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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6862 

 

Chemical Composition of Pistacia terebinthus L. and its 
Phytochemical and Biological Properties 
 

Muhammed Said Fidan,a,* Cemalettin Baltacı,b Mehmet Öz,c and Zeynep Akar d 

 
Vitamin C, enzyme activities, phenolic compounds, antioxidant capacity, 
antimicrobial activity, and essential oil analyses of ripe and unripe fruits of 
P. terebinthus were investigated. Vitamin C amounts of ripe and unripe 
fruits were 63.2 and 15.4 mg/100g, respectively. The main phenolic 
compounds of unripe and ripe fruits are rutin, syringic acid, and gallic acid. 
It was determined that the enzyme inhibitor activities in the ripe and unripe 
fruits were 0.136 mg/mL and 2.14 mg/mL. In all of the free radical 
scavenging (DPPH and ABTS) activity, ferric (III) ion reducing antioxidant 
power (FRAP) capacity, total phenolic substance amounts (TPC), total 
flavonoid substance amounts (TFC), and total antioxidant activity (TAC) 
antioxidant methods analyzed with plant parts, the methanol extracts 
obtained from the ripe fruits of the P. terebinthus showed higher 
antioxidant properties than the methanol extracts obtained from the unripe 
fruits. Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 and Escherichia coli ATCC 
25922 showed antimicrobial activity against microorganisms, while 
methanol extracts obtained from unripe fruit samples did not show 
antimicrobial activity against the microorganisms used. The chemical 
grade with the most compounds in the essential oils of P. terebinthus were 
monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenes, and monoterpenes in unripe and ripe 
fruits, respectively. The main components were α-pinene with 22.8% and 
27.3% ratios in unripe and ripe fruits, respectively. 

 

DOI: 10.15376/biores.18.4.6862-6881 

 

Keywords: Antioxidant-antimicrobial-enzyme activities; Phenolic compounds; Vitamin C; P. terebinthus; 

Essential oil; Chemical composition  

 

Contact information: a: Bursa Technical University, Department of Forest Industry Engineering, Bursa 

16310 Türkiye;  b: Gümüşhane University, Department of Food Engineering, Gümüşhane 29100, Türkiye; 

c: Gümüşhane University, Department of Forestry, Gümüşhane 29100, Türkiye; d: Gümüşhane University, 

Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Gümüşhane 29100, Türkiye;  

*Corresponding author: said.fidan@btu.edu.tr 

 

 
INTRODUCTION 
 

Pistacia terebinthus, belonging to the family Anacardiaceae, is a long-lived plant 

(Özcan et al. 2020; Akpulat et al. 2021). It is one of 20 Pistacia species extensively 

distributed in the United States, Asia, and the Mediterranean (Couladis et al. 2003; Kavak 

et al. 2010; Bozorgi et al. 2013; Özcan et al. 2020). It is popularly known as ‘menengic’ 

in Türkiye (Bozorgi et al. 2013; Uysal et al. 2022). Terebinth coffee is one of the most 

popular herbal coffees in Türkiye. This coffee is commonly known as “menengic coffee” 

in Türkiye (Orhan et al. 2012). The P. terebinthus plant is shown in Fig. 1. Medicinal 

plants, because of their bioactivity and nourishment features, arise as an alternative to 

synthetic products. They are used not only in conventional medicine but also in several 

pharmaceutical, ornamental, and food products (Foddai et al. 2015; Rauf et al. 2017).  



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6863 

   
 

Fig. 1. P. terebinthus plants (Photo: Mehmet ÖZ, 19.09.2021) 

 

Most of the plant parts with the inclusion of resin, fruit fatty oil, and fruits are used 

as traditional medicine and food in the area (Baytop 1999; Stanojević et al. 2021). Plants 

are significant resources of potential phytochemicals, for instance, vitamins and 

polyphenols (Uysal et al. 2022). The small fruits of P. terebinthus are spherical nuttlets 

that are dark greenish when ripe. Its fresh fruits and shoots are used for human nutrition 

(Özcan et al. 2009). P. terebinthus is consumed as a snack food, used in soaps, or in making 

a coffee-like drink after roasted and ground (Topcu et al. 2007; Kavak et al. 2010; Durmaz 

and Gökmen 2011; Gogus et al. 2011; Orhan et al. 2012). The fruits are also used in the 

baking of a coffee substitute and as a specialty village bread (Özcan et al. 2009). P. 

terebinthus fruits are important sources of fiber, minerals, oil, and protein. The oil extracted 

from terebinth fruits is an alternative to herbal oils because it includes high amounts of 

omega-3 (linoleic acid) fatty acids and mono-unsaturated (oleic acid), and it has desirable 

taste and odor (Bozorgi et al. 2013; Özcan et al. 2020).  

Moreover, the fruits of P. terebinthus are used in traditional medicine for diarrheic, 

throat infections, gastralgia, antiseptic for bronchitis, stimulant, rheumatism, diuretic, 

antitussive, wounds, urinary inflammations, burns, cough, stomachache, asthma, and 

eczema (Topcu et al. 2007; Özcan et al. 2009; Kavak et al. 2010; Durmaz and Gökmen 

2011; Gogus et al. 2011; Orhan et al. 2012; Özcan et al. 2020).  

Pistacia species have antioxidant activity as well as anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, 

and antimicrobial properties due to their high phenolic, tocopherols, and flavonoids 

contents (Kavak et al. 2010; Durmaz ve Gökmen 2011; Durak and Uçak 2015; Özcan et 

al. 2020).  

Many studies on the volatile oil constituents of P. terebinthus have been made and 

results have been observed in literature. These studies found α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene, 

limonene, p-cymen-8-ol, terpinen-4-ol, and caryophyllene as major compositions 

(Couladis et al. 2003; Usai et al. 2006; Özcan et al. 2009; Orhan et al. 2012). 

Phenolic compounds, bioactive properties, fatty acids, physicochemical features, 

essential oils, mineral compounds, antioxidant and antimicrobial features, biological 

activities, and phytochemicals of terebinth plants have been studied by various researchers 

(Ozcan et al. 2009; Kavak et al. 2010; Durmaz and Gökmen 2011; Gogus et al. 2011; 



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6864 

Orhan et al. 2012; Rauf et al. 2017; Mollica et al. 2018; Zengin et al. 2018; Uysal et al. 

2022). Nonetheless, there have been no studies that compare the features, antimicrobial 

properties, phenolic compounds, enzyme activity, and vitamin C profiles of different ripe 

and unripe fruits of P. terebinthus.  

In this study, the effects of vitamin C, enzyme activities, phenolic compounds, 

antioxidant capacity, antimicrobial activity, and essential oil in ripe and unripe fruits of 

terebinth plants were determined. It is the first study that has been done with the terebinth 

plants located in the north of Türkiye. In terms of chemistry, it is a combined study in 

which enzyme inhibition, phenolic and volatile compounds, vitamin C, and antimicrobial-

antioxidant analysis are performed. 

