of the long 
bones) (Fig. 4), which are further diagnostic signs of 
Vitamin C deficiency (Brickley and Ives 2008; Snoddy 
et al. 2017, 2018).

The likelihood of co- morbidity of treponemal dis-
ease with nutritional deficiency in M29, including 
scurvy as well as deficiency of hormones, minerals, 
and/or vitamins related to the mineralization process 
(Vitamin D, calcium, phosphorus, and/or parathyroid 
hormones), may be causing the concurrent thinning 
of cortices impacting the visibility of a clear Higoume-
nakis sign of congenital syphilis. As gummatous le-
sions usually form within localized nodes of new bone, 
the presence of a small lytic process on the medial end 
of M29’s left clavicle may suggest a well- remodeled 
new bone deposit in a child with a high bone turnover 
rate also undergoing nutritional stress. The presence 
of a congenital expression of treponemal disease at 
Man Bac is then possible. In summary, M29 probably 
suffered from tertiary treponemal disease in associa-
tion with multiple nutrient deficiencies affecting both 
osteoid formation and mineralization at various points 
in the child’s lifetime. In light of more definitive evi-
dence of nutritional stress in M29, an argument could 
be made for a co- morbidity of treponemal disease and 
Vitamin C deficiency in M20 as well.

Possible treponemal disease?

Lesions in five other individuals are also consistent 
with treponemal disease. However, the skeletal expres-
sion of their lesions does not provide enough diagnostic 

strength to allow a probable diagnosis. MB05 M5 is an 
infant approximately 18 months of age with endosteal 
enlargement of the long bones associated with super-
ficial lytic lesions. While the radiographs demonstrate 
a superficial focal sclerotic response in the distal 
metaphysis of the left humerus and superior acromial 
end of the clavicle, these lesions are small (lesion is 
3.9 × 1.7 mm on humerus and 3 × 3 mm on clavicle), 
impeding confidence that these lesions are superficial 
focal cavitations as described by Hackett (1976:429– 
433). MB05 M29 is a middle- aged adult male with dac-
tylitis and diffuse new bone in the forearms and legs 
associated with endosteal enlargements. Two focal 
superficial lesions with sclerotic response are present 
on the medial distal right fibula. However, these lesions 
are not within a distinct node of new bone and there-
fore do not strictly fit the definition of superficial cav-
itation by Hackett. A further three individuals present 
with endosteal nodes/enlargements, and/or dactylitis, 
which are also consistent with treponemal disease (see 
Online Table S6). All lesions follow a postcranial pat-
tern of lymphatic dissemination consistent with trepo-
nemal disease (Buckley and Dias 2002).

Pathophysiology of treponemal disease  
in M20 and M29

The presence of gummatous lesions in M20 and M29 
is strongly diagnostic for treponemal disease in this 
early Neolithic community and, therefore, is sufficient 
evidence for pre- Columbian treponemal disease out-
side of the Americas, and represent the oldest cases in 

Lesion
Diagnostic 
Strength Differential Diagnosis Clinical Reference

Paleopathological 
Reference

Lesion 
Present

Opera glass fingers: diaphyseal tapering 
of the bone

S Leprosy, rheumatoid arthritis, 
syringomyelia, diabetes, 
osteomyelitis, erosive 
osteoarthritis

Hackett 1951:153– 
154; B. S. Jones 1972; 
Swezey et al. 1972

Ortner 2003:277 – 

Radiographic: saw tooth appearance of 
metaphyseal ends or macroscopic 
symmetrical destruction of metaphyses 
attributed to osteochondritis (early 
congenital)

S Rickets, scurvy, trauma, 
tuberculosis

Jaffe 1972:910– 912; 
Rasool and 
Govender 1989

Harper et al. 2011; 
Lewis 2017:178

– 

Thick deposit of mixed active and 
remodeled new bone on the long bones, 
thickest at the midshaft (congenital), or 
long bone endosteal nodes or expansions 
(enlargements) with medullary canal 
intrusion

S Paget’s disease, non- specific 
osteomyelitis, metastatic bone 
tumors, tuberculosis

Hackett 1951, 1975, 
1976:411– 433

Harper et al. 2011; 
Lewis 
2017:178– 180

M20 
M29

Saddle nose (congenital) S Leprosy, trauma, non- specific 
osteomyelitis

Fiumara and Lessell 
1970; Pavithran 1987

Harper et al. 2011; 
Lewis 2017:177

– 

High palatal arch (congenital) S Various congenital deformities, 
including Turner’s syndrome 
and Klippel- Feil syndrome

Pavithran 1987 Lewis 2017:177 – 

Table 1. (continued).



