PEER-REVIEW ARTICLE PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4925 Ethnomedicinal Uses, Phytochemical Constituents, Pharmacological Properties, and Toxicology of the Bambusoideae Species: A Review Zainol Haida ,a and Ruzana Sanusi ,a,b,* Bamboos are a versatile non-timber subfamily that has been utilized for various purposes. Generally, bamboo leaves are used as traditional medicine to treat diseases such as cough, rheumatism, influenza, fever, skin disease, heart disease, and malaria. The bamboo extracts contain a wide range of functional groups that are responsible for pharmacological activities. The objective of this review article is to provide in-depth discussion on botany, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemical constituents, pharmacological properties, and toxicity of bamboo plant extract. Phytochemical studies showed that a total of 21 functional groups were detected from bamboo leaves, stems, and seeds. In addition, volatile compounds that produce aromatic odor also were detected from the bamboo extract. Meanwhile, pharmacological studies revealed that bamboo extract exhibited several pharmacological properties including anti- diarrheal, analgesic effect, antimalarial, anti-ulcer, anti-inflammatory, anti- bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-diabetic, wound healing, anticancer, and hepatotoxicity. The toxicity study found that bamboo extract is safe for consumption and did not show harmful effects. A review of phytochemical constituents and pharmacological properties in plants is important for several purposes such as new drugs discovery and understanding the mechanisms, safety, and efficacy of the bioactive compounds to treat various diseases. DOI: 10.15376/biores.20.2.Haida Keywords: Bamboo; Ethnomedicinal uses; Phytochemistry; Volatile compounds; Pharmacology Contact information: a: Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; b: Department of Forestry Science and Biodiversity, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; *Corresponding author: ruzanasanusi@upm.edu.my INTRODUCTION Bamboos are important versatile non-timber forest species that hold high market value because of their various applications in human life. Bamboo belongs to the subfamily of Bambusoideae, under the grass family known as Poaceae. All the bamboo species are categorized under the subfamily of Bambusoideae. There are over 120 genera and 1641 species from the three tribes: Bambuseae, Arundinarieae, and Olyreae (Table 1) (Soreng et al. 2015). The tribe Bambuseae comprises tropical woody bamboos, Arundinarieae comprises temperate woody bamboos, and Olyreae comprises herbaceous bamboos (Wang et al. 2020a). Among all the three tribes, the most commonly found bamboo species are from the Bambuseae. The main genera from the Bambuseae are Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, and Gigantochloa (Liu et al. 2020). The other well-known genera are the genus Phyllostachys under the tribe Arundinarieae and genus Olyra under tribe Olyreae (Ruiz- Sanchez et al. 2019; Zhang et al. 2020). http://www.yourlinkhere.edu/ https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9545-8791 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3250-1785 PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4926 Table 1. Taxonomical Classification of Bamboo Kingdom : Plantae Phylum : Magnoliophyta Class : Liliopsida Subclass : Commelinidae Order : Cyperales Family : Poaceae Subfamily : Bambusoideae Tribe : Bambuseae, Arundinarieae, Olyreae From an early human civilization period until now, bamboo has been used extensively in human daily life. Therefore, bamboo has been called “the plant of multifunctional uses” (Rua et al. 2021). Bamboo is widely dispersed around the world, and it comprises 1% of the world forest area (Mustafa et al. 2021). It is reported that the bamboo forest area globally are 31.5 million hectares, with Asia region accounting for approximately 25 million hectares (Mustafa et al. 2021). The largest bamboo forest area is in India with 9.5 million hectares and China with 6.01 million hectares (Wang et al. 2020b). In addition, Asia has the biggest bamboo diversity, including over 90 genera and 900 species, encompassing about 75% of the bamboo species in the world (Bahru and Ding 2021). The highest number of bamboo species can be found in China with over 600 species, followed by India and Japan with 102 and 84 species, respectively (Ahmad et al. 2021). The other countries that have diverse and significant bamboo forest are Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Brazil, and the Philippines (Du et al. 2018). Every bamboo species is different in terms of physical and biochemical characteristics (Rusch et al. 2023). Hence, bamboo has been used in various industries and bamboo byproducts have been utilized for numerous purposes such as construction materials, animal feed, textiles, paper production, sustenance, landscaping, bioenergy, and pharmaceuticals (Rathour et al. 2022; Yu et al. 2023; de Moraes et al. 2024). Bamboo plants produce a wide range of bioactive compounds that are responsible for various pharmacological activities. Since a long time ago, the bamboo plant has been used for the treatment of various diseases such as fever, influenza, cough, pneumonia, heart disease, and rheumatism (Wang et al. 2015; Lu et al. 2018). In the phytochemical analysis, a total of 21 functional groups have been detected from the Bambusoideae species’ extracts. The functional groups detected are alkaloids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, phenols, proteins, and others (Manohari et al. 2016; Dionglay et al. 2018; Wani et al. 2019; Gauchan et al. 2020; Putra 2024). In addition, volatile compounds also have been detected in the bamboo leaves of Pleioblastus spp., Acidosasa spp., Pseudosasa spp., and Phyllostachys spp. (Yuan et al. 2020; Shen et al. 2022; Wang et al. 2024). The bioactive compounds that present in the bamboo plant directly contribute to pharmacological activities including anti- diarrheal, analgesic effect, antimalarial, anti-ulcer, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbials, anti-diabetic, wound healing, anticancer, and hepatotoxicity (Wedler et al. 2014; Adnan et al. 2015; Rashid et al. 2016; Upreti et al. 2016; Anigboro 2018; Mori et al. 2018; Yang et al. 2019; Luo et al. 2022; Hidayah and Hafsah 2023; Sola et al. 2023; Chitiva et al. 2024). Owing to its numerous uses in traditional medicines, various pharmacological studies have been conducted on different parts of several important bamboo species. Hence, this article aimed to comprehensively review the pharmacological properties of bamboo species. Specifically, this article provides an in-depth review of ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemical constituents, pharmacological properties, and toxicology of the PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4927 Bambusoideae species. This review article would be useful for future research related to pharmacological potential of bamboo plant that largely can contribute to pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION Generally, the bamboo plant is divided into two major parts known as upper and underground parts. The upper part is the stem, which is specifically called the culms. It is woody in composition (Chaowana et al. 2021). The culm is cylindrical in shape and divided into multiple sections that are separated by diaphragms or nodes (Bala and Gupta 2023). The diameter of bamboo culm is between 0.64 and 30.48 cm. The weight varies depending on the bamboo species. The bamboo plant can grow up to 36 m tall (Bahtiar et al. 2019). Unlike a tree, bark is absent in the bamboo plant. In addition, the center of the culm is hollow; in addition, the presence of silica provides the culm with a tough outer shell, which is smooth and flexible (Su et al. 2021). The branches of the bamboo plant have commonly emerged from the nodes. The branches can be single or multiple branches per node. The leaves emerge from the nodal segment on the branch. Other leaves are narrow and arranged alternately along the branch. The adaxial surface of the leaves is smooth and abaxial surface of the leaves has trichomes (Li et al. 2023). The lower part of the bamboo plant, which is known as the underground part, consists of rhizomes and roots. The rhizome is the main vegetative reproductive part of the bamboo plant. The rhizomes are commonly sympodial, serving as the main storage organs for the nutrients which are needed for the plant growth and development (Hu et al. 2023). The rhizomes have meristematic buds which develop into shoots and form a cluster of culms (Shou et al. 2020). There are two types of bamboo rhizomes, namely clumping and creeping rhizomes (Singnar et al. 2021). The clumping rhizomes grow vertically, and new shoots emerges near the main culm. Meanwhile, the creeping rhizomes are grown horizontally, and new shoots are produced at interval which can spread over long distance (Shima et al. 2023). The rhizomes are divided by nodes. The roots are produced at the nodal segments. The bamboo roots are fibrous and form a dense network underground to support the plant (Kaushal et al. 2020). The roots of the bamboo plant grow fast and rapidly can spread in the soil and colonize the area. The roots play a vital role in absorption of water and nutrients and transport throughout the plant (Hennion et al. 2019). BAMBOO CLASSIFICATION Belonging to subfamily Bambusoideae in the grass family, bamboo is diverse and widely distributed. Bamboo is classified based on various factors including geographic, morphological characteristics, and chemical composition. Different bamboo species are adapted to specific regions. This directly influences the physical properties, phytochemical constituents, and applications. The classification of bamboo are as described in Table 2. PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4928 Table 2. The Classification of Bamboo Region Common Bamboo Species Morphological Characteristics Physical Properties Chemical Composition Applications Asia Bambusa vulgaris, Phyllostachys edulis, Dendrocalamus asper Tall, thick culms, hollow internodes Strong, flexible, lightweight High cellulose content, silica-rich Construction, paper production Africa Oxytenanthera abyssinica, Bambusa balcooa Medium height, dense foliage Dense, durable Moderate lignin, high fiber Handicrafts, soil conservation, fodder South America Guadua angustifolia, Chusquea spp. Large culms, strong fiber structure High tensile strength, durable fibers High silica content, resilient structure Structural applications, bioenergy, furniture Oceania Bambusa arnhemica, Nastus elatus Smaller culms, adapted to tropical conditions Flexible, moisture resistant High moisture content, adaptable fibers Traditional tools, thatching, water filtration ETHNOMEDICINAL USES OF BAMBOO Since ancient times, bamboo has been widely planted in China and Japan. The bamboo plant, especially the leaves, has played a significant role as traditional medicine to treat various illnesses (Bal et al. 2012; Panee 2015). The leaves of the bamboo plant are commonly used for the treatment of cough, improvement of eyesight, and for detoxification (Ren et al. 2019). Besides that, bamboo leaves in combination with different herbs have been used in traditional medicine used to treat influenza and fever (Wang et al. 2015). In addition, bamboo leaves are used as a treatment option for pneumonia, skin diseases, and ulcer (Li 2017; Lu et al. 2018). In India, bamboo leaves from the Bambusa vulgaris are prescribed for the treatment of rheumatism, heart diseases, and malaria (Singh et al. 2020). It also been reported that the seeds of bamboo also can treat the rheumatism (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu 2011; Silambarasan and Ayyanar 2015). In Bangladesh, roots and leaves are used to cure fever and skin disease (Hanif et al. 2009). Most of the herbal medicine from bamboo was prepared by boiling in hot water and given orally (Sangeetha et al. 2015). Based on the ethnomedicinal uses reported, bamboo parts might consist of a wide range of bioactive compounds that possess biological properties. PHYTOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Higher plants have been the source of human necessities such as food, shelter, and clothing from the beginning of human civilization (Rex et al. 2018). Besides that, plants have been used as a source of medicine either as a traditional or modern medicine (Gakuya et al. 2020). The phytochemicals present in the plants are natural bioactive compounds that significantly contribute to various biological activities. Phytochemical synthesis by plants can be divided into primary and secondary metabolites, which are classified based on PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4929 chemical structures (Elshafie et al. 2023). Primary metabolites such as lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins, are bioactive compounds that are vital for plant physiological and biochemical processes (Salam et al. 2023). Meanwhile, secondary metabolites are bioactive compounds that are produced by plants to support the physiological processes and as part of plant defense mechanisms (Kumar et al. 2023). Secondary metabolite groups are more diverse than primary metabolites which are the main reason secondary metabolites gain more attention for the development of drugs and medicines (Pang et al. 2021). The example of secondary metabolite groups are phenolics, alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, and others. Phytochemical Screening in Bamboo In determining the bioactive compounds in a plant sample, phytochemical screening is an essential step to find the functional groups that are present. Bioactive compounds are grouped based on the chemical structure. The procedure of isolating bioactive compounds from the plant extract is complicated and can be costly. The bioactive compounds are usually quantified by using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry (LCMS), gas-chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Hence, conducting the functional group screening could be beneficial, as it is generally done using a qualitative method, simple procedure, quick and inexpensive (Haida et al. 2022). Based on Table 3, phytochemical screening has been conducted on different bamboo species including Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa nutans, Bambusa tulda, Bambusa balcooa, Gigantochloa levis, Dendrocalamus asper, Bambusa blumeana, and Bambusa arundinacea. A total of 21 phytochemical classes such as alkaloids, anthocyanins, betacyanins, carbohydrates, cardiac glycoside, coumarin, diterpenes, flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, phlobatannins, phytosterols, proteins, quinones, reducing sugars, resins, saponins, steroids, terpenoids, triterpenes, and tannins were detected either from the shoots, leaves, stems, and seeds of the bamboo plant (Tripathi et al. 2015; Owolabi and Lajide 2015; Tongco et al. 2016; Manohari et al. 2016; Dionglay et al. 2018; Wani et al. 2019; Gauchan et al. 2020; Putra 2024). The phytochemicals screening was carried out by using different polarities of the extraction solvents. The higher polarity of solvents such as aqueous, methanol. and acetone were mostly chosen for extraction purposes (Dionglay et al. 2018; Putra 2024). This is because polar compounds such as amino acids, sugars, carbohydrates, phenolics, and glycosides are more dominant in the plant and polar solvents are more suitable for the extraction (Nawaz et al. 2020). Furthermore, the major phytochemical classes detected in bamboo extracts were alkaloids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, phenols, proteins, saponins, and tannins (Olowabi and Lajide 2015; Tripanthi et al. 2015; Gauchan et al. 2020; Putra 2024). Meanwhile, among all the phytochemical classes tested, groups of anthraquinones and cyanogenic glycosides were not detected in the bamboo extract (Manohari et al. 2016; Tongco et al. 2016). PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4930 Table 3. Phytochemicals Screening in Bamboo Plant Functional Group Test Result: Solvent Used Alkaloids Dragendorff Present: Chloroform [14], hexane [14], ethyl acetate [14] Absent: Ethanol [8,9,10,11], aqueous [8,9,10,11] Mayer Present: Methanol [1] Absent: Methanol [6,7], ethanol [6,7,8,9,10,11], aqueous [6,7,8,9,10,11] Wagner Present: Methanol [1,15,16], acetone [15], chloroform [16] Absent: Ethanol [2,3,4,5,13], methanol [2,3,4,5], aqueous [12,13], chloroform [15], acetone [16] Amino acids Ninhydrin test Present: Chloroform [15], acetone [15,16], methanol [15,16] Absent: Ethanol [13], aqueous [13], chloroform [16] Anthocyanins Sodium hydroxide Present: Methanol [1] Anthraquinones Borntrager’s test Absent: Aqueous [12] Betacyanins Sodium hydroxide Present: Methanol [1] Carbohydrates Benedict’s test Present: Ethanol [5] Absent: Ethanol [2,3,4,13], methanol [2,3,4,5], aqueous [13] Molisch’s test Present: Ethanol [8], acetone [15,16], methanol [15,16] Absent: Ethanol [9,10,11], aqueous [8,9,10,11], chloroform [15,16] Cardiac glycoside Legal Present: Methanol [1,2,3,4,5], ethanol [8,10], aqueous [8,9,10] Absent: Ethanol [9,11,13], aqueous [11,13] Keller-Killani Present: Aqueous [12] Coumarin Sodium hydroxide Present: Methanol [1] Cyanogenic glycosides Picrate paper test Absent: Ethanol [13], aqueous [13] Diterpenes Copper acetate Present: Ethanol [13], aqueous [13] Flavonoids Alkaline reagent test