Copyright © 2021 University of Florida Press Exploring the Efficacy of Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches in Providing Answers on Marginality and Networking: The Example of Late Bronze Age Achlada in Florina, Northern Greece Dimitra Ermioni Michael,a* Linda Fibiger,a,b Christina Ziota,c Liana Gkelou,c and Barry Molloya** aSchool of Archaeology, College of Social Sciences and Law, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland bSchool of History, Classics & Archaeology, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9AG, United Kingdom cEphorate of Antiquities of Florina, 53100 Florina, Greece *Correspondence to: Dimitra Ermioni Michael, University College Dublin, School of Archaeology, John Henry Newman Building, Stillorgan Rd., Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland Email: e-mail: dimitra.michail@ucd.ie ABSTRACT: This paper investigates the efficacy of comparative bioarchaeological approaches in exploring the impact of economic marginality on human lifeways. Skeletal remains from the Late Bronze Age cemetery of Achlada in Northern Greece were chosen to address this, as this specific community was probably less well networked, evident in its location away from major communication routes and the paucity of grave goods at the site. A bio- cultural methodology combining comparative data on funerary practices and lifestyle was implemented. Sex differences were found within the community and seem to agree with the differential burial placement of the sexes possibly representing the different roles that society symbolically attributed to men and women in death- ways. Comparative intercemetery data did not reveal poorer health and diet, or more intense physical activity, compared to well-networked sites. Nonetheless, Achlada, as well as numerous, mostly north communities of the wider context, probably faced more physiological challenges during growth, at least of a mild to moderate level, compared to a number of populations connected by major communication routes. The current study highlights the importance of implementing comparative bioarchaeological approaches as a means of identify- ing the impact of marginality on human lifeways, particularly in settings with limited material culture infor- mation. Limitations linked to preservation issues and the multifactorial nature of lifestyle indicators could be dealt with by future biomolecular and isotopic analyses. Keywords: lifeways; palaeopathology; prehistory Η παρούσα εργασία έχει στόχο να διερευνήσει το κατά πόσο οι συγκριτικές βιοαρχαιολογικές προσεγγίσεις είναι εφικτό να δώσουν απαντήσεις ως προς την επίδραση της οικονομικής περιθωριοποίησης στον ανθρώπινο τρόπο διαβίωσης. Επιλέχθηκαν σκελετικά κατάλοιπα της Ύστερης Εποχής Χαλκού από το νεκροταφείο της Received 1 July 2020 Revised 9 December 2020 Accepted 23 December 2020 **Principal Investigator Bioarchaeology International Volume 5, Numbers 1–2: 21–46 DOI: 10.5744/bi.2021.1005 Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality22 The Late Bronze Age (LBA) of the Eastern Mediterra- nean was a highly networked hub of intercultural in- teraction. Reaching a zenith in the fourteenth to thirteenth centuries B.C., social upheavals in the de- cades around 1200 B.C. led to a collapse of elite polit- ical and economic networks (Cline 2014; Middleton 2010, 2017, 2020). Since the time of shaft graves at My- cenae in the seventeenth to fifteenth centuries B.C., strong links to the north and west in the form of im- ported amber, Wellenband ornamentation, chariot styles, and horse trappings demonstrate that modern bias plays a role in how we contextualize Mycenaean networks (Blake 2008; Bouzek 1994, 1985; Harding 1984, 2007; Iacono 2019; Jung and Mehofer 2013; Ma- ran 2013; Molloy 2016). In reality, manifestations of pottery, burial monuments, placement of the body, use of grave goods, and size of cemeteries display a certain fluidity, indicating that communities of the wider context were choosing from a “menu” of prac- tices and material culture, based on their own per- spectives. Fundamentally, if we seek to better understand the cultural context of Mycenaean soci- eties within the landmass they occupy and compre- hend the complex cultural interactions between communities of the north, west, and south, improv- ing our knowledge of societies at the margin of Myce- naean influence is essential (Andreou 2001, 2010; Gimatzidis and Pieniążek 2018). Therefore, bioar- chaeological comparative analyses of cemeteries that lie within the wider geographical and cultural con- text of the LBA eastern Mediterranean have the po- tential to provide enlightening information on cultural exchange and mobility. The cemetery of Achlada lies south of the historic re- gion called the Pelagonia Valley, a region of ca. 2,000 km2. This was a region which at once provided good al- luvial land for settling and an opportune place to trade both north and south. Finds of amber from the Achlada cemetery (Ziota 2019) suggest that the community of this valley participated to some extent in the Mora- va-Vardar/Axios routeway trade network. To best ex- plore the context of Achlada, we evaluate data from the Balkans and Greece together. Looking initially to the north, at the site of Dubac in central Serbia, we find well-furnished burials in a mound which is located to- ward the southern limit of the Tumulus Culture tradi- tion. The distribution of ceramics common to the Vardar/Axios region, and found at Achlada, finds its northernmost limit around this cemetery (Bulatović 2011; Dmitrović 2016). Following the pottery traditions south, there is a distinct concentration along the Mora- va-Vardar/Axios corridor, which demonstrates the im- portance of this north–south routeway. Achlada lies to the west of this route, possibly placing the community at the margins of a prosperous zone (Fig.  1). Well-fur- nished burials with bronze finds and abundant ceram- ics have been found along the Vardar River in the cemeteries at Ulanci and Mali Dol (e.g., Mitrevski 1997; Papazovska Sanev 2014) where the ceramic forms demonstrate close links with the Achlada community (Ziota 2019). Moving southeast to Macedonian Pieria, a number of well-studied cemeteries present features of Vardar-style pottery, as well as moderate to intense use of Mycenaean imports and imitations, while the use of tumuli burials is also practiced (e.g., Koulidou et  al. 2017; Triantaphyllou 2001; Triantaphyllou and Andreou 2020). Achlada was connected to Pieria and material culture parallels were found at Trimbina (Ziota, 2020, personal communication), but without displaying key cultural features of this region. Moving southwest to Epirus, connections with the Mycenaean world through ceramic imports are evident and the metalwork demon- strates some shared practices with other parts of Greece. Epirus’s communities also shared ceramic styles with Albania and displayed similarities in the interpretation and use of Mycenaean influences and objects (Papado- poulos et  al. 2014; Tartaron 2004). Therefore, Achlada could also be considered marginal to Epirus. Αχλάδας στη Βόρεια Ελλάδα ώστε να απαντηθεί το εν λόγω ερώτημα, καθώς η συγκεκριμένη κοινωνία -βάσει της θέσης της μακριά από τα μεγάλα δίκτυα επικοινωνίας και της παρουσίας πολύ λίγων ταφικών ευρημάτων- ήταν πιθανώς λιγότερο καλά δικτυωμένη. Ακολουθήθηκε μια συνδυαστική βιοπολιτισμική προσέγγιση συγκριτικών ταφικών δεδομένων και συγκριτικών αποτελεσμάτων δεικτών τρόπου διαβίωσης. Βρέθηκαν διαφορές μεταξύ των δύο φύλων στον εν λόγω πληθυσμό οι οποίες φαίνεται να συμφωνούν με την διαφορετική πλευρά κατάκλισής τους, η οποία πιθανώς να συμβόλιζε τη διαφορετικότητα των ρόλων που η κοινωνία απέδιδε σε άντρες και γυναίκες στο ταφικό περιβάλλον. Συγκριτικά αποτελέσματα μεταξύ νεκροταφείων δεν φανέρωσαν χαμηλότερο επίπεδο υγείας και διατροφής, ούτε πιο έντονη εργασιακή καταπόνηση, σε σχέση με καλά δικτυωμένες θέσεις. Παρόλα αυτά, η Αχλάδα, όπως και μια σειρά –κυρίως βόρειων- κοινωνιών του ευρύτερου πλαισίου, πιθανότητα αντιμετώπισαν περισσότερα φαινόμενα καταπόνησης (στρες) κατά τη διάρκεια της ανάπτυξης, τουλάχιστον ήπιου και μετρίου επιπέδου, συγκριτικά με καλύτερα δικτυωμένους πληθυσμούς. Η παρούσα εργασία τονίζει τη σημασία της εφαρμογής συγκριτικών βιοαρχαιολογικών προσεγγίσεων ως μέσο μελέτης της επίδρασης της περιθωριοποίησης στους ανθρώπινους πληθυσμούς, ιδιαιτέρως σε θέσεις με περιορισμένες πληροφορίες υλικού πολιτισμού. Μεθοδολογικοί περιορισμοί οι οποίοι συνδέονται με ζητήματα διατήρησης αλλά και με τον πολυπαραγοντικό χαρακτήρα των δεικτών τρόπου διαβίωσης, ενδεχομένως να αντιμετωπιστούν μέσω των επερχόμενων βιομοριακών και ισοτοπικών αναλύσεων. Λέξεις κλειδιά: τρόποι διαβίωσης; παλαιοπαθολογία; προϊστορία Michael et al. 23 Even though social differentiation through the character and disposition of grave goods was com- monly practiced in communities of the wider study context, in Achlada it was not deployed to a signifi- cant degree to differentiate the interred in a highly structured manner (Ziota 2019: Table  1). There are fall-off zones of the major cultural ambits and these overlap with the fall-off zone of the minor Vardar tradition. These groups in the Pelagonia Valley are arguably benefitting from some limited, and as yet poorly defined, trade or communication link. It could be argued that the dearth of prestige goods is indica- tive of a community not engaging strongly with ma- jor networks, either on the basis of the dearth of material from the networks or their lack of intense participation in using metal and other traded materi- als to construct identity, indicating local practices are dominant. So our questions arise. How marginal may we predict Achlada to be? What does it mean to be marginal in this