BIOTROPIA Vol. 30 No. 3, 2023: 374 - 383 DOI: 10.11598/btb.2023.30.3.2005 374 ANNUAL CARBON CAPTURE POTENTIAL IN BANANA GARDENS OF INDIA A.N. GANESHAMURTHY Division of Natural Resources Management, Indian Institute of Horticultural research, Bengaluru 560089. India Received 9 April 2023 / Revised 13 August 2023 / Accepted 13 August 2023 ABSTRACT The global interest in increasing the world's carbon stocks is skewed towards perennial woody ecosystems. But a continuous shortage of land stands in the way of achieving the goal. We must therefore aim to explore viable alternatives. The banana as a potential carbon sequester attracted little attention from researchers. Therefore, this study aimed at estimating the potential of bananas in different states of India as potential carbon sequesters. Data was collected from twelve major banana producers between January 2021 and December 2022. One hundred banana gardens were sampled in each of the 12 banana-producing states, covering the major bananas grown (AAA, AAB, and ABB). The above-ground (AGB) and below-ground (BGB) biomass were calculated using the allometric equation with pseudostem volume as the allometric parameter. The dry weight obtained from the allometric equations was then converted to carbon using a dry weight to carbon conversion factor. Sequestered carbon varied with the AAA, AAB, and ABB of bananas. Banana plant carbon stock was also found to be very small, ranging from 2.573 to 6.407 t/ha, compared with very high soil carbon ranging from 39.55 to 77.14t. In all the banana- cultivating states, the proportion of carbon contained in the plant to that in the soil was only 8.286 percent, and that of soil carbon accounted for 91.714%. At the national level, the banana crop sequestered 48.627 million metric tonnes of carbon, with soil carbon accounting for 44.798 metric tonnes and plant carbon accounting for only 3.828 metric tonnes per year. Despite these small amounts of plant carbon, the banana cropping system enriches the soil by enabling much more carbon to be sequestered into the soil in amounts comparable to other perennial plantations. Keywords: AAA, AAB, ABB, Banana growing states, banana stock estimation, carbon stock, cultivars, plant carbon, SOC. INTRODUCTION The giant herb Bananas of the Musaceae family and Musa genus are widespread throughout the tropical and subtropical zones (Charrier et al. 1997). It has occupied the 6th position in the world's fruit production and is a vital part of human diets in many regions. About 130 countries grow bananas, which they produce (Reay 2019). More than a thousand cultivars’ and bred varieties with an array of sizes, colours, and shapes are under cultivation. These include yellow-skinned, red-skinned, and sweet table varieties, as well as starchy plantains used for cooking. They are nutritionally rich in minerals such as potassium and zinc, as well as essential vitamins A and C (Ravi 2013). The genome assemblies that constitute the entire spectrum of edible bananas and plantains, such as AAA, AAB, or ABB, are designated as "groups, while the total set of a basic cultivar and its derived clones form a "subgroup" (Langhe et al. 2000). AAA and AAB Group generally have stem diametres of 20–25 cm, grow to a height of 3–4 metres with broad leaves that range from 2 to 3 metres in length, and produce a high yield of medium-sized fruit. The ABB group is smaller, with a stem diameter of 15- 20 cm and a leaf size of 2–3 meters in length, and produces high yields of larger fruit. Banana is cultivated commercially under tropical and subtropical conditions all over the world, both on a commercial scale and by smallholders for home consumption or sale at local markets. The Asia-Pacific region produces *Corresponding author, email: Annual Carbon Capture Potential in Banana Garden of India – Ganeshamurthy 375 55.4% of global production, and India ranks first in production, accounting for nearly 26.3%. Central and South America also contribute significantly to the total world banana basket (FAO 2018, Statista 2022). About a thousand varieties of bananas are produced, but preferences for varieties are generally local. The bananas of the AAA group, mainly the Cavendish type, are the most cultivated and produce about 50 billion metric tonnes, accounting for roughly 47 percent of global production (FAO 2022). (Nkoulou et al., 2023). The volume of production