








































Copyright © 2021 University of Florida Press

Exploring the Efficacy of Comparative 
Bioarchaeological Approaches in Providing 
Answers on Marginality and Networking: The 
Example of Late Bronze Age Achlada in Florina, 
Northern Greece
Dimitra Ermioni Michael,a* Linda Fibiger,a,b Christina Ziota,c Liana Gkelou,c 
and Barry Molloya**

aSchool of Archaeology, College of Social Sciences and Law, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, 
Ireland

bSchool of History, Classics & Archaeology, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9AG, United 
Kingdom

cEphorate of Antiquities of Florina, 53100 Florina, Greece
*Correspondence to: Dimitra Ermioni Michael, University College Dublin, School of Archaeology, John
Henry Newman Building, Stillorgan Rd., Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland

Email: e-mail: dimitra.michail@ucd.ie

ABSTRACT: This paper investigates the efficacy of comparative bioarchaeological approaches in exploring the impact of 
economic marginality on human lifeways. Skeletal remains from the Late Bronze Age cemetery of Achlada in 
Northern Greece were chosen to address this, as this specific community was probably less well networked, 
evident in its location away from major communication routes and the paucity of grave goods at the site. A bio-
cultural methodology combining comparative data on funerary practices and lifestyle was implemented. Sex 
differences were found within the community and seem to agree with the differential burial placement of the 
sexes possibly representing the different roles that society symbolically attributed to men and women in death-
ways. Comparative intercemetery data did not reveal poorer health and diet, or more intense physical activity, 
compared to well-networked sites. Nonetheless, Achlada, as well as numerous, mostly north communities of 
the wider context, probably faced more physiological challenges during growth, at least of a mild to moderate 
level, compared to a number of populations connected by major communication routes. The current study 
highlights the importance of implementing comparative bioarchaeological approaches as a means of identify-
ing the impact of marginality on human lifeways, particularly in settings with limited material culture infor-
mation. Limitations linked to preservation issues and the multifactorial nature of lifestyle indicators could be 
dealt with by future biomolecular and isotopic analyses.

Keywords: lifeways; palaeopathology; prehistory

Η παρούσα εργασία έχει στόχο να διερευνήσει το κατά πόσο οι συγκριτικές βιοαρχαιολογικές προσεγγίσεις 
είναι εφικτό να δώσουν απαντήσεις ως προς την επίδραση της οικονομικής περιθωριοποίησης στον ανθρώπινο 
τρόπο διαβίωσης. Επιλέχθηκαν σκελετικά κατάλοιπα της Ύστερης Εποχής Χαλκού από το νεκροταφείο της 

Received 1 July 2020  
Revised 9 December 2020  

Accepted 23 December 2020

**Principal Investigator

Bioarchaeology International 
Volume 5, Numbers 1–2: 21–46 
DOI: 10.5744/bi.2021.1005



Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality22

The Late Bronze Age (LBA) of the Eastern Mediterra-
nean was a highly networked hub of intercultural in-
teraction. Reaching a zenith in the fourteenth to 
thirteenth centuries B.C., social upheavals in the de-
cades around 1200 B.C. led to a collapse of elite polit-
ical and economic networks (Cline 2014; Middleton 
2010, 2017, 2020). Since the time of shaft graves at My-
cenae in the seventeenth to fifteenth centuries B.C., 
strong links to the north and west in the form of im-
ported amber, Wellenband ornamentation, chariot 
styles, and horse trappings demonstrate that modern 
bias plays a role in how we contextualize Mycenaean 
networks (Blake 2008; Bouzek 1994, 1985; Harding 
1984, 2007; Iacono 2019; Jung and Mehofer 2013; Ma-
ran 2013; Molloy 2016). In reality, manifestations of 
pottery, burial monuments, placement of the body, 
use of grave goods, and size of cemeteries display a 
certain fluidity, indicating that communities of the 
wider context were choosing from a “menu” of prac-
tices and material culture, based on their own per-
spectives. Fundamentally, if we seek to better 
understand the cultural context of Mycenaean soci-
eties within the landmass they occupy and compre-
hend the complex cultural interactions between 
communities of the north, west, and south, improv-
ing our knowledge of societies at the margin of Myce-
naean influence is essential (Andreou 2001, 2010; 
Gimatzidis and Pieniążek 2018). Therefore, bioar-
chaeological comparative analyses of cemeteries that 
lie within the wider geographical and cultural con-
text of the LBA eastern Mediterranean have the po-
tential to provide enlightening information on 
cultural exchange and mobility.

The cemetery of Achlada lies south of the historic re-
gion called the Pelagonia Valley, a region of ca. 2,000 
km2. This was a region which at once provided good al-
luvial land for settling and an opportune place to trade 
both north and south. Finds of amber from the Achlada 
cemetery (Ziota 2019) suggest that the community of 

this valley participated to some extent in the Mora-
va-Vardar/Axios routeway trade network. To best ex-
plore the context of Achlada, we evaluate data from the 
Balkans and Greece together. Looking initially to the 
north, at the site of Dubac in central Serbia, we find 
well-furnished burials in a mound which is located to-
ward the southern limit of the Tumulus Culture tradi-
tion. The distribution of ceramics common to the 
Vardar/Axios region, and found at Achlada, finds its 
northernmost limit around this cemetery (Bulatović 
2011; Dmitrović 2016). Following the pottery traditions 
south, there is a distinct concentration along the Mora-
va-Vardar/Axios corridor, which demonstrates the im-
portance of this north–south routeway. Achlada lies to 
the west of this route, possibly placing the community at 
the margins of a prosperous zone (Fig.  1). Well-fur-
nished burials with bronze finds and abundant ceram-
ics have been found along the Vardar River in the 
cemeteries at Ulanci and Mali Dol (e.g., Mitrevski 1997; 
Papazovska Sanev 2014) where the ceramic forms 
demonstrate close links with the Achlada community 
(Ziota 2019). Moving southeast to Macedonian Pieria, a 
number of well-studied cemeteries present features of 
Vardar-style pottery, as well as moderate to intense use 
of Mycenaean imports and imitations, while the use of 
tumuli burials is also practiced (e.g., Koulidou et  al. 
2017; Triantaphyllou 2001; Triantaphyllou and Andreou 
2020). Achlada was connected to Pieria and material 
culture parallels were found at Trimbina (Ziota, 2020, 
personal communication), but without displaying key 
cultural features of this region. Moving southwest to 
Epirus, connections with the Mycenaean world through 
ceramic imports are evident and the metalwork demon-
strates some shared practices with other parts of Greece. 
Epirus’s communities also shared ceramic styles with 
Albania and displayed similarities in the interpretation 
and use of Mycenaean influences and objects (Papado-
poulos et  al. 2014; Tartaron 2004). Therefore, Achlada 
could also be considered marginal to Epirus.

Αχλάδας στη Βόρεια Ελλάδα ώστε να απαντηθεί το εν λόγω ερώτημα, καθώς η συγκεκριμένη κοινωνία -βάσει 
της θέσης της μακριά από τα μεγάλα δίκτυα επικοινωνίας και της παρουσίας πολύ λίγων ταφικών ευρημάτων- 
ήταν πιθανώς λιγότερο καλά δικτυωμένη. Ακολουθήθηκε μια συνδυαστική βιοπολιτισμική προσέγγιση 
συγκριτικών ταφικών δεδομένων και συγκριτικών αποτελεσμάτων δεικτών τρόπου διαβίωσης. Βρέθηκαν 
διαφορές μεταξύ των δύο φύλων στον εν λόγω πληθυσμό οι οποίες φαίνεται να συμφωνούν με την διαφορετική 
πλευρά κατάκλισής τους, η οποία πιθανώς να συμβόλιζε τη διαφορετικότητα των ρόλων που η κοινωνία 
απέδιδε σε άντρες και γυναίκες στο ταφικό περιβάλλον. Συγκριτικά αποτελέσματα μεταξύ νεκροταφείων δεν 
φανέρωσαν χαμηλότερο επίπεδο υγείας και διατροφής, ούτε πιο έντονη εργασιακή καταπόνηση, σε σχέση με 
καλά δικτυωμένες θέσεις. Παρόλα αυτά, η Αχλάδα, όπως και μια σειρά –κυρίως βόρειων- κοινωνιών του 
ευρύτερου πλαισίου, πιθανότητα αντιμετώπισαν περισσότερα φαινόμενα καταπόνησης (στρες) κατά τη 
διάρκεια της ανάπτυξης, τουλάχιστον ήπιου και μετρίου επιπέδου, συγκριτικά με καλύτερα δικτυωμένους 
πληθυσμούς. Η παρούσα εργασία τονίζει τη σημασία της εφαρμογής συγκριτικών βιοαρχαιολογικών 
προσεγγίσεων ως μέσο μελέτης της επίδρασης της περιθωριοποίησης στους ανθρώπινους πληθυσμούς, 
ιδιαιτέρως σε θέσεις με περιορισμένες πληροφορίες υλικού πολιτισμού. Μεθοδολογικοί περιορισμοί οι οποίοι 
συνδέονται με ζητήματα διατήρησης αλλά και με τον πολυπαραγοντικό χαρακτήρα των δεικτών τρόπου 
διαβίωσης, ενδεχομένως να αντιμετωπιστούν μέσω των επερχόμενων βιομοριακών και ισοτοπικών αναλύσεων.

Λέξεις κλειδιά: τρόποι διαβίωσης; παλαιοπαθολογία; προϊστορία



Michael et al. 23

Even though social differentiation through the 
character and disposition of grave goods was com-
monly practiced in communities of the wider study 
context, in Achlada it was not deployed to a signifi-
cant degree to differentiate the interred in a highly 
structured manner (Ziota 2019: Table  1). There are 
fall-off zones of the major cultural ambits and these 
overlap with the fall-off zone of the minor Vardar 
tradition. These groups in the Pelagonia Valley are 
arguably benefitting from some limited, and as yet 
poorly defined, trade or communication link. It could 
be argued that the dearth of prestige goods is indica-
tive of a community not engaging strongly with ma-
jor networks, either on the basis of the dearth of 
material from the networks or their lack of intense 
participation in using metal and other traded materi-
als to construct identity, indicating local practices are 
dominant. So our questions arise. How marginal may 
we predict Achlada to be? What does it mean to be 
marginal in this world? When material culture evi-
dence is limited, are comparative bioarchaeological 
approaches able to provide answers on marginality?