Vlok et al. 31

the Asia- Pacific region. The presence of a possible Hi-
goumenakis sign in M29 attributed to the late- onset 
congenital form of treponemal disease does suggest 
the possibility of transplacental transmission in this 
case. Transplacental transmission of yaws has been 
known to occur, albeit rarely (Engelhardt 1959). Chil-
dren infrequently develop gummatous lesions, but 
they also have been documented to occur in yaws 
(Hackett 1951). Given the age of M20 it is possible that 
initial infection occurred in late childhood to adoles-
cence, which is epidemiologically consistent with all 
treponemal diseases.

Which treponemal disease was present in 
Neolithic Man Bac?

We offer no attempt to diagnose which treponemal 
disease is responsible based solely on skeletal expres-
sion. Discussion on the uniformity of skeletal lesions 
of different treponemes has been dealt with elsewhere 
(Buckley and Dias 2002). However, the epidemiologi-
cal, social, and environmental contexts of the disease 
do allow some discussion on the treponeme responsi-
ble. Climatically, Vietnam is within latitudinal bound-
aries where yaws has been historically documented 
(Mitjà et al. 2013). Prior to the eradication attempts of 
yaws by the World Health Organization in the 1950s, 
yaws was endemic to Vietnam, and reports as late as 
the 1990s demonstrate a recent history of the disease 
in the region (Meheus and Antal 1992). With consid-
eration of all possible and probable cases at Man Bac, 
it is clear the lesions are predominantly in non- adults, 
with only two adults presenting lesions consistent with 
treponematosis and only one of these with strongly 
diagnostic lesions (Online Table S6). The epidemio-
logical distribution in terms of age does suggest a 
non- venereal form such as yaws, where initial infec-
tion most often occurs between the ages of two and 
15 years (Mitjà et al. 2013). Therefore, yaws is a possi-
ble candidate for the treponemal disease present at 
Man Bac. However, the climate of this region is mar-
ginal for the successful maintenance of yaws in a com-
munity. Yaws thrives in regions with average yearly 
temperatures of 27°C but can persist in areas of, at 
minimum, 21°C yearly average temperature (Hill 
1953). While northern Vietnam fits into this range, in 
regions where temperatures are not consistent year 
round, yaws is even less likely to thrive (Hill 1953). In 
January the minimum average temperature in north-
ern Vietnam is 12°C, and 14.3°C specifically for Ninh 
Binh province where Man Bac is situated (Oxenham 
et al. 2011). The temperature during the early Neolithic 
of Vietnam may have been slightly elevated compared 
to the present day due to the termination of the mid- 
Holocene Thermal Maximum at around 3000 B.C., 

which was marked by higher temperatures and rain-
fall (Oxenham et al. 2018). While there are no historic 
reports of endemic syphilis in the region, northern 
Vietnam becomes cold and dry during the winter 
months, which is more suitable for the endemic form. 
In summary, the ecological and climatic context of 
Man Bac allowed for the presence of all of the trepo-
nemal conditions. However, given the age of the site 
and epidemiology in regard to the ages of affected in-
dividuals, it is more likely a non- venereal rather than 
venereal form.

Social and biological conditions promoting 
treponemal disease at Man Bac

The ecological and social contexts of Man Bac fostered 
an environment that was advantageous to the spread 
of non- venereal treponemal disease in the community. 
Agricultural transitions such as that which occurred 
at Man Bac have been universally documented to have 
resulted in epidemiological transitions as farming 
practices encouraged sedentism, population growth, 
and increased susceptibility to infection due to nutri-
tional stress (Armelagos and Cohen 1984; Cohen and 
Crane- Kramer 2007; Larsen 2006). In northern Viet-
nam this subsistence change may have led to different 
epidemiological pressures in the communities with no 
distinct decline in health, as pre- Neolithic sedentary 
foragers also had high disease burdens (Oxenham 
et al. 2018). Signs of multi- nutrient deficiency through-
out the life of M20 and M29 is further supported by 
considerably high levels of stress identified in other 
dental and skeletal evidence from the site (McDonell 
and Oxenham 2014; Oxenham and Domett 2011).

Coastal habitations such as prehistoric Man Bac 
have been associated with higher yaws incidence in 
historical contexts due to the abundance of water 
and vegetation, increasing population density (Hack-
ett 1953a:135; Kazadi et al. 2014). Furthermore, pre- 
industrialized agricultural communities have also 
been associated with increased incidence of yaws 
(Guimarães 1953; Hackett 1953a:135). The coastal re-
gion is also slightly warmer and more humid than 
inland northern Vietnam and therefore more condu-
cive to the spread of yaws (Hill 1953).

The increase in fertility and population growth at 
Man Bac was likely associated with an increase in the 
number of infants and children within the commu-
nity, who are known to be the primary transmitters 
of yaws (McFadden et al. 2018; Mitjà et al. 2013). Given 
the age- based hierarchy, possible relocation of re-
sources to older individuals in the community may 
have promoted malnutrition in younger individuals, 
further encouraging disease transmission in children 
(Hill 1953; Oxenham et al. 2011). A degree of social 



Two Probable Cases of Treponema pallidum32

group cohesiveness may have further encouraged the 
transmission of a non- venereal form of treponemato-
sis spread through close skin contact. The presence of 
a profoundly disabled individual with quadriparesis 
following Klippel- Feil syndrome, who required con-
tinuous and intensive care, highlights that the com-
munity was one in which individuals were highly 
cooperative (Oxenham et al. 2009; Tilley and Oxen-
ham 2011).