and trade of all other local bananas (AAB and ABB groups) is greater than that of Cavendish bananas. India, with its wide variability of soil and climate, produces a large number of fruits. Among them, eight fruit crops occupy more than 80% of the fruit crop area, and bananas are the third most widely grown after mango and citrus, occupying 20% of the total fruit area and producing one-third (3184,000 metric tonnes) of the total fruits produced in India. When huge quantities of bananas are produced to meet the livelihoods of millions of people around the world, it has naturally spurred climate-smart actions that include multidimensional and interconnected challenges to minimise GHG emissions and ensure sustainability (UNGA, 2015). This is because banana cultivation in the past concentrated on the need to increase food production and ignored the need to protect the environment, water, and biodiversity, thereby contributing to considerable environmental degradation and the loss of crop diversity. Realising this agricultural diversity and diversity-based farming have been advocated as the major backbones of sustainable agricultural intensification and a sustainable food system (Tutwiler et al. 2017). In terms of GHG emissions, a kilogramme of bananas results in the emission of 0.5–1.3 kilogrammes of greenhouse gas, or 100 to 200 grammes per banana (Reay 2019). Parts of the banana’s life cycle can be targeted directly to mitigate climate change (WRAP 2012). The banana crop leaves a large amount of residue. It is estimated that about four metric tonnes of pseudostem remain at the harvest location for each tonne of fruit harvested (Souza et al. 2010). Some estimates show that from the total of harvested bananas, 1.5 t of leaves and 2.5 t of pseudostem are generated per tonne of banana produced (Oliveiraa 2013). These residues contribute greatly to carbon sequestration, alcohol production, and natural fibre production. Making use of this biomass for the extraction of fibre and nutrients (particularly potassium), the production of alcohol for fuel, etc., could be a very attractive alternative by not only contributing to the preservation of the environment through carbon sequestration and removing this waste from the land but also by adding value to the fruit production matrix and transforming the residue into a commodity (Soraishram et al. 2021; Souza et al., 2010). Banana can be considered a perennial crop; thus, there is relatively permanent standing biomass throughout the year with considerable carbon content in its structure and hence a potential carbon sequester. Given the perennial and morphological nature of a crop like banana, it is worthwhile exploring its contribution to the carbon cycle. We therefore estimated the total annual banana residues produced and tried to work out their carbon sequestration potential in India. MATERIALS AND METHOD Selection of gardens and sampling Banana is grown in many states of India, and the area (880 thousand ha) varies extensively, with large localised pockets (Fig. 1) located in different agroecological regions (Table 1). One hundred banana gardens were sampled in each of the top 12 banana-producing states, covering the major bananas grown (AAA, AAB, and ABB) in these respective states, as presented in Table 1. A banana plant produces fruits only once during its lifespan. But new stalks are continuously produced from each plant. The fruit is harvested around 9 to 11 months after planting; then, the new stalks produce fruits every 3 to 4 months (Elbehri et al. 2015). The selected gardens are commercial-scale monocropping production systems with field histories of banana production spanning more than 20 years. We estimated the annual biomass production per plant and did not include the suckers that go to the next crop cycle. An extensive survey was conducted in these regions to record allometric data. In each state, BIOTROPIA Vol. 30 No. 3, 2023 376 100 gardens at the harvest stage were randomly sampled to obtain a fairly representative sample of the gardens in these states. Given the variability in plant population and yield per hectare across different cultivated varieties, the determination of state-specific plant population per hectare for banana cultivation was guided by productivity considerations. Specifically, states exhibiting productivity levels exceeding 30 tonnes (primarily falling within the