Present: Methanol [1,3,4,5], ethanol [2,3,4,5,13], aqueous [13] Absent: Methanol [2] Shinoda test Present: Methanol [6,7], ethanol [6,7,10,11], aqueous [6,7,8,9,10], chloroform [14], hexane [14], ethyl acetate [14] Absent: Ethanol [8,9], aqueous [11,12] Ammonia test Present: Chloroform [15,16], acetone [15,16], methanol [15,16] Glycosides Borntrager Present: Methanol [1] PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4931 Absent: Methanol [6,7], ethanol [6,7] aqueous [6,7] Phenols Folin-Ciocalteu Present: Methanol [1] Ferric chloride Present: Ethanol [5,13], methanol [2,4,5], aqueous [12,13], ethyl acetate [14] Absent: Ethanol [2,3,4], methanol [3], chloroform [14], hexane [14] Lead acetate Present: Aqueous [6,7], chloroform [15,16], acetone [15,16] methanol [15,16] Absent: Methanol [6,7], ethanol [6,7] Phlobatannins Phlobatannin test Present: Aqueous [12] Phytosterols Liebermann - Burchard Present: Methanol [4], ethanol [13] Absent: Ethanol [2,3,4,5], methanol [2,3,5], aqueous [13] Salkowski test Present: Methanol [6,7], ethanol [6,7], aqueous [6,7] Proteins Ninhydrin Present: Ethanol [3] Absent: Ethanol [2,4,5], methanol [2,3,4,5] Nitric acid Absent: Ethanol [13], aqueous [13] Biuret test Present: Acetone [15,16], methanol [15,16] Absent: Chloroform [15,16] Quinones Sulfuric acid Present: Methanol [1] Reducing sugars Fehling’s test Present: Ethanol [8,9,10,11], aqueous [8,10,11], chloroform [15,16], acetone [15,16], methanol [15,16] Absent: Aqueous [9] Resins Acetone-water test Present: Aqueous [6,7] Absent: Ethanol [2,3,4,5,6,7], methanol [2,3,4,5,6,7] Saponins Foam test Present: Methanol [1,2,3], ethanol [2,3,4] Absent: Ethanol [5], methanol [4,5] Froth test Present: Ethanol [2,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,13] methanol [6,7], aqueous [6,7,8,9,10,11,13] Absent: Ethanol [3,9], methanol [2,3,4,5], aqueous [12], chloroform [14], hexane [14], ethyl acetate [14] Steroids Liebermann- Burchard Present: Ethanol [9,11] Absent: Methanol [1], ethanol [8,10], aqueous [8,9,10,11], chloroform [14], hexane [14], ethyl acetate [14] Terpenoids Copper acetate Present: Methanol [1], ethanol [8,9,10,11], aqueous [8,9,10,11] Absent: Aqueous [12] Salkowski Present: Chloroform [14,15,16], hexane [14], ethyl acetate [14], acetone [15,16], methanol [15,16] Triterpenes Salkowski Present: Ethanol [3,4,5,13], methanol [3,5], aqueous [13] Absent: Ethanol [2], methanol [2,4] Tannins Gelatin test Present: Methanol [1], ethanol[13], aqueous [13] PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4932 Absent: Ethanol [2,3,4,5], methanol [2,3,4,5] Ferric chloride Present: Ethanol [8,9,10,11], aqueous [8,9,10,11], chloroform [14,15,16], hexane [14], ethyl acetate [14], methanol [15,16], acetone [15,16] Absent: Methanol [6,7], ethanol [6,7], aqueous [6,7,12] [1] Putra (2024) – B. vulgaris/shoots, [2] Gauchan et al. (2020) – B. nutans/leaves, [3] Gauchan et al. (2020) – B. nutans/stems, [4] Gauchan et al. (2020) – B. tulda/leaves, [5] Gauchan et al. (2020) – B. tulda/stems, [6] Wani et al. (2019) – B. balcooa/leaves, [7] Wani et al. (2019) – B. balcooa/stem, [8] Dionglay et al. (2018) – G. levis/leaves, [9] Dionglay et al. (2018) – D. asper/leaves, [10] Dionglay et al. (2018) – B. vulgaris/leaves, [11] Dionglay et al. (2018) – B. blumeana/leaves, [12] Manohari et al. (2016) – B. arundinacea/seeds, [13] Tongco et al. (2016) – G. levis/leaves, [14] Owolabi and Lajide (2015) – B. vulgaris/leaves, [15] Tripathi et al. (2015) – B. nutans/leaves, [16] Tripathi et al. (2015) – B. vulgaris/leaves PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4933 VOLATILE COMPOUNDS The bamboo plant has been utilized as a healing agent. In recent years, bamboo forests have been rapidly developed and have gained popularity especially in the Asia region. Bamboo forest provides clean air, strong bactericidal ability, and comfortable thermal environment (Tang et al. 2023). Research has forecasted that microclimatic variables within bamboo forests may impact the emission of natural volatiles, thus influencing the efficacy of bamboo forest recreation (Choi et al. 2021). The bamboo forest has potential to serve as a therapy place, as it significantly affects physiological regulation such as decreasing negative emotions and increasing positive emotions (Lyu et al. 2019). This evidence showed that bamboo plants biosynthesize a wide range of volatile compounds that produce an aromatic odor. The volatile compounds can be detected by using gas chromatography olfactory (GC-O), GC-MS, and aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) (Takahashi et al. 2010; Jin et al. 2011; Yuan et al. 2020; Shen et al. 2022; Wang et al. 2024). A recent study conducted by Wang et al. (2024) quantified the volatile compounds in the leaves of eight bamboo species, namely Pleioblastus amarus, Pleioblastus maculatus, Pleioblastus juxianensis, Acidosasa chienouensis, Pseudosasa amabilis, Phyllostachys rubromarginata, and Phyllostachys hirtivagina. The analysis used GC-MS. A total of 40 compounds were identified (Table 4). The highest contents of volatile compounds present were alcohols (55.5%), aldehydes (37.8%), terpenoids (4.5%), esters (1.6%), alkanes (0.5%), and ketones (0.2%). Among all the volatile compounds identified, 24 compounds were found to give sensory attributes of bamboo leaves that produce aromatic scents such as grassy, fruity, floral, pine, and cypress scents. The compounds were (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol, (E)-2-hexen-1-ol, 1-hexanol, 1-octen-3-ol, 3-methyl-3-heptanol, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, (Z)-3-hexenal, hexanal, (E)-2- hexenal, benzaldehyde, (E,E)-2,4-heptadienal, 2-phenylethanal, nonanal, β-cyclocitral, ethyl hexanoic, (Z)-3-hexen acetate, acetic acid, α-pinene, β-pinene, 3-carene, limonene, and terpinolene (Wang et al. 2024). The study by Shen et al. (2022) identified the key odor in active compounds in Phyllostachys pubescens including 3-methyl-1butanol (fruity), (E)- 2-hexenal (leafy, fruity), (Z)-4-heptenal (milk, creamy), ethyl hexanoate (fruity, waxy), octanal (orange peel), 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one (lemongrass) ethyl (Z)-hexenoate (fruity), 1-hexanol (oily, benzaldehyde (almond), (Z)-2-hexen-1-ol (herbal leaf), (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol (fresh), and 1-octen-3-ol (mushroom). The volatile compounds detected from the bamboo plant were commonly in the group of fatty acid, alcohol, aldehydes, terpenoids, esters, and alkanes (Takahashi et al. 2010; Jin et al. 2011; Yuan et al. 2020). PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4934 Table 4. Volatile Compounds from the Bamboo Plant Classification Characteristics Species Part Compound References Alcohol Alcohols contain one or more hydroxyl (- OH) groups attached to a carbon atom. Alcohols are polar, soluble in water (lower molecular weights) and are widely found in essential oils, plant metabolites, and fermentation products. P. amarus , P. maculatus, P. juxianensis, A. chienouensis, P. amabilis, P. rubromarginata, and P. hirtivagina Leaves (Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol, (E)-2-Hexen-2-ol, 1-Hexanol, 2- Furanmethanol, tetrahydro, 1-Octen-3-ol, 3- Methyl-3-Heptanol, 2-Ethyl-1-Hexanol Wang et al. 2024 P. pubescens Mazel Leaves and stem powder 1-Butanol, 1-Pentanol, 1-Hexanol, 1-Nonanol, Octanol, 3-Heptanol, (Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol, 4-Hexen-1- ol, (E)-2-Hexen-1-ol, (E)-4-Hexen-1-ol, (R)-2- Octanol, 1-Octen-3-ol, 2-Ethyl-1-hexanol Shen et al. 2022 Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Leaves 1-Hexanol, 1-Octanol, 1-Nonanol, 2-Propyl-1- pentanol, (E)-p-Mentha-2,5-dien-7-ol, 2-Methyl-1- phenylprop-2-en-1-ol Yuan et al. 2020 Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Phyllostachys kwangsiensis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Gracilis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Heterocycla Leaves 3-Methyl-2-butanol, 1-Penten-3-ol, 2-Penten-1-ol, cis-3-Hexenol, Phytol Jin et al. 2011 Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel Stems Hexanol, Heptanol, 1-Octen-3-ol, 2-Ethyl-hexanol, Benzyl alcohol, (E)-3-Octenol, Octanol, Nonanol, 2,6-Dimethyl-cyclohexanol, Indole, (E,Z)-2,6- Farnesol, (Z,Z)-2,6-Farnesol, Phytol , Nonadecanol , Docosanol Takahashi et al. 2010 Aldehydes Aldehydes have a carbonyl (-CHO) group at the end of a carbon chain. They are highly reactive, P. amarus , P. maculatus, P. juxianensis, A. chienouensis, P. amabilis, P. Leaves Hexanal, (E)-2-Hexenal, 2-Hexenal, (E,E)-2,4- Hexadienal, Benzaldehyde, (E,E)-2,4-Heptadienal, 2-Phenylethanal, Nonanal, β-Cyclocitral Wang et al. 2024 PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4935 contribute to fragrance and flavor in