world? When material culture evi- dence is limited, are comparative bioarchaeological approaches able to provide answers on marginality? If a given community is poorly networked and thus poorly buffered in times of hardship through re- ciprocal intercommunity exchange networks (Halstead and O’Shea 1989:4), poorer health and diet might be expected. If people were more dependent on their land to survive and prosper, as a result of re- duced trading actions and their associated wealth, higher levels of physical activity might also be ex- pected. If, finally, we consider the lack of grave goods in the mortuary environment to indicate that they were not used as a means of expressing social differ- entiation in death, a lack of intra-cemetery lifestyle differentiations would be expected. The limited archaeological information and lack of settlement data restricts what can be suggested for the relative prosperity of this LBA community. It is therefore imperative to use comparative and contex- tualized bioarchaeological data to explore marginal- ity and its potential impact on lifeways. The main objective of this study is to examine the efficacy of comparative bioarchaeological approaches in provid- ing answers on marginality and networking, particu- larly in cases of limited material culture information. The following specific hypotheses are formed: 1) If the lack of material culture differentiation dis- played in the mortuary practices of the current community reflects lack of social differentiations in lived reality, significant age or gender differ- ences within the community—not related to bio- logical factors—should be absent. 2) If the Achlada community was economically mar- ginal and poorly networked, higher levels of phys- iological stress and poorer diet compared to well-networked populations would be expected as a consequence of poor economic buffering. Simi- larly, as a result of reduced trading activities and associated wealth, individuals at Achlada would probably be involved in more strenuous physical activities when compared to populations con- nected to major routes. Figure 1. The Site of Achlada in relation to Florina, Bitola, Thessaloniki, Pieria, and Axios River. Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality24 Table 1. Archaeological and anthropological information for Achlada prehistoric assemblage (CAR: dental caries, LEH: linear enamel hypoplasia, AMTL: antemortem tooth loss, CAL: calculus, S.DJD: spinal degenerative joint disease (DJD), P.DJD: postcranial degenerative joint disease (DJD), PF: postcranial fracture, SF: skull fracture, CO: cribra orbitalia, PH: porotic hyperostosis, ID: infectious disease). N.Burial Sex Age Placement of the body (slightly contracted) Artifacts Pathologies T.466 M 25–45 Right  Kantharos-shaped amphora CAR, AMTL, CAL, S.DJD, P.DJD, PF, ID T.393 F? Adult Left  One-handled cup PF T.617 ?/F? 25–35 Left — CAR, LEH, CAL T.329 ? 25–35? Left  One-handled cup CAR, AMTL, CAL T.302 M Adult Right  — CAR, LEH, CAL T.479 M 25–35 Right  Kantharos-shaped amphora, bronze dagger and knife CAR, LEH, AMTL, CAL T.476 M 17–25? Right  Kantharos CAR, LEH, CAL T.346 ? Adolescent/Adult Right  — none  T.344 ? 17–25 Right  — LEH, CAL T.654 ?/M? 25–45 Left  Bowl CAR, CAL T.469 F? 25–35 Left  — CAR, LEH, CAL T.336 ? Adult Right  One-handled cup none  T.510 ? Adult Left?  ? LEH T.337 M 20–25? ?  ? CAR, LEH, AMTL, CAL T.379 ? 2–3 Left  — CAR T.405 ?/F? 25–35 Left  — LEH T.364 M Adult ?  — CAL T.388 F? 25–34? ?  ? none  T.391 ? Adult Left  ? none   T.394 ? 20–35 Left  — CAR, LEH, AMTL, CAL T.432 ?/F? 25–34 Left One-handled cup none  T.365 F? 17–25 Right Kantharos LEH, CAL T.360 F? 33–45 Left  — CAR, LEH, AMTL, CAL, S.DJD T.384 ? 5–6.5 ?  ? LEH T.324 ?/F? 25–45 Left  — CAL, CO T.303 M? 25–30 ? ? LEH, CAL T.387 M 25–44 Right  — CAR, LEH, AMTL, CAL, S.DJD, P.DJD T.338 M 33–45/45+ Right Handleless P.DJD T.390 M Adult Left  — PF T.389 F 30–45 Supine  One-handled cup LEH, CAL, PH (Continued) Michael et al. 25 Human remains from Achlada will be analyzed following a biocultural methodology, combining fu- nerary practices with indicators of health and life- style. In order to understand the manner in which the communities in Pelagonia (Fig. 1) were connected to major cultural constellations to the north and/or south, comparative data on type of tombs/burials, placement of the dead, grave goods, and demography will be presented. Lifeways will be investigated through dental diseases (caries, antemortem tooth loss (AMTL), and calculus), stress and lifestyle indi- cators (stature, trauma, cribra orbitalia, porotic hy- perostosis, and enamel hypoplasia), and degenerative joint diseases (DJD, including Schmorl’s nodes). Table 1. (continued) N.Burial Sex Age Placement of the body (slightly contracted) Artifacts Pathologies T.316 F? 17–25 Left  Kantharos CAR, LEH, CAL, PH T.345 M 33–45/45+ Right  — LEH, S.DJD T.308 ?/F? Adult ? ? PH T.352 M 25–35 Right  “Mycenaeanizing” matt-painted vessel CAR, LEH, CAL T.351 ?/F? 17–25? Left  Bowl CAR, LEH, CAL T.415 ? 12–15  Right One-handled cup CAR, LEH, CAL T.414 ?/M? Adult Right Kantharos-shaped amphora P.DJD, SF T.340 M 25–35 Right  — CAR, LEH T.342 ? 8–12 ? ? CAR, LEH T.350 ? 5–6.5 Right  — none   T.465 ?/M? Adult Right  — none  T.457 ?/F? Adult ? Kantharos-shaped amphora none  T.487 ? 3–4 Left  Beads of amber and glass, stone tool CAR, LEH, CO T.472 ? Adult Left  One-handled cup none   T.356 M? 20–29 Right Kantharos-shaped amphora, bronze pin CAR, LEH, AMTL T.374 M 25–35 Right Kantharos-shaped amphora CAR, LEH, CAL, S.DJD T.367 M 25–35 Right  — CAR, LEH, PF T.444 F 17–25 Left  “Mycenaeanizing” painted vessel LEH, CAL T.378 ?/M? 30–35 Right — CAR, LEH, CAL, S.DJD T.362 ?/M? 25–35? Right  — CAR T.326 F? 25–35 Right Kantharos-shaped amphora, bronze dagger and pin LEH, AMTL, CAL T.553 ? 17–25 Left  Two-handled cup CAR T.370 ? Adolescent/Adult Left? One-handled cup CAR, PF T.371 ? 12 ± 30 months Left  — CAR, LEH T.458 F? 17–25 Left  Kantharos CAR Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality26 Materials and Methods The cemetery of Achlada Since 2014 the Ephorate of Antiquities of Florina has been conducting rescue excavations at a lignite mine in the region of Achlada, where a 20-acre archaeolog- ical site has been defined. The excavation, which is still in progress, has revealed a cemetery dating from the LBA to Byzantine times (Ziota 2019). This study focuses on the prehistoric cemetery of Achlada near to the modern town of Florina in Macedonia in the north of Greece (Fig. 1). The prehistoric cemetery (Fig. 2) consists of 74 pit burials and according to initial radiocarbon results it was used between 1400 and 1100 B.C. (Ziota 2019). Artifacts recovered from 32 tombs consisted primar- ily of pottery. Apart from ceramic vessels, the re- maining finds include jewelry, weapons, and tools (Table 1). Despite this limited number of prestige ob- jects, the general pattern in the mortuary assemblage is for few objects to have been used in the final burial rites (Ziota 2019). Out of the 74 prehistoric burials, 17 are partially or completely disturbed by later burials or foundations of Roman buildings. The cemetery consists of single burials with the exception of a couple of cases. There is no indication of a tumulus, nor could this be sup- ported based on the inclination of the ground. Tombs in Achlada are usually oriented along the southwest– northeast axis. The burials are contained and the de- ceased were placed with their bodies lying on their side, their lower limbs slightly contracted and their upper limbs flexed in front of the torso (Ziota 2019). A total of 54 adult/possible adult individuals, five juveniles, and three adolescents were identified. No infants (up to 1 year) were found. Sex estimation was conducted only in adult cases and 22 males/possible males and 17 females/possible females were recog- nized, as well as 32 individuals that could not be con- fidently sexed. The demographic information of Achlada prehistoric cemetery is presented in Fig.  3 (the 55 better preserved individuals). Interestingly, males are buried on their right side, whereas females are buried on their left. There are few exceptions to this, indicating a clear distinction between the sexes in terms of their placement (Ziota 2019; see Table 1). Adult burials are found with artifacts with a fre- quency of 46%, while non-adult ones include artifacts at a much lower percentage (i.e., 25% or 2 out of 8). All burials that were recovered with artifacts include at least one vessel, with the exception of one juvenile in- humation found solely with beads and a stone tool (T.487). All ceramic vessels, which were usually placed close to the lower limbs, were handmade and belonged to specific types, intended for transport, offering, and consumption of liquids. Out of the 32 vessels only two were found with matt-painted decoration. Apart from pottery, the 13 remaining associated finds recovered in six tombs include three bronze fibulae, one glass and three amber beads (juvenile burial stated above), two bronze daggers, as well as one knife. A unique phallic object, most likely from sandstone, was also recovered (Ziota 2019). The ceramic vessels suggest a dynamic local production, without excluding foreign cultural characteristics that have been adapted to the local social and symbolic environment. No Myce- naean imports were recovered, even though pottery influenced by or imitating Mycenaean patterns was found (Ziota 2019). Methods Biological profiling. Sex and age determination of the skeletons was conducted using the morphological criteria of the skull, pelvis, and ribs (Bass 1987; Brooks and Suchey 1990; Brothwell 1981; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; İşcan et al. 1984, 1985). Measurements