AAA group) were assigned a plant population of 4440 plants per hectare, while states with productivity below 30 tonnes per hectare (mainly within the AAB and ABB groups) were allocated a plant population of 2267 plants per hectare. Flowers, flower bracts, and flower stock constitute about This value was used to compute the carbon contribution from this component. Weed biomass in banana gardens is very low, so this parameter was not included in this study. Fig 1 District boundaries of major Banana growing areas in India (Map not to scale) Table 1 Banana growing States and districts with varieties, area, production and productivity. State Districts Varieties Area, 000 ha (% share) Production 000 Mt (% share) Productivity t/ha Andhra Pradesh &Telangana East Godavari, West Godavari, Kurnool, Cuddapah Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Rasthali, Amritpant, Thellachakrakeli, Karpoora Poovan, Chakrakeli, Monthan and Yenagu Bontha 91.25 (10.33%) 5093.10 (16.53%) 56.24 Assam Goalpara, Nagaon, Sonitpur, foothills of Garo hills Jahaji (Dwarf Cavendish), Chini Champa, Malbhog, Borjahaji (Robusta), Honda, Manjahaji, Chinia (Manohar), Kanchkol, Bhimkol, Jatikol, Digjowa, Kulpait, Bharat Moni 53.08 (6.00%) 913.27 (2.96%) 17.20 Bihar Vaishali, Katihar, Kishanganj, Bhagalpur (Naugachia) and Purnia. Dwarf Cavendish, Alpon, Chinia , Chini Champa, Malbhig, Muthia, Kothia , Gauria 31.07 (3.51%) 1396.39 (4.53%) 44.94 Gujarat Surat, Vadodara, Anand, Kheda, Junagadh, Narmada, Bharuch Dwarf Cavendish, Lacatan, Harichal (Lokhandi), Gandevi Selection, Basrai, Robusta, G-9, Harichal, Shrimati 68.15 (7.71%) 4472.32 (14.51%) 65.63 Jharkhand Ranchi, Sahebganj Basrai, Singapuri 9.17 (1.03%) 32.06 (0.10%) 3.49 Karnataka Bangalore, Chitradurga, Shioroga, Hassan, Chikka Mangloor Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Rasthali, Poovan, Monthan, Elakkibale 110.55 (12.50%) 2328.90 (7.56%) 21.07 Annual Carbon Capture Potential in Banana Garden of India – Ganeshamurthy 377 Table 1 (Continued) Kerala Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Pathanamthitta, Alappuzha, Kottayam, Idukki, Ernakulam, Thrissur, Palakkad, Malappuram, Kozhikode, Wynadu, Kannur, Kasargod Nendran (Plantain), Palayankodan (Poovan), Rasthali, Monthan, Red Banana, Robusta 109.26 (12.36%) 1119.16 (3.63%) 10.24 Madhya Pradesh Khandwa, Badwani, Khargaon, Dhar Basrai, Grand Naine, Robusta, 26.38 (2.98%) 1834.03 (5.95%) 69.54 Maharashtra Jalgaon, Ahmednagar, Buldhana, Pune, Wardha, Dhule, Nanded, Parbani, Nandurbar, Satara, Sangli, Osmanabad, Buldhana, Akola, Yeothmal, Amravati, Thane, Kulara, Alibag Dwarf Cavendish, Basrai, Robusta, Lal Velchi, Safed Velchi, Rajeli Nendran, Grand Naine, Shreemanti, Red Banana 80.88 (9.15%) 4209.27 (13.66%) 52.05 Orissa Ganjam, Puri, Khurda, Gajpati, Cuttack, Dhenkanal, Angul, Sundargarh, Sambalpur, Bargarh, Deogarh, Koraput, Keonjhar, Raygada, Mayurbhanj Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Champa, Patkapura (Rasthali) 24.20 (2.74%) 449.82 (1.46%) 18.59 Tamil Nadu Thoothukudi, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore, Tirunelveli, Karur, Erode, Kanniyakumari Virupakshi, Robusta, Rad Banana, Poovan, Rasthali, Nendran, Monthan, Karpuravalli, Sakkai, Peyan, Matti 82.63 (9.35%) 3205.04 (10.40%) 38.79 West Bengal Hooghly, Nadia, North 24 Parganas Champa, Mortman , Dwarf Cavendish, Giant Governor, Kanthali, Singapuri 49.30 (5.57%) 1200.00 (3.89%) 24.34 Other states 150.14 (28.77%) 4464.12 (14.49) 29.73 All India 883.77ha 30807.5 34.86 Source: DAC & FW, 2018. Ganeshamurthy (2023) developed a universal banana allometric equation for nondestructive estimation of the above-ground biomass (AGB) of a standing banana crop at the harvest stage. This involved measuring the volume of the pseudostem as the allometric parameter. Briefly, the allometric equation was developed through destructive sampling of AAA, AAB, and ABB groups at the harvest stage. Allometric parameters such as plant height, diameter of the stem at the base, diameter of the stem at breast height, and volume of the pseudostem were measured. Different statistical models, like linear, exponential, polynomial, and power models, were used to estimate the plant biomass of individual and combined groups of bananas. Based on the best fit, the power model with pseudostem volume as an allometric parameter was used for the estimation of plant biomass (Ganeshamurthy, 