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BIOLOGICA NYSSANA  1 (1-2)  December 2010: 35-42  Stešević, D., Petrović, D..  Preliminary list of plant invaders… 

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Original Article 

!

Preliminary list of plant invaders in Montenegro 
 

Danijela Stešević, Danka Petrović 
 
Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Montenegro, Džordža 
Vašingtona bb, 81 000 Podgorica, Montenegro 

* E-mail: denist@t-com.me 
 

 
Abstract:  
Stešević, D., Petrović, D.: Preliminary list of plant invaders in Montenegro. Biologica Nyssana, 1 (1-2), 
December 2010: 35-42. 

Due to the fact that Invasive alien species (IAS) are considered to be the second cause of global biodiversity 
loss after direct habitat destruction and have adverse environmental, economic and social impacts from the 
local level upwards, in last decades investigations of alien flora of Montenegro are intensified. In this paper 
we are presenting a preliminary list of IAS, with the aim to provide a basic data on IAS in Montenegro, to 
enable future monitoring and to draw attention on the problems which expansion of IAS is bringing with 
itself. The list consists of 50 plant taxa species and supspecies level.  

Key words: invasive alien plants, Montenegro 

Abbrevations: IAS- invasive alien species, P- phanaerophytes, Ch- chamaephytes, H- 
hemicriptophytes, T- therophytes, G- geophytes, NAM- North America, SAM- South America, 
CAM & SAM- Central and South America, AS- Asia, AFR- Africa, EAS-Euroasia. 

 
 
Introduction 
!

Unlike some worldwide regions where 
invasive ecology is well developed, in Montenegro 
the interest for this a rather new field in ecology, 
that study a human mediate transfer of organisms to 
areas outside their natural dispersal range and the 
consequences of such transfer, has appeared in last 
few years: S t e š e v i ć  & J o v a n o v i ć  (2005, 
2008), S t e š e v i ć  (2005), Steš ević & J o g a n  
(2006, 2007), T o m o v i ć  & S t e š e v i ć  (2007), 
S t e š e v i ć  et al. (2009). 

Due to the concept of R i c h a r d s o n  et al. 
(2000), later supplemented by P y š e k  et al. (2004), 
Richardson & Pyšek (2004), plants taxa in a given 
area whose presence there is due to intentional or 
unintentational human involvement, or which have 
arrived there without the help of people from an 
area in which they are alien are known as alien 
plants (exotic, non-native, non-indigenous). 
Invasive plants are naturalized plants that produce 
reproductive offspring often in very large numbers, 

at considerable distance from parent plants 
(approximate scales: > 100m; <50 years for taxa 
spreading by seeds and other propagules; > 6m/3 
years for taxa spreading by roots, rhizomes, stolons, 
or creeping stem) and thus have a potential to spread 
over considerable area.   

On global level invasive species are 
recognized as a major factor of environmental 
change, and are considered one of the most 
important causes of biodiversity loss worldwide 
(W a l k e r  & S t e f f e n ,  1997; M c N e e l y ,  1999, 
2001, ISSG 2000, Millennium Ecosystem 
Assessment 2005 etc.). These species have invaded 
and affected native biota in virtually every 
ecosystem type on Earth and ecological cost is the 
irretrievable loss of native species and ecosystems. 
It is estimated that the direct economic cost of alien 
invasive species runs into many billions of dollars 
annually (ISSG 2000). Beside mentioned impacts, 
invasive alien plants sometimes have a negative 
impact on humans health, such as  Ambrosia 
artemisiifolia, Heracleum mantegazzianum etc. 

10th SFSES • 17-20 June 2010, Vlasina lake1 (1-2) • December 2010: 35-42 



BIOLOGICA NYSSANA  1 (1-2)  December 2010: 35-42  Stešević, D., Petrović, D..  Preliminary list of plant invaders… 
 

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Considering habitat types, many invasive 
species seem to do best in urban und urban-fringe 
environments where long histories of human 
disturbance have created vacant niches and 
abundant bare ground. Cities also tend to be the 
focal points of the global economy and the entry 
points for many invasives (K o w a r i k  1990).  