If a given community is poorly networked and 
thus poorly buffered in times of hardship through re-
ciprocal intercommunity exchange networks 
(Halstead and O’Shea 1989:4), poorer health and diet 
might be expected. If people were more dependent on 
their land to survive and prosper, as a result of re-
duced trading actions and their associated wealth, 
higher levels of physical activity might also be ex-
pected. If, finally, we consider the lack of grave goods 

in the mortuary environment to indicate that they 
were not used as a means of expressing social differ-
entiation in death, a lack of intra-cemetery lifestyle 
differentiations would be expected.

The limited archaeological information and lack of 
settlement data restricts what can be suggested for 
the relative prosperity of this LBA community. It is 
therefore imperative to use comparative and contex-
tualized bioarchaeological data to explore marginal-
ity and its potential impact on lifeways. The main 
objective of this study is to examine the efficacy of 
comparative bioarchaeological approaches in provid-
ing answers on marginality and networking, particu-
larly in cases of limited material culture information. 
The following specific hypotheses are formed:

1) If the lack of material culture differentiation dis-
played in the mortuary practices of the current 
community reflects lack of social differentiations 
in lived reality, significant age or gender differ-
ences within the community—not related to bio-
logical factors—should be absent.

2) If the Achlada community was economically mar-
ginal and poorly networked, higher levels of phys-
iological stress and poorer diet compared to 
well-networked populations would be expected as 
a consequence of poor economic buffering. Simi-
larly, as a result of reduced trading activities and 
associated wealth, individuals at Achlada would 
probably be involved in more strenuous physical 
activities when compared to populations con-
nected to major routes.

Figure 1. The Site of Achlada in relation to Florina, Bitola, Thessaloniki, Pieria, and Axios River.



Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality24

Table  1.  Archaeological and anthropological information for Achlada prehistoric assemblage (CAR: dental caries, LEH: linear enamel hypoplasia, 
AMTL: antemortem tooth loss, CAL: calculus, S.DJD: spinal degenerative joint disease (DJD), P.DJD: postcranial degenerative joint disease (DJD), 
PF: postcranial fracture, SF: skull fracture, CO: cribra orbitalia, PH: porotic hyperostosis, ID: infectious disease). 

N.Burial Sex Age 
Placement of the body 
(slightly contracted) Artifacts Pathologies 

T.466 M 25–45 Right  Kantharos-shaped amphora CAR, AMTL, CAL, S.DJD, 
P.DJD, PF, ID 

T.393 F? Adult Left  One-handled cup PF 

T.617 ?/F? 25–35 Left — CAR, LEH, CAL 

T.329 ? 25–35? Left  One-handled cup CAR, AMTL, CAL 

T.302 M Adult Right  — CAR, LEH, CAL 

T.479 M 25–35 Right  Kantharos-shaped amphora, 
bronze dagger and knife 

CAR, LEH, AMTL, CAL 

T.476 M 17–25? Right  Kantharos CAR, LEH, CAL 

T.346 ? Adolescent/Adult Right  — none  

T.344 ? 17–25 Right  — LEH, CAL 

T.654 ?/M? 25–45 Left  Bowl CAR, CAL 

T.469 F? 25–35 Left  — CAR, LEH, CAL 

T.336 ? Adult Right  One-handled cup none  

T.510 ? Adult Left?  ? LEH 

T.337 M 20–25? ?  ? CAR, LEH, AMTL, CAL 

T.379 ? 2–3 Left  — CAR 

T.405 ?/F? 25–35 Left  — LEH 

T.364 M Adult ?  — CAL 

T.388 F? 25–34? ?  ? none  

T.391 ? Adult Left  ? none   

T.394 ? 20–35 Left  — CAR, LEH, AMTL, CAL 

T.432 ?/F? 25–34 Left One-handled cup none  

T.365 F? 17–25 Right Kantharos LEH, CAL 

T.360 F? 33–45 Left  — CAR, LEH, AMTL, CAL, S.DJD 

T.384 ? 5–6.5 ?  ? LEH 

T.324 ?/F? 25–45 Left  — CAL, CO 

T.303 M? 25–30 ? ? LEH, CAL 

T.387 M 25–44 Right  — CAR, LEH, AMTL, CAL, S.DJD, 
P.DJD 

T.338 M 33–45/45+ Right Handleless P.DJD 

T.390 M Adult Left  — PF 

T.389 F 30–45 Supine  One-handled cup LEH, CAL, PH 

 (Continued)



Michael et al. 25

Human remains from Achlada will be analyzed 
following a biocultural methodology, combining fu-
nerary practices with indicators of health and life-
style. In order to understand the manner in which 
the communities in Pelagonia (Fig. 1) were connected 
to major cultural constellations to the north and/or 
south, comparative data on type of tombs/burials, 

placement of the dead, grave goods, and demography 
will be presented. Lifeways will be investigated 
through dental diseases (caries, antemortem tooth 
loss (AMTL), and calculus), stress and lifestyle indi-
cators (stature, trauma, cribra orbitalia, porotic hy-
perostosis, and enamel hypoplasia), and degenerative 
joint diseases (DJD, including Schmorl’s nodes).

Table  1.  (continued)

N.Burial Sex Age 
Placement of the body 
(slightly contracted) Artifacts Pathologies 

T.316 F? 17–25 Left  Kantharos CAR, LEH, CAL, PH 

T.345 M 33–45/45+ Right  — LEH, S.DJD 

T.308 ?/F? Adult ? ? PH 

T.352 M 25–35 Right  “Mycenaeanizing”  
matt-painted vessel 

CAR, LEH, CAL 

T.351 ?/F? 17–25? Left  Bowl CAR, LEH, CAL 

T.415 ? 12–15  Right One-handled cup CAR, LEH, CAL 

T.414 ?/M? Adult Right Kantharos-shaped  
amphora 

P.DJD, SF 

T.340 M 25–35 Right  — CAR, LEH 

T.342 ? 8–12 ? ? CAR, LEH 

T.350 ? 5–6.5 Right  — none   

T.465 ?/M? Adult Right  — none  

T.457 ?/F? Adult ? Kantharos-shaped amphora none  

T.487 ? 3–4 Left  Beads of amber and  
glass, stone tool 

CAR, LEH, CO 

T.472 ? Adult Left  One-handled cup none   

T.356 M? 20–29 Right Kantharos-shaped amphora, 
bronze pin 

CAR, LEH, AMTL 

T.374 M 25–35 Right Kantharos-shaped amphora CAR, LEH, CAL, S.DJD 

T.367 M 25–35 Right  — CAR, LEH, PF 

T.444 F 17–25 Left  “Mycenaeanizing”  
painted vessel 

LEH, CAL 

T.378 ?/M? 30–35 Right — CAR, LEH, CAL, S.DJD 

T.362 ?/M? 25–35? Right  — CAR 

T.326 F? 25–35 Right Kantharos-shaped amphora, 
bronze dagger and pin 

LEH, AMTL, CAL 

T.553 ? 17–25 Left  Two-handled cup CAR 

T.370 ? Adolescent/Adult Left? One-handled cup CAR, PF 

T.371 ? 12 ± 30 months Left  — CAR, LEH 

T.458 F? 17–25 Left  Kantharos CAR 



Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality26

Materials and Methods

The cemetery of Achlada

Since 2014 the Ephorate of Antiquities of Florina has 
been conducting rescue excavations at a lignite mine 
in the region of Achlada, where a 20-acre archaeolog-
ical site has been defined. The excavation, which is 
still in progress, has revealed a cemetery dating from 
the LBA to Byzantine times (Ziota 2019). This study 
focuses on the prehistoric cemetery of Achlada near 
to the modern town of Florina in Macedonia in the 
north of Greece (Fig. 1).

The prehistoric cemetery (Fig. 2) consists of 74 pit 
burials and according to initial radiocarbon results it 
was used between 1400 and 1100 B.C. (Ziota 2019). 
Artifacts recovered from 32 tombs consisted primar-
ily of pottery. Apart from ceramic vessels, the re-
maining finds include jewelry, weapons, and tools 
(Table 1). Despite this limited number of prestige ob-
jects, the general pattern in the mortuary assemblage 
is for few objects to have been used in the final burial 
rites (Ziota 2019).

Out of the 74 prehistoric burials, 17 are partially or 
completely disturbed by later burials or foundations 
of Roman buildings. The cemetery consists of single 
burials with the exception of a couple of cases. There 
is no indication of a tumulus, nor could this be sup-
ported based on the inclination of the ground. Tombs 
in Achlada are usually oriented along the southwest–
northeast axis. The burials are contained and the de-
ceased were placed with their bodies lying on their 
side, their lower limbs slightly contracted and their 
upper limbs flexed in front of the torso (Ziota 2019). A 
total of 54 adult/possible adult individuals, five 
juveniles, and three adolescents were identified. No 

infants (up to 1 year) were found. Sex estimation was 
conducted only in adult cases and 22 males/possible 
males and 17 females/possible females were recog-
nized, as well as 32 individuals that could not be con-
fidently sexed. The demographic information of 
Achlada prehistoric cemetery is presented in Fig.  3 
(the 55 better preserved individuals). Interestingly, 
males are buried on their right side, whereas females 
are buried on their left. There are few exceptions to 
this, indicating a clear distinction between the sexes 
in terms of their placement (Ziota 2019; see  
Table 1).

Adult burials are found with artifacts with a fre-
quency of 46%, while non-adult ones include artifacts 
at a much lower percentage (i.e., 25% or 2 out of 8). All 
burials that were recovered with artifacts include at 
least one vessel, with the exception of one juvenile in-
humation found solely with beads and a stone tool 
(T.487). All ceramic vessels, which were usually placed 
close to the lower limbs, were handmade and belonged 
to specific types, intended for transport, offering, and 
consumption of liquids. Out of the 32 vessels only two 
were found with matt-painted decoration. Apart from 
pottery, the 13 remaining associated finds recovered 
in six tombs include three bronze fibulae, one glass 
and three amber beads (juvenile burial stated above), 
two bronze daggers, as well as one knife. A unique 
phallic object, most likely from sandstone, was also 
recovered (Ziota 2019). The ceramic vessels suggest a 
dynamic local production, without excluding foreign 
cultural characteristics that have been adapted to the 
local social and symbolic environment. No Myce-
naean imports were recovered, even though pottery 
influenced by or imitating Mycenaean patterns was 
found (Ziota 2019).