 
 
EXPERIMENTAL 
 

Plant Material 
In this study, P. terebinthus unripe and ripe fruit (1000 g) samples were gathered 

in Torul-Köstere Village (40°36ꞌ28ꞌꞌN, 39°19ꞌ18ꞌꞌE, Altitude: 1045 m) located within the 

borders of Gümüşhane Province, Türkiye. The locations where the samples were taken are 

shown in Fig. 1. The taxonomic diagnosis of plant samples was determined by Assoc. Prof. 

Mutlu Gültepe, in the Department of Forestry, Dereli Vocational School, Giresun 

University, Giresun, Türkiye. The plant was saved with the number KTUB Gültepe 718 

with identification from the Herbarium of Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of 

Science, Department of Biology. Fruit samples were collected by hand on 19.09.2021 

(autumn season) from the specified region and dried in the shade by mixing at regular 

intervals. Samples were stored in a cool, dry place out of the sun until analysis. For analysis, 

the fruits were ground and not treated differently. 

 

Extraction Procedure  
Essential oil extraction 

The essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation method in the Clevenger 

device. Sufficient amounts (100 g) of plant parts from unripe and ripe fruit samples were 

cut into pieces and placed in skewered balloons and distilled for 4 h by adding 500 mL of 

distilled water (Küçük et al. 2006). The essential oils acquired were dissolved in 1 mL of 

high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) grade hexane, dried with anhydrous 

sodium sulfate, filtered, and stored in an indoor brown bottle at -18 °C until the analysis 

was completed. 

 

Extraction of methanol 

The extraction process was performed using an ultrasonic bath (3 L 320 W Bandelin 

Ultrasonic Bath). After the fruit parts were ground and 10 g were taken, 50 mL of 80% aq. 

MeOH was added, and then an ultrasound-assisted extraction process was applied at 60 

min and 40 °C. At the end of 60 min, it was filtered 2 times through Whatman 1 filter and 

centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 10 min and plant extracts were obtained. At the end of 

centrifugation, the upper part was taken into a beaker, and the extracts were obtained by 

completely evaporating the methanol at 40 °C (Dranca and Oroian 2016). 

 
  



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6865 

Analysis of Vitamin C in Extracts 
Vitamin C analyses of the samples were performed using an HPLC-UV device with 

a UV 1000 detector according to high pressure liquid chromatography UV detector method. 

The analytical column RP C18 (250 x 4,6 mm, 5 µm) was used with the mobile phase: 

methanol: water (5:95, v/v) pH= 3 (H3PO4), flow 1 mL/min, injection volume 20 µL, with 

detection of UV at 254 nm. For the calibration curve, standard solutions of 10, 30, 60, 90, 

and 120 mg/L concentrations were prepared from L-ascorbic acid. A total of 10 g of the 

ripe and unripe fruits of terebinth plants were taken and divided into pieces in a shredder. 

Then, 70 mL sufficient amount of metaphosphoric acid (15% m/m) was added to the 

smashed fruits and mixed in the homogenizer. The homogenized samples were completed 

to 100 mL and filtered through filter paper. After the filtrates were passed through a 0.45-

micron filter, they were taken into vials and given to the HPLC device. The amount of 

analyzed vitamin C in the sample was calculated using the calibration graph method (y = 

9498.7 x - 4236) (Öz et al. 2018). 

 

Enzyme Inhibitory Activities of the Extracts 
The α-glucosidase inhibitory activity of the samples was studied through 

modification (Yu et al. 2012). In the study, first, 650 μL of phosphate bumper (pH: 6.8 and 

0.1 M) was added to the test tubes. Then, 20 μL of sample and 30 μL of α-glucosidase 

enzyme (Saccharomyces cerevisiae, lyophilized powder ≥ 10 units/mg protein) prepared 

in phosphate buffer were added. After the mixture was incubated at 37 °C for 10 min, 75 

μL of substrate (4-nitrophenyl-α-D-glucopyranoside) was added. After the mixture was 

kept at 37 °C for 20 min, 650 μL of 1 M Na2CO3 was added to all tubes and the reaction 

was stopped. The absorbance value was read at 405 nm in an ultraviolet/visible (UV/VIS) 

spectrophotometer. Different densities of acarbose (positive control) were studied as the 

standard inhibitor. The study was performed in three parallel and reagent-sample blanks. 

The IC50 values of acarbose and samples (sample concentration that halves the enzyme 

activity present in the environment) were calculated. 

 

Determination of Phenolic Compounds 
All samples were ultrasonically bathed for 20 min and filtered through a syringe 

filter (0.45 µm) before analysis. Chromatographic analysis of dry methanol extracts of 

unripe and ripe samples was used Agilent 1260 Infinity HPLC-DAD system (Agilent 

Technologies, Waldbronn, Germany) device. The gallic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 

caffeic acid, sesamol, paracoumaric acid, benzoic acid, protocatechuic acid, catechin, 

syringic acid, vanillin, syringaldehyde, rutin, protocatechuic aldehyde, vanillic acid, rutin, 

ferulic acid, coumarin, epicatechin, rosmarinic acid, t-cinnamic acid, quercetin, 

kaempferol, and chyricin were used as standards for the analysis. The analysis method of 

the phenolic compounds of the samples was studied by modifying the gradient flow of the 

mobile phase with some changes (Paje et al. 2022). Chromatographic separation of 

individual components was performed using a Hypersil HPLC Column (250 x 4.6 mm2, 

5µm). Mobile phase solvent A was used as mixture 0.5% acetic acid in water (0.5: 95.5, 

v/v) and ACN (solvent B). The gradient elution was started with 95% of solvent A and 

reduced to 75% after 20 min. Solvent A was reduced to 50% at 45 min and to 10% at 55 

min. It was then increased to 65% at 65 min and continued for up to 70 min. The injection 

volume was 10 µL, and the flow rate was 1.0 mL/min. The wavelengths used in the DAD 

detector were 240, 250, 254, 280, and 324 nm. 

 



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6866 

Determination of Antioxidant Capacity 
The antioxidant capacities of the attained methanol extract were detected according 

to free radical scavenging (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazil (DPPH) and ABTS) activity and 

ferric (III) ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) capacity methods. Additionally, some 

bioactive component amounts were shown by total phenolic substance amounts (TPC), 

total flavonoid substance amounts (TFC), and total antioxidant activity (TAC) works. 

