




































 
The Humanities and Good Governance, (Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Faculty of 

Arts International Conference, 2012, page 165-173) 

Odinye & Odinye                                                                                                            165 

 

A COMPARISON OF THE CONCEPTS, MOTIVES AND EFFECTS OF WESTERN 

IMPERIALISM ON NIGERIA AND CHINA 

 

 

Ifeoma Ezinne Odinye & Ifeanyi Sunny Odinye 

      ifeomaodinye@gmail.com & ifeanyiodinye@gmail.com 

    Xiamen University, China 

 

Abstract 

Imperialism is a modernizing instrument of history which helps uncivilized and culturally–bound 

societies to adopt western civilization and move into modernity. Imperialism is experienced by 

people who are influenced, invaded or colonized by the European powers in one way or the other. 

Western imperialism has economic, political and cultural effects on different societies based on 

the extent of western influence. The researcher focuses on the effects of western imperialism in 

China and Nigeria in the late Modern Period. The reason for the comparison is based on the 

influence and activities of the West in the 18th and 19th centuries. Also, the researcher points out 

how western imperialism has affected these societies in different ways. Western imperialism in 

China and Nigeria are of different forms which created different historical effects, backgrounds 

and perceptions. Slave trade business, British colonial rule and internal conflicts are the main 

features that characterize western imperialism in Nigeria, while foreign influence and control, 

opium trade, radical changes and internal conflicts characterize western imperialism in China. 

The researcher also finds out that there are psychological and cultural impacts of western 

imperialism as a result of changes and quest for modernity. Also, their reactions to the aftermath 

of imperialism are different because of many factors such as cultural backgrounds, system of 

government and different experiences of imperialism. Therefore, this paper explores the effects 

and impacts of western imperialism in China and Nigeria in the late modern period. It also 

discusses the cultural and psychological impacts of imperialism, consequences and effects in the 

social, economic and political lives of these societies. 

Keywords: Western Imperialism, late Modern Period, Civilization, Effects, Impacts   

 

 

Introduction 

Imperialism has been one of the most powerful forces in the late modern period, exploring every 

continent while oppressing the indigenous natives and enforcing technological development and 

civilization. "Imperialism" simply means the process whereby the dominant political and 

economic interests of a country propel them to enrich their society with the labor, raw materials, 

and markets of another existing society. Africans and Asia are among the earliest victims of 

Western European imperialism.  

 

Currently, looking at the world today through an economic, political and social lens; it is very 

clear to see both the great successes and enormous disasters that emerged from the impacts of 

western imperialism. Supposedly, many underdeveloped and uncivilized nations received the 

necessary infrastructure for development and growth, as seen in some societies in East Asia, 

while some nations are negatively affected by the economic and social exploitation, as portrayed 

in the African nations. However, it is also very important to note that western imperialism’s most 

effective tools for dominating other countries and cultures have been very political and economic 

in nature. It is from this point of view that this research work compares the late modern period of 

western imperialism in China and Nigeria as well as its impacts, reactions and the after effects on 

the politics, culture and economy of these countries. In this context, we are saddled with the chief 

responsibility of bringing to light its merits and demerits. The various chapters of this work will 

serve as a missing link towards the actualization of this great task and dream。 



 
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Odinye & Odinye                                                                                                            166 

 

 

Definition of Imperialism 

Imperialism is the creation or maintenance of unequal economic, cultural, and territorial 

relationships, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and 

subordination.1 It can also be defined as the process of conquering different societies and ruling 

them with economic and political influence. The word imperialism has its root from the Latin 

verb imperare which means “to command”, as perceived in the Roman concept of imperium. 

'Imperialism' was coined in the 16th century, which reflects the imperial policies of the west 

(Europeans) such as, Britain or France, in Africa and Asia.2 This concept does not only describe 

colonial and territorial policies, but also economic, military dominance and influence. 