plants. Aldehydes are commonly found in essential oils and metabolic pathways. rubromarginata, and P. hirtivagina P. pubescens Mazel Leaves and stem powder Hexanal, (Z)-3-Hexenal, (Z)-2-Hexenal, (E)-2- Hexenal, (Z)-4-Heptenal, Nonanal, (E)-2-Octenal, (E,E)-2,4-Heptadienal, Decanal, (E,Z)-2,6- Nonadienal, 4-Methylbenzaldehyde, 3- Methylbenzaldehyde, Benzeneacetaldehyde, (2,6,6-Trimethyl-1,3-cyclohexadiene-1- carboxaldehyde) Shen et al. 2022 Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Leaves 2-Hexenal, (E,E)-2,4-Heptadienal, (E)-2-Octenal, Nonanal, (2E,6Z)-Nona-2,6-dienal, Dodecanal, 2- Undecenal, Pentadecanal, Benzaldehyde, Benzeneacetaldehyde, 2-(2,6,6- Trimethylcyclohexen-1-yl)acetaldehyde, 4- Ethylbenzaldehyde Yuan et al. 2020 Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Phyllostachys kwangsiensis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Gracilis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Heterocycla Leaves (E)-2-Hexenal, Nonaldehyde (Nonanal), Vamilic aldehyde , (2,6,6-Trimethylcyclohexa-1,3- dienecarbaldehyde), α-Ionone, β-Ionone Jin et al. 2011 Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel Stems Hexanal, Heptanal, (E)-2-Heptenal, Benzaldehyde, Octanal, Phenylacetaldehyde, (E)-2-Octenal, Nonanal, (E,Z)-2,6-Nonenal, Decanal, (E,E)-2,4- Nonadienal, (E)-2-Decenal, (E,E)-2,4-Decadienal, Pentadecanal, Hexadecanal Takahashi et al. 2010 Esters Esters contain a carbonyl (-COO-) functional group and are typically formed from the reaction of carboxylic acids with alcohols. Esters are P. amarus , P. maculatus, P. juxianensis, A. chienouensis, P. amabilis, P. rubromarginata, and P. hirtivagina Leaves Ethyl hexanoic, (Z)-3-Hexen acetate, 2-Octyl acetate Wang et al. 2024 PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4936 responsible for fruity aromas and flavors that are mostly found in fruits, flowers and essential oils. P. pubescens Mazel Leaves and stem powder Hexyl 2-methyl-butanoate, Hexyl n-valerate, (Z)-3- Hexenyl pentanoate, (Z)-3-Hexenyl (E)-hexenoate Shen et al. 2022 Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Phyllostachys kwangsiensis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Gracilis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Heterocycla Leaves 2-Ethylhexyl acetate, 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid-bis-(2-methylpropyl)ester Jin et al. 2011 Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel Stems Benzyl salicylate, Methyl salicylate Takahashi et al. 2010 Carboxylic acids Carboxylic acids have a carboxyl (- COOH-) group and are classified as weak acids. Carboxylic acids play an important role in plant metabolism, synthesis of fatty acid. P. amarus , P. maculatus, P. juxianensis, A. chienouensis, P. amabilis, P. rubromarginata, and P. hirtivagina Leaves Acetic acid Wang et al. 2024 P. pubescens Mazel Leaves and stem powder (E)-3-Hexenoic acid, Butanoic acid Shen et al. 2022 Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel Stems Nonanoic acid, Propanoic acid, Decanoic acid, Dodecanoic acid (Lauric acid), Tetradecanoic acid (Myristic acid), Pentadecanoic acid, Palmitic acid (Hexadecanoic acid), Linoleic acid Takahashi et al. 2010 Terpenes and terpenoids Terpenes are hydrocarbon compounds derived from isoprene units (C5H8), while terpenoids contain oxygenated P. amarus , P. maculatus, P. juxianensis, A. chienouensis, P. amabilis, P. rubromarginata, and P. hirtivagina Leaves α-Pinene, β-Pinene, 3-Carene, Limonene, Terpinolene, Caryophyllene, β-Copaene, γ- Muurolene, Germacrene D, Bicyclosequiphellandrene, β-Cyclogermacrane α-Muurolene, β-Cadinene, trans-Calamenene Wang et al. 2024 PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4937 functional groups. Terpenes and terpenoids are major components of essential oils, secondary metabolites and plant resins. P. pubescens Mazel Leaves and stem powder p-Cymene, α-Guaiene, Caryophyllene, (4,11,11- Trimethyl-8-methylene-bicyclo[7.2.0]undec-4-ene) Shen et al. 2022 Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Phyllostachys kwangsiensis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Gracilis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Heterocycla Leaves Cedrol Jin et al. 2011 Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel Stems (E)-Geranyl acetone, α-Guaiene, β-Guaiene, β- Bisabolene, (E)-Nerolidol, Caryophyllene oxide, β- Ionone, α-Cadinol, β-Bisabolol, α-Bisabolol Takahashi et al. 2010 Ketones Ketones contain a carbonyl (C=O) group bonded to two carbon atoms. Ketones are volatile and contribute to aroma and flavor in plants. P. amarus , P. maculatus, P. juxianensis, A. chienouensis, P. amabilis, P. rubromarginata, and P. hirtivagina Leaves 3-Octanone, 2-methyl Wang et al. 2024 P. pubescens Mazel Leaves and stem powder 2-Pentanone, 2,3-Butanedione, 1-Penten-3-one, 6-Methyl-2-heptanone, 6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one, 2-Undecanone, 3-Methyl-3-penten-2-one Shen et al. 2022 Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Heterocycla Leaves 3,5-Octadien-2-one, Geranylacetone, (6,10,14- trimethyl-2-pentadecanone), Farnesyl acetone, 3- Ethyl-2-hydroxy-2-cyclopenten-1-one, 4-(2,6,6- Trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-dien-1-yl)butan-2-one, Damascenone, 1-(4-tert-butylphenyl)propan-2- one, 1-Acetyladamantane Yuan et al. 2020 Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Phyllostachys kwangsiensis Leaves 4-Hydroxy-2-butanone, Phenylcyclohexanone Jin et al. 2011 PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4938 Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Gracilis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Heterocycla Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel Stems 6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one, 2-Nonanone, (6,10,14- Trimethyl-2-pentadecanone), Farnesyl acetone Takahashi et al. 2010 Furans & derivatives Furans are oxygen- containing heterocyclic compounds often formed during thermal degradation of organic matter. P. pubescens Mazel Leaves and stem powder 2-Pentylfuran, (E)-2-(1-Pentenyl)furan, 2- Ethylfuran Shen et al. 2022 Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Phyllostachys kwangsiensis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Gracilis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Heterocycla Leaves Furfural, 5-Ethyl-2(5H)-furanone Jin et al. 2011 Ionones & related Ionones are aromatic compounds derived from carotenoids with floral, fruity and woody scents. Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Leaves β-Ionone, Dihydroactinidiolide, β-Cyclocitral, Theaspirane Yuan et al. 2020 Phenolic & Methoxy compounds These compounds contain a hydroxyl (- OH) or methoxy (- OCH3) group attached to an aromatic ring. Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Leaves 4-Hydroxy-2-methylacetophenone, 4-Ethyl-2- methoxyphenol Yuan et al. 2020 Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel Stems 4-Ethylphenol, 4-Ethyl-2-methoxyphenol, 2- Methoxy-p-cresol, 4-Vinyl-2-methoxyphenol, Eugenol Takahashi et al. 2010 Polycyclic & aromatic hydrocarbon These are hydrocarbons containing multiple P. pubescens Mazel Leaves and stems powder o-Xylene, p-Xylene, Tetradecane, Naphthalene Shen et al. 2022 PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4939 benzene rings. Mostly found in combustion byproducts, plant resins, and fossil fuels. Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Leaves (1,1,6-Trimethyl-naphthalene), (4-Propan-2- ylcyclohexa-1,4-dien-1-yl)methanol Yuan et al. 2020 Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Pubescens Phyllostachys kwangsiensis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Gracilis Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. Heterocycla Leaves Toluene, 1H-Indole, 1,6-Dimethyl-naphthalene, 2- (1-Methylethyl)-naphthalene, 4-Methyl-1,1’- biphenyl, 1-Ethyl-naphthalene, (1,4,6-Trimethyl- naphthalene), (1,4,5-Trimethyl-naphthalene), 1,1’- Methylenebis-4-methylbenzene, 4,4’- Dimethylbiphenyl, 1-Methyl-3- (phenylmethyl)benzene, (E)-1,2,3-Trimethyl-4- (prop-1-en-1-yl)naphthalene, (6,10,14-Trimethyl-2- pentadecane) Jin et al. 2011 Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel Stems Naphthalene, 2-Methyl-naphthalene, 1-Methyl- naphthalene, 2-Ethyl-naphthalene, 2,6-Dimethyl- naphthalene, 1,2-Dimethyl-naphthalene, 1,3- Dimethyl-naphthalene, Acenaphthene, Phenanthrene, Dibenzofuran, Fluorene, Fluoranthene, Pyrene Takahashi et al. 2010 Alkanes & hydrocarbons Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbon (C-C single bonds) and hydrocarbons include unsaturated forms such as alkenes and alkynes. The compounds are nonpolar and are found in plant waxes. Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel Stems Tetradecane, Pentadecane, Hexadecane, Heptadecane, Pentacosane, Hexacosane, Heptacosane, Nonacosane, 1-Tricosene Takahashi et al. 2010 PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4940 PHARMACOLOGICAL PROPERTIES Pharmacological properties from plant extracts include therapeutic effects and biological activities of bioactive compounds derived from plants that can be utilized in medicine (Tran et al. 2020). Pharmacological properties are mostly attributed to secondary metabolites which possess various health benefits. The pharmacological potential of plants differs due to different compositions of bioactive compounds. As for the bamboo plant extract, the pharmacological properties that have been studied are described in the following subsections. Anti-diarrheal Effect Diarrhea is one of the most common diseases that caused by contaminated or wrong diets. It can lead to infection in the absorptive and secretory functions (Oghenesuvwe et al. 2018). The anti-diarrheal activity of bamboo was assessed by using the castor oil induced method (Rashid et al. 2016) (Table 5a). The mice were administered with the methanolic extract of Bambusa bambos leaves at the concentration of 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight. The results showed that administration of 400 mg/kg of methanolic extract of B. bambos leaves significantly reduced the number of diarrheal feces and lowered the percentage of inhibition of diarrhea compared to the 200 mg/kg of methanolic extract of B. bambos leaves and 50 mg/kg of loperamide. This study suggested that bamboo extract has anti-diarrheal properties. However, further investigation is needed to explore the underlying mechanism of action of this activity. Analgesic Effect Pain is an unpleasant sensation that is often caused by tissue damage. The sensation of pain is due to sensory nerve fibers stimulation (Khan et al. 2020). Modern medicines are effective in treating pain; however, several side effects may be observed, such as ulcer (Roy et al. 2023). Hence, the potential of bamboo extract to exhibit analgesic effect has been studied. The analgesic effect of bamboo plant extracts was determined using the acetic acid induced writhing in Swiss albino mice (Table 5b). Based on the previous studies, the aerial parts of Bambusa spinosa, Bambusa vulgaris, and Dendrocalamus giganteus were extracted with methanol at the concentrations of 50, 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg body weight (Haque et al. 2014; Haque et al. 2015; Adnan et al. 2015). Based on the results obtained, treatment of the mice with 400 mg/kg B. spinosa extract significantly reduced the number of abdominal constrictions and increased the percentage of inhibition with 2.4% and 60% inhibition, respectively (Adnan et al. 2015). The finding by Haque et al. (2015) showed that administration of 400 mg/kg methanolic extract of B. vulgaris resulted in a lower number of abdominal constrictions (3.0) and high percentage of inhibition (44.4%). In another study by Haque et al. (2014) also found that increment in the concentration of D. giganteus methanolic extract significantly reduced the number of abdominal constrictions and increased the percentage of inhibition. The presence of bioactive compounds from the group of alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, and tannins might exhibit the analgesic effect (Haque et al. 2014). These findings suggest that bamboo extract may have analgesic properties. PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4941 Table 5. Pharmacological Properties of Bamboo Extracts (a) Biological Activity: Anti-diarrheal Experiment Model; Test Subject Plant Part; Species Solvent Extract Concentration Result Reference Castor oil induced method; Swiss albino mice Leaves; Bambusa bambos Methanol 200, 400 mg/kg; 50 mg/kg loperamide Administration of 400 mg/kg of extract resulted with 55.56% inhibition of diarrheal. Rashid et al. 2016 (b) Biological Activity: Analgesic Experiment Model; Test Subject Plant Part; Species Solvent Extract Dose; Positive Control Result Reference Acetic acid induced writhing; Swiss albino mice Aerial parts; Bambusa spinosa Methanol 50, 100, 200, 400 mg/kg; 200, 400 mg/kg aspirin Administration of 400 mg/kg of bamboo extract led to 60% reductions in the number of writhing. Adnan et al. 2015 Acetic acid induced writhing; Swiss albino mice Aerial parts; Bambusa vulgaris Methanol 50, 100, 200, 400 mg/kg; 200, 400 mg/kg aspirin Administration of 400 mg/kg of bamboo extract resulted with 44.4% of writhing reduction. Haque et al. 2015 Acetic acid induced writhing; Swiss albino mice Aerial parts; Dendrocalamus giganteus Methanol 50, 100, 200, 400 mg/kg; 200, 400 mg/kg aspirin The highest writhing inhibition was recorded from the administration of 400 mg/kg of bamboo extract with 51.9%. Haque et al. 2014 (c) Biological Activity: Antimalarial Experiment Model; Test Subject Plant Part; Species Solvent Extract Dose; Positive Control Result Reference In vivo; Wistar albino mice Leaves; Bambusa vulgaris Aqueous 100, 200, 300 mg/kg; 100 mg/kg lonart Malarial parasites load was significantly decreased as the administration of bamboo extract increased. Anigboro 2018 (d) Biological Activity: Anti-Ulcer Experiment model; Test subject Plant part Solvent Extract dose; Positive control Result Reference In vivo; Albino mice Leaves; Bambusa balcooa Ethanol, methanol Not mentioned; Ranitidine Methanol extract exhibited anti-ulcer activity with 14.66% of protection ratio. Upreti et al. 2016 (e) Biological Activity: Anti-Inflammatory Experiment Model; Test Subject Plant Part; Species Solvent Extract Dose; Positive Control Result Reference In vitro; Bovine serum albumin Leaves; Gigantochloa apus Ethanol 28, 42, 56, 70, 84 ppm; Diclofenac sodium Increment of bamboo extract concentrations resulted in increment of bovine serum albumin inhibition. Hidayah and Hafsah 2023 PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4942 In vitro; Lipopolysaccharide- induced nitric oxide production Leaves, shoots; Phyllostachys edulis Ethanol 0.1, 0.2 mg/mL; Not mention Bamboo leaves and shoots extracts were able to reduce Interlukin-6 and Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 production. Tundis et al. 2023 In vitro; Lipopolysaccharide- induced nitric oxide production Leaves; Sasa albomarginata Aqueous 1, 3, 10 mg/mL; Not mention The bamboo leaves extract was significantly inhibited LPS-induced inflammatory responses. Kojima et al. 2022 In vivo; Swiss mice Rhizomes; Guadua paniculata Aqueous 1, 5, 10, 30 mg/kg; 0.5 mg/kg Dexamenthasone Inflammation was suppressed through downregulation of neutrophil recruitment and decreased of hyperalgesia Sousa et al. 2021 In vitro; Lipopolysaccharide- induced nitric oxide production Shoot, shoot shells; Pleioblastus amarus Ethanol 20, 50, 100 μg/mL; 5μM BAY11-7082 Application of bamboo extracts were able to suppress LPS-induced nitric oxide production. Ren et al. 2019 In vitro; Lipopolysaccharide- induced nitric oxide production Leaves; Sasa coreana Methanol 20, 100 μg/mL Application of bamboo extract was significantly inhibited the production of nitric oxide. Yang et al. 2017 In vitro; TNF-α induced inflammatory Leaves; Phyllostachys edulis Aqueous 25 – 250 μg/mL; 10 – 100 μg/mL Isoorientin Bamboo leaves extract inhibited the tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced release of interlukin 8 and vascular endothelial growth. Wedler et al. 2014 (f) Biological Activity: Anti-Bacterial Experimental Model: Bacteria Strain Plant Part; Species Solvent Extract Dose; Positive Control Result Reference Microdilution method; Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae Leaves, culms; Guadua aff. lynnclarkiae Ethanol 1.55 mg/mL; 30 μg/mL Chloramphenicol Minimum inhibitory concentration: S. aureus: 1.55 mg/mL (leaves and culms) S. pneumoniae: 12.5 mg/mL (leaves), 6.25 mg/mL (culms) K. pneumoniae: 6.25 mg/mL (leaves and culms) Sola et al. 2023 Microdilution method; Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa Leaves; Olyra glaberrima, Aulonemia aristulata, Filgueirasia arenicola, Filgueirasia cannavieira, Merostachys neesii, Hexane, Ethanol 0.31 – 20 mg/mL; 3.9 – 1000 μg/mL Gentamicin Hexane extract was more active as anti-bacterial effect compared to ethanol extract. Anselmo-Moreira et al. 2021 PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4943 Merostachys pluriflora Agar punch diffusion assay; Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli Leaves; Phyllostachys heterocycla Essential oil 0.56 – 18 mg/mL; Not available Minimum inhibitory concentration: B. subtilis: 1.12 mg/mL S. aureus: 2.25 mg/mL E. coli: 0.56 mg/mL Tao et al. 2019 Turbidity method; Pseudomonas syringae, Erwinia chrysanthemi Leaves, branches, culms; Phyllostachys heterocycla Ethanol, super- heated steam 1.5 μL; Not