 

Free radical scavenging activity (DPPH) 

The DPPH of unripe and ripe fruit methanol extract was obtained using DPPH 

according to the Sanchez-Moreno method (Sağdıç et al. 2011). The method was applied 

by mixing the methanol extract and DPPH solutions with specific concentrations by 

vortexing and keeping them at room heat and in the dark for 30 min. In the end of the 

period, the absorbance of the samples at 517 nm was read and the amount of DPPH 

remaining in the reaction medium was calculated according to the formula below. Results 

are given as mg AA eq./g, mg Trolox eq./g, and % free radical removal. The % inhibition 

was calculated using Eq. 1, 

%Inh.=(absorbance of control – absorbance of sample / absorbance of control) x 100   (1) 

where Inh. means inhibition. Three measurements for each combination were taken, and 

the mean values were reported. 

 

Radical cation removal activity (ABTS) 

The ABTS radical cation scavenging activity analysis was made using ABTS 

solution according to the method (Ahmed et al. 2015). First, 150 µL of methanol was 

utilized as the blank. Then, 150 µL of standards (ascorbic acid) were taken and the same 

procedures were performed. The obtained solution was then read at the spectrophotometer 

absorbance at 734 nm. The ABTS cation removal activity amounts in the samples were 

calculated following Ahmed et al. (2015). Results are given as mg AA eq./g, mg Trolox 

eq./g, and % free radical removal. The % inhibition was calculated using Eq. 2, 

%Inh.=(absorbance of control – absorbance of sample / absorbance of control) x 100   (1) 

where Inh. is Inhibition. Three measurements for each combination were taken, and the 

mean values were reported. 

 

Ferric (III) ion reducing antioxidant potency (FRAP)  

Analysis of the FRAP of methanol extract was made according to the method of 

Ahmed et al. (2015) using FRAP solution. First, 500 µL of distilled water was utilized as 

blank. Then, 250 µL of the standards were taken and the same procedures were performed. 

The FRAP amounts in samples were determined as mg FeSO4 equivalent/g using the 

correct equation of the calibration graph obtained with the FeSO4 solution (Ahmed et al. 

2015). 

 

Total phenolic substance amount (TPC) 

Analysis of the total phenolic content of methanol extract was realized regarding 

the Kasangana method using Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (Kasangana et al. 2015). Then, the 

prepared mixture was vortexed. Then it was incubated in the dark at room temperature for 

120 min. At the end of the incubation period, the absorbance of the mixture at 760 nm was 

read. A total of 3.7 mL water, 500 µL methanol + 100 µL Folin–Ciocalteu reagent + 600 



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6867 

µL 10% Na2CO3 mixture was used as blank. The amounts of phenolic substances in the 

samples were expressed as mg GA eq./g using the correct equation of the calibration graph 

obtained with the gallic acid solution. 

 

Total flavonoid substance amount (TFC)  

The total flavonoid content of unripe and ripe fruit methanol extract was determined 

according to the Kasangana method. The absorbance of the resulting mixture was measured 

in the spectrophotometer at 506 nm. First, 500 µL of distilled water was utilized as blank. 

Then, 500 µL of the standards were taken and the same procedures were performed. The 

total amount of flavonoid substances in the samples was made as mg QE eq./g using the 

equation of the calibration graph obtained with an ethyl alcohol solution of Catechin or 

Quercetin standards (Kasangana et al. 2015).  

 

Total antioxidant amount (TAC) 

Analysis of the total antioxidant content of ripe and ripe fruit methanol extract was 

performed using molybdate reagent according to the Kasangana method. A total of 250 µL 

of distilled water was used instead of the sample as a blank. The absorbance of the resulting 

reaction mixtures was read in a 695 nm spectrophotometer. Then, 500 µL of the standards 

were taken and the same procedures were performed. The total amount of antioxidant 

substances in samples was given as mg GA eq/g using the correct equation of the 

calibration graph obtained with the solution of ascorbic acid (Kasangana et al. 2015). 

 

Determination of Antimicrobial Activity 
Microorganisms utilized in the work were obtained from the laboratory of 

Gümüşhane University, Department of Food Engineering. The antimicrobial activities of 

the essential oil and methanol extracts were detected by disk diffusion method against 13 

microorganisms, including 10 bacteria and 3 yeast-molds (Matuschek et al. 2014). 

Antimicrobial activity was realized in two phases: preparation of bacteria and yeasts and 

preparation of examples. Bacteria were used in a Nutrient Broth medium after 24 h of the 

first activation at 36 °C and after 18 h of the second activation at 36 °C. Then, 1% of the 

microorganisms to be used in the study were added to the prepared sterile solid media and 

they were poured into petri dishes and allowed to solidify. Then, 5-mm diameter wells were 

opened on the solidified media. The incubation process was carried out by adding the 

solutions of the essential oil prepared with hexane to the opened wells. Petri dishes 

containing bacteria were incubated for 24 h at 36 °C, and petri dishes containing mold and 

yeast were incubated for 48 h at 27 °C. In the end of the determined period, the results were 

found by measuring the transparent zones around the discs. 

 

GC-MS/FID Conditions for Essential Oil Analysis 
The essential oil obtained by the hydrodistillation method in the Clevenger system 

was dissolved in hexane, passed through a 0.45-micron filter, placed in amber colored vials, 

and placed in the autosampler. After the volatile compounds were separated on the gas 

chromatography column, the mass spectra of each were individually taken in the mass 

spectrophotometer, and their structures were elucidated by comparing the mass spectra of 

each component with the reference components of the Willey and NIST libraries. To 

confirm the detected compounds, the Kovats indices of the compounds were compared 

with the literature data (Adams 2007). The measurement of the essential oil was made with 

the gas chromatography flame ionization detector (Agilent Technologies Inc, Santa Clara, 



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6868 

CA, USA). For GC, the split ratio was adjusted as 1:5 by injecting 1 µL of essential oil in 

hexane into the same column. The GC-MS/FID analyses were performed on Agilent-7890 

model device and an HP-5 model apolar capillary column (30 m x 0.32 mm, film thickness 

0.25 µm) was used for analysis. The injector, ion source and quadrupole rod temperatures 

were 250 °C, 230 °C, and 150 °C, respectively. Injections were applied in split (25:1) mode 

using helium (>99.999%) as the carrier gas with a flow rate of 1 mL/min. Then, 1 µL of 

essential oil solution in hexane (GC class) was injected and initially the GC oven 

temperature program kept at 60 °C for 2 min, increased to 240 °C with a rise of 3 °C/min, 

and spectra were obtained. Mass spectra were acquired at a scan speed of 2 spectra per 

second after a solvent delay of 3.8 min, and the mass scan range was set at m/z 45–450. 

The FID detector temperature was maintained at 250 °C with a hydrogen flow of 35 

mL/min and air flow of 350 mL/min. 