 

Many people perceive imperialism as an imposition of power and influence of civilized nations 

on less civilized nations; while others see it as an indirect political and economic influence or 

control of weak states by more powerful ones. In this view, Edward Said states that imperialism 

involves the practice, the theory and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan centre ruling a 

distant territory.3 This implies that imperialism functions for political, ideological as well as 

financial reasons.’ Karl Marx defines ‘Imperialism’ as the unconscious tool of history and also a 

necessary historical force in breaking apart stagnant and tradition-bound societies seemingly 

incapable of moving into modern history on their own.4 

 

The term ‘Imperialism”, defines how powerful nations exercise power over weaker nations 

through sovereignty, settlement, or indirect mechanisms of control. It is also a form of conquest 

or ideology that benefited the Europe economically, politically and strategically. However, it is 

very important to note that imperialism is a form of influence which involves indirect forms of 

domination and not direct as seen in colonization. There have been difficulties in distinguishing 

western imperialism from colonialism. These two concepts are treated as synonyms and 

sometimes used interchangeably. Unlike imperialism; colonialism involves a political and 

economic control over a dependent nation by military force and subjugation against the will of 

the people. Imperialism simply defines the way a country exercises power on another country 

through indirect ways. One major fact about imperialism is that it is not restricted to any specific 

time or place; it still continues.  

 

Concepts and Motives of Western Imperialism 

Western Imperialism has different motives and aims. These motives are based on the factors that 

motivated western Imperialism. The concepts of western imperialism are diversified and are 

ideological, political, religious and economic in nature. These concepts are categorized into two 

namely: civilization, religion, politics, economy. 

 

Western Imperialism in China: A Brief History 

Europe's scramble for countries did not leave the East Asia at peace. However, the surprising 

thing about the effect of imperialism in China is that modern Chinese society is not totally 

transformed into the form of western political world and civilization; but still retains its 

traditional cultures and values. In history, China has been known to be fairly strong during her 

ancient periods and its leaders were not ready for any alteration of their Confucian beliefs or 

tradition. As a result of this, the Chinese conservative officials declined the offer of accepting any 

form of minor reforms which prevented the old imperial order from attaining western 

modernization like their Japanese counterpart. 15 

 

In the 1800s, China simultaneously experienced major internal strains and Western imperialist 

pressure, backed by strong military strength which China could not withstand. Early in the 19th 

century, serious internal conflicts developed in the Qing dynasty as a result of foreign invasion, 



 
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Odinye & Odinye                                                                                                            167 

 

wars and trade in the 18th century which left China vulnerable to the Western, Japanese, and 

Russian imperialism. 17 The 19th century of China experienced a lot of pressure as a result of 

foreign invasion and influence from Britain, America, and Japan etc. This century is very 

remarkable because it was characterized by an uncertainty and a searching everywhere in the 

writings of intellectuals. It is also a period when the Chinese people and scholars could no longer 

deny their sense of shame and helplessness for the humiliation meted on their country by 

foreigners. However, it is believed that the decline of the late Qing dynasty in the early 1900’s is 

unique because it is the last dynasty that marked the origin of modern China。 

 

Many of the economic problems that China experienced had been traced to the opium trade. 

Opium destroyed many families and industries which lead to violence and corruption between the 

smugglers and officials. In 1839, Empeor Daoguang sent his incorrupt imperial commissioner, 

Lin Zexu to stop the opium trade; Lin’s action toward the stopping of opium trade led to the 

1839-1842 opium war which was won by the British. The British and Chinese leaders later signed 

a peace treaty of Nanjing in August, 1842 and to appease the British, the Qing government gave 

them the land of Hong Kong to open their first treaty ports. And the trade of opium trade 

continued between Indian and China for many years. The treaty was rather unequal which opened 

up China to foreign imperialism and exploitation. 

 

The Christian missionaries were the major ideological arms of foreign aggression that Europeans 

used to penetrate China. The missionaries and the Chinese traditional gentry-elite were rivals; the 

missionaries believed that the Chinese gentry-elite were cunning, ignorant, rude and full of hatred 

for everything foreign. While the Chinese elite believed that the missionaries were foreign 

subversives whose immoral conduct and teaching were supported by gunboats. 

