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MULTILINGUALISM, NATIONAL AND OFFICIAL LANGUAGES IN NIGERIA AND 

INDIA 

 

 

Ifeanyi Sunny Odinye & Ifeoma Ezinne Odinye 

Xiamen University, China. 

Email: ifeanyiodinye@gmail.com & ifeomaodinye@gmail.com 

 

 

Abstract 

Multilingualism is a common phenomenon in most nations of the world. It is a situation where 

more than two languages exist. In many countries like Nigeria and India, there are hundreds of 

languages. When there are too many languages in a nation, it is usually very difficult to have a 

single working indigenous language as a national language. This is the situation in Nigeria and 

India, where English language is the official language and it dominates the other indigenous 

languages including the national languages. In this paper, we are going to set a background for 

the study, define multilingualism, national language and official language, then list the 

recognized indigenous languages in Nigeria and India, discuss national and official languages in 

Nigeria and India, and finally draw a conclusion. 

Keywords: Nigeria, India, Multilingualism, indigenous language, national and official language 

 

Background to the study 

Nigeria is officially known as Federal Republic of Nigeria, she is a federal constitutional republic 

comprising 36 states and its Federal Capital, Abuja. Nigeria is located in West Africa and shares 

borders with Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the 

north. According to Toyin and Matthew (2008:2): 

 

               ‘Nigeria is a large country in the west African region. Covering 356,668 

               square miles, Nigeria is roughly twice the size of California and three 

               times the size of the United Kingdom. The country is bordered to the 

               south by the Bights of Benin and Biafra, which are on the Gulf of Guinea 

               in the Atlantic Ocean. On the west Nigeria is bordered by Benin, on the 

               north by Niger, and on the east by Cameroon. In its extreme northeastern 

               corner, Lake Chad separates Nigeria from the country of Chad. Nigeria 

               stretches roughly 700 miles from west to east and 650 miles from south 

               to north, covering an area between 3_ and 15_E longitude and between 

               4_ and 14_N latitude’. 

 

 

Nigeria is a Federal Republic modeled after the United States, with executive power exercised by 

the president with overtones of the Westminster System model in the composition and 

management of the upper and lower houses of the bicameral legislature. The president’s power is 

checked by a Senate and House of Representatives, which are combined in a bicameral body 

called the National Assembly. The Senate is a 109-seat body with three members from each state 

and one from the capital region of Abuja; members are elected by popular vote to four-year terms. 

The House contains 360 seats and the number of seats per state is determined by population. 

 

Nigeria was a former British colony; she got her independence from Britain in 1960. Northern 

and southern Nigeria was amalgamated in 1914. The name Nigeria was taken from the Niger 

River running the country. This name was coined by Flora Shaw, the ‘girl friend’ of Lord Lugard, 

a British colonial administrator of Nigeria in 19th century. In 1967, Nigeria had a civil war which 



 
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lasted until 1970. Nigeria civilian government has been interrupted by military rule. The 

emergence of democracy in Nigeria in May 1999 ended 16 years of consecutive military rule. 

According to Toyin and Matthew (2008:6-8): 

 

            ‘The borders of the modern state of Nigeria were established in 1914 when 

            the British colonial government amalgamated the northern and southern 

             protectorates of Nigeria to form a unified colonial state…Nigeria gained  

             independence from the United Kingdom in 1960…Currently Nigeria is in  

            its Fourth Republic, and is experiencing its longest uninterrupted period of  

            civilian rule ever. For most of the period since independence in 1960, however,  

            the Nigerian polity has been wracked with instability’. 

 

Nigeria has an extensive history. Archeological evidence shows that human habitation of the area 

dates back to at least 9000 BCE (Wikipedia, online). There are more than 250 ethnic groups in 

Nigeria with more than 400 languages. The three largest and most influential ethnic groups and 

languages in Nigeria are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. Nigeria has population of about 150 

million. In terms of religion, Nigeria is roughly divided into two, Muslims in the north and 

Christians in the south. A very small population practice traditional religion. Nigeria is the most 

populous country in Africa, the seventh most populous country in the world, and the most 

populous black-race country in the world. She is rich in natural resources, her oil reserve have 

brought great venues to the country. It is listed among the fastest developing economies and also 

a member of the Common wealth of Nations. 