Methods

Biological profiling. Sex and age determination of the 
skeletons was conducted using the morphological 
criteria of the skull, pelvis, and ribs (Bass 1987; Brooks 
and Suchey 1990; Brothwell 1981; Buikstra and 
Ubelaker 1994; İşcan et al. 1984, 1985). Measurements 
were also used for sex estimation. Adults were cate-
gorized as females/possible females, males/possible 
males, or indeterminate.

Age determination in juveniles/adolescents was 
conducted following the criteria outlined in Moor-
rees et  al. (1963), Scheuer and Black (2000), and 
Ubelaker (1989). The age categories used in this study 
are: 1) infant (< 1 year); 2) juvenile (1–12 years); 3) ado-
lescent (12–17 years); 4) young adult (18–25 years); 5) 
young middle adult (26–35 years); 6) old middle adult 
(36–45 years); 7) mature adult (45+ years); 8) adult; 9) 
adolescent/adult.Figure 2. Topographic plan of the prehistoric burials of Achlada.



Michael et al. 27

Stature is considered a marker of physical well-be-
ing, resource availability, economic and nutritional 
improvement, as well as social context (Tritsaroli and 
Michael 2020). Stature estimation was based on fem-
oral length, as it is the largest element in the human 
skeleton and correlates best with human stature 
(Hauser et  al. 2005). All measurements were per-
formed using an osteometric board, and they were 
taken on the left side where possible, and on the right 
when the left side was not available (Buikstra and 
Ubelaker 1994; Martin 1914). The equations of Trotter 
for Whites (1970) were used.

Paleopathological diagnosis and recording. Degen-
erative joint diseases (DJD) are linked, among other 
factors (such as age), to strenuous physical activities. 
DJD was observed on all the joints of the human body, 
including the entire spine, according to the criteria of 
Rogers et al. (1987) (Fig. 4). In addition, a three-stage 
recording system for osteophytes and porosity (i.e., 
mild/moderate/severe) was implemented. Eburnation 
and Schmorl’s nodes were recorded as present or ab-
sent. Schmorl’s nodes mainly refer to the end result of 
the prolapsed disc, or the lesion that eventually is 
formed on the surface of the affected vertebral body 
(Faccia and Williams 2008:29). Even though congeni-
tal defects of the spine, age, and trauma are consid-
ered to be causative factors (Resnick and Niwayama 
1978), a number of studies have tested Schmorl’s nodes 

as markers of demanding physical activity (i.e., Angel 
et  al. 1987; Baker 1997; Coughlan and Holst 2000; 
Manzon and Gualdi-Russo 2015).

Trauma frequencies are highly affected by lifestyle 
factors such as economy, living environment, occupa-
tion, and interpersonal violence (Roberts and Man-
chester 2005:84). Traumatic lesions were recorded on 
the entire skeleton, including healed fractures (ante-
mortem trauma), unhealed fractures (perimortem 
trauma), sharp-force lesions, and projectile lesions.

Porotic hyperostosis (PH) and cribra orbitalia (CO) 
result from marrow hyperplasia. The etiology of their 
development has been highly debated and attributed 
to iron-deficiency anemia, inherited hemolytic ane-
mias, acquired megaloblastic anemia due to B12 and/
or folate deficiency, infectious disease, chronic scalp 
infections, respiratory infections, scurvy, and rickets 
(e.g., Camaschella 2015; Larsen 2015:31–32, 39; O’Don-
nell et  al. 2020; Ortner 2003; Oxenham and Cavill 
2010; Schultz 2002; Walker et al. 2009). When human 
remains are macroscopically analyzed, PH and CO 
are probably best regarded as stress indicators rather 
than markers of specific diseases (Steckel et  al. 
2005:13). PH and CO were recorded on four surfaces; 
orbits (CO) and parietal, frontal, and occipital bones 
(PH), according to a three-stage severity system: 1) 
porosity, 2) coalesce, 3) diploë expansion (Steckel et al. 
2005). The stage of healing was also recorded (healed 
closed lesions or unremodeled lesions).

Figure 3. Demographic composition of Achlada’s prehistoric assemblage. (YA: young adults, YM: young middle adults, OM: old middle adult, Ind. 
Adults: indeterminate adults.)



Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality28

Enamel hypoplasia can occur only while the teeth 
are developing, thus remaining as a permanent re-
cord into adulthood. Many factors are relevant to 
enamel defect etiology but they can be categorized 
broadly into hereditary anomalies, localized trauma, 
and systemic metabolic stress such as a nutritional 
deficiency or childhood illness (Goodman and Rose 
1991:279–294). Nevertheless, this condition is usually 
linked to systematic physiological stress in modern 
and archaeological skeletal human remains. Enamel 
hypoplasia was recorded on the buccal surface ac-
cording to its morphology pit, line, or groove (Fig. 4).

Caries and calculus are considered to be mutually 
exclusive in terms of etiology, as the mechanisms that 
produce them are different. Comparing their fre-
quencies in a population can give valuable informa-
tion related to dietary patterns (Hillson 1979). Caries 
is a disease process characterized by the focal demin-
eralization of dental hard tissues by organic acids 
produced by bacterial fermentation of dietary carbo-
hydrates (Larsen et al. 1991). Apart from a cariogenic 
diet (i.e., sucrose), the etiology of dental caries is also 
related to poor dental hygiene, which leads to bacte-
rial overgrowth, composition of the saliva, and sus-
ceptible tooth structure (Bourbou 2013:219).  
Dental calculus is mineralized bacterial plaque (Luk-
acs 1989:283) which consists of microorganisms that 
accumulate in the mouth, embedded in a matrix 
partly composed by the organisms themselves and 
partly derived from proteins in the saliva  
(i.e., Hillson 2005:289). It accumulates on the teeth 
faster when there is a high protein diet favoring an 
alkaline oral environment (i.e., Lukacs 1989:283), al-
though the role of other factors such as individual 

variation, cultural practices, and the process of min-
eralization should not be overlooked (Lieverse 1999).

Dental caries was recorded on the occlusal, mesial, 
distal, lingual, buccal, cemento-enamel junction 
(CEJ), and root, according to a four-stage system: 1) 
pinpoint, 2) small/< 1/2 crown, 3) medium/< 1/2 
crown, and 4) large. Calculus was recorded according 
to Brothwell (1981) (Fig. 4). Teeth were recorded ac-
cording to the FDI tooth numbering system.

Statistical analysis

As the data did not follow a normal distribution 
(Kolmogorov-Smirnov test), two nonparametric tests 
were performed: the Mann-Whitney U test (p < 0.05) 
and the Kruskal-Wallis test (p < 0.05). Spearman’s 
rank correlation coefficient (p < 0.05, or p < 0.01) was 
also used in order to test how strongly the variables 
were associated with each other. The chi-square test 
was also used for comparative statistical analyses. All 
the analyses were carried out using SPSS (Statistical 
Package for the Social Sciences) version 21.

Results

A) Intra-cemetery variation

Out of the 74 prehistoric burials, the systematic study 
was applied on 55 of them as the poor skeletal repre-
sentation of the remaining burials did not allow for a 
detailed osteological analysis and paleopathological 
investigation. Overall percentages of pathological 
conditions, nonspecific stress indicators, and frac-
tures for the population of Achlada are presented in 
Table 2.

The overall frequency of DJD in the current sam-
ple is quite limited. All four cases of postcranial DJD 
were noted in males, three old middle adults and one 
adult. Overall, spinal DJD was observed on 25 verte-
brae and 11 individuals. Apart from spinal DJD ob-
served in one female old middle adult, all remaining 
cases (including Schmorl’s nodes) involve males. As 
expected, DJD is mostly observed in older individu-
als. In cervical and thoracic vertebrae, age shows a 
positive correlation with osteophytes, although this 
is not statistically significant (Spearman’s rho 
[age-cervical osteophytes]: 0.108, p = 0.752; Spear-
man’s rho [age-thoracic osteophytes]: 0.230, p = 
0.495).

Traumatic lesions were noted in five individuals 
(Tables 1 and 2 ; also see Supplemental Information), 
affecting seven postcranial elements and one cra-
nium. With the exception of one possible adult 

Figure 4. Examples of indicators recorded in LBA Achlada assemblage. 
a) T.374, male young middle adult, mild osteophytes on the superior 
body of 5th lumbar vertebra; b) T.340, male young middle adult, caries 
(medium expression) on the mesial/Cemento-Enamel junction surface 
on the 2nd lower left molar; c) T.326, female young middle adult, enamel 
hypoplasia (grooves) on the upper left canine; d) T.444, female young 
adult, slight and moderate calculus on right maxilla. Courtesy of the 
Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports.



Michael et al. 29

female, the remaining cases were noted in males/pos-
sible male individuals.

Cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis were ob-
served in five cases overall (Tables 1 and 2). Interest-
ingly, with the exception of one juvenile presenting 
with porosity on the orbital roof, all remaining four 
cases were recorded in females. In the adult cases, the 
lesions were mostly healed. One young child, be-
tween three and four years old, presented with both 
active and healed lesions.

Prevalences of caries, calculus, AMTL, and enamel 
hypoplasia in relation to sex are presented in Table 3. 
When all age categories are combined, statistically 
significant differences were found between the sexes 
for enamel hypoplasia and calculus. More specifi-
cally, males and females do present statistically  
significant differences for the former indicator but 
not for the latter (Mann-Whitney U, Z = –0.216,  
p = 0.829). Statistical comparisons between males and 
females while controlling for age are also presented 

in Table 4. No statistically significant differences re-
garding caries and calculus location and severity 
were noted. In contrast, the sexes do present statisti-
cally significant differences in terms of hypoplasia 
type (Mann-Whitney U, Z = –4.538, p  < 0.001).

The stated dental indicators were also examined in 
relation to age, regardless of sex (Table 5). No age dif-
ferences were noted for enamel hypoplasia, contrary 
to the remaining indicators. AMTL and calculus 
present their highest rates in the old middle adult cat-
egory. Both conditions present positive and signifi-
cant correlations with age (Spearman’s rho 
[age-calculus]: 0.193, p = 0.000; Spearman’s rho [age-
AMTL]: 0.137, p = 0.000). Dental caries on the other 
hand are presenting a negative correlation with age 
(Spearman’s rho: –0.038, p = 0.310), although not sig-
nificant. Caries were mostly noted in young adults 
(Table  5) and the difference between the adult age 
categories is significant (Kruskal-Wallis, chi-square: 
10.221, df = 2, p = 0.06).