were also used for sex estimation. Adults were cate- gorized as females/possible females, males/possible males, or indeterminate. Age determination in juveniles/adolescents was conducted following the criteria outlined in Moor- rees et  al. (1963), Scheuer and Black (2000), and Ubelaker (1989). The age categories used in this study are: 1) infant (< 1 year); 2) juvenile (1–12 years); 3) ado- lescent (12–17 years); 4) young adult (18–25 years); 5) young middle adult (26–35 years); 6) old middle adult (36–45 years); 7) mature adult (45+ years); 8) adult; 9) adolescent/adult.Figure 2. Topographic plan of the prehistoric burials of Achlada. Michael et al. 27 Stature is considered a marker of physical well-be- ing, resource availability, economic and nutritional improvement, as well as social context (Tritsaroli and Michael 2020). Stature estimation was based on fem- oral length, as it is the largest element in the human skeleton and correlates best with human stature (Hauser et  al. 2005). All measurements were per- formed using an osteometric board, and they were taken on the left side where possible, and on the right when the left side was not available (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Martin 1914). The equations of Trotter for Whites (1970) were used. Paleopathological diagnosis and recording. Degen- erative joint diseases (DJD) are linked, among other factors (such as age), to strenuous physical activities. DJD was observed on all the joints of the human body, including the entire spine, according to the criteria of Rogers et al. (1987) (Fig. 4). In addition, a three-stage recording system for osteophytes and porosity (i.e., mild/moderate/severe) was implemented. Eburnation and Schmorl’s nodes were recorded as present or ab- sent. Schmorl’s nodes mainly refer to the end result of the prolapsed disc, or the lesion that eventually is formed on the surface of the affected vertebral body (Faccia and Williams 2008:29). Even though congeni- tal defects of the spine, age, and trauma are consid- ered to be causative factors (Resnick and Niwayama 1978), a number of studies have tested Schmorl’s nodes as markers of demanding physical activity (i.e., Angel et  al. 1987; Baker 1997; Coughlan and Holst 2000; Manzon and Gualdi-Russo 2015). Trauma frequencies are highly affected by lifestyle factors such as economy, living environment, occupa- tion, and interpersonal violence (Roberts and Man- chester 2005:84). Traumatic lesions were recorded on the entire skeleton, including healed fractures (ante- mortem trauma), unhealed fractures (perimortem trauma), sharp-force lesions, and projectile lesions. Porotic hyperostosis (PH) and cribra orbitalia (CO) result from marrow hyperplasia. The etiology of their development has been highly debated and attributed to iron-deficiency anemia, inherited hemolytic ane- mias, acquired megaloblastic anemia due to B12 and/ or folate deficiency, infectious disease, chronic scalp infections, respiratory infections, scurvy, and rickets (e.g., Camaschella 2015; Larsen 2015:31–32, 39; O’Don- nell et  al. 2020; Ortner 2003; Oxenham and Cavill 2010; Schultz 2002; Walker et al. 2009). When human remains are macroscopically analyzed, PH and CO are probably best regarded as stress indicators rather than markers of specific diseases (Steckel et  al. 2005:13). PH and CO were recorded on four surfaces; orbits (CO) and parietal, frontal, and occipital bones (PH), according to a three-stage severity system: 1) porosity, 2) coalesce, 3) diploë expansion (Steckel et al. 2005). The stage of healing was also recorded (healed closed lesions or unremodeled lesions). Figure 3. Demographic composition of Achlada’s prehistoric assemblage. (YA: young adults, YM: young middle adults, OM: old middle adult, Ind. Adults: indeterminate adults.) Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality28 Enamel hypoplasia can occur only while the teeth are developing, thus remaining as a permanent re- cord into adulthood. Many factors are relevant to enamel defect etiology but they can be categorized broadly into hereditary anomalies, localized trauma, and systemic metabolic stress such as a nutritional deficiency or childhood illness (Goodman and Rose 1991:279–294). Nevertheless, this condition is usually linked to systematic physiological stress in modern and archaeological skeletal human remains. Enamel hypoplasia was recorded on the buccal surface ac- cording to its morphology pit, line, or groove (Fig. 4). Caries and calculus are considered to be mutually exclusive in terms of etiology, as the mechanisms that produce them are different. Comparing their fre- quencies in a population can give valuable informa- tion related to dietary patterns (Hillson 1979). Caries is a disease process characterized by the focal demin- eralization of dental hard tissues by organic acids produced by bacterial fermentation of dietary carbo- hydrates (Larsen et al. 1991). Apart from a cariogenic diet (i.e., sucrose), the etiology of dental caries is also related to poor dental hygiene, which leads to bacte- rial overgrowth, composition of the saliva, and sus- ceptible tooth structure (Bourbou 2013:219). Dental calculus is mineralized bacterial plaque (Luk- acs 1989:283) which consists of microorganisms that accumulate in the mouth, embedded in a matrix partly composed by the organisms themselves and partly derived from proteins in the saliva (i.e., Hillson 2005:289). It accumulates on the teeth faster when there is a high protein diet favoring an alkaline oral environment (i.e., Lukacs 1989:283), al- though the role of other factors such as individual variation, cultural practices, and the process of min- eralization should not be overlooked (Lieverse 1999). Dental caries was recorded on the occlusal, mesial, distal, lingual, buccal, cemento-enamel junction (CEJ), and root, according to a four-stage system: 1) pinpoint, 2) small/< 1/2 crown, 3) medium/< 1/2 crown, and 4) large. Calculus was recorded according to Brothwell (1981) (Fig. 4). Teeth were recorded ac- cording to the FDI tooth numbering system. Statistical analysis As the data did not follow a normal distribution (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test), two nonparametric tests were performed: the Mann-Whitney U test (p < 0.05) and the Kruskal-Wallis test (p < 0.05). Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (p < 0.05, or p < 0.01) was also used in order to test how strongly the variables were associated with each other. The chi-square test was also used for comparative statistical analyses. All the analyses were carried out using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) version 21. Results A) Intra-cemetery variation Out of the 74 prehistoric burials, the systematic study was applied on 55 of them as the poor skeletal repre- sentation of the remaining burials did not allow for a detailed osteological analysis and paleopathological investigation. Overall percentages of pathological conditions, nonspecific stress indicators, and frac- tures for the population of Achlada are presented in Table 2. The overall frequency of DJD in the current sam- ple is quite limited. All four cases of postcranial DJD were noted in males, three old middle adults and one adult. Overall, spinal DJD was observed on 25 verte- brae and 11 individuals. Apart from spinal DJD ob- served in one female old middle adult, all remaining cases (including Schmorl’s nodes) involve males. As expected, DJD is mostly observed in older individu- als. In cervical and thoracic vertebrae, age shows a positive correlation with osteophytes, although this is not statistically significant (Spearman’s rho [age-cervical osteophytes]: 0.108, p = 0.752; Spear- man’s rho [age-thoracic osteophytes]: 0.230, p = 0.495). Traumatic lesions were noted in five individuals (Tables 1 and 2 ; also see Supplemental Information), affecting seven postcranial elements and one cra- nium. With the exception of one possible adult Figure 4. Examples of indicators recorded in LBA Achlada assemblage. a) T.374, male young middle adult, mild osteophytes on the superior body of 5th lumbar vertebra; b) T.340, male young middle adult, caries (medium expression) on the mesial/Cemento-Enamel junction surface on the 2nd lower left molar; c) T.326, female young middle adult, enamel hypoplasia (grooves) on the upper left canine; d) T.444, female young adult, slight and moderate calculus on right maxilla. Courtesy of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports. Michael et al. 29 female, the remaining cases were noted in males/pos- sible male individuals. Cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis were ob- served in five cases overall (Tables 1 and 2). Interest- ingly, with the exception of one juvenile presenting with porosity on the orbital roof, all remaining four cases were recorded in females. In the adult cases, the lesions were mostly healed. One young child, be- tween three and four years old, presented with both active and healed lesions. Prevalences of caries, calculus, AMTL, and enamel hypoplasia in relation to sex are presented in Table 3. When all age categories are combined, statistically significant differences were found between the sexes for enamel hypoplasia and calculus. More specifi- cally, males and females do present statistically significant differences for the former indicator but not for the latter (Mann-Whitney U, Z = –0.216, p = 0.829). Statistical comparisons between males and females while controlling for age are also presented in Table 4. No statistically significant differences re- garding caries and calculus location and severity were noted. In contrast, the sexes do present statisti- cally significant differences in terms of hypoplasia type (Mann-Whitney