available Super-heated steam culms extract inhibited the growth of P. syringae and E. chrysanthemi. Mori et al. 2018 Double-plate punching method; Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Flavobacterium Leaves; Phyllostachys heterocycla Essential oil 2.5, 5, 10, 20 mg/mL; Not available Essential oil extracted showed antibacterial effect on all the tested bacterial strains. Tao et al. 2018 Agar diffusion method; Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae Leaves; Bambusa vulgaris Chloroform, hexane, ethyl acetate 10, 50, 100 mg/mL; 10 mg/disk Gentamicin Minimum inhibitory concentration (mg/mL): B. cereus = 1.25 (hexane), 2.5 (chloroform), 5.0 (ethyl acetate) S. aureus = 2.5 (hexane), 5.0 (chloroform), 1.25 (ethyl acetate) E. coli = 2.5 (hexane), 3.5 (chloroform), 1.25 (ethyl acetate) K. pneumoniae = 3.5 (hexane), 2.5 (chloroform), 1.25 (ethyl acetate) Owolabi and Lajide 2015 In vitro; Staphylococcus aureus Leaves, branch, culm, knot, rhizome, root; Phyllostachys pubescens Ethanol, hot aqueous 600, 1200 μg/mL Hot water extract of all parts of P. pubescens were able to inhibit the growth of S. aureus. Tanaka et al. 2014 Broth dilution method; Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa Seeds; Bambusa bambos Essential oil 0.08 – 8%; Ciprofloxacin Minimum inhibitory concentration: E. coli: 0.90% S. aureus: 1.80% P. aeruginosa: 2.05% Soumya et al. 2014 Agar diffusion method; Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli Leaves; Phyllostachys heterocycla Essential oil 50.42, 72.03, 102.9, 147, 210, 300 μL/mL The essential oil extracted from P. heterocycle showed the anti-bacterial effect on the E. coli and S. aureus. Jin et al. 2011 (g) Biological Activity: Anti-Fungal PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4944 Experimental Model; Fungal Strain Plant Part Solvent Extract Dose; Positive Control Result Reference Disk diffusion method; B. cinerea, G. cingulata, T. harzianum, H. peltate, H. lactea Leaves, branches, culms; Phyllostachys heterocycla Ethanol, super- heated steam 20 μL; Not available Super-heated steam culms extract inhibited the growth of B. cinerea, G. cingulate, T. harzianum. Mori et al. 2018 Agar diffusion method; A. niger, V. albo-atrum Leaves; Bambusa vulgaris Chloroform, hexane, ethyl acetate 10, 50, 100 mg/mL; 10 mg/disk Ampicillin Minimum inhibitory concentration (mg/mL): A. niger = 1.25 (hexane), 2.5 (chloroform), 2.5 (ethyl acetate) V. albo-atrum = 5.0 (hexane), 2.5 (chloroform), 1.25 (ethyl acetate) Owolabi and Lajide 2015 Broth dilution method; C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C. krusei Seeds; Bambusa bambos Essential oil 0.08 – 8%; Clotrimazole Minimum inhibitory concentration: C. albicans: 1.65% C. tropicalis: 2.88% C. krusei: 2.00% Soumya et al. 2014 (h) Biological Activity: Anti-Diabetic Experimental Model; Method/Test Subject Plant Part; Species Solvent Extract Dose; Positive Control Result Reference In vivo; Mice Leaves; Dendrocalamus latiflorus Ethanol 200 mg/kg; 20 mg/kg pioglitazone Administration of bamboo extract resulted in decrement of fasting blood glucose levels, body weight and low- density lipoprotein cholesterol. Luo et al. 2022 In vitro; Enzyme inhibitory activity Seeds; Bambusa arundinacea Methanol, aqueous, formic acid 10 μL; Acarbose Bamboo seeds were able to inhibit α-amylase. Haldipur and Srividya 2021 In vivo; Wistar albino rats Leaves; Bambusa balcooa Aqueous 100, 200 mg/kg; 600 μg/kg Glibenclamide Administration of bamboo extract in alloxan-induced rats showed significant reduction in fasting blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin level. Goyal et al. 2017 In vivo; Swiss albino mice Aerial parts; Bambusa vulgaris Methanol 50, 100, 200, 400 mg/kg; 10 mg/kg Glibenclamide Administration of 400 mg/kg of methanolic bamboo extract significantly reduced the blood glucose level by 55.3%. Haque et al. 2015 In vivo; Swiss albino mice Aerial parts; Dendrocalamus giganteus Methanol 50, 100, 200, 400 mg/kg; 10 mg/kg Glibenclamide Administration of 400 mg/kg of methanolic bamboo extract significantly reduced the blood glucose level by 53.4%. Haque et al. 2014 In vivo; Albino Wistar rats Roots; Bambusa arundinacea Ethanol 50, 100, 200 mg/kg; 600 μg/kg Glibenclamide Blood glucose level in alloxan induced diabetic rats was significantly decreased as the dosage of bamboo roots extracts were increased. Macharla et al. 2012 In vivo; Albino Wistar rats Leaves; Bambusa arundinacea Ethanol, chloroform, ethyl acetate 80, 150, 350 mg/kg; 3 mg/kg Glibenclamide All bamboo extracts significantly reduced blood glucose levels. Nazreen et al. 2011 PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4945 In vivo; Swiss albino mice Leaves; Bambusa vulgaris Petroleum ether 200, 400 mg/kg; 0.5 mg/kg Glibenclamide Administration of petroleum ether bamboo extracts significantly reduced the fasting blood glucose level. Senthilkumar et al. 2011 (i) Biological activity: Wound Healing Experimental Model; Test Subject Plant Part; Species Solvent Extract Dose; Positive Control Result Reference In vitro; Cell migration assay Leaves; Phyllostachys edulis Aqueous 10, 50, 100 μg/mL; 10, 25, 50, 100 μM Isoorientin Bamboo extract was able to improve wound closure within 24 hours and inhibited cell migration without affecting cell viability. Wedler et al. 2014 (j) Biological Activity: Anticancer Experimental Model; Test Subject/Cell Line Plant Part; Species Extract Extract Dose; Positive Control Result Reference In vitro MTT assay; HCT-116 (colorectal cancer) Leaves; Guadua incana Ethanol at a ratio of 1:10 (w/v) 5, 50 μg/mL; 0.1% DMSO Concentration of 5 μg/mL resulted in a cell viability of 10% and 50 μg/mL resulted a cell viability of 5%. Chitiva et al. 2024 In vitro MTT assay; MCF-7 (breast cancer) Leaves; Bambusa arundinacea Leaf derived silver nanoparticles 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 μL; Not mention 100 μL of concentration was significantly reduced the MCF-7 cell viability. Jayarambabu et al. 2023 In vitro MTT assay; MCF-7 (breast cancer) Leaves; Bambusa arundinacea Leaf derived zinc oxide nanoparticles 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 μL; Not mention Increased concentration resulted in the decrement of MCF-7 cell viability. Jayarambabu et al. 2021 In vitro MTT assay; PC- 3 (human prostate adenocarcinoma) Leaves; Bambusa arundinacea, B. nutans Leaf derived silver nano particles 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 μg/mL IC50: B. arundinacea: 93.58 μg/mL B. nutans: 96.41 μg/mL Kalaiarasi et al. 2015 In vitro MTT assay; PC- 3 (human prostate adenocarcinoma) Leaves; Phyllostachys bambusoides, P. pubescens, P. nigra var. Henonis Steam extract 40 Μl; Not Mention Cell viability (%) on PC-3 cells: P. bambusoides = 20.85% P. pubescens = 20.41% P. nigra var. Henonis = 1.15% Kim et al. 2014 (k) Biological Activity: Hepatotoxicity Experimental Model; Test Subject Plant Part; Species Solvent Extract Dose; Positive Control Result Reference Phenylhydrazine induced acute liver injury; ICR mice Stems; Phyllostachys nigra Ethyl acetate 250, 500 mg/kg; Not mention Serum biochemistry results showed that administration of bamboo extracts significantly reduced the ALT and AST levels. Yang et al. 2019 CCL4 induced hepatotoxicity; Wistar rat Shoots; Bambusa bambos Methanol 200, 400 mg/kg; 50 mg/kg silymarin Administration of methanolic extract of bamboo extracts were able to reduce the AST, ALT, ALP and total bilirubin. Patil et al. 2018 PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4946 Thioacetamide induced acute liver injury; Wistar rat Young shoots; Bambusa arundinacea Methanol 50, 100, 200 mg/kg; 25 mg/kg silymarin The SGPT, SGOT, ALP and total bilirubin were significantly decreased as the administration of methanolic extracts of bamboo were increased. Chauhan et al. 2017 CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity; Wistar Kyoto rat Leaves; Bambusa vulgaris Methanol, chloroform, ethyl acetate 250 mg/kg; 200 mg/kg silymarin Chloroform extract exhibited the highest hepatoprotective effect (SGOT, SGPT, ALP) compared to methanol and ethyl acetate extracts. Anghore and Kulkarni 2016 CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity; Kunming mice Leaves; Not mentioned Ethanol 125, 250, 500 mg/kg; 5 mg/kg vitamin E The ALT, AST and MDA contents of cells were significantly decreased after treatment with bamboo leaves extract. Zhang et al. 2014 PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4947 Antimalarial The infection of Plasmodium parasites is a cause of malaria, and this disease is one of the major causes of morbidity and death in tropical and subtropical undeveloped countries (Nigussie and Wale 2022). The anti-malarial properties of bamboo extract were studied by Anigboro (2018) (Table 