Table  2.   Percentages of pathological conditions and fractures for the population of Achlada (Florina). (True Prevalence Rates for dental diseases and 
enamel hypoplasia are the number of teeth/alveoli exhibiting the condition divided by the number of teeth/alveoli examined; Crude Prevalence Rates 
for the remaining conditions and fracture cases are defined as the number of individuals exhibiting the condition/fracture divided by the number of 
individuals examined.) 

Pathologies
Individuals 
affected Crude prevalence rate % Teeth/alveoli affected True prevalance rate %

AMTL 9/55 16.4 26/816 3.2

Caries 29/55 52.7 70/709 9.9

Enamel hypoplasia 31/55 56.4 150/709 21.2

Calculus 26/55 47.3 159/709 22.4

Cribra orbitalia 2/55 3.6

Porotic hyperostosis 3/55 5.5

Spinal DJD 6/55 10.9

Postcranial DJD 4/55 7.3

Skull fractures* 1/55 1.8

Postcranial fractures* 4/55  7.3
*probable cases

Table  3.  Dental diseases and enamel hypoplasia in relation to sex (for all age categories combined).

F/F? M/M? ? Kruskall-Wallis test

Dental caries 21/70
30%

34/70
48.6%

15/70
21.4%

chi-square = 2.371
df = 2
p = 0.306

AMTL 5/26
19.2%

16/26
61.5%

5/26
19.2%

chi-square = 0.000
df = 2
p = 1.000

Enamel hypoplasia 30/150
20%

84/150
56%

36/150
24%

chi-square = 27.418
df = 2
p = 0.000

Calculus 65/159
40.9%

75/159
47.2%

19/159
11.9%

chi-square = 16.612
df = 2
p = 0.000



Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality30

B) Intercemetery comparisons

Comparative mortuary data. Comparative funerary 
information on the LBA sites of the wider archaeo-
logical and geographical context is presented in Ta-
ble 6. Single burial inhumations are mostly observed 
in populations north of Thessaly, while multiple 
burials are mostly noted in southern Mycenaean 
populations. The pattern of males being placed on 
their right side, with females on their left, is noted 
in the current sample as well as at Jančići Dubac 

(with a few exceptions) and at Pigi Artemidos. Arti-
facts, such as pottery and numerous bronze items 
(e.g., jewelry, weapons), are common among all sites 
of the wider study context. Elaborate burials are 
noted in the Grave Circle/Tholos Tombs of Pylos 
and Kazanaki Tholos Tomb in Thessaly. At numer-
ous sites (e.g., Lofkënd Tumuli, Spathes, Korinos, 
Trimbina, Athens), prestigious objects were also 
found, with a proportion of the buried population 
(Table 6).

Table  4.  Statistical comparisons of dental diseases and enamel hypoplasia between sexes while controlling for age

Young adults Young middle  Old middle

(F/F? vs. M/M?) (F/F? vs. M/M?) (F/F? vs. M/M?)

Dental caries 85.7% (18/21); 29.4% (10/34) 9.5% (2/21); 38.2% (13/34) 4.8% (1/21); 29.4% (10/34)

Mann-Whitney: 4397.0 Mann-Whitney: 6031.5 Mann-Whitney: 3641.0

Z = –0.082 Z = –1.857 Z = –2.093

p = 0.934 p = 0.063 p  = 0.036

AMTL 0; 18.8% (3/16) 40% (2/5); 6.3% (1/16) 60% (3/5); 75% (12/16)

Mann-Whitney: 4224.0 Mann-Whitney: 6321.0 Mann-Whitney: 3681.0

Z = –2.371 Z = –1.211 Z = –1.571

p  = 0.018 p = 0.226 p = 0.116

Enamel hypoplasia 43.3% (13/30); 20.2% (17/84) 46.7% (14/30); 56% (47/84) 10% (3/30); 22.6% (19/84)

Mann-Whitney: 3776.5 Mann-Whitney: 3554.0 Mann-Whitney: 3432.5

Z = –2.692 Z = –2.281 Z = –2.595

p  = 0.007 p  = 0.023 p  = 0.009

Calculus 36.9% (24/65); 21.3% (16/75) 33.8% (22/65); 41.3% (31/75) 29.2% (19/65); 29.3% (22/75)

Mann-Whitney: 4220.0 Mann-Whitney: 6025.5 Mann-Whitney: 3667.0

Z = –0.737 Z = –1.141 Z = –1.090

p = 0.461 p= 0.254 p = 0.276

Table  5.  Prevalence of dental diseases and enamel hypoplasia by age groups

Age groups Dental caries AMTL Calculus Enamel hypoplasia

Juvenile (1–12 years) 5.8% (5/86) absent absent 20.9% (18/86)

Adolescent (12–18 years) 10% (2/20) absent 10% (2/20) 40% (8/20)

Yound adult (18–25 years) 16.3% (30/184) 1.4% (3/207) 22.8% (42/184) 19.6% (36/184)

Young middle (25–35 years) 7.3% (20/273) 2.6% (8/302) 24.5% (67/273) 23.1% (63/273)

Old middle (36–45 years) 8.4% (11/131) 8.2% (15/182) 31.3% (41/131) 16.8% (22/131)

Kruskal-Wallis test chi-square = 12.519
df = 4
p = 0.014

chi-square = 20.598
df = 4
p = 0.00

chi-square = 33.691
df = 4
p = 0.00

chi-square = 7.134
df = 4
p = 0.129



Michael et al. 31

Table  6.  Archaeological information of LBA sites of the wider study region

Sites of the wider context Absolute 
chronology

Relative 
chronology

Type of tombs/burials Grave orientation 
Burial placement

Brief information on  
grave goods

Achlada, Macedonia, 
Greece

1400–1100 B.C. pit graves, single burials, all 
inhumations

SW–NE; males/right; 
females/left

one ceramic vessel per tomb 
(32 overall); 13 objects (e.g., 
amber beads, bronze fibulae, 
one knife)

Jančići Dubac, Serbia1 LBA Tumuli, inhumations and 
cremations

multiple orientation 
(W–E and E–W), 
slightly crouched 
position observed in 
some cases, males/right; 
females/left 

jewelry, numerous bronze 
items, ceramic vessels, in 
general well furnished

Manastir, Čaška–Veles, 
North Macedonia2

EBA–EIA necropolis of the settlement, 
12 skeletons, of which 10 with 
traces of burning-cremation 
not completed

part of the Ulanci group LBA 
tradition, North Balkan 
objects (e.g., battle axes—
Celts, spears)

Kamenica Tumuli, 
Albania3

13th–12th c. B.C. Tumuli, Great Circle, simple 
pits

flexed position pottery, jewelery, weapons

Apollonia Tumulus 10, 
Albania4

LBA/EIA Tumuli, simple pits,  
single burials

multiple orientation 
NW most prevalent 
sleeping/fetal position 
most prevalent

32% of burials with grave 
goods, remarkable variety of 
types (e.g., bronze pins, 
bronze knife, necklace of 
faience beads)

Lofkënd Tumuli, Albania5 LBA/EIA Tumuli, pit burials, single 
and commingled burials 
(simultaneous and prima-
ry-secondary inhumations), 
two cremations present

multiple orientation 
(predominant 
orientation northeast 
and southeast), mostly 
supine position with 
legs flexed

less than half of 85 burials 
with goods, grave goods 
found more in female burials, 
mostly one artifact per 
person, six “wealthier” 
burials up to 11 items each, in 
general: pottery, bronze and 
iron ornaments (including 
weapons), beads of various 
materials (iron and glass), 
electrum objects

Epirus’s sites, Greece 
(Elaphotopos, Konitsa, 
Skamneli)6

LBA cist graves, inhumations local pottery, bronze weapons 
and implements, bronze 
jewelry, lithics; significant 
number of beads and one 
matt-painted jug (Skamneli 
burials)

P. Athinas, Macedonia, 
Greece7

1650–1500 B.C. 5 Tumuli—16 single-pit 
graves—the 5 central of them 
deeper—possible examples of 
elaborate construction

SW–NE males/ right; 
females/left

one ceramic vessel per 
burial—very few other 
findings (e.g., jewelry)—most 
usual ceramic type “Thessaly 
Kantharos” with central 
channel decoration

P. Artemidos,  
Macedonia, Greece8

1600–1400 B.C. Tumulus, 6 pit graves & 3 
stone & 1 deposit of bones,  
all single burials

variously oriented  
males on both sides

clay vessels and bronze items 
(one bracelet, one spiral 
earring, two pins, and three 
knives); one vase of 
Mycenaean type

Valtos, Macedonia, 
Greece9

MBA–LBA Tumulus—3 pit graves bronze jewelry in one burial

Korinos, Macedonia, 
Greece10

EBA–LBA Tumuli, pit graves, mainly 
single burials

contracted position,  
no specific  
orientation

large quantity of pottery  
(local and Mycenaean), clay, 
lithic and stone objects, 
numerous jewelry (bronze, 
silver, some gold beads)

 (Continued)



Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality32

Table  6.  (Continued)

Sites of the wider context Absolute 
chronology

Relative 
chronology

Type of tombs/burials Grave orientation 
Burial placement

Brief information on  
grave goods

Spathes, Macedonia, 
Greece11

1400–1200 B.C. cist graves, 2–5 individuals 
per burial

sealstones (17), jewelry 
weaponry (e.g., sword type G 
of Sandars, C3 dagger) and 
Mycenaean or “Mycenaeanis-
ing” pottery 

Treis Elies, Macedonia, 
Greece12

LBA/EIA cist and pit graves single 
burials

handmade Macedonian 
pottery and ceramics 
influenced by Mycenaean 
patterns, numerous 
metalwork findings, simple 
and “poor” necklaces

Trimbina, Macedonia, 
Greece 13

1420–1150 B.C. 17 cist and pit burials 
(including one animal 
burial), single burials

NE–SW all human burials with 
artifacts (pottery and 
metalwork)—intense 
Mycenaean presence, one 
“warrior” burial 

Rema Xydias, Macedonia, 
Greece 14

1390–1200 B.C. mostly cist graves—multiple/
collective inhumations in 
most cases

local production and 
Mycenaean-type artifacts 

Faia Petra, Macedonia, 
Greece 15

13th c. B.C. five groups of single and 
multiple burials and a single 
grave, inhumations and one 
cremation, elaborate and 
time-consuming construc-
tion of burial enclosures

contracted and supine 
positions

plain clay pots (mainly 
incised decoration filled with 
white paste— typical of 
Eastern and Central 
Macedonia); two Mycenae-
an-type stirrup jars, several 
bronze items, amber beads, 
and two gold discs, funerary 
meals (remains of unburnt 
animal bones)