 

 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
 
The Analysis of Vitamin C in Extracts 

The amount of vitamin C in the unripe fruit was 63.15 ± 0.45 mg/100 g, and the 

amount of vitamin C in the ripe fruit was 15.44 ± 0.13 mg/100 g. The amount of vitamin 

C in unripe fruits was higher than the amount of vitamin C obtained from ripe fruits. In 

terms of vitamin C, there is no study in the literature on the P. terebinthus plant. In the 

vitamin C analysis performed on unripe and ripe fruits of Pistacia lentiscus belonging to 

the same family, Ayad et al. (2023) reported 1.23±0.03 in red berries and 1.25±0.01g 

AA/100 g in black berries. 

The amount of vitamin C detected in fruits decreased in ripe fruits. The content of 

vitamin C in vegetables and fruits can be influenced by various factors such as preharvest 

climatic conditions and cultural practices, maturity and harvesting methods, and 

postharvest handling, genotypic differences procedures (Medveckienė et al. 2021). 

Medveckienė et al. (2021) stated that the amount of vitamin C in rosehip fruits tended to 

decrease with the ripening stage. 

 

Enzyme Inhibitory Activities of the Extracts 
Enzyme inhibitor activity was 0.136 mg/mL in unripe fruits of P. terebinthus, and 

enzyme inhibitor activity was 2.14 mg/mL in ripe fruits. It has been determined that unripe 

fruits are more effective in enzyme inhibition. 

Even though the terebinth plant was considered a significant plant, there was no 

study on the extensive enzyme inhibitory activity. In terms of the foregoing expressions, 

the authors determined enzyme inhibitory activity.  

Yu et al. (2012) stated that a lower IC50 value of the sample results in more effective 

enzyme inhibition. The methanol extract also analyzed remarkable enzyme inhibitory 

activity. The outcomes suggest that the extracts in leaves of P. terebinthus have for use as 

a good nominee of native enzyme inhibitors and antioxidants (Uysal et al. 2022). In α-

glucosidase inhibition assay, water (14.5 mmol ACAE/g) and methanol (14.6 mmol 

ACAE/g) extracts showed parallel activity. The enzyme inhibition outcomes of samples 

may be noticeable by flavonoid and phenolics constituents. Similarly, they determined the 

maximum BChE activity in the methanol extract of P. terebinthus leaves (Uysal et al. 

2022). In recent years, many studies demonstrated phenolic constituents in plants play a 

significant role in enzyme inhibition (Khan et al. 2018; Kim et al. 2020; Yang et al. 2021). 



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6869 

Some reports demonstrated distinct parts of terebinth fruits that indicated enzyme 

inhibitory activity. For instance, methanol fruit extract indicated the finest BChE inhibitory 

effect (45.74% at 200 μg/mL) (Orhan et al. 2012). Additionally, fruits of P. terebinthus 

indicated anticholinesterase activity (Hacıbekiroğlu et al. 2015). The oil of terebinth plants 

displayed antidiabetic activities in diabetic rats (Uyar and Abdulrahman 2020). Enzyme 

inhibitory activities in the extracts of unripe and ripe terebinth fruits are demonstrated in 

Table 1.  

 

Table 1. Amount of Enzyme Inhibitory Activities in Fruit Samples of P. terebinthus 

Enzyme Inhibitory Activities 

 IC50 (mg/mL)  R2 

Akarboz 0.021 ± 0.02 0.9911 

Unripe fruit 0.136 ± 0.09 0.9967 

Ripe fruit 2.138 ± 0.17 0.9953 

 

Table 2. Phenolic Compounds in Fruit Samples of P. terebinthus 

Number Compounds 
Unripe Fruit 

(mg/kg) 
Ripe Fruit 
(mg/kg) 

1 Gallic Acid 197.86 2052.72 

2 4-Hydroxybenzoic Acid <LoQ <LoQ 

3 Caffeic Acid <LoQ <LoQ 

4 Sesamol <LoQ <LoQ 

5 Paracoumaric Acid <LoQ <LoQ 

6 Benzoic Acid <LoQ <LoQ 

7 Protocatechuic Acid <LoQ <LoQ 

8 Catechin <LoQ <LoQ 

9 Syringic Acid 465.71 1669.00 

10 Vanillin <LoQ <LoQ 

11 Syringaldehyde <LoQ <LoQ 

12 Rutin 4527.06 10705.58 

13 Protocatechuic Aldehyde <LoQ <LoQ 

14 Vanillic Acid <LoQ <LoQ 

15 Ferulic Acid <LoQ <LoQ 

16 Coumarin <LoQ <LoQ 

17 Epicatechin <LoQ <LoQ 

18 Rosmarinic Acid <LoQ <LoQ 

19 t-cinnamic Acid <LoQ <LoQ 

20 Quercetin <LoQ <LoQ 

21 Kaempferol <LoQ <LoQ 

22 Chyrisin <LoQ <LoQ 

*LoQ (limit of quantitation) value: 0.1 mg/kg  

 
Determination of Phenolic Compounds 

The major phenolic components of unripe fruit samples were rutin (4530 mg/kg), 

syringic acid (466 mg/kg), and gallic acid (4200 mg/kg). The main phenolic compounds of 

ripe fruit samples were rutin (10700 mg/kg), gallic acid (2050 mg/kg), and syringic acid 



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6870 

(1670 mg/kg). The main phenolic compounds of unripe and ripe fruits are rutin, syringic 

acid, and gallic acid. Phenolic components of unripe and ripe terebinth fruits are shown in 

Table 2. In the present study, the amounts of rutin, syringic acid, and gallic acid were found 

to be high in ripe fruits. It can be thought that the antimicrobial properties of the ripe fruit 

may be due to these substances. Dubey et al. (2013) declared that rutin is a good 

antibacterial and antifungal agent as a result of their studies. Gallic acid may play a 

protective role in healthy individuals by inhibiting apoptosis and a naturally occurring 

gallic acid is highly antioxidant (Zahrani et al. 2020). Lima et al. (2016) reported that gallic 

acid and its methyl ester showed antibacterial activity on Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus 

aureus, and Escherichia coli.  

 
Determination of Antioxidant Capacity 

When the antioxidant capacity amounts are examined, the DPPH amount was 73.1 

mg AA eq./g in P. terebinthus unripe fruit methanol extract and 133.2 mg AA eq./g in ripe 

fruit methanol extract. The DDPH % inhibition rates of the same samples were between 

89.7% and 71.7%. When the DPPH amount and DPPH % inhibition rates of unripe and 

ripe fruit methanol extracts are compared, it can be said that the DPPH amount of ripe fruit 

methanol extract was higher than that of unripe fruit methanol extract and the DPPH % 

inhibition rates of unripe fruit methanol extract was higher than that of ripe fruit methanol 

extract. 

When the DPPH amount and DPPH % inhibition rates of unripe and ripe fruit 

methanol extracts are compared, it can be said that methanol extract of ripe fruit was higher 

DPPH amount and methanol extract of unripe fruit was higher DPPH % inhibition rate. 