 

The Boxer Rebellion was known to be a proto-nationalist movement in China between 1898 and 

1901, which was targeted at opposing foreign imperialism and Christianity. The uprising was in 

response to foreign "monopoly of influence" in China, such as the opium trade, political influence, 

economic disposition or destabilization, unequal treaties and missionary activities. There was a 

great concern by the Chinese citizens that the missionaries and Chinese Christians could use the 

declining government of Qing to their advantage, acquiring lands and property of unwilling 

Chinese peasants to give to the missionaries. All these resulted in violent revolts against 

foreigners and their interests. 

 

In June 1900, foreigners were threatened to seek for safety in the legation Quarter in Beijing; 

which was followed by the declaration of war on foreign powers by the empress, Dowager Cixi. 

Many Diplomats, foreign civilians, soldiers, and Chinese Christians in the Legation Quarter were 

under siege by the Imperial Army of China and the Boxers for 55 days. The rebellion was put to 

an end when the Eight-Nation Alliance of Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, 

Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States deployed 20,000 armed troops to China, 

defeated the Qing Imperial Army, and captured Beijing.  

 

Effects and Impacts of Western Imperialism on China 

One thing is very clear; western imperialism has its good and evil as well as its advantages and 

disadvantages. The impacts of western imperialism on China have different sides; many people 

argue that western imperialism brought western development and civilization like, technology, 

communication, education, sciences, railways and improved health care systems; while many 

argue that it is totally exploitative and selfish in nature. The effects of western imperialism on 

China could be discussed under these sub-headings (1) political effects, (2) cultural effects, (3) 

economic effects, and (4) psychological effects.  

 



 
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Odinye & Odinye                                                                                                            168 

 

Political Effects 

Western imperialism is responsible for the introduction of western political ideologies like 

nationalism, capitalism, democracy, constitutionalism and other forms of political ideas in China. 

There is no doubt that western imperialism led to the rise of Chinese nationalism as seen in the 

emergence of the Chinese Communist government. No country was undergoing a complex 

economic and political transformation like China in the year 1839-40. It is very important to note 

that western influence in China’s politics and leadership threw the country into a period of 

political instability; the war between the Nationalist and the Chinese Communist Party is a good 

example of China’s political disunity and western political influence on China. 

 

Cultural Effects 

Historically, China has been perceived as a land of strong cultural values because of their strong 

resistance to western invasion. Many people believe that China’s rejection of western civilization 

was as a result of their conservative attachment to the traditional Confucian social and cultural 

values. The Chinese wanted to remain aloof from Western civilization and its imperialism, which 

they regarded as inferior to their own civilization but was forced to open up because of her 

military weakness to withstand the European powers. However, the effects of Imperialism on the 

Chinese Culture could be discussed under the following points namely; Tribute system, language, 

Female subjectivity, Dressing code, marriages, Religion and Food etc 

 

Economic Effects 

There has been a debate on the effect of western imperialism on China’s economy especially on 

the direct effect foreign trade and investment had on China’s economy. However, many people 

believe that foreign trade and investment played an important role in China’s economy; while 

others think that it was harmful to it. Though imperialism helped to expose China to foreign 

influence, it played an important role of bringing economic development and modernization to 

China. The good benefits of imperialism to China’s economy are that it brought new forms of 

development, technology and skills. Some people might argue that imperialism has no positive 

effect on China’s economy since China was forced to open up to the west against their wish. 

Although China lost a lot from its economy, especially in the 18th century when Chinese people 

valued treasures were used to purchase opium from the British; there some positive influence of 

western imperialism on China’s economy. The open door policy has a positive effect because it 

allowed China to trade other countries which later expanded its economy. Another side to this 

positive effect is that imperialism introduced modern facilities and technologies to China. 

 

Psychological Effects 

Imperialism brought some phenomena such as identity loss, cultural friction and hatred towards 

European exploitation. There is no doubt that imperialism brought about Chinese nationalism; but 

this was triggered by the psychological impacts of western influence and exploitation of China. 

The mental and physical struggle against imperialism brought about rebellion and revolution. 