U, Z = –4.538, p < 0.001). The stated dental indicators were also examined in relation to age, regardless of sex (Table 5). No age dif- ferences were noted for enamel hypoplasia, contrary to the remaining indicators. AMTL and calculus present their highest rates in the old middle adult cat- egory. Both conditions present positive and signifi- cant correlations with age (Spearman’s rho [age-calculus]: 0.193, p = 0.000; Spearman’s rho [age- AMTL]: 0.137, p = 0.000). Dental caries on the other hand are presenting a negative correlation with age (Spearman’s rho: –0.038, p = 0.310), although not sig- nificant. Caries were mostly noted in young adults (Table  5) and the difference between the adult age categories is significant (Kruskal-Wallis, chi-square: 10.221, df = 2, p = 0.06). Table 2. Percentages of pathological conditions and fractures for the population of Achlada (Florina). (True Prevalence Rates for dental diseases and enamel hypoplasia are the number of teeth/alveoli exhibiting the condition divided by the number of teeth/alveoli examined; Crude Prevalence Rates for the remaining conditions and fracture cases are defined as the number of individuals exhibiting the condition/fracture divided by the number of individuals examined.) Pathologies Individuals affected Crude prevalence rate % Teeth/alveoli affected True prevalance rate % AMTL 9/55 16.4 26/816 3.2 Caries 29/55 52.7 70/709 9.9 Enamel hypoplasia 31/55 56.4 150/709 21.2 Calculus 26/55 47.3 159/709 22.4 Cribra orbitalia 2/55 3.6 Porotic hyperostosis 3/55 5.5 Spinal DJD 6/55 10.9 Postcranial DJD 4/55 7.3 Skull fractures* 1/55 1.8 Postcranial fractures* 4/55  7.3 *probable cases Table 3. Dental diseases and enamel hypoplasia in relation to sex (for all age categories combined). F/F? M/M? ? Kruskall-Wallis test Dental caries 21/70 30% 34/70 48.6% 15/70 21.4% chi-square = 2.371 df = 2 p = 0.306 AMTL 5/26 19.2% 16/26 61.5% 5/26 19.2% chi-square = 0.000 df = 2 p = 1.000 Enamel hypoplasia 30/150 20% 84/150 56% 36/150 24% chi-square = 27.418 df = 2 p = 0.000 Calculus 65/159 40.9% 75/159 47.2% 19/159 11.9% chi-square = 16.612 df = 2 p = 0.000 Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality30 B) Intercemetery comparisons Comparative mortuary data. Comparative funerary information on the LBA sites of the wider archaeo- logical and geographical context is presented in Ta- ble 6. Single burial inhumations are mostly observed in populations north of Thessaly, while multiple burials are mostly noted in southern Mycenaean populations. The pattern of males being placed on their right side, with females on their left, is noted in the current sample as well as at Jančići Dubac (with a few exceptions) and at Pigi Artemidos. Arti- facts, such as pottery and numerous bronze items (e.g., jewelry, weapons), are common among all sites of the wider study context. Elaborate burials are noted in the Grave Circle/Tholos Tombs of Pylos and Kazanaki Tholos Tomb in Thessaly. At numer- ous sites (e.g., Lofkënd Tumuli, Spathes, Korinos, Trimbina, Athens), prestigious objects were also found, with a proportion of the buried population (Table 6). Table 4. Statistical comparisons of dental diseases and enamel hypoplasia between sexes while controlling for age Young adults Young middle Old middle (F/F? vs. M/M?) (F/F? vs. M/M?) (F/F? vs. M/M?) Dental caries 85.7% (18/21); 29.4% (10/34) 9.5% (2/21); 38.2% (13/34) 4.8% (1/21); 29.4% (10/34) Mann-Whitney: 4397.0 Mann-Whitney: 6031.5 Mann-Whitney: 3641.0 Z = –0.082 Z = –1.857 Z = –2.093 p = 0.934 p = 0.063 p = 0.036 AMTL 0; 18.8% (3/16) 40% (2/5); 6.3% (1/16) 60% (3/5); 75% (12/16) Mann-Whitney: 4224.0 Mann-Whitney: 6321.0 Mann-Whitney: 3681.0 Z = –2.371 Z = –1.211 Z = –1.571 p = 0.018 p = 0.226 p = 0.116 Enamel hypoplasia 43.3% (13/30); 20.2% (17/84) 46.7% (14/30); 56% (47/84) 10% (3/30); 22.6% (19/84) Mann-Whitney: 3776.5 Mann-Whitney: 3554.0 Mann-Whitney: 3432.5 Z = –2.692 Z = –2.281 Z = –2.595 p = 0.007 p = 0.023 p = 0.009 Calculus 36.9% (24/65); 21.3% (16/75) 33.8% (22/65); 41.3% (31/75) 29.2% (19/65); 29.3% (22/75) Mann-Whitney: 4220.0 Mann-Whitney: 6025.5 Mann-Whitney: 3667.0 Z = –0.737 Z = –1.141 Z = –1.090 p = 0.461 p= 0.254 p = 0.276 Table 5. Prevalence of dental diseases and enamel hypoplasia by age groups Age groups Dental caries AMTL Calculus Enamel hypoplasia Juvenile (1–12 years) 5.8% (5/86) absent absent 20.9% (18/86) Adolescent (12–18 years) 10% (2/20) absent 10% (2/20) 40% (8/20) Yound adult (18–25 years) 16.3% (30/184) 1.4% (3/207) 22.8% (42/184) 19.6% (36/184) Young middle (25–35 years) 7.3% (20/273) 2.6% (8/302) 24.5% (67/273) 23.1% (63/273) Old middle (36–45 years) 8.4% (11/131) 8.2% (15/182) 31.3% (41/131) 16.8% (22/131) Kruskal-Wallis test chi-square = 12.519 df = 4 p = 0.014 chi-square = 20.598 df = 4 p = 0.00 chi-square = 33.691 df = 4 p = 0.00 chi-square = 7.134 df = 4 p = 0.129 Michael et al. 31 Table 6. Archaeological information of LBA sites of the wider study region Sites of the wider context Absolute chronology Relative chronology Type of tombs/burials Grave orientation Burial placement Brief information on grave goods Achlada, Macedonia, Greece 1400–1100 B.C. pit graves, single burials, all inhumations SW–NE; males/right; females/left one ceramic vessel per tomb (32 overall); 13 objects (e.g., amber beads, bronze fibulae, one knife) Jančići Dubac, Serbia1 LBA Tumuli, inhumations and cremations multiple orientation (W–E and E–W), slightly crouched position observed in some cases, males/right; females/left jewelry, numerous bronze items, ceramic vessels, in general well furnished Manastir, Čaška–Veles, North Macedonia2 EBA–EIA necropolis of the settlement, 12 skeletons, of which 10 with traces of burning-cremation not completed part of the Ulanci group LBA tradition, North Balkan objects (e.g., battle axes— Celts, spears) Kamenica Tumuli, Albania3 13th–12th c. B.C. Tumuli, Great Circle, simple pits flexed position pottery, jewelery, weapons Apollonia Tumulus 10, Albania4 LBA/EIA Tumuli, simple pits, single burials multiple orientation NW most prevalent sleeping/fetal position most prevalent 32% of burials with grave goods, remarkable variety of types (e.g., bronze pins, bronze knife, necklace of faience beads) Lofkënd Tumuli, Albania5 LBA/EIA Tumuli, pit burials, single and commingled burials (simultaneous and prima- ry-secondary inhumations), two cremations present multiple orientation (predominant orientation northeast and southeast), mostly supine position with legs flexed less than half of 85 burials with goods, grave goods found more in female burials, mostly one artifact per person, six “wealthier” burials up to 11 items each, in general: pottery, bronze and iron ornaments (including weapons), beads of various materials (iron and glass), electrum objects Epirus’s sites, Greece (Elaphotopos, Konitsa, Skamneli)6 LBA cist graves, inhumations local pottery, bronze weapons and implements, bronze jewelry, lithics; significant number of beads and one matt-painted jug (Skamneli burials) P. Athinas, Macedonia, Greece7 1650–1500 B.C. 5 Tumuli—16 single-pit graves—the 5 central of them deeper—possible examples of elaborate construction SW–NE males/ right; females/left one ceramic vessel per burial—very few other findings (e.g., jewelry)—most usual ceramic type “Thessaly Kantharos” with central channel decoration P. Artemidos, Macedonia, Greece8 1600–1400 B.C. Tumulus, 6 pit graves & 3 stone & 1 deposit of bones, all single burials variously oriented males on both sides clay vessels and bronze items (one bracelet, one spiral earring, two pins, and three knives); one vase of Mycenaean type Valtos, Macedonia, Greece9 MBA–LBA Tumulus—3 pit graves bronze jewelry in one burial Korinos, Macedonia, Greece10 EBA–LBA Tumuli, pit graves, mainly single burials contracted position, no specific orientation large quantity of pottery (local and Mycenaean), clay, lithic and stone objects, numerous jewelry (bronze, silver, some gold beads) (Continued) Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality32 Table 6. (Continued) Sites of the wider context Absolute chronology Relative chronology Type of tombs/burials Grave orientation Burial placement Brief information on grave goods Spathes, Macedonia, Greece11 1400–1200 B.C. cist graves, 2–5 individuals per burial sealstones (17), jewelry weaponry (e.g., sword type G of Sandars, C3 dagger) and Mycenaean or “Mycenaeanis- ing” pottery Treis Elies, Macedonia, Greece12 LBA/EIA cist and pit graves single burials handmade Macedonian pottery and ceramics influenced by Mycenaean patterns, numerous metalwork findings, simple and “poor” necklaces Trimbina, Macedonia, Greece 13 1420–1150 B.C. 17 cist and pit burials (including one animal burial), single burials NE–SW all human burials with artifacts (pottery and metalwork)—intense Mycenaean presence, one “warrior” burial Rema Xydias, Macedonia, Greece 14 1390–1200 B.C. mostly cist graves—multiple/ collective inhumations in most cases local production and Mycenaean-type artifacts Faia Petra, Macedonia, Greece 15 13th c. B.C. five groups of single and multiple burials and a single grave, inhumations and one cremation, elaborate and time-consuming construc- tion of burial enclosures contracted and supine positions plain clay pots (mainly incised decoration filled with white paste— typical of Eastern and Central Macedonia); two Mycenae- an-type stirrup jars, several bronze items, amber beads, and two gold discs, funerary meals (remains of unburnt animal bones) Velestino, Thessaly, Greece16 LHIIIA–B five chamber tombs, one primary, and two to six secondary burials per tomb contracted position not very “rich” artifacts Kazanaki, Thessaly, Greece17 14th c. B.C. one tholos tomb, commin- gled, evidence of incomplete cremation prestige items (e.g., golden