2023). The below-ground biomass was estimated using the shoot-to-root ratio of 0.235 suggested by Ganeshamurthy (2023). We used the allometric equation given below for the estimation of banana biomass for computing the CS. AAA group: Y=0.008X0.513 AAB group: Y=4E-06X1.233 ABB group: Y=4E-06X1.22 Measurement of pseudostem volume The diameter of the stem at the base above the ground and below the bunch was measured with the help of a Vernier caliper. The pseudostem volume was calculated by multiplying the stem diameter at the base by the diameter below the bunch, as follows: V = 1/3 × πh(R2 + Rr + r2) Where: R = radius at the stem's base BIOTROPIA Vol. 30 No. 3, 2023 378 r = radius beneath the bunch such that R > r h = height from the base of the plant to bunch level expressed in cubic centimeters Carbon estimation The carbon content of these plant samples was estimated by using a CHNS analyzer (Elementar) and expressed as a percentage of carbon in the sample. Soil carbon stocks Getting representative data on the soil carbon stock of a region is a difficult task. Arriving at a state-wise average SC stock was practically impossible because the data is not available for a political boundary-based average SC as no such effort has been made in India (Ganeshamurthy et al. 2019). Further, the available resources were generated from agricultural lands, mainly cultivating annual crops, and hence do not represent a perennial crop system. The Forest Survey of India has made efforts to generate state-wise soil carbon stocks of forests, and the latest data was published in 2017. By and large, banana gardens imitate a disturbed forest ecosystem. Therefore, we used this data to calculate the state average values for SC. The method adopted by FSI is similar to those normally adopted to estimate soil carbon stocks. Briefly, the method followed by FSI for collecting the data on SC is given here. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The volume of the banana pseudostem, the basic growth parameter used for calculating the AGB, varied from state to state (Table 2). This depended mainly on the type of bananas cultivated in these states. The data obtained from Assam, Kerala, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal was above. In Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Telangana states, the recorded pseudostem volume ranged between 50000 and 60000 cm3. The lowest volumes below 50000 cm3 were recorded in other states. This variation in the data is mainly accounted for by the type of bananas grown in these states and the climate and management practices adopted by farmers in these regions. Among the states, bananas in Gujarat recorded the lowest mean pseudostem volume (46576 cm3), and Assam recorded the highest mean value (62731 cm3). Stevens et al. (2020) reported similar pseudostem volumes for banana plants producing about 2–3 kg of above-ground biomass for two contrasting cultivars. Table 2 Mean allometric parameters (Vpseudostem, cm3) and tree carbon sequestered in banana gardens in India States/UT Range Mean SD Median Q2 Q3 Andhra Pradesh & Telangana 45872-63324 54490 5227 54236 52117 56428 Assam 53450-73419 62731 5714 63726 59442 66885 Bihar 32089-63127 45763 1204 45341 41287 47220 Gujarat 31680-62885 46576 1218 46550 42824 49729 Jharkhand 31821-62231 44563 1320 48035 45176 51022 Karnataka 45889-63267 54602 5281 54493 50668 57260 Kerala 53244-73427 62636 5216 63288 59117 67335 Madhya Pradesh 31380-62859 47706 3165 47360 46819 49715 Maharashtra 31416-62865 47631 3052 47256 46358 49021 Orissa 53425-73376 62822 5798 63284 59776 68221 Tamil Nadu 53351-73396 62831 5845 63349 61264 65108 West Bengal 53452-73417 62960 5802 62826 59871 64332 Other states 45927-63316 54721 5108 54774 52285 57064 All India 31380-73427 54618 4150 52268 41220 68376 Mean of 100 plants Annual Carbon Capture Potential in Banana Garden of India – Ganeshamurthy 379 Danarto and Hapsari (2015) reported that cultivars of banana with "B" genomes (AAB and ABB cultivars) are more vigorous and contribute higher biomass and C-stock than the cultivars having only "A" genomes (AAA group). Our results supported this argument. States like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Madhya Pradesh, which grow mainly Cavendish bananas (AAA), recorded lower AGB (2.5 kg/plant) and BGB (0.550 kg/plant). Whereas other states cultivating varieties belonging to