5c). The leaves of B. vulgaris were extracted with water. The Plasmodium berghei infected mice were administered with B. vulgaris leaves extract at the concentrations of 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg body weight. The results showed that 300 mg/kg leaves extract of B. vulgaris significantly exhibited the lowest percentage of malaria parasites. The study also found that administration of B. vulgaris bamboo extract at all concentrations exhibited better anti-malarial effect compared to the standard anti- malarial drug, Lonart at a concentration 100 mg/kg. This finding showed that bamboo extract might have the anti-malarial effect. However, further investigation is needed to study the effectiveness and side effects of the bamboo extract. Anti-ulcer Effect One of the most common gastrointestinal disorders that affect many people is ulcer. Some of the phytochemicals present in the plant extract can exhibit anti-ulcer properties. The study related to anti-ulcer properties of bamboo extract is very limited. An in vivo test study by Upreti et al. (2016) used the ethanol and methanol leaves extracts of Bambusa balcooa for the anti-ulcer analysis (Table 5d). The results found that the B. balcooa leaves extract showed a satisfactory protective ratio with 14.44% compared to the standard ranitidine which produced 60% of protective ratio. Although this finding shows that B. balcooa extract had an anti-ulcer effect, further investigation is needed to confirm its effectiveness by conducting other parameters related to anti-ulcer analysis. Anti-Inflammatory The physiological process that involves the intervention of the immune system is known as inflammation. Inflammation occurs to protect the organism from the infections of microbes (Bouyahya et al. 2022). The potential of bamboo extract in combating inflammation was studied using in vitro and in vivo techniques (Table 5e). In a recent finding by Hidayah and Hafsah (2023), the leaves of Gigantochloa apus were extracted using ethanol and tested using bovine serum albumin protein denaturation inhibition method. It was found that the percentage of bovine serum albumin inhibition was increased as the ethanolic leaves of G. apus were increased. Moreover, an in vitro anti-inflammatory properties of bamboo extracts were tested using lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production (Yang et al. 2014; Ren et al. 2019; Kojima et al. 2022; Tundis et al. 2023). The leaves and shoots of Phyllostachys edulis, Sasa albomarginata, Pleioblastus amarus, and Sasa coreana were tested using this method. The observation showed that the bamboo extracts were able to inhibit the lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production, reactive oxygen species, interlukin-6, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 production. Besides, the leaves extract of Phyllostachys edulis were found to inhibit the tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced inflammatory (Wedler et al. 2014). In the in vivo study, the results found that an aqueous rhizomes extract of Guadua paniculata was capable in suppressing inflammation via lowering hyperalgesia and downregulation of neutrophil recruitment in mice (Sousa et al. 2021). PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4948 Anti-Bacterial Bacterial infections are caused by invasion and multiplication of bacterial colonies in the human body. Bacteria can be categorized into Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria based on their cell wall structure and respond towards Gram stain (Varghese and Balachandran 2021). The common Gram-positive bacteria are Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., and Bacillus spp. (Assoni et al. 2020). Meanwhile, the common Gram- negative bacteria are Escherichia spp., Salmonella spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Klebsiella spp. (Arbab et al. 2021). The anti-bacterial potential of bamboo extracts was investigated through in vitro method such as microdilution method, agar punch diffusion assay, turbidity method, double-plate punching method, agar diffusion method, and broth dilution method (Table 5f). A study by Sola et al. (2023) found that the minimum inhibitory concentration of leaves and culms extract of Guadua aff. lynnclarkiae on Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Klebsiella pneumoniae were between 1.55 to 6.25 mg/mL. Meanwhile, the analysis of anti-bacterial properties of different species of bamboo leaves including Olyra glaberrima, Aulonemia aristulata, Filgueirasia arenicola, Filgueirasia cannavieira, Merostachys neesii, and Merostachys pluriflora found that hexane extract exhibited more anti-bacterial properties compared to ethanol extracts (Anselmo-Moreira et al. 2021). The essential oil extracted from the leaves of Phyllostachys heterocycla and seeds of Bambusa bambos exhibited anti-bacterial effect on Gram-positive (S. aureus and Bacillus subtilis) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) (Jin et al. 2011; Soumya et al. 2014; Tao et al. 2018; Tao et al. 2019). The effect of different polarity of solvent (chloroform, hexane and ethyl acetate) of B. vulgaris leaves extract were tested on B. cereus. S. aureus, E. coli, and K. pneumoniae found that hexane extract exhibited the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration for B. cereus, ethyl acetate extract for S. aureus, E. coli and K. pneumoniae (Owolabi and Lajide 2015). Anti-Fungal Fungal infection diseases result in more than 1.5 million fatalities in a year (Al Aboody and Mickymaray 2020). The main fungal strains globally due to their high incidence of the diseases and severity are Candida spp., Aspergillus spp., Cryptococcus spp., and Pneumocystis spp. (Mendonca et al. 2022). The anti-fungal properties of bamboo extract were investigated by using disk diffusion method, agar diffusion method and broth dilution method on various fungal strains including Botrytis cinerea, Glomerella cingulata, Trichoderma harzianum, Helicia peltate, Hypolepis lacteal, Aspergillus niger, Verticillium albo-atrum, Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, and Candida krusei (Table 5g). The study by Mori et al. (2018) found that the super-heated culm extract of P. heterocycla remarkably inhibited the growth of B. cinerea, G. cingulate, and T. harzianum. In the study conducted by Owolabi and Lajide (2015), the leaves of B. vulgaris were extracted with different polarity of solvents (chloroform, ethyl acetate and hexane). The results showed that hexane extract of B. vulgaris was more prominent in inhibit the growth of Aspergillus niger with the minimum inhibitory concentration recorded 1.25 mg/mL compared to chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts with 2.5 mg/mL, respectively. In contrast, the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration recorded for the Verticillium albo-atrum fungal strain was observed from the treatment of ethyl acetate extract of B. vulgaris with 1.25 mg/mL. Based on the findings by Soumya et al. (2014), the essential oil extracted from the seeds of B. bambos was able to inhibit the growth of three Candida fungal strains species including C. albicans, C. tropicalis, and C. krusei. PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4949 Anti-Diabetic Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease due to insufficient insulin secretion and activity. Plant contains of bioactive compounds which could have an effect as anti-diabetic properties. The anti-diabetic properties of bamboo were quantified via in vivo and in vitro techniques (Table 5h). The leaves, seeds, aerial parts and roots of Dendrocalamus latiflorus, Bambusa arundinacea, Bambusa balcooa, Bambusa spinosa, Bambusa vulgaris, and Dendrocalamus giganteus were used for the anti-diabetic test. A study using in vitro technique conducted by Haldipur and Srividya (2021) found that bamboo seed extract of B. arundinacea was able to inhibit the alpha amylase with the IC50 value recorded as 2.85 μg/mL. In the study conducted by Luo et al. (2022), the ethanolic leaves extract D. latiflorus significantly reduced blood glucose levels, body weight, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol of the mice. The study found that the leaves extract of D. latiflorus activated the AKT signaling pathway and downregulation of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 and glucose-6-phosphatase expression, which resulted in decrement of glucose production (Luo et al. 2022). Meanwhile, the potential of Bambusa species extracts found that all the extract ranged from 50 to 400 mg/kg body weight exhibited anti-diabetic properties by lowering the blood glucose level (Senthilkumar et al. 2011; Nazreen et al. 2011; Macharla et al. 2012; Haque et al. 2015; Goyal