Velestino, Thessaly, 
Greece16

LHIIIA–B five chamber tombs, one 
primary, and two to six 
secondary burials per tomb

contracted position not very “rich” artifacts

Kazanaki, Thessaly, 
Greece17

14th c. B.C. one tholos tomb, commin-
gled, evidence of incomplete 
cremation

prestige items (e.g., golden 
jewelry, 1000 necklace tiles, 
glass beads), 42 pots (18 matt 
painted)

East Lokris, Phiotida, 
Greece18

1325–1100 B.C. chamber tombs commingled 
burials

non-elite socioeconomic 
stratum

Athens, Attiki, Greece19 LBA chamber tombs, pit graves, 
cist graves

weapons (swords, spears, 
knives), painted pottery, 
beads (e.g., gold, amber)

Pylos, Peloponnese, 
Greece20

Middle 
Helladic to 
LHIIIC

population from the Palace of 
Nestor and neighboring area, 
Grave Circle, elaborate tholos 
tombs, chamber tombs and 
pit (cist) grave, primary and 
secondary burials in all cases

extended and 
contracted

Grave Circle: multiple 
artifacts (e.g., bronze 
cauldrons, daggers, rapiers, 
boars’ tusks, ornaments of 
gold, ivory, and silver); Tholos 
tombs: beads of amethyst, 
pottery, gold leaf; Chambers: 
pottery, beads, bronze and 
stone artifacts; pit grave: four 
pots

Ayia Sotira, Peloponnese, 
Greece21

LHIIIA1–
IIIB2

chamber cemetery, primary 
and secondary burials, 24 out 
of 34 burials showed evidence 
for secondary treatment 

pottery, plant, and food 
remains (meals for living or 
dead), residues of fatty lipids 
and wood, hundreds of 
miniature beads

 (Continued)



Michael et al. 33

The number of adults vs. non-adults found in cem-
eteries of the wider region is presented in Table 7. The 
highest adult–non-adult ratios are noted in LBA/EIA 
Treis Elies in Pieria (11:1 ratio), Mycenaean Pylos (8:1 
ratio), the current sample (7:1 ratio), and Mycenaean 
Voudeni (6:1 ratio). A number of sites, (e.g., Kamenica 
Tumuli, Apollonia Tumulus 10, Lofkënd Tumuli, 
Spathes, Korinos, East Lokris, Athens, Ayia Sotira) 
present ratios between 4:1 and 2:1. In Pigi Athinas tu-
muli no non-adults were found, whereas Čaška–Veles 
and Faia Petra present almost an equal number of 
adults and non-adults. LBA Jančići Dubac is an ex-
ception, as the number of non-adults is slightly 
higher compared to adults.

Comparative data of lifestyle indicators. Compara-
tive DJD data of LBA sites of the wider study context 
are presented in Table 8. The highest number of post-
cranial DJD cases is noted at Rema Xydias and Pigi 
Athinas in Macedonian Olympus. The spine is more 
affected than the rest of the skeleton in Achlada and 
Lofkënd tumuli, while in Velestino and Jančići Dubac 
DJD is absent from the postcranial elements. In LBA 
Spathes and LBA/EIA Treis Elies, the upper part of 
the body (upper limbs, cervical and thoracic seg-
ments, and thorax) is more affected than the lower 
one (lower limbs, lumbar, and sacral segments) 
(Table 8).

Comparative data on stature, trauma, CO, and PH 
are presented in Table 9. The highest adult stature is 
observed at Jančići Dubac and it is much higher com-
pared to all the remaining sites of the wider study 
context. The two sites in Thessaly (Kazanaki and Ve-
lestino), Sykia in the Peloponnese, and Čaška–Veles 
in North Macedonia gave stature averages of around 
165 cm, while the remaining samples have a stature 
range of between 158 cm and 162 cm. Apart from 
Rema Xydias in Macedonian Olympus exhibiting a 
very high number of trauma cases (per bone), the 
majority of the remaining sites present few trauma 
cases (below five), while Achlada cemetery and 
Lofkënd tumuli present six and nine cases of trau-
matic lesions, respectively. Likewise, the majority of 
sites present limited numbers of CO and PH cases, 
with the exception of Pigi Athinas and Rema Xydias 
(Table 9).

Finally, comparative results of enamel hypoplasia 
and dental diseases rates are presented in Table  10. 
Achlada has a statistically significantly higher rate of 
enamel hypoplasia than all the sites of Central and 
Southern Greece, as well all of Epirus’s sites (Elapho-
topos, Konitsa, and Skamneli). The only sites that 
present significantly higher rates of enamel hypopla-
sia than Achlada are Pigi Artemidos and Trimbina in 
Macedonian Olympus. Dental caries frequencies 

Table  6.  (Continued)

Sites of the wider context Absolute 
chronology

Relative 
chronology

Type of tombs/burials Grave orientation 
Burial placement

Brief information on  
grave goods

Achaea Clauss, Pelopon-
nese, Greece22

LHIIIA1–IIIC chamber tombs, primary and 
secondary burials, inhuma-
tions, only one cremation

Clauss Warrior 2: left 
placement, legs in 
contracted position

pottery, sealstones, 
impressive jewelry, toilet 
equipment, metal objects, 
weapons (e.g., Naue II long 
sword), two warrior burials, 
exotic knife of North Italian 
origin at Clauss Warrior 2

Voudeni, Peloponnese, 
Greece23

1400–1050 B.C. chamber tombs, collective 
burials

numerous findings: pottery, 
weapons, tools, jewelry; 
connections with Messene, 
Laconia, Argolid/Corinth, 
Crete, Italy, Anatolia

Spaliareika Achaea, 
Peloponnese, Greece24

LHIIIA–C four chamber tombs, primary 
and secondary inhumations

supine position (“local 
ruler” burial)

two bronze swords (burial of 
local ruler—most elaborate 
burial), pottery, bronze items, 
glass and stone beads

Sykia, Peloponnese, 
Greece25

LHIIIA–C three chamber tombs weapons (e.g., swords, knives, 
daggers), pottery

1 Dmitrović 2016; 2 Veljanovska 2008; 3 Kline 2015:69; 4 Grazia Amore 2010; 5 Papadopoulos et al. 2014; Stapleton 2014; 6 Tartaron 2004; Vasileiou et al. 2018; 
Vokotopoulou 1967; 7 Poulaki-Pantermali 2008; Poulaki-Pantermali et al. 2010; Tritsaroli 2017; 8 Tritsaroli and Koulidou 2018; 9 Poulaki-Pantermali et al. 2010; 
10 Bessios 1997; 11 Poulaki-Pantermali 1986a, 1986b, 1987a, 1987b, 1990, 1991; 12 Poulaki-Pantermali 1988, 1989, 1992; 13 Koulidou et al. 2017; 14 Koulidou 2005, 
2009, 2020; Tritsaroli, 2020; 15 Valla et al. 2010; 16 Arachoviti 1994; Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou 1994; Papathanasiou et al. 2012a; 17 Adrimi-Sismani and Alexandrou 
2008; 18 Iezzi 2005, 2009; 19 Camp 2003; Smith 2009; 20 Blegen et al. 1973; 21 Smith et al. 2017; 22 Paschalidis 2020; Paschalidis and McGeorge 2009; 23 Kolonas 
1998, 2009a; Moutafi 2015; 24 Petropoulos 2000; 25 Eustathiou 1997, 1998.



Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality34

range from 0% to 24.2%, placing Achlada’s rate (9.9%) 
in the middle of this range (Table 10). In contrast, the 
observed calculus rate of the current sample is sig-
nificantly higher than most other compared collec-
tions (mostly in Macedonia) with the exception of 
Valtos and Pigi Artemidos. Regarding AMTL, Achla-
da’s rate is one of the lowest compared to the sites of 
the wider study region (Table 10).

Discussion

A) Intra-cemetery variation

In terms of DJD, male individuals were more af-
fected than females. Osteoarthritis, especially of 
the spine, is strongly linked to genetics and some 
studies have documented that this hereditary effect 

Table  7.  Number of adults and non-adults in LBA sites of the wider context

Adults Non-adults (< 18 years)

Achlada 48 7

Jančići Dubac1 8 10

Manastir, Čaška–Veles2 7 4

Kamenica Tumuli3 10 4

Apollonia Tumulus 104 46 14

Lofkënd Tumuli5 86 43

P. Athinas6 17 0

P. Artemidos7 8 2

Valtos8 7 3

Korinos9 20 4

Spathes9 21 6

Treis Elies9 32 3

Trimbina10 18 8

Rema Xydias10 32 13

Faia Petra11 7 5

Velestino12 20 11

Kazanaki13 6 3

East Lokris14 142 43

Athens15 79 38

Pylos16 160 19

Ayia Sotira17 26 8

Achaea Clauss18 55 18

Voudeni, Achaea19 175 31

Spaliareika Achaea20 21 4

Sykia21 28 8
1 Radović 2016:272–282; 2 Veljanovska 2008:431–438; 3 Kline 2015:69; 4 Schepartz 2010:52; 5 Schepartz 2014:140–141; 6 Tritsaroli 2017:238; 7 Tritsaroli and 
Koulidou 2018:Table 1, 12; 8 Tritsaroli 2007:Table 1, 192; 9 Triantaphyllou 2001:36; 10 Tritsaroli 2020:Table 2, 262; 11 Valla et al. 2010:Fig. 6, 236; 12 Papathanasiou 
et al. 2012a:215; 13 Papathanasiou 2009:153; 14 Iezzi 2005:219, 2009:Table 11.1; 15 Smith 1998; 16 Schepartz et al, 2009:Table 10.2, 2011; Papathanasiou et al., 2012b; 17 
Triantaphyllou 2017:132; 18 Paschalidis and McGeorge 2009:102; 19 Moutafi 2015:428–429; 20 Papathanasiou 2005:Table 1, 192; 21 Papathanasiou 1999:1009–1101.