Pathways, as the process by which alien 
species are introduced from one location to another 
are different and it is possible to distinguish six 
ways: i) deliberate release, ii) escape (from gardens, 
aquaculture), iii) contamination, iv) stowaway, v) 
corridor (transportation infrastructure), vi) unaided 
from neighboring countries (the natural spread of an 
alien species from another region where it is not 
native) (H u l m e  et al. 2008). Compared to the 
other pathways ornamental horticulture is therefore 
the main pathway for plant invasions worldwide 
(H u l m e  et al. 2008), although its importance 
compared to other pathways has found the attention 
of ecologists rather late (M a c k  1991; R e i c h a r d  
& W h i t e  2001; M a c k  & E r n e b e r g  2002).  

According to J e n k i n s  (1996); L e v i n e  & 
D ' A n t o n i o  (2003) an increasing amount of 
species inadvertently introduced into areas outside 
their natural range is directly linked with increases 
in trade. Due to specific history, long period of 
isolation, low level of industrial and economic 
development, bad road infrastructure as well as 
international commerce and travel, Montenegro for 
a long time hesitated to introduction of alien 
species. But, in last last decade fast urban, trade and 
tourism development facilitated their spread.  

Although alien flora of Montenegro has never 
been systematically explored, first records of some 
alien species dates from the beginning of XIX 
Century (P a n č i ć ,  1875, P a n t o c z e k ,  1874 
etc.). These historical notes consist only of 
information about the presence of a species, so 
population size or ecological impact of its spreading 
on natural communities was not documented. 
During the field excursions conducted in last 
decade, some interesting results in monitoring of 
selected alien species are obtained. In this paper we 
are presenting these results and giving an overview 
of a species that should be considered as invasive in 
Montenegro. In addition we are giving taxonomic, 
biologic and geographic analysis of invasive alien 
flora.

 

 
Material and methods 

!
Preliminary check list of invasive alien 

species (IAS) is mainly created according to authors 
own field observations, while the list of alien 

species is extracted from: R o h l e n a  (1942), 
P u l e v i ć  (2005) and S t e š e v i ć  et al. (2008).  

Invasiveness of species is estimated according 
to R i c h a r d s o n  et al. (2000).  

Life forms follows Raunkier’s system 
(R a u n k i e r ,  1943, E l l e n b e r g  et al., 1967), 
while origin of species is given according to 
P i g n a t t i  (1982), Pyšek et al. (2002), T u t i n  et 
al. (1964-1980, 1993). 

 
Results and disscusion 

 
Due to the to the sheme proposed by 

R i c h a r d s o n  et al. (2000), P y š e k  et al. (2004), 
P y š e k  & R i c h a r d s o n  (2004), 50 taxa of alien 
plants of Montenegro can be classified as invasive. 
The list of IAS is given in table 1, while one taxa 
from the list Carpobrotus edulis is for the first time 
reported for alien flora of Montenegro. First finding 
of this species dates from 2006, when rather poor 
population was noted near the side shore in Bijela 
(Boka Kotorka Bay). In the meantime species is 
recorded on numerous locations near the coast, 
where compose rather dense patches.  

The list of IAS of Montenegro consists of 50 
species and subspecies belonging to 36 genera and 
20 families.  

Majority of families (18), genera (31) and 
species/subspecies (42) belongs to Dicotyledons, 
while other representative belongs to 
Monocotyledons.     

It is not surprising that two of the largest 
families worldwide Poaceae and Asteraceae 
(H e y w o o d ,  1993) provide the highest number of 
invasive alien species in Montenegro: Asteracee 
(16), Poaceae (7) (tab.2). Similar to the world’s list 
of leading invaders families (see C r a w l e y ,  1987, 
W e b e r , 1997, P y š e k ,  1998) Fabaceae and 
Brassicaceae are near to the top. Due to 
C r o n q u i s t  (1981) Asteraceae is considered as 
one of the evolutionarily most advanced families. 
Possessing a number of features advantageous in the 
invasion process, e.g. high reproductive rate, 
specialized dispersal structures, diversity of 
metabolic products providing protection from 
grazing, high level of apomixes etc. (H e y w o o d ,  
1989, P y š e k ,  1997). Similarly, successful 
dispersal mechanisms in Poaceae and Fabaceae, 
together with a highly evolved inflorescence in the 
former, and an ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen as 
well as remarkably successful pollination system in 
the latter may serve to explain why these families 
among the world’s leading invaders. Advanced 
features that might be considered as a clue for 
successful invasion are: high reproductive rate, long  