jewelry, 1000 necklace tiles, glass beads), 42 pots (18 matt painted) East Lokris, Phiotida, Greece18 1325–1100 B.C. chamber tombs commingled burials non-elite socioeconomic stratum Athens, Attiki, Greece19 LBA chamber tombs, pit graves, cist graves weapons (swords, spears, knives), painted pottery, beads (e.g., gold, amber) Pylos, Peloponnese, Greece20 Middle Helladic to LHIIIC population from the Palace of Nestor and neighboring area, Grave Circle, elaborate tholos tombs, chamber tombs and pit (cist) grave, primary and secondary burials in all cases extended and contracted Grave Circle: multiple artifacts (e.g., bronze cauldrons, daggers, rapiers, boars’ tusks, ornaments of gold, ivory, and silver); Tholos tombs: beads of amethyst, pottery, gold leaf; Chambers: pottery, beads, bronze and stone artifacts; pit grave: four pots Ayia Sotira, Peloponnese, Greece21 LHIIIA1– IIIB2 chamber cemetery, primary and secondary burials, 24 out of 34 burials showed evidence for secondary treatment pottery, plant, and food remains (meals for living or dead), residues of fatty lipids and wood, hundreds of miniature beads (Continued) Michael et al. 33 The number of adults vs. non-adults found in cem- eteries of the wider region is presented in Table 7. The highest adult–non-adult ratios are noted in LBA/EIA Treis Elies in Pieria (11:1 ratio), Mycenaean Pylos (8:1 ratio), the current sample (7:1 ratio), and Mycenaean Voudeni (6:1 ratio). A number of sites, (e.g., Kamenica Tumuli, Apollonia Tumulus 10, Lofkënd Tumuli, Spathes, Korinos, East Lokris, Athens, Ayia Sotira) present ratios between 4:1 and 2:1. In Pigi Athinas tu- muli no non-adults were found, whereas Čaška–Veles and Faia Petra present almost an equal number of adults and non-adults. LBA Jančići Dubac is an ex- ception, as the number of non-adults is slightly higher compared to adults. Comparative data of lifestyle indicators. Compara- tive DJD data of LBA sites of the wider study context are presented in Table 8. The highest number of post- cranial DJD cases is noted at Rema Xydias and Pigi Athinas in Macedonian Olympus. The spine is more affected than the rest of the skeleton in Achlada and Lofkënd tumuli, while in Velestino and Jančići Dubac DJD is absent from the postcranial elements. In LBA Spathes and LBA/EIA Treis Elies, the upper part of the body (upper limbs, cervical and thoracic seg- ments, and thorax) is more affected than the lower one (lower limbs, lumbar, and sacral segments) (Table 8). Comparative data on stature, trauma, CO, and PH are presented in Table 9. The highest adult stature is observed at Jančići Dubac and it is much higher com- pared to all the remaining sites of the wider study context. The two sites in Thessaly (Kazanaki and Ve- lestino), Sykia in the Peloponnese, and Čaška–Veles in North Macedonia gave stature averages of around 165 cm, while the remaining samples have a stature range of between 158 cm and 162 cm. Apart from Rema Xydias in Macedonian Olympus exhibiting a very high number of trauma cases (per bone), the majority of the remaining sites present few trauma cases (below five), while Achlada cemetery and Lofkënd tumuli present six and nine cases of trau- matic lesions, respectively. Likewise, the majority of sites present limited numbers of CO and PH cases, with the exception of Pigi Athinas and Rema Xydias (Table 9). Finally, comparative results of enamel hypoplasia and dental diseases rates are presented in Table  10. Achlada has a statistically significantly higher rate of enamel hypoplasia than all the sites of Central and Southern Greece, as well all of Epirus’s sites (Elapho- topos, Konitsa, and Skamneli). The only sites that present significantly higher rates of enamel hypopla- sia than Achlada are Pigi Artemidos and Trimbina in Macedonian Olympus. Dental caries frequencies Table 6. (Continued) Sites of the wider context Absolute chronology Relative chronology Type of tombs/burials Grave orientation Burial placement Brief information on grave goods Achaea Clauss, Pelopon- nese, Greece22 LHIIIA1–IIIC chamber tombs, primary and secondary burials, inhuma- tions, only one cremation Clauss Warrior 2: left placement, legs in contracted position pottery, sealstones, impressive jewelry, toilet equipment, metal objects, weapons (e.g., Naue II long sword), two warrior burials, exotic knife of North Italian origin at Clauss Warrior 2 Voudeni, Peloponnese, Greece23 1400–1050 B.C. chamber tombs, collective burials numerous findings: pottery, weapons, tools, jewelry; connections with Messene, Laconia, Argolid/Corinth, Crete, Italy, Anatolia Spaliareika Achaea, Peloponnese, Greece24 LHIIIA–C four chamber tombs, primary and secondary inhumations supine position (“local ruler” burial) two bronze swords (burial of local ruler—most elaborate burial), pottery, bronze items, glass and stone beads Sykia, Peloponnese, Greece25 LHIIIA–C three chamber tombs weapons (e.g., swords, knives, daggers), pottery 1 Dmitrović 2016; 2 Veljanovska 2008; 3 Kline 2015:69; 4 Grazia Amore 2010; 5 Papadopoulos et al. 2014; Stapleton 2014; 6 Tartaron 2004; Vasileiou et al. 2018; Vokotopoulou 1967; 7 Poulaki-Pantermali 2008; Poulaki-Pantermali et al. 2010; Tritsaroli 2017; 8 Tritsaroli and Koulidou 2018; 9 Poulaki-Pantermali et al. 2010; 10 Bessios 1997; 11 Poulaki-Pantermali 1986a, 1986b, 1987a, 1987b, 1990, 1991; 12 Poulaki-Pantermali 1988, 1989, 1992; 13 Koulidou et al. 2017; 14 Koulidou 2005, 2009, 2020; Tritsaroli, 2020; 15 Valla et al. 2010; 16 Arachoviti 1994; Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou 1994; Papathanasiou et al. 2012a; 17 Adrimi-Sismani and Alexandrou 2008; 18 Iezzi 2005, 2009; 19 Camp 2003; Smith 2009; 20 Blegen et al. 1973; 21 Smith et al. 2017; 22 Paschalidis 2020; Paschalidis and McGeorge 2009; 23 Kolonas 1998, 2009a; Moutafi 2015; 24 Petropoulos 2000; 25 Eustathiou 1997, 1998. Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality34 range from 0% to 24.2%, placing Achlada’s rate (9.9%) in the middle of this range (Table 10). In contrast, the observed calculus rate of the current sample is sig- nificantly higher than most other compared collec- tions (mostly in Macedonia) with the exception of Valtos and Pigi Artemidos. Regarding AMTL, Achla- da’s rate is one of the lowest compared to the sites of the wider study region (Table 10). Discussion A) Intra-cemetery variation In terms of DJD, male individuals were more af- fected than females. Osteoarthritis, especially of the spine, is strongly linked to genetics and some studies have documented that this hereditary effect Table 7. Number of adults and non-adults in LBA sites of the wider context Adults Non-adults (< 18 years) Achlada 48 7 Jančići Dubac1 8 10 Manastir, Čaška–Veles2 7 4 Kamenica Tumuli3 10 4 Apollonia Tumulus 104 46 14 Lofkënd Tumuli5 86 43 P. Athinas6 17 0 P. Artemidos7 8 2 Valtos8 7 3 Korinos9 20 4 Spathes9 21 6 Treis Elies9 32 3 Trimbina10 18 8 Rema Xydias10 32 13 Faia Petra11 7 5 Velestino12 20 11 Kazanaki13 6 3 East Lokris14 142 43 Athens15 79 38 Pylos16 160 19 Ayia Sotira17 26 8 Achaea Clauss18 55 18 Voudeni, Achaea19 175 31 Spaliareika Achaea20 21 4 Sykia21 28 8 1 Radović 2016:272–282; 2 Veljanovska 2008:431–438; 3 Kline 2015:69; 4 Schepartz 2010:52; 5 Schepartz 2014:140–141; 6 Tritsaroli 2017:238; 7 Tritsaroli and Koulidou 2018:Table 1, 12; 8 Tritsaroli 2007:Table 1, 192; 9 Triantaphyllou 2001:36; 10 Tritsaroli 2020:Table 2, 262; 11 Valla et al. 2010:Fig. 6, 236; 12 Papathanasiou et al. 2012a:215; 13 Papathanasiou 2009:153; 14 Iezzi 2005:219, 2009:Table 11.1; 15 Smith 1998; 16 Schepartz et al, 2009:Table 10.2, 2011; Papathanasiou et al., 2012b; 17 Triantaphyllou 2017:132; 18 Paschalidis and McGeorge 2009:102; 19 Moutafi 2015:428–429; 20 Papathanasiou 2005:Table 1, 192; 21 Papathanasiou 1999:1009–1101. Michael et al. 35 is stronger in females than in males (Bergink et al. 2003; Sambrook et al. 1999; Spector and MacGregor 2004; Wilson et  al. 1990). Therefore, even though the number of affected cases is very limited, it could be cautiously suggested that activity patterns dif- fered between men and women. Regarding trauma, the pattern observed in the current sample follows the expected conventional model of males suffering more accidental injuries than females as a possible consequence of a greater exposure to trauma trig- gered by heavier workload (Angel 1974; Grauer and Roberts 1996; Merbs 1989). In particular, traumatic lesions of the foot observed mostly in male individ- uals of the wider context (Figs. S1 and S4) (e.g., Papathanasiou et  al. 2012a:218–219; Trian- taphyllou 2001:83; Tritsaroli and Koulidou 2018:16) may suggest activities such as farming (e.g., con- structing and clearing fields, tilling, planting, and harvesting) and walking long distances (Trian- taphyllou 2001:83). In Achlada cemetery, with the exception of one ju- venile, all cases of PH and CO were recorded on fe- males. A number of studies have pointed out that females show higher frequencies of acquired anemia than men due to stresses and iron loss related to pregnancy, lactation, and menstruation (Larsen 1997; Miller 2016; Stuart-Macadam 1998). On the other hand, as lesions observed on females were mostly healed, it is most likely that they had been formed during childhood/adolescence (Stuart-Mac- adam 1985; Walker et al. 2009). Walker et al. (2009) have challenged the association of iron loss with such porosities, linking them instead to megaloblas- tic and hemolytic anemias. In any case, due to the limited number of observed cranial elements and the obscure etiology of these lesions, more detailed con- clusions could not be drawn. Regarding enamel hypoplasia, males overall pres- ent higher frequencies of enamel hypoplasia than fe- males and this difference is statistically significant. It seems possible that males could have been more ex- posed to stress episodes during their developmental years than females. On the other hand, it is quite possible that females experienced the same stress but were physiologically more buffered and did not de- velop the same amount of defects (e.g., Trigunaite et  al. 2015). Nevertheless, younger females present significantly higher rates than younger males (Table  4), possibly suggesting that females experi- encing stress episodes during childhood underwent a significant risk of death in early adulthood (Trian- taphyllou 2001:114). As a high prevalence of Table 8. DJD in Late Bronze Age sites of the wider context Sites (overall number of individuals) Overall DJD Postcranial DJD Spinal DJD Achlada (N = 55) 10 cases (per indiv.) 