Michael et al. 35

is stronger in females than in males (Bergink et al. 
2003; Sambrook et al. 1999; Spector and MacGregor 
2004; Wilson et  al. 1990). Therefore, even though 
the number of affected cases is very limited, it could 
be cautiously suggested that activity patterns dif-
fered between men and women. Regarding trauma, 
the pattern observed in the current sample follows 
the expected conventional model of males suffering 
more accidental injuries than females as a possible 
consequence of a greater exposure to trauma trig-
gered by heavier workload (Angel 1974; Grauer and 
Roberts 1996; Merbs 1989). In particular, traumatic 
lesions of the foot observed mostly in male individ-
uals of the wider context (Figs. S1 and S4)  
(e.g., Papathanasiou et  al. 2012a:218–219; Trian-
taphyllou 2001:83; Tritsaroli and Koulidou 2018:16) 
may suggest activities such as farming (e.g., con-
structing and clearing fields, tilling, planting, and 
harvesting) and walking long distances (Trian-
taphyllou 2001:83).

In Achlada cemetery, with the exception of one ju-
venile, all cases of PH and CO were recorded on fe-
males. A number of studies have pointed out that 
females show higher frequencies of acquired anemia 
than men due to stresses and iron loss related to 
pregnancy, lactation, and menstruation (Larsen 

1997; Miller 2016; Stuart-Macadam 1998). On the 
other hand, as lesions observed on females were 
mostly healed, it is most likely that they had been 
formed during childhood/adolescence (Stuart-Mac-
adam 1985; Walker et al. 2009). Walker et al. (2009) 
have challenged the association of iron loss with 
such porosities, linking them instead to megaloblas-
tic and hemolytic anemias. In any case, due to the 
limited number of observed cranial elements and the 
obscure etiology of these lesions, more detailed con-
clusions could not be drawn.

Regarding enamel hypoplasia, males overall pres-
ent higher frequencies of enamel hypoplasia than fe-
males and this difference is statistically significant. It 
seems possible that males could have been more ex-
posed to stress episodes during their developmental 
years than females. On the other hand, it is quite 
possible that females experienced the same stress but 
were physiologically more buffered and did not de-
velop the same amount of defects (e.g., Trigunaite 
et  al. 2015). Nevertheless, younger females present 
significantly higher rates than younger males  
(Table  4), possibly suggesting that females experi-
encing stress episodes during childhood underwent 
a significant risk of death in early adulthood (Trian-
taphyllou 2001:114). As a high prevalence of 

Table  8.   DJD in Late Bronze Age sites of the wider context  

Sites (overall number of 
individuals) Overall DJD Postcranial DJD Spinal DJD

Achlada (N = 55) 10 cases (per indiv.)  
31 cases (per bone)

4 cases (per indiv.) 
6 cases (per bone)

6 cases (per indiv.) 
25 cases (per bone)

Jančići Dubac (N = 18)1 not available  not available 4 cases (per indiv.)

Lofkënd Tumulus (N = 136)2 not available 8 cases (per bone) 45 cases (per indiv.)

P. Athinas (N = 17)3 not available  46 cases (per bone) 18 cases (per bone)

P. Artemidos (N = 10)4 not available  2 cases per hip, knee, ankle; 1  
case per foot (per indiv.)

4 cases (per indiv.)

Spathes (N = 27)5 11 cases (per bone) upper body: 9 cases lower body: 2 cases (per bone)

Treis Elies (N = 35)5 21 cases (per bone) upper body: 13 cases lower body: 8 cases (per bone)

Trimbina (N = 26)6 not available  shoulder (13.6%–37.5%) elbow (4.3%–
23.5%) hands (2%–33.3%) hip (18.4%–
23.8%) knee (15.9%–22.2%) ankle 
(7.9%–25%) foot (3.6%–7.3%)(per bone)

cervical: 30.4%, thoracic & lumbar: 
33.3% (per bone)

Kazanaki (N = 9)7 9 cases (per bone) not available  not available 

Velestino (N = 31)8 not available  not available  12 cases (per bone)

Spaliareika (N = 25)9 10 cases (per bone) not available not available 

Sykia (N = 36)10 8 cases (per bone) not available  not available 

Upper body: upper limbs, cervical and thoracic vertebrae, thorax; lower body: lower limbs, lumbar, and sacral vertebrae. For Trimbina and Rema Xydias DJD 
is presented for both sites combined.
1 Radović 2016:272–282; 2 Schepartz 2014:148–149; 3 Tritsaroli 2017:Table 9.6, Table 9.7, 243–244; 4 Tritsaroli and Koulidou 2018:17; 5 Triantaphyllou 2001:Table 
6.1, Table 6.4, 70, 74; 6 Tritsaroli 2020:258; 7 Papathanasiou 2009:154; 8 Papathanasiou et al. 2012a:218; 9 Papathanasiou 2005:195–196; 10 Papathanasiou 1999:1011.



Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality36

physiological stress indicators in mature and old 
adults may indicate that affected individuals coped 
successfully with stress episodes during growth (De-
Witte and Stojanowski 2015:407; Wood et  al. 
1992:352) current results could indicate that males 
coped more successfully with stress episodes during 
childhood compared to females, as defects are much 
more evident in the middle and old middle aged men 
than women. Could it be suggested then that males 
received better care, such as a better nutrition, 
during growth that helped them to cope with stresses 
more successfully? A dentine isotopic reconstruction 
could potentially shed light on sex dietary differ-
ences during childhood. On the other hand, it can-
not be safely assumed that males and females buried 
in Achlada all grew up together under the same con-
ditions. The challenges  both sexes faced in their 
childhood do not of necessity reflect challenges faced 
in the same landscape or community setting.

Osteological and isotopic data from mainland 
southern Greece (Papathanasiou et al. 2012b; Schep-
artz et al. 2009; Triantaphyllou et al. 2019) have indi-
cated dietary differentiations related to sex, with 
females having poorer dental health than males, and 
the latter incorporating more animal protein in their 
diet. The concept of females consuming cariogenic 
foodstuffs and males more meat could be suggested 
for sites in Pieria such as Pigi Athinas (Tritsaroli 
2017:250), Korinos, and Spathes (Triantaphyllou 
2001:120–126), based on caries and calculus rates. The 
pattern observed at Achlada though is not that clear. 
Males present higher rates of caries and calculus than 
females; however, the differences are not statistically 
significant. Dental caries differences are significant 
between old middle adult males and females  
(Table  4). AMTL, which is associated with caries 
among other factors (Hillson 1996), is also more fre-
quent in males than females and this difference is sta-

Table  9.  Comparative data of stature, trauma, cribra orbitalia, and porotic hyperostosis

Sites (overall number of individuals) Stature Trauma Cribra orbitalia Porotic hyperostosis

Achlada (N = 55) 162.5 cm

6 cases (per indiv.)

2 cases (per indiv.) 3 cases (per indiv.)8 cases (per bone)

Jančići Dubac (N = 18)1 172.09 cm absent absent absent

Manastir, Čaška–Veles (N = 12)2 165.3 cm not available not available not available

Apollonia Tumulus 10 (N = 60)3 not available not available 5 cases (per indiv.)

Lofkënd Tumulus (N = 136)4 161.5 cm 9 cases (per indiv.) 5 cases (per indiv.) 1 case (per indiv.)

P. Athinas (N = 17)5 162 cm 2 cases (per bone) none 17 cases (per bone)

P. Artemidos (N = 10)6 not available 2 cases (per indiv.) 3 cases (per indiv.) 1 case (per indiv.)

Valtos (N = 3)7 not available 2 cases (per bone) absent 1 case (per indiv.)

Spathes (N = 27)8 157 cm 2 cases (per bone) 3 cases (per bone) 1 case (per bone)

Treis Elies (N = 35)8 not available 2 cases (per bone) 1 case (per bone) absent

Trimbina (N = 26)9 160 cm 1 case (per bone) 2 cases (per indiv.) 5 cases (per indiv.)

Rema Xydias (N = 45)9 158 cm 15 cases (per bone) 7 cases (per indiv.) 17 cases (per indiv.)

Kazanaki (N = 9)10 165.5 cm 1 case (per bone) 2 cases (per indiv.) absent

Velestino (N = 31)11 164.4 cm 2 cases (per indiv.) absent absent

Spaliareika (N = 25)12 158 cm 1 case (per indiv.) 1 case (per indiv.) 4 cases (per indiv.)

Achaea Clauss (N = 73)13 162.2 cm not available  not available  not available 

Sykia (N = 36)14 165.9 cm 4 cases (per indiv.) absent 1 case (per indiv.)

Ayia Sotira (N = 34)15 not available 1 case (per indiv.) not available not available
1 Radović 2016:272–282; 2 Veljanovska 2008:431–438; 3 Schepartz 2010:Fig. 3.20, 61; 4 Schepartz 2014:139–150; 5 Tritsaroli 2017:238, 246; 6 Tritsaroli and Koulidou 
2018:15–16; 7 Tritsaroli 2007:192–193; 8 Triantaphyllou 2001:Table 6.5, Table 6.15, 79, 106; 9 Tritsaroli 2020:Table 4, 263; 10 Papathanasiou 2009:153–154; 11 
Papathanasiou et al. 2012a:217–219; 12 Papathanasiou 2005:194–195; 13 Paschalidis and McGeorge 2009:103; 14 Papathanasiou 1999:1010–1011; 15 Triantaphyllou 
2017:13.



Michael et al. 37

tistically significant (Mann-Whitney U: Z = –1.961,  
p = 0.05). Females tend to present higher frequencies 
of dental caries in both modern and archaeological 
samples (Hillson 2001; Walker and Hewlett 1990) due 
to biological, behavioral, and cultural factors (Laine 
2002; Larsen 1997; Larsen et  al. 1991; Walker and 
Hewlett 1990). Nevertheless, this is not a universal 
pattern. For example, in Lofkënd Tumuli, Mycenaean 
Athens, and Mycenaean Ayia Sotira, males present 
much higher carious lesions than females (Schepartz 
2014:149–150; Smith 1998; Triantaphyllou 2017:136). 
Various cultural and behavioral factors have been 
proposed to explain this reverse pattern (i.e., more 
males than females affected), including the type and 
consistency of food preparation and cooking meth-
ods, gendered division of labor, and subsistence ac-
tivity patterns that could potentially result in 
differential access to cariogenic food for men and 
women (Lukacs 1989:151–152; Walker and Erlandson 
1986:380).