BIOLOGICA NYSSANA  1 (1-2)  December 2010: 35-42  Stešević, D., Petrović, D..  Preliminary list of plant invaders… 

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Table 1. List of IAS in Montenegro: taxonomy, biology, origin, first record and habitat type. Legend: P- 
phanaerophytes, Ch- chamaephytes, H- hemicriptophytes, T- therophytes, G- geophytes, NAM- North 
America, SAM- South America, CAM & SAM- Central and South America, AS- Asia, AFR- Africa, EAS-
Euroasia. 
Taxon  Family  Life 

form  
Origin  1st record/author Habitat type  

Acer negundo  L.  Aceraceae  P  NAM  2005 
(Steševič&Jovanović) 

Riverine forest, Ruderalis/mainly waste places  

Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) 
Swingle  

Simaroubaceae  P  AS  1971 
(Popović & Sterniša) 
 

Ruderalis/widespread, Vegetation near the road sides, 
railways, waste places etc., Shrubland of Carpinus 
orientalis, Rocklands  

Alcea rosea L.  Malvaceae  H  AS  1900  
(Baldacci) 

Ruderalis/vegetation near the road sides, railways, 
waste places, etc.  

Amaranthus hybridus L.  Amaranthaceae  T  NAM  2005 
(Steševič&Jovanović) 

City lawns, Ruderalis/vegetation near the road sides, 
waste placeas, cultivated soils   

Amaranthus retroflexus L.  Amaranthaceae  T  NAM  1875  
(Pančić) 

Ruderalis/wate places, vegetation near the road sides, 
cultivated land , city lawns …  

Ambrosia artemisiifolia  L.  Asteraceae  T  NAM  2009 
(Stešević) 

Ruderalis/vegetation near the road sides, gravely river 
banks, city lawns  

Amorpha fruticosa L.  Fabaceae  P  NAM  1973  
(Pulević) 

River banks, sandy dunes  

Artemisia verlotiorum 
Lamotte  

Asteraceae  G  AS  2006 
(Stešević & Jogan) 

Ruderalis/ vegetation near the road sides, railways, 
waste places ….  

Asclepias syriaca L.  Asclepiadaceae  G  AS  2005 
(Steševič&Jovanović) 

Wet meadows  

Aster squamatus (Spreng.) 
Hieron  

Asteraceae  T  CAM, 
SAM  

2004 
(Hadžiablahović) 

Ruderalis/ vegetation near the road sides and railways, 
waste places..  

Broussonetia papyrifera 
(L.) Vent.  

Moraceae  P  AS  2005 
(Steševič&Jovanović) 

Ruderalis/ waste places, vegetation near the road 
sides, roofs …  

Bidens subalternans DC.  Asteraceae  T  SAM  1993 
(Trinajstić) 

Ruderalis/ waste places, vegetation near the road 
sides, railways etc.  

Bidens frondosa  L.  Asteraceae  T  NAM   2005 
(Steševič&Jovanović) 

River banks, Rudelralis  

Carpobrotus edulis (L.) 
N.E.Br.  

Aizoaceae  Ch  AFR  2006 
Stešević (leg.) 

Ruderalis/Vegetation near road side, Costal rocks  

Commelina communis L.  Commelinaceae  H  AS  1997 
(Karaman) 

Ruderalis/ waste places, city lawns  

Chamomilla suaveolens  
(Pursh.) Rydb.  

Asteraceae  T  AS  1986 
(Vasić) 

Ruderalis, Vegetation near the road sides  

Conyza albida Willd.  Asteraceae  T  SAM  2005 
(Steševič&Jovanović) 

Ruderalis/ widespread  

Conyza bonariensis (L.) 
Cronq.  

Asteraceae  T  SAM  2005 
(Steševič&Jovanović) 

Ruderalis/ widespread  

Conyza canadensis (L.) 
Cronq.  