the AAB and ABB groups recorded higher AGB (>2.5 kg/plant) and BGB (>0.550 kg/plant). Nyombi et al. (2009) reported a plant dry weight of 1.44 kg/plant for the pseudostem alone for a similar variety of banana in East Africa. Ortiz- Ulloa et al. (2020) also reported similar values for bananas grown in two different regions. Stevens et al. (2020) reported similar AGB for two contrasting cultivars. Our values are comparable to those reported in the literature. The mean carbon content in the pseudostem was 0.465%, and that of the root and corm was 0.471%. The carbon capture in the AGB and BGB was then computed using these values (Table 3). The AGB carbon captured by bananas varied from the lowest at 0.920 kg/plant in Jharkhand to the highest at 1.395 kg/plant, and the BGB carbon varied from the lowest at 0.218 kg/plant in Jharkhand to the highest at 0.332 kg/plant in West Bengal. It is reported that on a per-plant basis, the ABB group sequestered higher carbon, followed by the AAB group, and the least in the AAA group (Nyombi et al. 2009; Ortiz-Ulloa et al. 2020). Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Telangana mainly cultivate Cavendish-type (AAA group) bananas. Hence, the carbon capture per plant in these states is lower. In Assam, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, we mainly cultivate both AAB and ABB group bananas, capturing the least carbon per plant. Total carbon capture by bananas per ha depends on the plant population per ha and carbon capture per plant. In carbon capture, two distinct groups can be seen in different states. The differences among states are mainly accounted for by the types of bananas cultivated in these states. The data on total carbon captured per ha (Table 4) obtained from Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra (where mainly AAA group bananas are cultivated) were above 5 t/ha. In Assam, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal states (where mainly the AAB and ABB group bananas are cultivated), the recorded carbon capture was below 5 t/ha. This shows that, on a per-ha basis, the AAA group bananas capture more carbon than the AAB and ABB group bananas. It means that all those states cultivating AAA group bananas sequester about 1.3 to 1.5 fold more carbon per hectare than other states growing AAB and ABB group bananas. Ortiz-Ulloa et al. (2020) reported that CS by banana in four provinces in Ecuador ranged from 4.18 t/ha to 5.44 t/ha. They accounted for this variability in CS in the plant population. In our study, too, the differences in CS in different states growing different groups of bananas were Table 3 Biomass and carbon sequestered in banana gardens in India(Mean of 100 plants) States/UT AGB, Kg/plant Major Banana group BGB Kg/plant AGB C, Kg/ plant BGB C, Kg/ plant Total C, Kg / plant Total C, t/ha Andhra Pradesh & Telangana 2.507 AAA 0.589 1.166 0.277 1.443 6.407 Assam 2.994 AAB&ABB 0.704 1.392 0.331 1.724 3.908 Bihar 2.025 AAA 0.476 0.942 0.224 1.166 5.177 Gujarat 2.061 AAA 0.484 0.958 0.228 1.186 5.265 Jharkhand 1.972 AAB&ABB 0.463 0.920 0.218 1.135 2.573 Karnataka 2.512 AAB&ABB 0.590 1.168 0.278 1.446 3.278 Kerala 2.989 AAB&ABB 0.702 1.390 0.331 1.721 3.901 Madhya Pradesh 2.110 AAA 0.496 0.981 0.235 1.215 5.394 Maharashtra 2.108 AAA 0.495 0.980 0.233 1.214 5.390 Orissa 2.998 AAB&ABB 0.705 1.394 0.332 1.726 3.912 Tamil Nadu 2.998 AAA 0.705 1.394 0.332 1.726 3.912 West Bengal 3.000 AAB&ABB 0.705 1.395 0.332 1.727 3.915 Other states 2.517 AAB&ABB 0.591 1.170 0.279 1.449 3.284 All India 2.522 0.593 1.173 0.279 1.452 4.332 BIOTROPIA Vol. 30 No. 3, 2023 380 mainly due to differences in the plant population per ha. AAA bananas are planted closely, accommodating 4444 plants per ha. Whereas the AAB and ABB group bananas are planted with wider spacing, accommodating 2267 plants per ha. Edible banana cultivars have lower biomass and C-stock values than wild bananas. Danarto and Hapsari (2015) reported a CS of 9.7 kg/plant in Klutuk Wulung, an AAA variety, and 4.74 kg/plant in another variety, Klutuk Ijo, that belongs to the ABB group. These data support the finding that AAA produces lower CS than ABB. However, their values are higher because these varieties are from backyard gardens where solitary plants have grown very robustly. Ours are commercial gardens with high-density planting. Hence, our values reported here are lower than those reported by Danarto