 

Western Imperialism in Nigerian: A Brief History 

Foreign imperialism in Nigeria is quite different from that of the Chinese society. Nigeria had a 

unique and painful colonial history; the missionaries were the colonial tools that were used 

effectively to penetrate into the social circles, regions and tribes of Nigeria. Many Nigerian 

scholars believe that the role played by western missionaries in Nigeria was very explicit and 

must be a major concern to those who were colonized. It was a wide spread belief that the 

missionaries’ penetration into the Nigerian soil was instrumental in setting the scene for the 

colonialist invasion of Nigeria. They were the first Europeans that the Nigerians came in contact 

with; this was also the experiences of many regions and countries in Africa. The British 

administration in Nigeria had been seen by many Nigerians as the real cause of the political, 



 
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Odinye & Odinye                                                                                                            169 

 

religious cultural and tribal conflicts in the contemporary Nigeria. Although the British colonized 

Nigeria for sixty years, there had been series of blame on the British government for exploiting 

the Nigeria’s natural resources. Many Nigerians thought that they left Nigeria in poverty by 

stripping them of their raw materials. The British influence had both positive and negative effects 

on the Nigeria. Many Nigerian scholars believe that the future of Nigeria is problematic because 

of the influence of British colonization and exploitation. Nigeria has over “two hundred” ethnic 

groups but the three largest and most influential ethnic groups were Igbo, Hausa, and Yoruba. 

Religious wise, Nigeria has a greater percentage of Muslims and Christians while small minority 

practiced the traditional religion. 

 

The years 1900 – 1960 mark the years of British colonial rule in Nigeria. The name Nigeria did 

not exist before because the regions were never one.  They had their own defined and 

distinguished territories that were marked by their different cultures, unique languages, kingdoms 

and systems of rural leadership. However, the intrusion of the British as a result of their interest 

in slave trade and palm oil business, made them to bring these regions with no common features 

together as a nation. This very act by the British Government has been seen by many Nigerians as 

the real cause of the political, religious and cultural tension in the contemporary Nigerian society. 

The British colonized Nigeria for sixty years (1900-1960) but the colonial rule was characterized 

by frequent reclassifying of different regions in Nigeria for their own reason and administrative 

purposes. This very act had been the factor of uniting these different regions as a one nation. In 

the early 1900s the Emir of Kano and the Sultan of Sokoto refused to accept the British rule; 

because of their strong cultural and Muslim belief.  

 

In 1951, Nigeria was divided into three different regions namely; Northern, Eastern, a Western; 

each of these regions had its own house of Assembly. There was also a separate house of chiefs 

for the Northern Province so that their strong traditions and culture would be reflected using their 

tribal authorities. But this was not enough to solve the problem of administration because of the 

diversity in cultural backgrounds, languages and large regions of Nigeria. In 1954, the British 

government created a new constitution which was the third in eight years. It also created the 

Federation of Nigeria making Lagos the Federal Territory. In 1950s, an African political structure 

was gradually achieved. Also in 1957 there was a federal Prime Minister; the western and eastern 

regions were allowed to govern themselves internally, that is, they had an internal government. In 

1959, the northern region was given autonomy. Nigeria got full independence in October 1, 1960. 

The issues and tensions concerning different communities became Nigeria’s own business and 

major concern. However, AD 1960 -1970 marked a period of political struggles, tensions, 

regional hostilities and conflicts among different regions in Nigeria. The Igbo people sought for 

autonomy from the amalgamated regions called ‘Nigeria’. 

 

Nigeria witnessed a civil war in 1967 to 1970. Many scholars believe that imperialism was the 

remote cause the war. In January 1970, the communities of the eastern region were almost 

starving and that was when Biafra surrendered to the federal government of Nigeria. The leader 

of the Biafran Republic, Ojukwu, went into exile in Ivory Coast. In 1970-1999 Nigeria 

experienced another phase of oil wealth which was followed by a great disaster. Nigeria became 

one of the wealthiest countries in Africa because of its richness in crude oil, petroleum rather than 

the palm oil business of the past centuries. In the late 1970, Nigeria’s output was more than two 

million barrels a day; the value which was boosted by the high prices achieved during the oil 

crisis of 1973 -1974. However, there were cases of corruption in controlling the wealth of the 

nation because many people became interested in sharing the oil income. 