Asteraceae  T  NAM  1874 
(Pantoczek) 

Ruderalis/ widespread  

Cuscuta caesattiana  
Bertol.  

Cuscutaceae  T  NAM  1949 
(Černjavski et al.) 

Ruderalis, (sub)mediterranean shrublands and 
rocklands  

Cuscuta campestris 
Yuncker.  

Cuscutaceae  T  NAM  1997 
(Karaman) 

Ruderalis, (sub)mediterranean shrublands and 
rocklands  

Datura stramonium L.  Solanaceae  T  NAM  1875  
(Pančić) 

Ruderalis, widespread  

Eleusine indica (L.) 
Gaertn.  

Poaceae  T  AFR  1959/1960 
(Hodak) 

Ruderalis/ vegetation near the road sides, trampled 
habitats, city lawns etc.  

Eleusine tristachya (Lam.) 
Lam.  

Poaceae  T  SAM  1998 
(Lakušić) 

Ruderalis/ trampled habitats, city lawns  

Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers.  Asteraceae  T  NAM  1972 
Stanković-Tomić 

Ruderalis/widespread, seminatiral habitats, meadows, 
shurbalnd  

Erigeron annuus subsp. 
serpentionalis 

Asteraceae  T  NAM  2005 
(Steševič&Jovanović) 

Ruderalis/widespread, seminatiral habitats, meadows, 
shurbalnd  

Euphorbia maculata L.  Euphorbiaceae  T  NAM  1979 
(Obradović & Budak) 

Ruderalis/ trampled habitats  

Euphorbia prostrata 
Aiton.  

Euphorbiaceae  T  NAM  1984 
(Pulević) 

Ruderalis/trampled habitats  

Galinsoga parviflora Cav.  Asteraceae  T  NAM  1968 
(Blečić) 

Ruderalis, widespread  

Helianthus xlaetiflorus 
Pers.  

Asteraceae  G  NAM  1980 
(Obradović) 

Ruderalis/waste places, river banks  



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Helianthus tuberosus L.  Asteraceae  G  NAM  2005 
(Steševič&Jovanović) 

Ruderalis/waste places, river banks  

Impatiens parviflora DC.  Balsaminaceae  T  AS  2010 
(Steševič & Drescher) 

River bank  

Lepidium virginiacum L.  Brassicaceae  T  SAM  1936 
(Rohlena) 

Ruderalis/ vegetation near the road sides and railways, 
roofs  

Medicago sativa L.  Fabaceae  H  AS  1874 
(Pantoczek) 

Widespread  

Oenothera biennis L.  Onagraceae  H  NAM  1976 
(Pulević) 

Ruderalis  

Oenothera  glazioviana 
Micheli  

Onagraceae  H  NAM  2008 
(Rakaj  & Krzysztof) 

Sandy dunes, ruderalis  

Oenothera fallax Renner 
et Rostanski  

Onagraceae  H  NAM  2008 
(Rakaj & Krzysztof) 

Sandy dunes, ruderalis  

Opuntia vulgaris  Mill.  Cactaceae  H  NAM  1930 
(in Pulević 2005) 

Mediterannean rocklands, vegetation near the  
roadside  

Paspalum dilatatum Poir.  Poaceae  H  SAM  1986  
(Ilijanić & Topić) 

Ruderalis,/trampled habitats, lawns, wet meadows  

Paspalum paspaloides 
(Michx.) Schribn.  

Poaceae  H  CAM, 
SAM  

1949  
(Černjavski et al.) 

Ruderalis, city lawns, wet meadows  

Reynoutria japonica 
Houtt. 

Polygonaceae G AS 2005 
(Stešević&Jovanović) 

Natural forests, river banks, ruderalis/vegetation near 
the road sites  

Robinia pseudacacia L.  Fabaceae  P  NAM  1911 
(Rohlena)  

Natural forests, river banks, ruderalis/vegetation near 
the road sites  

Solanum elaeagnifolium 
Cav.  

Solanaceae  H  SAM  2003 
(Hadžiablahović et al.) 

Ruderalis, wet meadows  

Sorghum halepense (L.) 
Pers.  