31 cases (per bone) 4 cases (per indiv.) 6 cases (per bone) 6 cases (per indiv.) 25 cases (per bone) Jančići Dubac (N = 18)1 not available  not available 4 cases (per indiv.) Lofkënd Tumulus (N = 136)2 not available 8 cases (per bone) 45 cases (per indiv.) P. Athinas (N = 17)3 not available  46 cases (per bone) 18 cases (per bone) P. Artemidos (N = 10)4 not available  2 cases per hip, knee, ankle; 1 case per foot (per indiv.) 4 cases (per indiv.) Spathes (N = 27)5 11 cases (per bone) upper body: 9 cases lower body: 2 cases (per bone) Treis Elies (N = 35)5 21 cases (per bone) upper body: 13 cases lower body: 8 cases (per bone) Trimbina (N = 26)6 not available  shoulder (13.6%–37.5%) elbow (4.3%– 23.5%) hands (2%–33.3%) hip (18.4%– 23.8%) knee (15.9%–22.2%) ankle (7.9%–25%) foot (3.6%–7.3%)(per bone) cervical: 30.4%, thoracic & lumbar: 33.3% (per bone) Kazanaki (N = 9)7 9 cases (per bone) not available  not available  Velestino (N = 31)8 not available  not available  12 cases (per bone) Spaliareika (N = 25)9 10 cases (per bone) not available not available  Sykia (N = 36)10 8 cases (per bone) not available  not available  Upper body: upper limbs, cervical and thoracic vertebrae, thorax; lower body: lower limbs, lumbar, and sacral vertebrae. For Trimbina and Rema Xydias DJD is presented for both sites combined. 1 Radović 2016:272–282; 2 Schepartz 2014:148–149; 3 Tritsaroli 2017:Table 9.6, Table 9.7, 243–244; 4 Tritsaroli and Koulidou 2018:17; 5 Triantaphyllou 2001:Table 6.1, Table 6.4, 70, 74; 6 Tritsaroli 2020:258; 7 Papathanasiou 2009:154; 8 Papathanasiou et al. 2012a:218; 9 Papathanasiou 2005:195–196; 10 Papathanasiou 1999:1011. Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality36 physiological stress indicators in mature and old adults may indicate that affected individuals coped successfully with stress episodes during growth (De- Witte and Stojanowski 2015:407; Wood et  al. 1992:352) current results could indicate that males coped more successfully with stress episodes during childhood compared to females, as defects are much more evident in the middle and old middle aged men than women. Could it be suggested then that males received better care, such as a better nutrition, during growth that helped them to cope with stresses more successfully? A dentine isotopic reconstruction could potentially shed light on sex dietary differ- ences during childhood. On the other hand, it can- not be safely assumed that males and females buried in Achlada all grew up together under the same con- ditions. The challenges  both sexes faced in their childhood do not of necessity reflect challenges faced in the same landscape or community setting. Osteological and isotopic data from mainland southern Greece (Papathanasiou et al. 2012b; Schep- artz et al. 2009; Triantaphyllou et al. 2019) have indi- cated dietary differentiations related to sex, with females having poorer dental health than males, and the latter incorporating more animal protein in their diet. The concept of females consuming cariogenic foodstuffs and males more meat could be suggested for sites in Pieria such as Pigi Athinas (Tritsaroli 2017:250), Korinos, and Spathes (Triantaphyllou 2001:120–126), based on caries and calculus rates. The pattern observed at Achlada though is not that clear. Males present higher rates of caries and calculus than females; however, the differences are not statistically significant. Dental caries differences are significant between old middle adult males and females (Table  4). AMTL, which is associated with caries among other factors (Hillson 1996), is also more fre- quent in males than females and this difference is sta- Table 9. Comparative data of stature, trauma, cribra orbitalia, and porotic hyperostosis Sites (overall number of individuals) Stature Trauma Cribra orbitalia Porotic hyperostosis Achlada (N = 55) 162.5 cm 6 cases (per indiv.) 2 cases (per indiv.) 3 cases (per indiv.)8 cases (per bone) Jančići Dubac (N = 18)1 172.09 cm absent absent absent Manastir, Čaška–Veles (N = 12)2 165.3 cm not available not available not available Apollonia Tumulus 10 (N = 60)3 not available not available 5 cases (per indiv.) Lofkënd Tumulus (N = 136)4 161.5 cm 9 cases (per indiv.) 5 cases (per indiv.) 1 case (per indiv.) P. Athinas (N = 17)5 162 cm 2 cases (per bone) none 17 cases (per bone) P. Artemidos (N = 10)6 not available 2 cases (per indiv.) 3 cases (per indiv.) 1 case (per indiv.) Valtos (N = 3)7 not available 2 cases (per bone) absent 1 case (per indiv.) Spathes (N = 27)8 157 cm 2 cases (per bone) 3 cases (per bone) 1 case (per bone) Treis Elies (N = 35)8 not available 2 cases (per bone) 1 case (per bone) absent Trimbina (N = 26)9 160 cm 1 case (per bone) 2 cases (per indiv.) 5 cases (per indiv.) Rema Xydias (N = 45)9 158 cm 15 cases (per bone) 7 cases (per indiv.) 17 cases (per indiv.) Kazanaki (N = 9)10 165.5 cm 1 case (per bone) 2 cases (per indiv.) absent Velestino (N = 31)11 164.4 cm 2 cases (per indiv.) absent absent Spaliareika (N = 25)12 158 cm 1 case (per indiv.) 1 case (per indiv.) 4 cases (per indiv.) Achaea Clauss (N = 73)13 162.2 cm not available  not available  not available  Sykia (N = 36)14 165.9 cm 4 cases (per indiv.) absent 1 case (per indiv.) Ayia Sotira (N = 34)15 not available 1 case (per indiv.) not available not available 1 Radović 2016:272–282; 2 Veljanovska 2008:431–438; 3 Schepartz 2010:Fig. 3.20, 61; 4 Schepartz 2014:139–150; 5 Tritsaroli 2017:238, 246; 6 Tritsaroli and Koulidou 2018:15–16; 7 Tritsaroli 2007:192–193; 8 Triantaphyllou 2001:Table 6.5, Table 6.15, 79, 106; 9 Tritsaroli 2020:Table 4, 263; 10 Papathanasiou 2009:153–154; 11 Papathanasiou et al. 2012a:217–219; 12 Papathanasiou 2005:194–195; 13 Paschalidis and McGeorge 2009:103; 14 Papathanasiou 1999:1010–1011; 15 Triantaphyllou 2017:13. Michael et al. 37 tistically significant (Mann-Whitney U: Z = –1.961, p = 0.05). Females tend to present higher frequencies of dental caries in both modern and archaeological samples (Hillson 2001; Walker and Hewlett 1990) due to biological, behavioral, and cultural factors (Laine 2002; Larsen 1997; Larsen et  al. 1991; Walker and Hewlett 1990). Nevertheless, this is not a universal pattern. For example, in Lofkënd Tumuli, Mycenaean Athens, and Mycenaean Ayia Sotira, males present much higher carious lesions than females (Schepartz 2014:149–150; Smith 1998; Triantaphyllou 2017:136). Various cultural and behavioral factors have been proposed to explain this reverse pattern (i.e., more males than females affected), including the type and consistency of food preparation and cooking meth- ods, gendered division of labor, and subsistence ac- tivity patterns that could potentially result in differential access to cariogenic food for men and women (Lukacs 1989:151–152; Walker and Erlandson 1986:380). What is even more interesting and not associated with biological factors is the negative association of dental caries with age in the current sample. Even though the progressive nature of this condition leads to a developmental pattern that is strongly related to age (Manji et al. 1991; Thylstrup and Fejerskov 1994), the highest percentage of caries was noted in young adults (Table  5). Both sexes presented negative cor- relations with age, although the observed correlation was only statistically significant for females. It could be suggested that younger females might have been mostly responsible for specific tasks, such as food preparation, that could have possibly exposed them to a higher intake of cariogenic foodstuffs. These re- sults could also represent selective mortality. It could be proposed that frailty was higher in younger fe- males and thus they were more likely to die and be selected out of the population (DeWitte and Sto- janowski 2015:407; Wood et al. 1992). Complications during pregnancy and childbirth could be possibly linked to female ill health and mortality. Selective mortality could also be proposed for juveniles exhib- iting dental caries, even though their number is very limited and far-reaching interpretations should not be made. B) Intercemetery comparisons Comparative data on funerary practices. Comparative mortuary information is presented to better compre- hend the different ways in which the communities in Pelagonia were connected to major cultural constel- lations to the north and/or south (Table 6). Starting from the northern part of the wider context, Jančići Dubac, in the Čačak region, is under the influence of the Tumulus tradition and belongs to the Western Serbian variant of the Vatin group (Dmitrović 2016:214). It is a very well-furnished mortuary assem- blage (with widespread presence of vessels from Morava Valley) (Dmitrović 2016:218) and certain characteristics, such as differential burial treatment between the sexes and type of burials, are also evi- dent in the Albanian and Ulanci mortuary tradition (Papadopoulos et al. 2014; Papazovska Sanev 2014). A significant difference between Achlada and Dubac is the prominent presence