In the authors’ study, ABTS amounts of the samples were 81.5 mg AA eq./mg in 

unripe fruit methanol extract and 134.26 mg AA eq./mg in ripe fruit methanol extract. 

ABTS % inhibition rates were 97.2% in unripe fruit methanol extract and 71.1% in ripe 

fruit methanol extract. The ABTS capacity of ripe fruit methanol extract was higher than 

that of unripe fruit methanol extract. The amount of FRAP in unripe and ripe fruit methanol 

extract was 18.4 mg FeSO4 eq./g and 18.7 mg FeSO4 eq./g, respectively (Table 3). 

The authors proposed that some flavonoid derivatives can account for the high 

antioxidant capacity of the fruit extracts (Orhan et al. 2012). In a work on acetone and 

methanol extracts acquired from the fruits of terebinth plants, the extracts were analyzed 

for their antioxidant capacity and both extracts demonstrated a high DPPH and superoxide 

radical scavenging activity (Topçu et al. 2007). The antioxidant content outcomes 

demonstrated that methanol extract (DPPH: 2.06 mmol TE/g, ABTS: 3.29 mmol TE/g, 

FRAP: 1.62 mmol TE/g) exhibited promising antioxidant capacity (Uysal et al. 2022). 

DPPH of the extracts varied over a wide range (8.86% to 64.43%) and were correlated with 

TPCs (Durak and Uçak 2015). This study is in compliance with the authors’ data as the 

extracts attained in the work have a notable scavenging effect against DPPH radical. The 

outcomes suggest that the extracts of terebinth plant leaves have the potential to be utilized 

as a good nominee of natural antioxidants. 

 

Examining the bioactive compounds  

In this study, while the total phenolic content of unripe fruit methanol extract was 

41.5 mg GA eq./g, it was 47.3 mg GA eq./g in ripe fruit methanol extract. P. terebinthus 

total phenolic content was higher in ripe fruit methanol extract than in unripe fruit samples.  

 

 



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6871 

In this work, the total flavonoid substance amount of unripe fruit methanol extract 

was 88.3 mg QE eq./g, while it was 169 mg QE eq./g in ripe fruit methanol extract. The 

total flavonoid content of the samples was high. In the authors’ research, the total 

antioxidant content of unripe and ripe fruit methanol extract in the samples was 45.9 mg 

GA eq./g and 72.8 mg GA eq./g, respectively. As shown in Table 3, the amount of total 

antioxidant substance was higher in ripe fruit methanol extract. 

It is common for ultrasonic extraction to enhance the quantities of phenolic 

constituents in terebinth fruit extracts. Total phenolic quantities of examples ranged from 

84.0 to 87.3%. Among the sonicated samples, the highest total phenolic (251 mg/100 g) 

amounts were obtained in examples sonicated for 30 min (Özcan et al. 2020). The 

increased amounts of phenolic constituents in sonicated P. terebinthus samples over the 

control could be due to the deterioration of the cell wall by sonication breakdown of the 

material, that leads to the release of more phenolic constituents (Abid et al. 2013). 

Additionally, Ma et al. (2009) demonstrated that ultrasonic treatments greatly enhanced 

the extraction of various phenolic constituents from citrus peels.  

Total flavonoid and phenolic amounts in methanol extracts of the terebinth plants 

were 123 µg PEs/mg extract and 22.6 µg QEs/mg extract, respectively (Topçu et al. 2007). 

Total flavonoid and phenolic amounts of P. terebinthus fruit were 47.0 mg quercetin/g and 

241 mg GAE/g, respectively (Orhan et al. 2012). Total flavonoids and phenolics amounts 

of the extracts were 65.5 to 211 mg GAE/g and 54.9 to 170 mg RE/g, respectively. The 

maximum level of TPC was detected in the methanol extract. The methanol extract (211 

mg GAE/g) had the highest content TPC compared with other extracts (Uysal et al. 2022). 

The difference between this article and the literature studies may be because of the 

distinction in the phenolic profiles of the fruits. The previous and current studies clearly 

demonstrate that TPCs of P. terebinthus extracts differ greatly from each other. These 

differences can be due to factors such as fruit species and gathering sites (Farhat et al. 

2013). Environmental and climate circumstances are also substantial factors affecting the 

TPCs of examples. Furthermore, a higher phenolic amount was demonstrated in unripe 

fruits than in ripe ones (Costa et al. 2013). 

When the antioxidant analyses of unripe and ripe fruit methanol extracts were 

examined, it was observed that DPPH, FRAP, TPC, TFC, and TAC antioxidant values of 

fruit methanol extract were higher in ripe fruit methanol extract, except for ABTS. In this 

study, when the antioxidant capacities of the authors’ examples are estimated, it is seen 

that they are compatible with the literature. This situation shows parallelism with 

antimicrobial activities.  

The extract attained from the P. terebinthus leaf has noticeably higher antioxidant 

activity when compared with the other natural and synthetic antioxidants. This may 

conceivably be because of the high phenolic and flavonoid compounds content of crude 

extract (Kavak et al. 2010). Between the extracts, methanol extract had the most powerful 

antioxidant capacity. These observations suggest that the phytochemical amounts in the 

methanol extract can be accountable for the major part of antioxidant capacity, as described 

in former studies (Kavak et al. 2010; Uysal et al. 2022). Former studies indicated that the 

antioxidant activity of terebinth plant fruits may be affected by main flavonoids and 

phenolics for example quercetin (Topçu et al. 2007; Uysal et al. 2022). Antioxidant 

analysis results of methanol extracts of ripe and unripe fruits of P. terebinthus plant are 

given in Table 3. 

 

 



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6872 

Table 3. Antioxidant Activity Contents and Bioactive Compounds of Essential Oil 
Attained from Fruit Samples of P. terebinthus 

Antioxidant 
Capacity 
Amounts 

DPPH ABTS 
FRAP  

mg FeSO4 eq./g 

Unripe 
 fruits 

Ripe  
fruits 

Unripe 
fruits 

Ripe  
fruits 

Unripe 
fruits 

Ripe 
 fruits 

mg AA 
eq./g 

73.12* 
± .39** 

133.24 
± 10.05 

81.50 
± 3.20 

134.26 
± 11.64 

18.40 
± 0.05 

18.74 
± 0.70 

mg Trolox 
eq./g 

88.24 
± 0.47 

161.23 
± 12.00 

118.98 
± 4.50 

198.74 
± 16.38 

% 
Inhibition 

89.66 
± 0.47 

71.68 
± 5.33 

97.25 
± 0.34 

71.13 
± 5.41 

Bioactive 
Components 

TPC mg GA eq./g TFC mg QE eq./g TAC mg GA eq./g 

 

Unripe 
fruits 

Ripe 
fruits 

Unripe 
fruits 

Ripe  
fruits 

Unripe 
fruits 

Ripe 
fruits 

41.50 
 ± 2.01 

47.31  
± 3.48 

88.31  
± 6.42 

169.01 
 ± 31.47 

45.89  
± 0.82 

72.75 
± 1.14 

*: Means, ** ± : Standard deviation 

 
Determination of Antimicrobial Activity 

The results demonstrate that P. terebinthus ripe fruit methanol extracts showed 

antimicrobial activity. However, the essential oil samples of the unripe and ripe fruits of 

the terebinth plant did not show any antimicrobial activity against the microorganisms 

used.  