Poaceae  H  EAS  1874  
(Pantoczek) 

Widespread  

Sporobolus poirettii (R.et 
S.) Hitche  

Poaceae  H  NAM  1998 
(Niketić in Greuter) 

Ruderalis, vegetation near the road sides, city lawns 

Sporobolus vaginiiflorus 
(Torrey) Wood  

Poaceae  T  NAM  2006 
(Stešević & Jogan) 

Ruderalis/ vegetation near the road sides, city lawns  

Tamarix dalmatica Baum.  Tamaricaceae  P  AFR  1942 
(Rohlena) 

River banks, Sandy dunes  

Veronica persica Poir.  Scrophulariaceae  T  AS  1900  
(Baldacci) 

Widespred  

Xanthium strumarium L. 
italicum (Moretti) 
D.Löve  

Asteraceae  T  NAM  1900  
(Horak) 

Ruderalis, sandy dunes  

Xanthium spinosum L.  Asteraceae  T  SAM  1874 
(Pantoczek) 

Ruderalis, widespread  

 
 

viability of seeds or C4 photosynthetic pathways- 
like in Amaranthaceae (C r o n q u i s t ,  1981, 
H e y w o o d ,  1989). Majority of families (13) are 
represented with only one species (tab. 2).  

Genera represented with highest number of 
IAS are Conyza (3) Oenothera (3), Erigeron (2), 
Euphorbia (2), Amaranthus (2), Bidens (2), 
Xanthium (2), Eleusine (2), Paspalum (2), 
Sporobolus (2). Up to now only two subspecies of 
Erigeron annuus are recorded in the flora of 
Montenegro: ssp. annuua and ssp. serpentionalis, 
but considering the fact that third ssp. strigosus is 
reported for the flora of neighboring countries 
(Croatia- N i k o l i ć  (2010), Serbia- J o v a n o v i ć  
(1994)) we expect to find it soon, so taxonomic 
spectrum of genera will look a bit different. 

As it was expected considering life forms 
therophytes shows predominance with 26 species 
fig. 1. They are followed by hemicriptophytes  (12), 
than phanaerophytes (6), geophytes (5) and 
chamaephytes (1). Hydrophytes are not present at 
all. Feature that are enabling therophytes to become 

very successful invaders are short life cycle 
(annuals), high reproductive rate, easily dispersed 
seeds etc.     

Due to its native range, exactly half of IAS 
originates from North America (25), while second 
dominant are Asian (11) (fig.2). These species were 
mainly introduced as ornamental plants (Robinia 
pseudoacacia, Acer negundo, Ailanthus altissima, 
Reynoutria japonica, etc.) and very soon they 
started to escape into the wild, invading native 
ecosystems with disastrous results and become 
invasive species. From the other side, greatly 
improved transport that enables traders to move 
goods from distant destinations provided ideal 
opportunities for the accidental introduction of AIS 
(Paspalum spp., Eleusine spp.).  

Considering the patterns of habitat invasion, 
our results are similar to C h y t r ý  et al. (2008). 
Despite large differences in species, it is possible to 
notice regularity in the patterns of habitat invasion. 
A general trend is: in harsh climatic conditions and 
nutrient-poor habitats, invasion levels are low. Alien 



BIOLOGICA NYSSANA  1 (1-2)  December 2010: 35-42  Stešević, D., Petrović, D..  Preliminary list of plant invaders… 

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plants tend to thrive in nutrient-rich and man-made 
habitats. Mountains, cliffs, bogs, dry grasslands and 
coniferous woodlands tend to resist alien invasion, 
while coastal and riverine habitats, where nutrient 
availability and disturbance can be high, are more 
prone to invasion by alien plants. Human made 
habitats such as farmland and urban landscapes also 
facilitate the spread of alien plants.  
 