What is even more interesting and not associated 
with biological factors is the negative association of 
dental caries with age in the current sample. Even 
though the progressive nature of this condition leads 
to a developmental pattern that is strongly related to 
age (Manji et al. 1991; Thylstrup and Fejerskov 1994), 
the highest percentage of caries was noted in young 
adults (Table  5). Both sexes presented negative cor-
relations with age, although the observed correlation 
was only statistically significant for females. It could 
be suggested that younger females might have been 
mostly responsible for specific tasks, such as food 
preparation, that could have possibly exposed them 
to a higher intake of cariogenic foodstuffs. These re-
sults could also represent selective mortality. It could 
be proposed that frailty was higher in younger fe-
males and thus they were more likely to die and be 
selected out of the population (DeWitte and Sto-
janowski 2015:407; Wood et al. 1992). Complications 
during pregnancy and childbirth could be possibly 
linked to female ill health and mortality. Selective 
mortality could also be proposed for juveniles exhib-
iting dental caries, even though their number is very 
limited and far-reaching interpretations should not 
be made.

B) Intercemetery comparisons

Comparative data on funerary practices. Comparative 
mortuary information is presented to better compre-
hend the different ways in which the communities in 
Pelagonia were connected to major cultural constel-
lations to the north and/or south (Table 6). Starting 
from the northern part of the wider context, Jančići 
Dubac, in the Čačak region, is under the influence of 

the Tumulus tradition and belongs to the Western 
Serbian variant of the Vatin group (Dmitrović 
2016:214). It is a very well-furnished mortuary assem-
blage (with widespread presence of vessels from 
Morava Valley) (Dmitrović 2016:218) and certain 
characteristics, such as differential burial treatment 
between the sexes and type of burials, are also evi-
dent in the Albanian and Ulanci mortuary tradition 
(Papadopoulos et al. 2014; Papazovska Sanev 2014). A 
significant difference between Achlada and Dubac is 
the prominent presence of cremations (common 
from 1350 B.C. onward) along with inhumation buri-
als. Even though cremations are not absent in the re-
maining study region, they are much less frequent 
(Table 6). General features of the Tumuli Ulanci ne-
cropolises include inhumations in crouched posi-
tions and the body placed in cist/pit graves, while 
matt-painted pottery and local copies of Mycenaean 
vessels are also present (Papazovska Sanev 2014:9). 
Such features are very much evident in Macedonia, 
Northern Greece (e.g., Pigi Athinas, Pigi Artemidos, 
Valtos), while cist tombs and single inhumation buri-
als are also the “rule” in LBA Epirus (e.g., Tartaron 
2004). Tumuli, a tradition that appears on the Greek 
mainland in the Early Helladic II period probably as 
a consequence of influences from the north (Tritsar-
oli 2017:228), is much more evident in Pieria, espe-
cially before the “Mycenaeanization” of the area. 
Moving from the Middle Helladic period to the Late 
Helladic, especially in Central and Southern Greece, 
the reuse of graves and multiple inhumations appear. 
These multiple shaft graves are covered by chamber 
and tholos tombs (Stapleton, 2014:205; Tritsaroli 
2017:227–228) (Table  6). The occurrence of multiple 
and/or secondary burials also appears in Macedonia, 
Northern Greece, during the Developed LBA 
(LHIIIA–LHIIIB) (e.g., Spathes, Rema Xydias) (Kou-
lidou 2020; Triantaphyllou 2001:64–65; Triantaphyl-
lou and Andreou 2020:183), and mostly during the 
Advanced LBA (LHIIIC) (e.g., Faia Petra, Methoni 
and Kastri in Thasos) (Triantaphyllou and Andreou 
2020:183). Another important characteristic appear-
ing in the mortuary environment during the LBA is 
the deposition of material wealth in burials (Tritsar-
oli 2017:228). The accumulation of distinct artifacts as 
manifestations of social identity is evident in numer-
ous northern assemblages, such as Spathes and 
Lofkënd tumuli (Table  6) (Stapleton 2014; Trian-
taphyllou and Andreou 2020), as well as at Aeani and 
Rymnio in Western Macedonia (Karametrou-Mente-
sidi 1990:355; Poulaki-Pantermali 2013:45–62). Even 
in cases where prestige items were not found (e.g., 
Pigi Athinas) social intra-cemetery differentiation 
was attempted through differential investment in 
grave construction (Tritsaroli 2017:228–233: Table 6). 



Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality38

It is therefore characteristic that in Achlada there is 
no such differential investment in grave construc-
tion, while accumulation of distinct artifacts was 
very relatively modest (just 13 associated finds recov-
ered in six tombs) (Ziota 2019).

In terms of demographic characteristics, the 
overall number of juveniles is very small in the 
community under study while no infants were 
found. The 7:1 ratio of adults vs. non-adults is simi-
lar to that found in Mycenaean assemblages, such as 
Voudeni and Pylos (Table 7). The pattern of a lim-
ited number of non-adults is also in agreement with 
neighboring sites in Southern Albania, such as the 
LBA Kamenica Tumulus (Kline 2015:69) and 
Lofkënd Tumuli (Schepartz 2014:144), but not at 
Čaška–Veles in North Macedonia (Veljanovska 
2008:431–438) or Jančići Dubac (Radović 2016: 
272–282). Normally, for preindustrial societies the 
expected percentage of juveniles and infants ranges 
between 30% and 50% (Coale and Demeney 1983; 
Weiss 1973). Non-adults were treated in a different 
way in the Mycenaean sphere and there is a signifi-
cant variation in differential treatment of juvenile 
individuals in LBA Greece, not just in relation to 
their arithmetic presence, but also regarding the 
presence/absence of artifacts found in their tombs 
(Cavanagh and Mee 1998; Schepartz et  al. 2009). 
Nevertheless, we cannot be certain of the limited 
non-adult presence in the Achlada community, as it 
is possible that a higher number of non-adults were 
buried in a part of the cemetery that was not pre-
served (due to disruptions by later burials or foun-
dations of Roman buildings) (Ziota 2019). 
Additionally, it could also be hypothesized that if 
juvenile burials were shallower than adult ones, it 
would be more likely for them to get disrupted 
through later activity during the Roman period 
(Ziota 2019).

Based on the information presented above, it seems 
that features from different traditions were combined 
in the current mortuary environment. Differential 
burial treatment between sexes and burial types re-
flects traditions visible at Ulanci and Central Mace-
donia cemeteries. Material culture evidence reveals 
relations with sites of Central Macedonia and south-
eastern Albania (Ziota 2019). Mycenaean influence is 
also present, manifested by two “Mycenaeanizing” 
painted vessels (Ziota 2019:Table 1) and possibly also 
based on the adult:non-adult ratio. The comparative 
funerary analysis showed that Achlada was con-
nected with minor and major cultural ambits, but in 
a limited way, as suggested by the lack of significant 
material culture differentiation within the 
community.

Comparative lifestyle data. In terms of DJD, the 
assemblage seems to be moderately affected when 
compared to other sites of the wider context (Ta-
ble 8), even though spinal DJD is prominent. It is ob-
vious that the current assemblage is more intensely 
affected compared to the well-networked sites at 
Spathes and Treis Elies, but less so compared to the 
Pigi Athinas assemblage (1650–1500 B.C.), with the 
latter predating Achlada as well as the extensive My-
cenaean influence in the region around Mount 
Olympus (Tritsaroli 2017:225). Rema Xydias popula-
tion in Pieria, a modestly furnished assemblage, is 
also a severely affected community with regard to 
DJD (Tritsaroli 2020:258). The cervical segment of 
the vertebra seems to be more affected in Achlada 
and this pattern is also noted at Pigi Athinas (Tritsa-
roli 2017:251) and Lofkënd tumuli (Schepartz 2014). 
The upper part of the body is also mostly affected in 
Spathes and Treis Elies (Triantaphyllou 2001) (Ta-
ble 8), confirming that food acquisition, processing, 
preparation, and craft production, which have been 
linked to degenerative changes predominantly in the 
upper body (Triantaphyllou 2001:75), probably were 
important labor activities at these sites. Different 
methodologies and recording protocols make it diffi-
cult to directly compare DJD frequencies between 
sites, while at the same time age and weight have also 
been considered to be important causative factors 
leading to DJD (Sofaer-Derevenski 2000; Solano 
2002; Waldron 1998; Weiss 2004, 2006). Therefore, 
interpretations should be treated with caution.

Injuries in the current sample and wider context 
are mostly of an accidental nature/origin. Cases of 
possible interpersonal violence are also present, al-
though limited (e.g., scapular fracture [the severity of 
the lesion suggested a violent episode] at Pigi Artemi-
dos [Tritsaroli and Koulidou 2018:20], one healed 
cranial trauma at Lofkënd Tumuli [Schepartz 2014], 
and three male individuals in the Mycenaean Athe-
nian Agora found with wounds consistent with com-
bat and interpersonal violence [Smith 2009]). In the 
current sample there is a possible case of a healed cra-
nial depression that could be associated either with a 
violent attack or an accidental injury (Fig. S5); how-
ever, the poor preservation of the specific sample 
does not allow for a secure diagnosis. It is attractive 
to hypothesize that the dearth of violent cases could 
be associated with possible advantages related to 
marginality. If for example we think of competition 
and raiding, being marginal could have its advan-
tages as there would be little to claim/steal. Neverthe-
less, the paucity of violent trauma cases in the vast 
majority of well-networked sites does not favor such 
bold assumptions.



Michael et al. 39

Stature estimates from Achlada seem to fall within 
the range of well-networked LBA sites situated to the 
south, north, and east (Table 9). Even though stature 
is mainly affected by genetic factors (Lango et  al. 
2010; Wood et al. 2014), evidence from a wide range of 
osteological investigations (Steckel 1995, 2009) has 
demonstrated that adult height and environmental 
stress, usually nutritionally induced, are closely re-
lated. Stature estimates should be treated with cau-
tion though, as results from most of the sites in the 
comparative list (Table 9) are based on very few fem-
oral bones. Regarding nonspecific stress indicators, 
PH and CO cases in Achlada are quite few, but this is 
similar to most other sites (see Table  9 for 
references).