 

Because Nigeria is a multicultural and multilingual nation, she has problem of ethnocentrism, 

tribalism, ‘corruptionism’ and recently terrorism. Since 2002, there have been clashes, 

particularly in the north of the country, between government forces and the Islamist, militant and 

jihadist group called Boko Haram. Nigeria also has a problem of national language among other 

problems. Toyin and Matthew (2008) put it this way, ‘Nigeria is Africa’s most populous country 

and the world’s eighth largest oil producer, but its success has been undermined in recent decades 

by ethnic and religious conflict, political instability, rampant official corruption, and an ailing 

economy. 

 

India 

The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu. The 

latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the 

Indus River (Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University, retrieved 17 July, 2011, as quoted in 

Wikipedia online).  India is officially known as the Republic of India, she is a country in South 

Asia. She is the world most populous democracy, the second most populous country after China 

with over 1.2 billion people, the seven-largest country by geographical area. She shares border 

with Pakistan to the west; China, Nepal and Bhutan to the north-east; Burma and Bangladesh to 

the east and bonded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the 

Bay of Bengal on the south-east. Also, India’s Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime 

border with Thailand and Indonesia. 

 

India is a home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and 

vast empires, with India subcontinent was identified with her commercial and cultural wealth for 

much of her long history. The four of world’s major religions; namely Hinduism, Buddhism, 

Jainism and Sikhism; originated from India. India was a colony of Britain like Nigeria. Gradually 

annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the 

early 18th century and administered directly by Britain from the mid 19th century. She got her 



 
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Odinye & Odinye                                                                                                            633 

 

independence in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent 

resistance which was led by Mahatma Gandhi. 

 

India is a federal constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system consisting 28 

states and 7 unions territories. She is a constitutional republic and representative democracy in 

which ‘majority rule is tempered by minority right protected by law. The constitution of India, 

which came into effect on 26 January 1950, states in its preamble that India is a sovereign 

socialist, secular, democratic republic. India is a pluralistic, multilingual and multiethnic nation 

like Nigeria. The Indian economy is the world’s tenth-largest by nominal GDP and third-largest 

by purchasing power parity (PPP). India is one of the fastest growing economies but not without 

some challenges including linguistic problem. 

 

 

Definition of terms 

 

Multilingualism 

The term multilingualism is from Latin words, multi (many) and lingua (tongue or language). 

According to Fasold (1984: 9), there are four different kinds of historical patterns that can lead to 

societal multilingualism. These patterns are migration, imperialism, federation and border area 

multilingualism.  According to the Dictionary of Language and Linguistics (1996), 

‘Multilingualism is (1) ability of a speaker to express himself/herself in several languages with 

equal and native-like proficiency; (2) coexistence of several languages with a politically defined 

society as, for example, in India, Canada, or Switzerland’. Multilingualism is a step ahead of 

bilingualism. An understanding of the concept of bilingualism will help in understanding what 

multilingualism is all about. It cannot be said that everybody is bilingual or multilingual but most 

people are either bilingual or multilingual. A bilingual or multilingual is not a person who speaks 

two or more languages perfectly like natives. Some believe that a bilingual or multilingual 

understands, speaks, reads and writes in two or more languages like a native speaker. Therefore, 

it is very hard to define bilingual and multilingual as well as bilingualism and multilingualism. 

There are both narrow and broad definitions of the concepts. Some researchers have a narrow 

definition of bilingualism and multilingualism, and argue that only those people who are very 

close to native speakers in two or more languages should be considered bilinguals and 

multilinguals respectively. This definition is not generally accepted by linguists, scholars, 

language experts and researchers. They argue for a broad definition that view bilingualism and 

multilingualism as a common human condition that makes it possible for an individual to function, 

at some level, in more than one or two languages. From this definition, a bilingual or multilingual 

is not necessarily an individual with native-like competency or proficiency in two or more 

languages. There can be classifications of bilingual and multilingual person. Some bilinguals or 

multilinguals possess high, mid, and low levels of proficiency in two or more languages 

respectively. 

 

Contrary to what many people believe, most people around the world speak or use more than one 

or two languages. Linguistics diversity- multilingualism- is, according to Mahapatra (1990:1) 

found in most present-day nations. In the Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the 

English language (1996:940), a multilingual person defined as one ‘able to speak more than two 

languages with approximately equal facility’. Kachru (1986:159) describes multilingualism as the 

‘linguistic behavior of the members of a speech community which alternatively uses two, three or 

more languages depending on the situation and function’. For Cook (2002:23), multilingualism is 

the natural potential available to every normal human being rather than an unusual exception: 

‘Given the appropriate environment, two languages are as normal as two lungs’. Multilingualism 

is a situation in a community or nation where more than two languages are in use. In a 



 
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multilingual society or nation, not everybody is multilingual. A multilingual person is one who 

has some level of proficiency in more than two languages. Multilingualism exists in both Nigeria 

and India. 