Origins of treponemal disease at Man Bac

It is not possible at this point to determine confidently 
whether treponemal disease was introduced by the 
farmers from southern China. However, the spread of 
treponemal disease into MSEA with migrant farmers 
during the Neolithic is plausible when considering the 
extent of the migration and the sedentary agricultural 
contexts they brought with them (Bellwood and Oxen-
ham 2008). There is no archaeological evidence for 
contact with other groups apart from southern Chi-
nese farmers outside of MSEA at this time. Admixture 
with indigenous foragers in northern Vietnam may 
have enabled further transmission of treponemal dis-
ease throughout MSEA, although currently no further 
evidence for prehistoric treponemal disease exists in 
Southeast Asian skeletal collections. While we recog-
nize that absence of evidence is not evidence of ab-
sence, and a deep antiquity of treponemal disease in 
MSEA is possible prior to the agricultural transition, 
there is no identification of human- to- human trans-
missive diseases (such as tuberculosis, treponematosis, 
or leprosy) prior to this time in MSEA despite inten-
sive bio archae ol o gi cal research in the region (Buckley 
and Oxenham 2016). The evidence of infectious dis-
ease in MSEA considerably increases from the Bronze 
and Iron Ages (Oxenham et al. 2005; Tayles and Buck-
ley 2004). If the treponemal disease at Man Bac is in 
fact yaws, the route of transmission throughout the 
continent would be restricted to tropical and sub-
tropical zones. Although Man Bac is positioned at the 
present- day upper geographical limit of the survival 
of yaws, documented cases of yaws existed in south-
ern China and Taiwan prior to worldwide eradication 
attempts where the climate is similar to northern Viet-
nam’s (Hill 1953). In light of pre- eradication, clinical 
evidence of yaws in this region, a possible origin for 
the spread of treponemal disease into MSEA from 
farmers originating in southern China from approxi-
mately 4,000 years ago is plausible. Given the presence 
of treponemal disease at Man Bac, regional interactions 
throughout the Red River delta also present possi-
ble routes of transmission to and from other Phung 
Nguyen sites where archaeological material indicates 
contact with agricultural groups of southern China 

(Khoach 1980; Nguyen 2008). The implications of mi-
gration and human population interaction on the po-
tential spread of treponemal disease into northern 
Vietnam is an area for further research, particularly 
with regard to the broader context of the timing of the 
introduction of treponemal disease into MSEA. Fur-
ther investigation of existing and newly excavated 
skeletal assemblages in southern China and MSEA 
may provide further insight into the origins and an-
tiquity of this disease within the region.

It can be hypothesized that, with the demographic 
and subsistence transition resulting in nutritional 
instability, and possibly the introduction of new in-
fectious diseases with migration, the social and en-
vironmental contexts of Man Bac were suitable for 
the spread of treponematosis. The high rate of natural 
population increase at Man Bac was likely fueled by 
the supplementation of agricultural foods, enabling 
larger groups to thrive, increasing the number of in-
dividuals in the community, and further encouraging 
the spread of treponematosis (McFadden et al. 2018). 
The identification of two cases of probable tertiary 
treponemal disease in a northern Vietnamese Neo-
lithic community further supports the contextual 
evidence for a population undergoing accelerated 
growth, significant social change, necessitating the 
navigation of interaction between two populations 
and one of a unified and close community wherein a 
treponeme could spread with relative ease.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Dr. Ngo Anh Son, Mr. Bui Van 
Khanh, and Ms. Nellissa Ling for their assistance with 
the radiographs, and Dr. Anne Marie E. Snoddy for in-
put on the application of a standardized approach to 
treponemal disease. We thank the associate editor of 
Bioarchaeology International and three anonymous 
reviewers for their comments and advice in revising 
the manuscript.

Author Contributions

MV wrote majority of the manuscript and performed 
data collection and processing. HRB contributed to re-
search design, assisted in data processing, and con-
tributed substantially to the manuscript. MFO and 
KD contributed to research design, provided prelim-
inary data, and contributed to the manuscript. TTM 
facilitated access to collections, assisted with the data 
collection, and provided Vietnamese translation of the 
abstract. NTM, HM, HHT, and NTH facilitated access 
to collections and provided essential background 



Vlok et al. 33

knowledge for the production of this publication. 
TH and CH contributed radiocarbon dates for the 
publication and produced the supplementary infor-
mation on the radiocarbon dates. All authors criti-
cally reviewed, revised, and edited the content of the 
manuscript.

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