It was determined that the ripe fruit of P. terebinthus formed zones of 4.24 mm 

diameters against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and 4.20 mm diameters against 

Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923. The methanol extract of the unripe fruits of the 

terebinth plant did not show any antimicrobial activity against the microorganisms used. 

Chemical variability may be due to genetic or environmental factors dependent on 

geographical and edaphoclimatic conditions, leading to the occurrence of different 

chemotypes as infraspecific chemical races (Llorens-Molina and Vacas 2015).  

This study demonstrates the antimicrobial effects of methanol extract samples in 

ripe fruits of terebinth plant against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Of these, 

methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is known to be the cause of hospital-acquired 

infections and the main factor in community-acquired infections. This feature has been 

understood as a result of the emergence and increase in the frequency of infections acquired 

from the community.  

Hospital infections are difficult to treat, expensive, and can involve drug-resistant 

microorganisms (Öztürk 2008). Therefore, it is not easy to treat a nosocomial infection, 

and antibiotics that counteract this infection have not been strong in the face of a 

nosocomial infection. The extract of the Pistacia terebinthus plant inhibited 

Staphylococcus aureus bacteria causing this infection with a zone diameter of 14 mm. For 

this reason, Akpulat et al. stated that Pistacia terebinthus plant can be used in the treatment 

of hospital infection by conducting necessary studies on its galls (Akpulat et al. 2021). The 

results of the essential oil samples showing antimicrobial activity are given in Table 4.  

 

 



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6873 

Table 4. Antimicrobial Activity of Crude Extract of P. terebinthus Ripe Fruits 

Ripe Fruits* 

Bacteria Species 250 ppm 500 ppm 1000 ppm 5000 ppm 

Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633 - - - - 

Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212 - - - - 

Bacillus cereus ATCC 9634 - - - - 

Aeromonas hydrophila ATCC 35654 - - - - 

Escherichia coli O157:H7 35150 - - - - 

Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 7644 - - - - 

Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 - - 4.20 ± 0.01 4.15 ± 0.01 

Shigella flexneri  ATCC 12022 - - - - 

Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 - - - 4.24 ± 0.01 

Salmonella typhimurium ATCC 23566 - - - - 

Yeast-Mold 

Saccharomyces cerevisiae S288C - - - - 

Aspergillus flavus ATCC  46283 - - - - 

Candida albicans ATCC 10231 - - - - 

*expressed as inhibition zone in mm 

 
GC-MS/FID Conditions for Essential Oil Analysis 

After analysis of essential oils by GC-MS/FID methods, the structure of a total of 

98 components was detected in the unripe fruits of P. terebinthus, but the structure of 4 

components could not be identified. The highest percentages of essential oils isolated from 

unripe fruits were α-pinene (22.81%), α-terpinolene (20.79%), and cis-β-ocimene (9.41%). 

The most abundant parent compound in unripe fruit samples is α-pinene. In the essential 

oil of the ripe fruits of terebinth plants, the structure of a total of 71 compounds was 

elucidated. The highest α-pinene (27.27%), α-terpinolene (17.11%), and trans-β-ocimene 

(10.73%) were the main compounds in ripe fruit samples. It is understood that the most 

common main compound in ripe fruit samples is α-pinene. It is seen that the main 

constituents of the essential oil in the ripe and unripe fruits are the same. Because of its 

antioxidant properties, α-pinene and β-pinene are widely used in the pharmaceutical 

industry, as well as in the food, perfumery and cosmetic industries (Kılıç Pekgözlü and 

Ceylan 2021). Puvača et al. (2019) reported that bioactive compounds such as α-terpinene, 

α-terpinolene and γ-terpinene showed high antioxidant activity. Terpinolene is also used 

as a synthetic flavoring additive and scent enhancer (Okumura et al. 2012). 

α-pinene (51.3%), caryophyllene oxide (51.0%), p-cymen-8-ol (40.0%), and 

limonene (39.0%) were the main constituents for distinct places in Türkiye. The main 

compounds in the examples were caryophyllene oxide, α-pinene, p-cymen-8-ol, limonene, 

sabinene. Twenty-eight constituents representing 92.3 to 100.0% of the oils were defined 

(Özcan et al. 2009). α-pinene (26.31%) was dominant in the volatile oil, cis (9.34 ± 0.03%) 

and trans (15.88 ± 0.13%) isomers of β-ocimene as well as D,L-limonene (14.06 ± 0.21%) 

were other main compounds in the volatile oil (Orhan et al. 2012). Young ripe and unripe 

fruit oils resulted in the determination of 48 and 51 constituents, respectively. Limonene, 

β-pinene, α-phellandrene, and α-pinene were identified as the major compounds of ripe 

fruit oil. α-Pinene, β-pinene, limonene, α-phellandrene, and terpinolene were the important 



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6874 

constituents of unripe fruit oil. β-Pinene and limonene were determined as the most 

abundant major components of ripe and unripe fruit oils (Couladis et al. 2003). When the 

results are examined, it can be emphasized that the plant analyzed in this study is a new 

chemotype of P. terebinthus due to the main component differences.  

Previous studies realized the fruit volatile oil of P. terebinthus underlined the 

existence of some variations between the authors’ findings and those studies. For example, 

limonene was the main constituent in unripe (34.2%) and ripe (32.8%) fruits of P. 

terebinthus of Türkiye origin (Couladis et al. 2003), whereas α-pinene was the major 

constituent in unripe (22.8%) and ripe (27.3%) in the current study. In another study, the 

fruits of P. terebinthus included α-pinene (26.31%) as the major constituent, which is more 

similar to the authors’ results (Orhan et al. 2012). The fruitful twigs of terebinth plants 

collected from Sardinia included α-pinene (54.8%) as the major constituent, which is more 

analogous to the current study’s outcomes (Usai et al. 2006).  