 

The future of Nigeria is problematic as a result of the problem of amalgamation caused by the 

British colonial rulers. Many Nigerian scholars still blame the British for merging different tribes 



 
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Odinye & Odinye                                                                                                            170 

 

or ethnic groups with no common characteristics or features together; as a result of this, there had 

been constant tension, rivalries, political struggles between political parties and regions over who 

will rule the country. Nigeria till date is still practicing the democratic system of government; but 

the presidential election is characterized by corruption which is tainted in election rigging, 

killings, political tension，religious and regional conflicts. However, the future of Nigeria is still 

problematic even with the 2011 election which brought President Good luck Jonathan to power; 

the fate of Nigeria is still undecided as a result of various political, religious and regional tensions 

in the leadership of the country. 

 

Effects of Western Imperialism on Nigeria 

Imperialism has been a major force in shaping the modern Nigerian society in its present situation. 

The major imperialism occurred during the 19thand the early 20th century. British imperialism 

affected Nigeria both positively and negatively; the positive side of the British colonization is that 

they built roads, canals, railways, schools and hospitals for the natives. Many Nigerians resented 

the British because of their horrible treatment to Nigerians, especially on the issue of slave trade 

and amalgamation of different region with no common characteristics. It is widely believed that 

the British imperialist activities in Nigeria were for their selfish reasons which were aimed at 

benefiting them rather than the Nigerian people. However, the British imperialism in Nigeria was 

motivated by economic as well as political influence. It was good for the British because raw 

materials from Nigeria boosted the British economy and added to her influence. Imperialism 

created injustice to Nigeria; the British ignored the tribal traditional system of leadership that 

existed in Nigeria and imposed western political administration on its people. 

 

Political Effects 

Politically, British colonization of Nigeria is synonymous with political disunity, conflicts and 

civil wars. British colonization brought many western ideologies such as constitutionalism, 

nationalism, democracy and other forms of ideas; but one thing is very clear, all these ideas are 

not suitable for Nigeria because of the differences in culture, language and religion of different 

regions in Nigeria. Imperialism led to political conflicts and tribal wars in Nigeria as different 

regions tried to control the leadership of Nigeria. The effect of British colonial rule is that it 

altered the political and traditional structures of the Nigerian society. The amalgamation of the 

northern and southern regions of Nigeria in 1914 as a nation is the core cause of Nigeria’s big 

problem; the power struggle between different tribes in Nigeria led to civil war in 1967.    

 

Cultural Effects 

Culturally, imperialism caused more harm than good to the Nigerian society. Many religions and 

traditional beliefs of the Nigeria people were destroyed as a result of the influence of Christianity. 

The role played by the Christian missionaries in blackmailing the native culture and traditions of 

Nigeria is enormous. Nigerians were meant to believe that their religion and culture are dirty, 

barbaric and false. Schools and colleges such as CMS were built to further brain wash then into 

believing the Christian ideologies and also accept western culture. However, imperialism helped 

to eliminate some bad customs such killing of twins, slave trade, and human sacrifice etc. 

 

Economic Effects 

Economically, imperialism led to the development of industries in Nigeria .They established 

industries to make profits and thus paved way for trade and commerce in Nigeria. They also 

constructed railways, roads, banking houses and buildings to fully exploit Nigeria’s natural 

resources. Industries were set up to make profits; however, all these led to the industrialization of 

Nigeria. It is important to note that the British imperialism negatively affected Nigeria by 

exploiting and importing Nigeria’s natural resources at cheap rates into Britain and exported the 

manufactured products into Nigeria at expensive rates. Again, local industries, trade and 



 
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Odinye & Odinye                                                                                                            171 

 

commerce were crippled by taxing them heavily; however, this system of taxation and 

exploitation affected the Nigerian economy negatively. Backwardness, poverty, starvation and 

corruption became very eminent. 

 

Psychological Effects 

There are always psychological effects to western imperialism on any colonized or semi 

colonized society. The psychological effects of western imperialism could only be expressed by 

the colonized society. Also, the social effects and consequences of colonial education, religion 

and political administration (control) could only be expressed by the formerly colonized people. 