et al. 2017). Meanwhile, a study using D. giganteus extract also found that increment of dosage administration from 50 to 400 mg/kg body weight resulted to decrement of blood glucose level (Haque et al. 2014). Wound Healing Wounds are characterized as physical injuries that create an opening or rupture in the skin, leading to a disruption in the normal anatomical structure of the skin and function (Rippon et al. 2022). Wound healing can be divided into three distinct phases: the primary inflammation is succeeded by the granulation phase associated with re-epithelialization and ultimately, the prolonged procedure of remodeling (Hong et al. 2023). A study on the potential of bamboo extract on wound healing activity was conducted by Wedler et al. (2014) by using cell mitigation assay (Table 5i). The leaves of P. edulis were extracted with an aqueous and diluted at the concentration of 10, 50, and 100 μg/mL. The wound healing parameters show that bamboo leaves extract improved the wound closure by 28% to 54% at 12 h and 24 h, respectively. Anticancer Cancer is one of the deadliest diseases in the world. Cancer is defined as development and unregulated proliferation of cells in tissues, resulting in the formation of amalgamation and tumor that have potential to spread to a whole organ or disseminate systemically to other tissues (Valent et al. 2012; Garcia-Oliveira et al. 2021). The development of anticancer agents from the plant derived bioactive compounds is more convenient due to low toxicity and side effects (Asma et al. 2022). In vitro technique via MTT assay was used to quantify the anticancer activity of various bamboo species including Guadua incana, Bambusa arundinacea, Bambusa nutans, Phyllostachys bambusoides, Phyllostachys pubescens, and Phyllostachys nigra (Table 5j). The cancer lines tested were HCT-116 (colorectal cancer cell), MCF-7 (breast cancer cell), and PC-3 (human prostate adenocarcinoma cell). The recent study conducted by Chitiva et al. (2024) found that ethanolic leaves extract of G. incana at a concentration of 5 μg/mL resulted 10% of cell viability of HCT-116. Increment of dosage up to 50 μg/mL had resulted in 5% of cell viability. Meanwhile, the effect of leaves extracts of B. arundinacea and B. nutans PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4950 found that increment of bamboo extracts significantly reduced the percentage of cell viability of MCF-7 (Kalairasi et al. 2015; Jayarambabu et al. 2021, 2023). In addition. The leaves extract of three species of Phyllostachys found that the steam leaves extracts were significantly reduced the PC-3 cell viability of P. bambusoides, P. pubescens, and P. nigra with 20.85%, 20.41%, and 1.15%, respectively (Kim et al. 2014). Hepatotoxicity One of the vital organs that control the physiological functions in human is the liver. Liver injury, which is known as hepatotoxicity, is a serious health issue that caused by hepatotoxic compounds (Al-Ezzy et al. 2017). The hepatotoxicity test was carried out through in vivo technique. The rats and mice were used as test subject and hepatotoxic was induced by phenylhydrazine, carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), and thioacetamide (Table 5k). The study by Yang et al. (2019) showed that the mice injected with the stem extract of P. nigra at the concentration of 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight significantly reduced the plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). In the studies conducted by using CCl4 to induce hepatotoxicity, the extract of bamboo shoots and leaves exhibited hepatoprotective properties by reducing the aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphate (ALP), total bilirubin, serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (SGOT), and serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase (SGPT) (Zhang et al. 2014; Anghore and Kulkarni 2016; Patil et al. 2018). Meanwhile, in the study by using thioacetamide to induce hepatotoxicity, methanolic extract of B. arundinacea shoots extract significantly decreased the serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase, serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase, alkaline phosphate, total bilirubin, and direct bilirubin (Chauhan et al. 2017). TOXICITY Toxicity is the ability of a substance to cause effects on living organisms. Generally, the bioactive compounds that present in plants can potentially cause toxicity (Vilas-Boas et al. 2021). It is important to conduct a toxicity study and find the lethal dose for the plant extract. The toxicity test of B. balcooa leaves was conducted using the Arithmetic method of Karber (Goyal et al. 2017). The Swiss albino mice were administered with 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 g/kg body weight of aqueous leaves extract of B. balcooa. The result revealed that the median lethal dose (LD50) of B. balcooa aqueous leaves extract was 5.18 g/kg (Goyal et al. 2017). Rashid et al. (2016) carried out the toxicity test of B. bambos leaves extract via brine shrine lethality bioassay. The LD50 values recorded were 21.47, 8.45, 9.40, 3.91, and 16.64 μg/mL for the methanol extract, petroleum ether soluble fraction, carbon tetrachloride soluble fraction, dichloromethane soluble fraction, and aqueous soluble fraction, respectively. Meanwhile, the toxicity test conducted on the aerial parts of D. giganteus, B. spinosa, and B. vulgaris extracted with methanol did not show toxicity symptoms in mice up to dose of 3000 mg/kg body weight. There was no abnormal behavioral pattern and mortality were observed (Haque et al. 2014; Adnan et al. 2015; Haque et al. 2015). In addition, according to the finding by Senthilkumar et al. (2011), the leaves of B. vulgaris extracted with petroleum ether administered up to dose level of 2000 mg/kg did not show any lethality signs. PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ARTICLE bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu Haida & Sanusi (2025). “Bamboo species: Review,” BioResources 20(2), 4925-4961. 4951 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS This review article has focused on the importance of Bambusoideae species as a potential source for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries. The bamboo plant is a common non-timber product, for which the medicinal potential of the bamboo plant generally is not well-known. Hence, the compilation of the phytochemical constituents and pharmacological properties of various parts of different bamboo species in this review article illuminates the point that bamboo plants also could be used as a good source for medicinal purposes. Future research on Bambusoideae species should focus on clinical validation, toxicity assessments, and phytoanalytical studies to determine the medicinal potential. The preliminary insights obtained from the in vitro and in vivo studies are sufficient for confirming bioavailability, safety, and therapeutic efficacy in humans. However, rigorous clinical trials are needed to determine appropriate dosages, side effects and long-term health benefits. In addition, developing standardized extraction and purification techniques for isolation of bioactive compounds are important to ensure the suitability for pharmaceutical applications. Besides pharmaceutical applications, bamboo-derived bioactive compounds can also be utilized in functional foods and cosmeceuticals. Further research on synergistic effects of bamboo phytochemicals combining with bioactive compounds of other plant species should be explored to enhance therapeutic outcomes. To ensure a sustainable and scalable supply of bioactive compounds, a biotechnology approach such as plant tissue culture, elicitation, cell suspension culture, and metabolic engineering should be employed. These techniques are advanced biotechnology applications that can significantly increase the yield of targeted bioactive compounds and can reduce the reliance on large-scale harvesting of wild bamboo populations. In addition, sustainable cultivation and conservation strategies must be developed to balance ecological preservation and commercial utilization. Although bamboo is a fast- growing species, an increase in demand for its medicinal properties could lead to overexploitation. By implementing organic cultivation methods, agroforestry practices and biodiversity conservation efforts will be essential for maintaining the ecological balance while ensuring long-term availability. Hence, through integration of biotechnology and sustainable practices, bamboo has the high potential to emerge as a high-value resource for development of natural medicines, contributing to both pharmaceutical and environmental sustainability. 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