Certainly, remarkable variations in the oil constituents might be possibly resulting 

from climate and locality differences even within the same country, which was also 

supported by a work studying the effect of locality on constituents, the method of 

distillation, and oil yields of P. terebinthus (Özcan et al. 2009). Some variations may be 

due to the different handling and climatological factors. The volatile oil constituent also 

varies quantitatively and/or qualitatively with ripening and collection times (Couladis et 

al. 2003). GC/MS-GC/FID analysis outcomes of essential oils attained from ripe and 

unripe fruits of P. terebinthus are shown in Table 5. 

 

Table 5. Percentage Component of Essential Oils from Ripe and Unripe Fruits of 
P. terebinthus 

No 
RT 

(min) 
Compound 

Classification 
Compounds 

% Concentration 
RI LRI 

Unripe Ripe 

1 5.01 Hydrocarbon Heptane 0.19 0.07 700 700 

2 5.25 Other 2,5-Dimethyltetrahydro furan  0.02 710 727 

3 5.49 Hydrocarbon Methyl cyclohexane  0.13 720 720 

4 5.89 Other 1-Methyl-1H-pyrrole 0.02 0.35 737 737 

5 6.53 Hydrocarbon Toluene 0.01 0.01 764 764 

6 7.41 Aldehyde Hexanal  0.10 800 800 

7 7.42 Hydrocarbon Octane 0.34  801 800 

8 9.31 Aldehyde (E)-2-Hexenal 0.01 0.01 851 851 

9 11.22 Aldehyde Heptanal 0.02 0.02 901 901 

10 12.14 Monoterpene Tricyclene 0.16 0.17 921 921 

11 12.39 Monoterpene α-Thujene 0.12 0.09 927 927 

12 12.83 Monoterpene α-Pinene 22.81 27.27 936 936 

13 13.36 Monoterpene Camphene 0.96 0.89 948 948 

14 13.60 Monoterpene 2,4(10)-Thujadiene 0.04 0.01 953 953 

15 13.70 Aldehyde (E)-2-Heptenal 0.08  955 955 

16 14.55 Monoterpene Sabinene 0.73 2.37 974 974 

17 14.71 Monoterpene β-Pinene 4.40 5.02 977 977 

18 15.37 Monoterpene β-Myrcene 2.46 2.17 991 991 

19 16.01 Monoterpene α-Phellandrene 3.14 3.18 1005 1005 



 

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20 16.29 Monoterpene δ 3-carene 2.15 2.14 1011 1011 

21 16.58 Monoterpene α-Terpinene 1.69 1.27 1017 1017 

22 16.99 Monoterpene p-Cymene 1.08 0.61 1025 1025 

23 17.26 Monoterpene Limonene 7.52 7.25 1031 1031 

24 17.72 Monoterpene trans-β-Ocimene 6.05 10.73 1040 1040 

25 17.93 Aldehyde Benzeneacetaldehyde 0.02  1044 1044 

26 18.26 Monoterpene cis-β-Ocimene 9.41 9.44 1052 1052 

27 18.67 Monoterpene γ-Terpinene 0.72 0.20 1060 1060 

28 20.30 Monoterpene α-Terpinolene 20.79 17.11 1094 1094 

29 20.50 Monoterpenoid α-Naginatene 0.03 0.04 1097 1095 

30 20.64 Monoterpenoid Linalool 0.18 0.04 1100 1100 

31 20.85 Aldehyde Nonanal 0.14 0.11 1104 1104 

32 21.24 Monoterpene p-Mentha-1,5,8-triene 0.07 0.02 1112 1112 

33 21.37 Monoterpenoid Fenchol 0.02  1115 1115 

34 21.43 Monoterpene (E)-4,8-Dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene 0.18 0.12 1117 1118 

35 21.70 Monoterpenoid trans-Sabinene hydrate 0.20 0.05 1122 1116 

36 21.94 Monoterpenoid α-Campholenal 0.04 0.01 1127 1127 

37 22.12 Monoterpene Allo-Ocimene 2.43 4.34 1131 1131 

38 22.40 Aldehyde Benzenepropanal  0.02 1136 1133 

39 22.59 Monoterpenoid cis-Sabinol  0.10 1140 1143 

40 22.61 Monoterpenoid trans-Pinocarveol 0.37  1141 1141 

41 22.87 Monoterpenoid (-)-Camphor 0.11 0.08 1146 1145 

42 23.06  Unidentified 0.13  1150  

43 23.46 Aldehyde (E)-2-Nonenal 0.02 0.01 1158 1158 

44 23.72 Monoterpenoid Pinocarvone 0.07 0.01 1164 1164 

45 23.92 Monoterpenoid Borneol 0.16 0.03 1168 1168 

46 24.46 Monoterpenoid Terpinen-4-ol 0.98 0.09 1179 1179 

47 24.83 Monoterpenoid p-Cymen-8-ol 0.27 0.02 1187 1187 

48 25.11 Monoterpenoid α-Terpineol 0.59 0.01 1193 1193 

49 25.35 Monoterpenoid Myrtenol 0.22 0.05 1198 1198 

50 25.66 Other 2,3,6-trimethyl-phenol  0.01 1204 1203 

51 25.68 Other o-Cumenol 0.04  1205 1203 

52 25.87 Monoterpenoid trans-Piperitol 0.06  1209 1209 

53 26.00 Monoterpenoid Verbenone 0.02  1212 1212 

54 26.11 Aldehyde (E,E)-2,4-Nonadienal 0.05  1214 1214 

55 26.42 Monoterpenoid cis-Carveol 0.04  1221 1221 

56 26.57  Unidentified 0.06  1224  

57 27.57 Monoterpenoid D-Carvone 0.02  1246 1246 

58 27.74 Monoterpenoid p-Menth-1(7)-en-2-one 0.02  1249 1238 

59 28.10 Monoterpenoid Piperitone 1.08 0.12 1257 1257 

60 28.33 Aldehyde (E)-2-Decenal 0.24  1262 1263 

61 29.01 Monoterpenoid Phellandral 0.04  1277 1276 



 

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62 29.50 Monoterpenoid Bornyl acetate 0.28 0.15 1287 1285 