and Hapsari (2015). Our values fairly match those reported by Ortiz- Ulloa et al. (2020) and Stevens et al. (2020) from commercial gardens. Soil carbon Organic C in the soil fluctuates based on the canopy cover over the surface. Quasi-equilibrium (QEV) of SOC is attained over a long period of time, varying from 500 to 1000 years in a forest system. In the agriculture system, this is attained in about 30–50 years after land use change from forest to agriculture and in 30 years for the horticultural system (Arrouays et al. 1995; Batjes 2001; Dickson and Crocker 1953; Jenny 1950; Johnson 1995; Naitam and Bhattachaarya 2004). During the process of stabilisation, the SOC shows tooth-like cycles of accumulation and loss during the beginning years and slowly attains an equilibrium level after the accumulation of dry matter and loss of SOC over time. It has been shown that under these tropical land uses, horticultural systems attain QEV in about 25 years (Ganeshamurthy 2012). All the selected banana gardens in this study had a history of banana cultivation spanning more than 20 years. Therefore, the soils under these gardens might have attained the QEV stage after the accumulation of dry matter and loss of SOC over time. As mentioned, it was difficult to obtain representative state averages of soil C stocks under banana gardens. Published information is mainly restricted to agricultural ecosystems and very few to horticultural ecosystems. Since state- wise SOC stock information was available from forest ecosystems and since sites under continuous banana gardens represented forest ecosystems more closely, we used the available data for computing C stocks by banana gardens. The status of SOCs in Karnataka and Kerala is relatively higher because of the favourable climate. Whereas the plant carbon content in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana is higher because of the bright sunshine hours prevailing in these states relative to other banana-growing states. Table 4 Soil and plant carbon pools in banana gardens in India States/UT Soil C t/ha Plant carbon, t/ha Area (000 ha) Total soil carbon stock 1000 tons Total plant carbon stock 1000 tons Total CS in Banana gardens,mt Andhra Pradesh & Telangana 42.09 6.407 91.25 3840.713 584.639 4.425 Assam 39.98 3.908 53.08 2122.138 207.437 2.330 Bihar 39.55 5.177 31.07 1228.819 160.849 1.390 Gujarat 44.04 5.265 68.15 3001.326 358.810 3.360 Jharkhand 43.29 2.573 9.17 396.969 23.594 0.421 Karnataka 77.14 3.278 110.55 8527.827 362.383 8.890 Kerala 75.77 3.901 109.26 8278.630 426.223 8.705 Madhya Pradesh 41.17 5.394 26.38 1086.065 142.294 1.228 Maharashtra 57.23 5.390 80.88 4628.762 435.943 5.065 Orissa 46.50 3.912 24.2 1125.300 94.670 1.220 Tamil Nadu 41.64 3.912 82.63 3440.713 323.249 3.764 West Bengal 59.88 3.915 49.3 2952.084 193.010 3.145 Other states 50.69 3.284 150.14 7610.597 493.060 8.104 All India 50.69 4.332 883.77 44798.301 3828.492 48.627 % contribution to the total CS 91.714 8.286 100.000 Annual Carbon Capture Potential in Banana Garden of India – Ganeshamurthy 381 Total C sequestered in orchards The soil and plant carbon pools in banana gardens are presented in Table 5. The soil carbon pool is very large compared to the plant carbon pool. It contributed more than 86% of the total CS in banana gardens. The mean contribution of SOC varied from 86.8% in Andhra Pradesh to 95.9% in Jharkhand. At the national level, the SOC contributed 91.71% to the total CS. The plant carbon pool, on the other hand, is very small compared to the soil carbon pool. The plant carbon pool contributed less than 15% in all the states. The lowest contribution from plant C to the total CS was recorded in Karnataka (4.08%) and Kerala (4.90%), and the highest contribution was recorded in Andhra Pradesh (13.21%) and Madhya Pradesh (11.58%). At the national level, Plant C contributed 8.29% to the total CS. The carbon content of banana plants accounted for only 8.286 percent of the total CS in banana gardens. The contribution of each state to the total carbon sequestered by banana plants alone depended upon the area and varieties of bananas under cultivation in these states and the quantity of SOC. Andhra Pradesh with the highest area under banana (91.25 thousand ha) cultivating mainly the AAA group bananas sequestered 584639 metric tonnes of carbon, whereas Jharkhand with the lowest area under banana (9.17 thousand