of cremations (common from 1350 B.C. onward) along with inhumation buri- als. Even though cremations are not absent in the re- maining study region, they are much less frequent (Table 6). General features of the Tumuli Ulanci ne- cropolises include inhumations in crouched posi- tions and the body placed in cist/pit graves, while matt-painted pottery and local copies of Mycenaean vessels are also present (Papazovska Sanev 2014:9). Such features are very much evident in Macedonia, Northern Greece (e.g., Pigi Athinas, Pigi Artemidos, Valtos), while cist tombs and single inhumation buri- als are also the “rule” in LBA Epirus (e.g., Tartaron 2004). Tumuli, a tradition that appears on the Greek mainland in the Early Helladic II period probably as a consequence of influences from the north (Tritsar- oli 2017:228), is much more evident in Pieria, espe- cially before the “Mycenaeanization” of the area. Moving from the Middle Helladic period to the Late Helladic, especially in Central and Southern Greece, the reuse of graves and multiple inhumations appear. These multiple shaft graves are covered by chamber and tholos tombs (Stapleton, 2014:205; Tritsaroli 2017:227–228) (Table  6). The occurrence of multiple and/or secondary burials also appears in Macedonia, Northern Greece, during the Developed LBA (LHIIIA–LHIIIB) (e.g., Spathes, Rema Xydias) (Kou- lidou 2020; Triantaphyllou 2001:64–65; Triantaphyl- lou and Andreou 2020:183), and mostly during the Advanced LBA (LHIIIC) (e.g., Faia Petra, Methoni and Kastri in Thasos) (Triantaphyllou and Andreou 2020:183). Another important characteristic appear- ing in the mortuary environment during the LBA is the deposition of material wealth in burials (Tritsar- oli 2017:228). The accumulation of distinct artifacts as manifestations of social identity is evident in numer- ous northern assemblages, such as Spathes and Lofkënd tumuli (Table  6) (Stapleton 2014; Trian- taphyllou and Andreou 2020), as well as at Aeani and Rymnio in Western Macedonia (Karametrou-Mente- sidi 1990:355; Poulaki-Pantermali 2013:45–62). Even in cases where prestige items were not found (e.g., Pigi Athinas) social intra-cemetery differentiation was attempted through differential investment in grave construction (Tritsaroli 2017:228–233: Table 6). Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality38 It is therefore characteristic that in Achlada there is no such differential investment in grave construc- tion, while accumulation of distinct artifacts was very relatively modest (just 13 associated finds recov- ered in six tombs) (Ziota 2019). In terms of demographic characteristics, the overall number of juveniles is very small in the community under study while no infants were found. The 7:1 ratio of adults vs. non-adults is simi- lar to that found in Mycenaean assemblages, such as Voudeni and Pylos (Table 7). The pattern of a lim- ited number of non-adults is also in agreement with neighboring sites in Southern Albania, such as the LBA Kamenica Tumulus (Kline 2015:69) and Lofkënd Tumuli (Schepartz 2014:144), but not at Čaška–Veles in North Macedonia (Veljanovska 2008:431–438) or Jančići Dubac (Radović 2016: 272–282). Normally, for preindustrial societies the expected percentage of juveniles and infants ranges between 30% and 50% (Coale and Demeney 1983; Weiss 1973). Non-adults were treated in a different way in the Mycenaean sphere and there is a signifi- cant variation in differential treatment of juvenile individuals in LBA Greece, not just in relation to their arithmetic presence, but also regarding the presence/absence of artifacts found in their tombs (Cavanagh and Mee 1998; Schepartz et  al. 2009). Nevertheless, we cannot be certain of the limited non-adult presence in the Achlada community, as it is possible that a higher number of non-adults were buried in a part of the cemetery that was not pre- served (due to disruptions by later burials or foun- dations of Roman buildings) (Ziota 2019). Additionally, it could also be hypothesized that if juvenile burials were shallower than adult ones, it would be more likely for them to get disrupted through later activity during the Roman period (Ziota 2019). Based on the information presented above, it seems that features from different traditions were combined in the current mortuary environment. Differential burial treatment between sexes and burial types re- flects traditions visible at Ulanci and Central Mace- donia cemeteries. Material culture evidence reveals relations with sites of Central Macedonia and south- eastern Albania (Ziota 2019). Mycenaean influence is also present, manifested by two “Mycenaeanizing” painted vessels (Ziota 2019:Table 1) and possibly also based on the adult:non-adult ratio. The comparative funerary analysis showed that Achlada was con- nected with minor and major cultural ambits, but in a limited way, as suggested by the lack of significant material culture differentiation within the community. Comparative lifestyle data. In terms of DJD, the assemblage seems to be moderately affected when compared to other sites of the wider context (Ta- ble 8), even though spinal DJD is prominent. It is ob- vious that the current assemblage is more intensely affected compared to the well-networked sites at Spathes and Treis Elies, but less so compared to the Pigi Athinas assemblage (1650–1500 B.C.), with the latter predating Achlada as well as the extensive My- cenaean influence in the region around Mount Olympus (Tritsaroli 2017:225). Rema Xydias popula- tion in Pieria, a modestly furnished assemblage, is also a severely affected community with regard to DJD (Tritsaroli 2020:258). The cervical segment of the vertebra seems to be more affected in Achlada and this pattern is also noted at Pigi Athinas (Tritsa- roli 2017:251) and Lofkënd tumuli (Schepartz 2014). The upper part of the body is also mostly affected in Spathes and Treis Elies (Triantaphyllou 2001) (Ta- ble 8), confirming that food acquisition, processing, preparation, and craft production, which have been linked to degenerative changes predominantly in the upper body (Triantaphyllou 2001:75), probably were important labor activities at these sites. Different methodologies and recording protocols make it diffi- cult to directly compare DJD frequencies between sites, while at the same time age and weight have also been considered to be important causative factors leading to DJD (Sofaer-Derevenski 2000; Solano 2002; Waldron 1998; Weiss 2004, 2006). Therefore, interpretations should be treated with caution. Injuries in the current sample and wider context are mostly of an accidental nature/origin. Cases of possible interpersonal violence are also present, al- though limited (e.g., scapular fracture [the severity of the lesion suggested a violent episode] at Pigi Artemi- dos [Tritsaroli and Koulidou 2018:20], one healed cranial trauma at Lofkënd Tumuli [Schepartz 2014], and three male individuals in the Mycenaean Athe- nian Agora found with wounds consistent with com- bat and interpersonal violence [Smith 2009]). In the current sample there is a possible case of a healed cra- nial depression that could be associated either with a violent attack or an accidental injury (Fig. S5); how- ever, the poor preservation of the specific sample does not allow for a secure diagnosis. It is attractive to hypothesize that the dearth of violent cases could be associated with possible advantages related to marginality. If for example we think of competition and raiding, being marginal could have its advan- tages as there would be little to claim/steal. Neverthe- less, the paucity of violent trauma cases in the vast majority of well-networked sites does not favor such bold assumptions. Michael et al. 39 Stature estimates from Achlada seem to fall within the range of well-networked LBA sites situated to the south, north, and east (Table 9). Even though stature is mainly affected by genetic factors (Lango et  al. 2010; Wood et al. 2014), evidence from a wide range of osteological investigations (Steckel 1995, 2009) has demonstrated that adult height and environmental stress, usually nutritionally induced, are closely re- lated. Stature estimates should be treated with cau- tion though, as results from most of the sites in the comparative list (Table 9) are based on very few fem- oral bones. Regarding nonspecific stress indicators, PH and CO cases in Achlada are quite few, but this is similar to most other sites (see Table  9 for references). The enamel hypoplasia rate at Achlada is signifi- cantly higher than at all the sites of Southern and Central Greece, as well as numerous northern assem- blages (Table 10). Interestingly, with a few exceptions, there is a clear tendency of northern communities to display elevated frequencies of enamel defects, com- pared to those of Central and Southern Greece. This observation is statistically significant (Mann-Whit- ney U: p = 0.008). According to Papathanasiou (2005:196), the declining rates of enamel hypoplasia noted in Mycenaean populations may reflect an im- provement in health status and living conditions, es- pecially for children. When comparing these results with northern sites of the wider context, the current community presents significantly higher rates of Table 10. Dental diseases and enamel hypoplasia in Late Bronze Age sites of the wider study region Dental caries Calculus AMTL Enamel hypoplasia Achlada 9.9% 22.4% 3.2% 21.2% Jančići Dubac1 0%* 16.6%* 11.1% 11.1%* Apollonia Tumulus 102 17%* Not available  4.2% Not available  Lofkënd Tumulus3 9.8% Not available  5.3%* 56.6% Epirus’s sites4 18.3%* 12.2%* 7.9%* 6.1%* Pigi Athinas5 10% 14%* 3% 23% Pigi Artemidos 6 17.8%* 28.2% 3.1% 32%* Valtos7 8% 53%* 4% 9%* Spathes8 11.23% 7.86%* 26.14%* 14.04%* Treis Elies8 13.88% 2.08%* 37.66%* 6.9%* Korinos8 3.15%* 9.47%* 0%* 4.2%* Trimbina9 24.2%* 15.8%* 10.4%* 36.1%* Rema Xydias9 19%* 25.7%* 26% Velestino10 5.1%* 6%* 64.3%* 6%* Kazanaki11 0%* Not available 0% 8%* Pylos (Grave Circle/Tholos III)12 3.7%* Not available 4.8% 4.4%* Pylos (chambers)12 12% Not available 14.5%* 10.6%* Spaliareika13 3.3%* Not available 26.1%* 10.8%* Sykia14 7% Not available 7.3%* 6.1%* Ayia Sotira15 9.91% Not available 7.29%* 1.22%* *Statistically significant differences compared to Achlada (Pearson chi-square test [p < 0.05], df = 1 for all cases). Enamel hypoplasia for Lofkënd Tumuli is given per number of dentitions and statistical comparison with Achlada was made based on crude prevalence; AMTL for Velestino is given per number of individuals and statistical comparison with Achlada was made based on crude prevalence; AMTL is given combined for Trimbina and Rema Xydias. 