  

National language and Official language 

The concept of national and official languages is used interchangeably in some countries, hence 

their definitions are confusing. National and official languages are common features in 

multilingual nations like Nigeria and India. In such countries, there are sections of population 

speaking languages different from the one that has been adopted as national or official languages 

as they are spoken by a majority of people (but not always, for instance Urdu is a national and an 

official language in Pakistan though with only 7% native speakers of the population).  

 

National language and official language are best understood as two concepts or legal categories 

with ranges of meaning that may coincide, or may be intentionally separate. Some languages may 

be recognized popularly as national languages, while others may enjoy a high degree of official 

recognition. Some languages may enjoy both the status national language and official language 

like Urdu in Pakistan and Hindu in India. The term national language is used differently in 

different countries. In some countries, it is the main language, the language used in legislation, 

court, politics, education, etc at the national level, like Hindu in India unlike Igbo, Hausa and 

Yoruba in Nigeria. 

 

Every country of the world has a national language that reflects its collective identity to the world 

at large. A national language is often given prominence over other languages in use inside the 

country by the people. In fact, the language getting the honour of national language is often (but 

not always) one that is spoken by the majority of the population of the country. National language 

of a country is the one in which the government corresponds with international organizations such 

as UN and other countries (this is not the case in Nigeria). A national language is a language (or 

language variant, that is, dialect) which has some connection- de facto or de jure- with a people 

and perhaps by extension the territory they occupy. The term is used variously. A national 

language may for instance represent the national identity of a nation or country. National 

language may alternatively be a designation given to one or more languages spoken as first 

languages in the territory of a country (this is a case in Nigeria). Brann (1994) classified national 

languages in Africa into four:  

1. Territorial language 

2. Regional language 

3. Language-in-common or community language 

4. Central language 

 

An official language is a language that has been declared by a government of a country, with a 

legal backing, to be the language of the government. An official language is patronized by the 

government and used widely, not just for communication, but also for correspondence. This is 

status and function of English language in Nigeria. According to Fasold (1987:73), ‘Official 

languages are in place primarily for nationalist reasons, those concerned with the day to day 

practical tasks of governing. The nationalist function is concerned with nationalist motivations, 

the unifying and separatist functions, the link with the glorious past, and authenticity’. 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 
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Indigenous languages in Nigeria and India 

 

Languages of Nigeria 

Nigeria is a country which is very rich – not only in terms of natural resources and human 

potential, but also in terms of languages and cultures. According to reference books like the 

Ethnologue (Grimes ed. 1996) and the Index of Nigerian Languages (Crozier & Blench 1992), 

there are about 500 languages spoken in Nigeria today. There are some major languages like 

Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Fulfulde, or Kanuri, which are spoken by millions of first and second 

language speakers, but most Nigerian languages are minority languages with only a small number 

of speakers. Nigerian languages belong to the following language families: Adamawa-Ubangi, 

Benue-Congo, Chadic, Gur, Ijoid, Kwa, Mande, Saharan, Semitic and West Atlantic. Some 

Nigerian languages have developed orthographies and written traditions, but most are pre-literate 

until now. Some Nigerian languages are taught in Primary and Secondary Schools and in 

Universities in Nigeria and even abroad, but most have hardly been documented. Many Nigerian 

languages are endangered, due to external influences and lack of interest in their use and 

development. 

 

The number of languages listed for Nigeria is 521. Of those, 510 are living languages, 2 are 

second language without mother-tongue speakers, and 9 are extinct. (Source: Gordon, Raymond 

G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL 

International. The following is an alphabetical list of Nigerian languages: Abanyom, Abon, Abua, 

Abureni, Acipa Eastern, Acipa Western, Aduge, Afade, Agatu, Agoi, Agwagwune ,Àhàn, Ajawa, 

Ake, Akpa, Akpes, Akuku, Akum, Alago, Alege Alumu-Tesu, Ambo, Amo, Anaang, Áncá, 

Arabic Shuwa, Arigidi, Ashe, Asu, Atsam, Auyokawa, Awak, Ayere, Ayu, Baan, Baangi, 

Baatonum, Bacama, Bada, Bade,Bakpinka, Bali, Bangwinji, Barikanchi, Basa, Basa-Gumna, 