Table 2. Taxomonic spectrum of families of IAS in 
Montenegro 
 

Family No of taxa % 
Asteraceae  16 32 
Poaceae  7 14 
Fabaceae  3 6 
Brassicaceae  3 6 
Onagraceae  3 6 
Amaranthaceae  2 4 
Cuscutaceae  2 4 
Euphorbiaceae  2 4 
Aceraceae  1 2.0 
Aizoaceae  1 2.0 
Asclepiadaceae  1 2.0 
Balsaminaceae  1 2.0 
Cactaceae  1 2.0 
Commelinaceae  1 2.0 
Malvaceae  1 2.0 
Moraceae  1 2.0 
Polygonaceae  1 2.0 
Scrophulariaceae  1 2.0 
Simaroubaceae  1 2.0 
Solanaceae  1 2.0 
Tamaricaceae  1 2.0 

 
Due to the favorable climate and higher level 

of disturbance Mediterranean part of the country 
hosted significantly higher number of invasive 
species than continental-mountainous. IAS typical 
for Mediterranean part of the country are: 
Carpobrotus edulis, Opuntia vulgaris, Oenothera 
glazioviana, O. fallax, Conyza bonariensis, C. 
albida, Aster squamatus, Asclepias syriaca, Acer 
negundo, Amaranthus hybridus, Lepidium 
virginicum, Bidens subalternans, Helianthus 
tuberosus, H. laetiflorus, Xanthium spinosum, 
Eleusine indica, E. tristachya, Sporobolus poiretti, 
S. vaginiiflorus, Commelina communis, Solanum 
elaeagnifloium, Tamarix dalmatica, Amorpha 
fruticosa, Paspalum paspaloides, P. dilatatum.  

 Up to now only one species (Impatiens 
parviflora) has distribution restricted only to 
continental part of the country (riverine forests). 
This is explained by its ecological preferences of 
species: very susceptible to water stress and a shade 

tolerant, mostly found at 5-40% relative daylight, 
prefer nitrogen rich stands, with pH range between 
4.5 and 7.6 (C o m b e ,  1956). 
 
Fig. 1. Structure of invasive alien flora with respect to 
life forms. 
 

52%

24%

12%

10% 2%

T
H
P
G
Ch

 
 
Fig. 2. Structure of invasive alien flora with respect to 
origin. 
  

50%

16%
4%

22%

6% 2% NAM
SAM
SAM&CAM
AS
AFR
EAS

  
 
Other species, such as Robinia pseudoacacia, 

Erigeron annuus, Amaranthus retroflexus, Veronica 
persica, Xanthium strumarium ssp. italicum, 
Ailanthus altissima, Reynoutria japonica are 
distributed in both part of the country.  

 Considering Ailanthus and Reynoutria, at 
the beginning of our field study we noticed that first 
species mainly invaded mediterannean part of the 
country, while the second one is restricted to 
continental part. But during the last year both 
species started to move its borders. Along the 
roadsides Ailanthus moved towards the north and 
Reynoutria along roadsides and riverbanks towards 
the south. Success of this “movement” is strongly 
supported by increase of a disturbance.      

As it can be seen in table 1, majority of IAS 
are for the first time recorded in our flora in last few 
decades, but we can’t exactly state when these 
species were really introduced, by which pathways 
and when expansion of its populations has really 
started. With this study we intended to do a zero 
stage for a future monitoring of IAS, but also to 
draw attention to the problems which expansion of 
IAS is bringing with itself.  



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Majority of species listed above are also 
recognized as invasive in our first neighboring 
Mediterranean country-  Croatia (B o r š i ć ,  2008). 
 
Conclusion 

 
Preliminary list of IAS in Montenegro 

consists of 50 flowering plants belonging to 36 
genera, 20 families and 2 classes. Carpobrotus 
edulis is for the first time reported for Montenegro.  

The highest number of IAS has families 
Asteraceae and Poaceae, while between genera 
dominant are Conyza and Oenothera.  

In the spectrum of life forms therophytes are 
prevailing, while due to its native range, majority of 
IAS has North American and Asian origin.  

Considering the patterns of habitat invasion, 
highly disturbed, man made and nutrient rich habits 
are more prone to invasion by alien plants than 
natural and nutrient-poor habitats. 

Due to the favorable climate and higher level 
of disturbance Mediterranean part of the country is 
more favorable for plant invaders than continental-
mountainous. 

The aim of this study was to provide a basic 
data on IAS in Montenegro, to enable future 
monitoring and to draw attention on the problems 
which expansion of IAS is bringing with itself.  

 
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