The enamel hypoplasia rate at Achlada is signifi-
cantly higher than at all the sites of Southern and 
Central Greece, as well as numerous northern assem-
blages (Table 10). Interestingly, with a few exceptions, 
there is a clear tendency of northern communities to 
display elevated frequencies of enamel defects, com-
pared to those of Central and Southern Greece. This 
observation is statistically significant (Mann-Whit-
ney U: p = 0.008). According to Papathanasiou 
(2005:196), the declining rates of enamel hypoplasia 
noted in Mycenaean populations may reflect an im-
provement in health status and living conditions, es-
pecially for children. When comparing these results 
with northern sites of the wider context, the current 
community presents significantly higher rates of 

Table  10.   Dental diseases and enamel hypoplasia in Late Bronze Age sites of the wider study region 

Dental caries Calculus AMTL Enamel hypoplasia

Achlada 9.9% 22.4% 3.2% 21.2%

Jančići Dubac1 0%* 16.6%* 11.1% 11.1%*

Apollonia Tumulus 102 17%* Not available  4.2% Not available 

Lofkënd Tumulus3 9.8% Not available  5.3%* 56.6%

Epirus’s sites4 18.3%* 12.2%* 7.9%* 6.1%*

Pigi Athinas5 10% 14%* 3% 23%

Pigi Artemidos 6 17.8%* 28.2% 3.1% 32%*

Valtos7 8% 53%* 4% 9%*

Spathes8 11.23% 7.86%* 26.14%* 14.04%*

Treis Elies8 13.88% 2.08%* 37.66%* 6.9%*

Korinos8 3.15%* 9.47%* 0%* 4.2%*

Trimbina9 24.2%* 15.8%* 10.4%* 36.1%*

Rema Xydias9 19%* 25.7%* 26%

Velestino10 5.1%* 6%* 64.3%* 6%*

Kazanaki11 0%* Not available 0% 8%*

Pylos (Grave Circle/Tholos III)12 3.7%* Not available 4.8% 4.4%*

Pylos (chambers)12 12% Not available 14.5%* 10.6%*

Spaliareika13 3.3%* Not available 26.1%* 10.8%*

Sykia14 7% Not available 7.3%* 6.1%*

Ayia Sotira15 9.91% Not available 7.29%* 1.22%*
*Statistically significant differences compared to Achlada (Pearson chi-square test [p < 0.05], df = 1 for all cases).
Enamel hypoplasia for Lofkënd Tumuli is given per number of dentitions and statistical comparison with Achlada was made based on crude prevalence; 
AMTL for Velestino is given per number of individuals and statistical comparison with Achlada was made based on crude prevalence; AMTL is given 
combined for Trimbina and Rema Xydias.
1 Radović 2016:272–282; 2 Schepartz 2010:Table 3.2, Table 3.3, 62; 3 Schepartz 2014:139–150; 4 Michael, personal observations; 5 Tritsaroli 2017:239; 6 Tritsaroli 
and Koulidou 2018:14–15; 7 Tritsaroli 2007:193; 8 Triantaphyllou 2001:109, 120, 124, 128; 9 Tritsaroli 2020:Table 4, 263; 10 Papathanasiou et al. 2012a:227; 11 
Papathanasiou 2009:154; 12 Schepartz et al. 2009:Table 10.5, 167 (retrieved from individual teeth); 13 Papathanasiou 2005:35–38, 191–198; 14 Papathanasiou 1999: 
1009–1101; 15 Triantaphyllou 2017:135.



Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality40

enamel hypoplasia compared to Treis Elies, Spathes, 
Korinos, and Jančići Dubac sites that were extensively 
connected to major routes. This is not an absolute 
pattern, though (e.g., Trimbina, Tables 6 and 10).  
It could, however, be suggested that enamel hypopla-
sia rates in Achlada suggest a poor growth environ-
ment, leading to multiple episodes of stress and 
growth arrest during the early years of these 
individuals.

On the other hand, significantly higher enamel hy-
poplasia rates may not necessarily indicate poorer 
health (Wood et al. 1992), as individuals who do not 
survive stressful events would not have had the 
chance to develop such hypoplastic defects. Amelo-
blasts are particularly sensitive to even minor physio-
logical disruptions (Larsen 2015:44). In her attempt to 
interpret the elevated enamel hypoplasia rates in 
Lofkënd Tumuli contrary to the limited PH and CO 
cases (Tables 9 and 10), Schepartz (2014) suggested 
the possibility of stresses leading to enamel hypopla-
sia to be of a lower magnitude than those resulting in 
PH and CO, as the former indicator is much more 
sensitive to metabolic stresses. Preservation chal-
lenges affecting cranial segments, also noted in the 
current assemblage, should also be considered. Con-
sequently, it could be cautiously suggested that the 
current sample, as well as a number of mostly north-
ern communities of the wider context, faced more 
physiological challenges during growth, at least of a 
mild and moderate level, compared to a number of 
sites connected to major routes. This could be a result 
of participation in less extensive trading networks, 
and/or harsher environmental conditions (e.g., lower 
temperatures).

In terms of diet, the LBA in Northern Greece was 
marked by a specialized and extensive system of ag-
riculture and stock raising. High juvenile mortality 
curves have been observed among sheep, goat, and 
cattle, suggesting a strategy of animal husbandry 
primarily targeted at meat consumption (Trian-
taphyllou 2015:58). Isotopic dietary reconstructions 
from several Aegean Bronze Age skeletal collections 
have revealed predominantly terrestrial subsistence 
strategies involving the intake of both plant and an-
imal products (e.g., dairy products, eggs) without 
significant contributions of meat or marine protein 
(i.e., Lagia and Cavanagh 2010; Lagia et al. 2007; Pa-
pathanasiou 2015; Papathanasiou et  al. 2012b; Pe-
troutsa et al. 2009; Triantaphyllou et al. 2019). Heavy 
reliance on terrestrial food items was also found in 
LBA Kamenica Tumulus (Kline 2015:133). Combin-
ing dental with isotopic data, Spathes and Treis Elies 
displayed a low animal intake (Triantaphyllou 2015) 
(Table  10). The analogous relation of calculus and 
protein consumption was also found based on 

isotopic data, in EBA Koilada in Kozani, Western 
Macedonia (Triantaphyllou 2001; Triantaphyllou 
2015; Ziota 2007), where the calculus rate was at 
22.22% (almost identical to the Achlada sample—
true prevalence). On the other hand, isotopic results 
also showed a heavy reliance on animal protein for 
Korinos (Triantaphyllou 2015:67), where calculus 
rates are less than 10%, reminding us that simplistic 
correlations should be avoided, as oral hygiene, wa-
ter, and soil quality should also be taken into ac-
count when considering dental pathologies 
(Tritsaroli 2017:251). Nonetheless, based on the car-
ies/AMTL-calculus pattern (Table 10), a reliance on 
animal proteins and thus pastoralism could be cau-
tiously suggested for the current sample. Hunting 
could also be proposed as its practice was renewed 
by the end of the LBA in Macedonia (Triantaphyl-
lou and Andreou 2020:174). Achlada’s specific loca-
tion on a fertile plateau, though, supports cultivating 
practice. What is certain is that dental diseases do 
not suggest a poorer diet in the Achlada community 
compared to other well-networked populations  
(Table  10). On the contrary, it could be suggested 
that the stated community had a good diet with ad-
equate intake of animal proteins. Could we assume 
then that marginality for the specific community 
meant they had modest access to prestige goods, but 
adequate access to food sources? Even if reciprocal 
intercommunity exchange networks were less ex-
tensive, physical storage and/or diversification 
(Halstead and O’Shea 1989:4) could be the primary 
cultural practices of the Achlada community as a 
response to times of hardship, thus securing ade-
quate food sources. Therefore, the dearth of mate-
rial in graves could suggest a greater focus on basic 
subsistence or nominal surplus farming organiza-
tion. It is obvious that the matter of marginality and 
its impact on human lifeways is highly complex.

Conclusions

In conclusion, it seems that a “menu” of practices was 
articulated by LBA populations presented in the cur-
rent study. No specific formula existed and commu-
nities had the choice of following different funerary 
practices based on their perspectives. Different cul-
tural nodes were being accessed, they were inspired 
by groups to the north and to the south, but this was 
selective, and local conventions also emerged, as seen 
at Achlada. Scarce deposition of precious materials in 
the Achlada burials (e.g., rare amber finds, occasional 
metal findings) points to a clear connection—proba-
bly not an extensive one, though—with cultural 
ambits.



Michael et al. 41

Intra-cemetery lifestyle investigation revealed dif-
ferentiations between the sexes. Males possibly man-
aged to cope more successfully with stressful events 
during growth, possibly indicating better care during 
childhood. The analysis revealed that men were pos-
sibly more engaged in challenging physical activities 
than women. In addition, dental results suggest that 
young females were either a group of higher frailty 
and/or were more exposed to carbohydrates, perhaps 
as a consequence of their part in the community. The 
differential burial placement of the sexes in the pre-
served portion of the cemetery possibly represents 
symbolically the different roles that society attributed 
to men and women in deathways (Ziota 2019). It is 
possible that those different roles were associated 
with actual lifestyle differences. Whether these intra-
community differentiations were associated with 
possible marginality remains unclear.

The comparative bioarchaeological analysis did 
not reveal significantly poorer health compared to 
well-networked populations. It is true, though, that 
the current community, as well as a number of mostly 
northern populations surrounding Achlada in the 
wider region, probably faced more physiological 
challenges during growth, at least of a mild and mod-
erate level, compared to communities connected to 
major cultural ambits. In terms of diet and physical 
activity the analysis did not indicate an unprivileged 
marginal environment. In fact, dietary dental analy-
sis revealed that the current community had poten-
tial access to animal protein. Combining mortuary 
and lifestyle data we find Achlada being closer to Pigi 
Athinas and Lofkënd Tumuli, but displaying more 
modest material culture in the mortuary environ-
ment. Therefore, it is possible that marginality in the 
current sample could mean modestly resourced in 
prestige finished goods rather than less access to food 
sources.

The main challenge at the Achlada LBA site was 
the dearth of material culture evidence related to net-
working and subsistence. For this reason a thorough 
contextualized and comparative bioarchaeological 
analysis was implemented. Even though preservation 
challenges and the multifactorial nature of lifestyle 
indicators hindered firm answers, bioarchaeological 
comparative approaches were able to offer insights 
into the priorities and lifeways of this community. 
Dietary isotopic reconstruction, biomolecular analy-
sis, and mobility investigation will hopefully help us 
to form a more integrated picture. The quest of ex-
ploring the impact of marginality on human lifeways 
has just begun.

Acknowledgments

This research has been funded as part of the European 
Research Grant project “The Fall of 1200 BC” (Grant 
number 772753). We would like to thank the General 
Hospital of Florina for allowing us to use its infra-
structure. We would also like to thank Dr. Panagiotis 
Karkanas, director of the Malcolm H. Wiener Labora-
tory, for allowing us to use the Lab’s infrastructure 
and especially Dr. Dimitris Michailidis, for his valu-
able help in processing the X-ray pictures. We finally 
thank the associate editor and anonymous reviewers 
for their constructive comments.

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