African countries like South Africa and Nigeria could not easily break away from the continuous 

mental and physical struggle created by western imperialism since their historical past was hinged 

on colonialism, slavery and the name “Nigeria” which was coined by the colonial masters. Many 

African novelists and poets like, Chinua Achebe, Dennis Brutus, Ngugi wa Thiong’o and Linda 

Tuhiwai Smith had written to find solutions to this psychological effect but there was no easy 

way out. They wrote many poems and novels to re-define, re-interpret and project the unique 

features of African culture; while at the same time pointing out that African culture was very 

superior and not inferior to the western culture. It was widely acknowledged that imperialism 

labeled many Nigerian indigenous cultures and people inhuman or sub-human which left the 

Africans with a sense of inferiority toward the Europeans.  

 

Conclusion 

By analyzing the impacts and influence of western imperialism on Nigeria and China, one can see 

that trade was a key factor in these two cases. In the case of Nigeria, western imperialism began 

with trade and commerce especially in the palm oil business; as the trade festered internationally, 

the British campaign sought for measures to protect their economic interest which led to the 

colonization of Nigeria. In China, the Western powers were satisfied to exploit the spoils of trade 

and commerce, without full political claim as Britain did in Nigeria. There are positive and 

negative impacts of imperialism to the Nigerian and Chinese societies. The Europeans brought 

modernization, western education and infrastructural development to many countries which at the 

same time were at the expense of the cultural traditions of these societies. In the case of China, 

they obstructed their political culture and Confucian codes in the late 19th century by introducing 

western education, trade, technology and western culture in the Chinese traditional society. As a 

result of these influences and failures in the leadership system of the Qing dynasty, many forms 

of rebellions erupted. In Nigeria, the case is relatively the same, the Nigerian traditional system of 

leadership was altered due to the 1914 amalgamation of different regions; this led to civil wars 

and political instability as one region fights to monopolize the leadership of the country. Some of 

these problems that Nigeria experiences now come from the British colonization of Nigeria; their 

influence in the political, social and economic lives of the Nigerians affected the social and 

political circles of the society. However, this problem of political instability is deeply rooted in 

the way the British ruled and colonized Nigeria. 

 

China and Nigeria have different political backgrounds but have one common factor which is 

‘western imperialism’ which occurred in the late modern period. The influence of western 

imperialism in China and Nigeria during the 19th century was actually unique and different; while 

Nigeria was struggling with colonial conquest, slave trade, tribal conflicts and unstable political 

system, China was going through a series of revolution in the quest to attain modernity as well as 

finding a balance between their culture and western culture. 

 

The 1960s and 1970s of China and Nigeria are almost related as a result of the social instability, 

destruction and political struggles that engulfed these societies. During the 1967 to 1970, people 

of the southeast (Igbo region of Nigeria) attempted to secede from Nigerian by forming the 



 
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Odinye & Odinye                                                                                                            172 

 

Republic of Biafra; while in the Chinese society, 1966 to 1976 encountered a lot of class 

struggles, political instability (evidenced by the civil war between the CCP and KMT) and anti-

rightist campaigns as a result of the cultural revolution which was directed at destroying foreign 

influences. This cultural practice between 1966 and 1976 had deep roots in the Chinese 

experiences not simply after 1949 but since China’s 19th century encounter with western power 

and culture. 

 

Furthermore, by analyzing the impacts and reasons of Western imperialism on China and Nigeria, 

one can easily see that economic values, trade and political influence were the main key factors 

that propelled the late modern period western imperialism in these two countries. In the case of 

Nigeria, Western imperialism began with commerce (slave trade, oil, cotton, dyes, cocoa etc), 

which led to the amalgamation of the northern and southern protectorate in 1914 to become one 

country called “Nigeria” thus Nigeria was fully colonized by the British. In China, the case was 

different Western powers were only satisfied with their gains of commerce in China occupying 

some major cities like Hong Kong, Macau and Guangzhou. It is also important to note that 

without these political claims, the economic motive of the west would not have been more 

apparent. In summary, economics and political values appear to have played a vital role in both 

the influence and impact of Western imperialism in Africa and Asia, as evidenced in the 

experiences of China and Nigeria. 

  

 

 

 

 

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Odinye & Odinye                                                                                                            173 

 

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