1 Radović 2016:272–282; 2 Schepartz 2010:Table 3.2, Table 3.3, 62; 3 Schepartz 2014:139–150; 4 Michael, personal observations; 5 Tritsaroli 2017:239; 6 Tritsaroli and Koulidou 2018:14–15; 7 Tritsaroli 2007:193; 8 Triantaphyllou 2001:109, 120, 124, 128; 9 Tritsaroli 2020:Table 4, 263; 10 Papathanasiou et al. 2012a:227; 11 Papathanasiou 2009:154; 12 Schepartz et al. 2009:Table 10.5, 167 (retrieved from individual teeth); 13 Papathanasiou 2005:35–38, 191–198; 14 Papathanasiou 1999: 1009–1101; 15 Triantaphyllou 2017:135. Comparative Bioarchaeological Approaches on Marginality40 enamel hypoplasia compared to Treis Elies, Spathes, Korinos, and Jančići Dubac sites that were extensively connected to major routes. This is not an absolute pattern, though (e.g., Trimbina, Tables 6 and 10). It could, however, be suggested that enamel hypopla- sia rates in Achlada suggest a poor growth environ- ment, leading to multiple episodes of stress and growth arrest during the early years of these individuals. On the other hand, significantly higher enamel hy- poplasia rates may not necessarily indicate poorer health (Wood et al. 1992), as individuals who do not survive stressful events would not have had the chance to develop such hypoplastic defects. Amelo- blasts are particularly sensitive to even minor physio- logical disruptions (Larsen 2015:44). In her attempt to interpret the elevated enamel hypoplasia rates in Lofkënd Tumuli contrary to the limited PH and CO cases (Tables 9 and 10), Schepartz (2014) suggested the possibility of stresses leading to enamel hypopla- sia to be of a lower magnitude than those resulting in PH and CO, as the former indicator is much more sensitive to metabolic stresses. Preservation chal- lenges affecting cranial segments, also noted in the current assemblage, should also be considered. Con- sequently, it could be cautiously suggested that the current sample, as well as a number of mostly north- ern communities of the wider context, faced more physiological challenges during growth, at least of a mild and moderate level, compared to a number of sites connected to major routes. This could be a result of participation in less extensive trading networks, and/or harsher environmental conditions (e.g., lower temperatures). In terms of diet, the LBA in Northern Greece was marked by a specialized and extensive system of ag- riculture and stock raising. High juvenile mortality curves have been observed among sheep, goat, and cattle, suggesting a strategy of animal husbandry primarily targeted at meat consumption (Trian- taphyllou 2015:58). Isotopic dietary reconstructions from several Aegean Bronze Age skeletal collections have revealed predominantly terrestrial subsistence strategies involving the intake of both plant and an- imal products (e.g., dairy products, eggs) without significant contributions of meat or marine protein (i.e., Lagia and Cavanagh 2010; Lagia et al. 2007; Pa- pathanasiou 2015; Papathanasiou et  al. 2012b; Pe- troutsa et al. 2009; Triantaphyllou et al. 2019). Heavy reliance on terrestrial food items was also found in LBA Kamenica Tumulus (Kline 2015:133). Combin- ing dental with isotopic data, Spathes and Treis Elies displayed a low animal intake (Triantaphyllou 2015) (Table  10). The analogous relation of calculus and protein consumption was also found based on isotopic data, in EBA Koilada in Kozani, Western Macedonia (Triantaphyllou 2001; Triantaphyllou 2015; Ziota 2007), where the calculus rate was at 22.22% (almost identical to the Achlada sample— true prevalence). On the other hand, isotopic results also showed a heavy reliance on animal protein for Korinos (Triantaphyllou 2015:67), where calculus rates are less than 10%, reminding us that simplistic correlations should be avoided, as oral hygiene, wa- ter, and soil quality should also be taken into ac- count when considering dental pathologies (Tritsaroli 2017:251). Nonetheless, based on the car- ies/AMTL-calculus pattern (Table 10), a reliance on animal proteins and thus pastoralism could be cau- tiously suggested for the current sample. Hunting could also be proposed as its practice was renewed by the end of the LBA in Macedonia (Triantaphyl- lou and Andreou 2020:174). Achlada’s specific loca- tion on a fertile plateau, though, supports cultivating practice. What is certain is that dental diseases do not suggest a poorer diet in the Achlada community compared to other well-networked populations (Table  10). On the contrary, it could be suggested that the stated community had a good diet with ad- equate intake of animal proteins. Could we assume then that marginality for the specific community meant they had modest access to prestige goods, but adequate access to food sources? Even if reciprocal intercommunity exchange networks were less ex- tensive, physical storage and/or diversification (Halstead and O’Shea 1989:4) could be the primary cultural practices of the Achlada community as a response to times of hardship, thus securing ade- quate food sources. Therefore, the dearth of mate- rial in graves could suggest a greater focus on basic subsistence or nominal surplus farming organiza- tion. It is obvious that the matter of marginality and its impact on human lifeways is highly complex. Conclusions In conclusion, it seems that a “menu” of practices was articulated by LBA populations presented in the cur- rent study. No specific formula existed and commu- nities had the choice of following different funerary practices based on their perspectives. Different cul- tural nodes were being accessed, they were inspired by groups to the north and to the south, but this was selective, and local conventions also emerged, as seen at Achlada. Scarce deposition of precious materials in the Achlada burials (e.g., rare amber finds, occasional metal findings) points to a clear connection—proba- bly not an extensive one, though—with cultural ambits. Michael et al. 41 Intra-cemetery lifestyle investigation revealed dif- ferentiations between the sexes. Males possibly man- aged to cope more successfully with stressful events during growth, possibly indicating better care during childhood. The analysis revealed that men were pos- sibly more engaged in challenging physical activities than women. In addition, dental results suggest that young females were either a group of higher frailty and/or were more exposed to carbohydrates, perhaps as a consequence of their part in the community. The differential burial placement of the sexes in the pre- served portion of the cemetery possibly represents symbolically the different roles that society attributed to men and women in deathways (Ziota 2019). It is possible that those different roles were associated with actual lifestyle differences. Whether these intra- community differentiations were associated with possible marginality remains unclear. The comparative bioarchaeological analysis did not reveal significantly poorer health compared to well-networked populations. It is true, though, that the current community, as well as a number of mostly northern populations surrounding Achlada in the wider region, probably faced more physiological challenges during growth, at least of a mild and mod- erate level, compared to communities connected to major cultural ambits. In terms of diet and physical activity the analysis did not indicate an unprivileged marginal environment. In fact, dietary dental analy- sis revealed that the current community had poten- tial access to animal protein. Combining mortuary and lifestyle data we find Achlada being closer to Pigi Athinas and Lofkënd Tumuli, but displaying more modest material culture in the mortuary environ- ment. Therefore, it is possible that marginality in the current sample could mean modestly resourced in prestige finished goods rather than less access to food sources. The main challenge at the Achlada LBA site was the dearth of material culture evidence related to net- working and subsistence. For this reason a thorough contextualized and comparative bioarchaeological analysis was implemented. Even though preservation challenges and the multifactorial nature of lifestyle indicators hindered firm answers, bioarchaeological comparative approaches were able to offer insights into the priorities and lifeways of this community. Dietary isotopic reconstruction, biomolecular analy- sis, and mobility investigation will hopefully help us to form a more integrated picture. The quest of ex- ploring the impact of marginality on human lifeways has just begun. Acknowledgments This research has been funded as part of the European Research Grant project “The Fall of 1200 BC” (Grant number 772753). We would like to thank the General Hospital of Florina for allowing us to use its infra- structure. We would also like to thank Dr. Panagiotis Karkanas, director of the Malcolm H. 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