63 29.79 Aldehyde (E,Z)-2,4-Decadienal 0.02  1294 1294 

64 30.21 Monoterpenoid Thymol 0.02  1303 1303 

65 30.82 Aldehyde (E,E)-2,4-Decadienal 0.06  1317 1317 

66 31.81 Sesquiterpene Bicycloelemene  0.13 1339 1338 

67 31.82 Monoterpene 
1,5,5-Trimethyl-6-methylene-

cyclohexene 
0.11  1340 1338 

68 32.33 Sesquiterpene δ-EIemene 0.27 0.18 1351 1351 

69 32.89 Aldehyde 2-Undecenal 0.04  1364 1363 

70 33.34 Sesquiterpene α-Copaene 0.04 0.13 1374 1374 

71 33.53 Sesquiterpene Ylangene  0.05 1379 1378 

72 33.54 Sesquiterpene α-Cubebene 0.08  1379 1379 

73 33.97 Sesquiterpene β-Bourbonene 0.18 0.12 1388 1388 

74 34.15 Sesquiterpene β-Cubebene 0.01 0.04 1393 1393 

75 35.48 Sesquiterpene Caryophyllene 1.33 0.97 1425 1425 

76 36.28 Sesquiterpene Aromadendrene 0.14 0.04 1444 1444 

77 36.48 Sesquiterpene γ-Muurolene 0.04 0.03 1449 1449 

78 36.75 Sesquiterpene cis-Muurola-4(15),5-diene 0.09  1455 1455 

79 36.91 Sesquiterpene Humulene 0.62 0.39 1459 1459 

80 37.04 Sesquiterpene Alloaromadendrene 0.02 0.02 1462 1462 

81 37.67 Sesquiterpene β-Gurjenene  0.01 1477 1478 

82 37.83 Sesquiterpene α-Amorphene 0.15 0.01 1481 1481 

83 38.06 Sesquiterpene Germacrene D 0.83 1.04 1487 1487 

84 38.50 Sesquiterpene Bicyclosesquiphellandrene 0.13 0.02 1497 1498 

85 38.67 Sesquiterpene Bicyclogermacrene 0.37 0.29 1501 1501 

86 38.76 Sesquiterpene α-Muurolene 0.08  1504 1504 

87 39.05 Sesquiterpene δ-Cadinene 0.06 0.06 1511 1511 

88 39.35 Sesquiterpene γ-Cadinene 0.09 0.08 1519 1519 

89 39.72 Sesquiterpene β-Cadinene 0.54 0.15 1528 1529 

90 39.82 Sesquiterpene Epizonarene 0.04  1530 1530 

91 40.09 Sesquiterpene Cubenene 0.10 0.03 1537 1537 

92 40.52 Sesquiterpene α-Calacorene 0.02  1548 1548 

93 40.74 Sesquiterpenoid Elemol 0.10 0.08 1554 1554 

94 41.20 Sesquiterpenoid Nerolidol 0.11 0.02 1566 1566 

95 41.93 Sesquiterpenoid Spathulenol 0.18 0.02 1584 1584 

96 42.17 Sesquiterpenoid Caryophyllene oxide 0.09  1590 1590 

97 43.17 Aldehyde Tetradecanal 0.04  1616 1616 

98 43.99 Sesquiterpenoid γ-Eudesmol 0.23 0.02 1638 1637 

99 44.22 Sesquiterpenoid Ledene oxide-(II) 0.02  1644 1646 

100 44.38  Unidentified 0.15  1649  

101 44.72 Sesquiterpenoid β-Eudesmol 0.12  1658 1658 

102 44.81 Sesquiterpenoid α-Eudesmol 0.23 0.01 1660 1660 

103 49.85 Hydrocarbon Octadecane 0.03  1800 1800 



 

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104 50.58 Aldehyde Hexadecanal 0.02  1821 1820 

105 55.24  Unidentified 0.06  1961  

106 56.90 Aldehyde Octadecanal 0.03  2013 2013 

107 59.64 Hydrocarbon Heneicosane 0.03  2101 2100 

RT: Retention time RI: Retention indices calculated against LRI: Literature retention indices based on 
Adams, 2007, NIST and WILLEY 

 

A total of 98 compounds, whose structures were clarified, were classified as 8 

groups, for the analysis of unripe fruits of the P. terebinthus plant. Those detected from 

these classes and the number of compounds they contain were determined as aldehydes 14, 

hydrocarbons 5, monoterpenes 21, monoterpenoids 22, sesquiterpenes 22, sesquiterpenoids 

8, others 2, and unidentified compounds 4, respectively. As a result of the analysis of the 

unripe fruits of terebinth plants, the most abundant chemical classes were monoterpenes 

(87.0%), sesquiterpenes (5.23%), and monoterpenoids (4.82%). According to the results of 

the analysis made on the ripe fruit samples, 71 compounds whose structures were clarified 

were classified as 8 groups. Those identified from these classes and the number of 

components they contain were aldehydes 6, hydrocarbons 3, monoterpenes 20, 

monoterpenoids 14, sesquiterpenes 20, sesquiterpenoids 5, and others 3. As a result of the 

analysis of ripe fruit samples of P. terebinthus plant, the most common chemical classes 

were monoterpenes (94.4%), sesquiterpenes (3.79%), and monoterpenoids (0.80%). 

 

 

CONCLUSIONS 
 

1. In the present work, vitamin C amounts of ripe and unripe fruits of terebinth plants 

were 63.2 mg/100 g and 15.4 mg/100 g, respectively. It is seen that the amount of 

vitamin C in the unripe fruit of the plant is higher than in the ripe fruit. The main 

phenolic compounds of unripe and ripe fruits are rutin, syringic acid, and gallic acid. 
It was determined that the enzyme inhibitor activities in the ripe and unripe fruits of 

terebinthus plants were 0.136 mg/mL and 2.14 mg/mL, respectively. It has been 

determined that unripe fruits are more effective in enzyme inhibition. A lower IC50 

value of the sample results in more effective enzyme inhibition.  

2. The antioxidant capacities of unripe-ripe samples were determined. In all of the DPPH, 

ABTS, FRAP, TPC, TFC, and TAC methods of P. terebinthus parts, it was determined 

that the methanol extracts attained from the ripe fruits showed higher antioxidant 

properties than the methanol extracts obtained from the unripe fruits.  

3. Regarding the results of the antimicrobial activity analysis of P. terebinthus ripe fruit 

samples, it was determined that they demonstrated antimicrobial activity against 

Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 

microorganisms. However, according to the results of the antimicrobial activity 

analyses of P. terebinthus unripe fruit samples, it was determined that they did not 

show antimicrobial activity against the microorganisms used. 

4. In the GC-MS/FID analysis of the obtained essential oils, 98 and 71 compounds were 

detected in unripe and ripe fruits, respectively. The chemical classes with the most 

compounds in the essential oils of P. terebinthus were monoterpenoids, 

sesquiterpenes, and monoterpenes in unripe and ripe fruits, respectively. The chemical 



 

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Fidan et al (2023). “Chemical compositions of Pistacia,” BioResources 18(4), 6862-6881. 6878 

classes with the highest percentage of constituents in essential oils of plant components 

were monoterpenes with 87.02% and 94.40% in unripe and ripe fruits, respectively. 

The main component found in essential oils of plant parts was α-pinene in unripe and 

ripe fruits with 22.82% and 27.27% ratios, respectively. 

 
 
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Article submitted: May 10, 2023; Peer review completed: June 10, 2023; Revised version 

received: July 16, 2023; Accepted: July 25, 2023; Published: August 7, 2023. 

DOI: 10.15376/biores.18.4.6862-6881