ha) cultivating mainly the AAB and ABB group bananas sequestered the lowest plant carbon (23594 metric tonnes). On an all-India basis, the total plant carbon sequestered accounted for 3828492 metric tonnes. The study clearly indicated that under banana gardens, SC is the major C pool, accounting for 91.7%, and plant carbon is only a small portion, accounting for 8.29% of the total CS. Kamusingize et al. (2017) reported that the SOC contribution to total CS under bananas exceeded 90% in Ugandan banana gardens. In their study, the total SOC stock beneath all cultivars was considerably high, ranging from 81 to 92 mg ha1. The plant carbon in these studies was found to be very small, ranging between 0.37 and 1.64 mg ha1. Danarto and Hapsari (2015) reported that, on average, various Indonesian bananas captured around 2.26 kg (or 0.98 tonne) per hectare. Thus, banana crops enrich soil by investing carbon into the soil through huge root biomass and over time during photosynthesis as carbon moves from the vegetative canopy into the soil (Turner, 2003; Hairiah et al., 2010). Published information on SOC in banana gardens in India is not available for a fair comparison. Therefore, it can only be made from the data published on other fruit crop systems such as mango, sapota, guava, and forest systems. Gupta (2011) reported that the soil C stock was 41 tonne ha1 at the surface and 50 cm deep. Chabra et al. (2003) also reported that the soil C sequestered in Indian forest soils ranged from 37.5 tonne ha1 in tropical dry deciduous forests to 92.1 tonne ha1 in littoral swamp forests. Our values are for 100-cm-depth soil profiles and are fairly similar to those reported in the literature for different regions. The banana cropping system enables much more carbon to be stored in the soil, despite the fact that banana cultivars contain small average amounts of plant carbon stocks. Kamusingize et al. (2017) and Danarto and Hapsari (2015), in their study, reported that the proportion of carbon contained in the plant to that in the soil across all cultivars was in the range of 0.4–2%. Large soil carbon stocks in banana cropping systems could perhaps be attributed to the sustainable agricultural land management practices employed by farmers, such as mulching, the use of trenches to minimise erosion, and minimal and no tillage (Lal 2011, Paswel et al. 2012, Joris et al. 2013). Investing in the proper management of banana plantations is invaluable for contributing to SOC as a major carbon pool in banana systems. The crop demography in India is changing fast towards perennial horticulture. This results in land-use change in the region. Therefore, we must examine the related changes in C fluxes derived from such land-use change patterns in different regions to formulate viable strategies for climate change mitigation. The present study generated unique information on banana gardens in India. This involved a comprehensive effort in the integration of different methodologies for field work and data processing. But on a national scale, there is a need to generate information on all such perennial horticulture systems, such as other fruit crop orchards, coffee and tea estates, and plantations in India, with larger sample sizes to be able to determine the percentage of carbon sequestered in perennial horticultural crops in the country as a whole. BIOTROPIA Vol. 30 No. 3, 2023 382 The land-use change patterns are occurring mainly on prime agricultural lands due to increased demand for bananas. Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh have large tracts of tribal land. These regions are suitable for banana cultivation. Such regions are to be encouraged for productive banana cultivation. Similar efforts may be made in other states as well, which reasonably imitate forests and sequester carbon in similar quantities and can augment climate change risks. The information generated in this study may be used by the administrators in these regions to claim carbon credits to benefit the farmers and the local population. CONCLUSIONS This study showed a significant difference in total plant carbon stock across different cultivars and states in India. There was a significant difference between groups of bananas in their ability to sequester carbon. Soil carbon stocks were very high,ranging from 39.55 to 6.407 t/ha. 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