Basa-Gurmana, Bassa-Kontagora, Bata, Batu, Bauchi, Beele, Begbere-Ejar, Bekwarra, Bena, 

Berom, Bete, Bete-Bendi, Bile, Bina, Biseni, Bitare, Boga, Boghom, Boko, Bokobaru, Bokyi, 

Bole, Bo-Rukul, Bu, Bukwen, Bumaji, Burak, Bura-Pabir, Bure, Buru, Busa, Cakfem-Mushere, 

Cara, Cen , Centúúm, Che, Cibak, Cinda-Regi-Tiyal, Cineni, Cishingini, Ciwogai, C’lela, Como 

Karim, Cori, Daba, Dadiya, Dass, Daza, Defaka, Degema, Dendi, Deno, Dera, Dghwede, Dibo, 

Dijim-Bwilim, Diri, Dirim, Doka, Doko-Uyanga, Dong, Duguri, Duhwa, Dulbu, Dungu, Duwai, 

Dza, Dzodinka, Ebira, Ebughu, Edo, Efai, Efik, Efutop, Eggon, Ehueun, Ejagham, Ekajuk, Eki, 

Ekit, Ekpeye, Eleme, Eloyi, Emai-Iuleha-Ora, Engenni, English, Enwan, Epie, Eruwa, Esan, 

Esimbi, Etebi, Eten, Etkywan, Etulo, Evant ,Fali, Fali of Baissa, Fam, Firan, Fulfulde Adamawa, 

Fulfulde Benin-Togo, Fulfulde Nigerian, Fum, Fungwa, Fyam, Fyer, Gaa, Ga’anda, Gade, 

Galambu, Gamo-Ningi, Ganang, Gbagyi, Gbari, Gbaya, Northwest, Gbiri-Niragu, Geji, Gengle, 

Gera, Geruma, Ghotuo, Gibanawa, Giiwo, Glavda, Goemai, Gokana, Gude, Gudu, Guduf-Gava, 

Gun, Gupa-Abawa, Gurmana, Guruntum-Mbaaru, Gvoko, Gwa, Gwamhi-Wuri, Gwandara, 

Gyem, Hasha, Hausa, Hausa Sign Language, Hide, Holma, Hõne, Horom, Huba, Hungworo, 

Hun-Saare, Hwana, Hya, Hyam, Ibani, Ibibio, Ibilo, Ibino, Ibuoro, Iceve-Maci, Idere, Idesa, 

Idoma, Idon, Idun, Igala, Igbo, Igede, Iguta, Igwe, Ihievbe, Ija-Zuba, Ijo Southeast, Ika, Iko, 

Ikpeshi, Iku-Gora-Ankwa, Ikulu, Ikwere, Ilue, Irigwe, Isekiri, Isoko, Ito, Itu Mbon Uzo, Ivbie 

North-Okpela-Arhe, Iyayu, Iyive, Izere, Izi-Ezaa-Ikwo-Mgbo, Izon, Izora, Janji, Jara, Jarawa, 

Jere, Jiba, Jibu, Jilbe, Jimi, Jiru, Jju, Jorto, Ju, Jukun Takum, Kaan, Kadara, Kagoma, Kaivi, 

Kakanda, Kakihum, Kalabari, Kam, Kamantan, Kami, Kamo, Kamwe, Kaningkom-Nindem, 

Kanufi, Kanuri, Kanuri Central, Kanuri Manga, Kapya, Karekare, Kariya, Khana, Kholok, 

Kinuku, Kiong, Kir-Balar, Kirike, Koenoem, Kofa, Kofyar, Kohumono, Koma, Kono, Korop, 

Kpan, Kpasam, Kpati, Kubi, Kudu-Camo, Kugama, Kugbo, Kukele, Kulere, Kulung, Kumba, 

Kupa, Kurama, Kushi, Kutep, Kutto, Kuturmi, Kwa, Kwaami, Kwak, Kyak, Kyenga, Labir, Laka, 

Lala-Roba, Lamang, Lame, Lamja-Dengsa-Tola, Lamnso, Laru, Leelau, Legbo, Lemoro, 

Lenyima, Lere, Leyigha, Lijili, Limbum, Lokaa, Longuda, Loo, Lopa, Lubila, Lufu, Luri, Maaka, 



 
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Mada, Mafa, Mághdì, Mak, Mala, Mama, Mambila Nigeria, Mangas, Marghi Central, Marghi 

South, Mashi, Mawa, Mbe, Mbembe Cross River, Mbembe Tigon, Mboi, Mbongno, Mbula-

Bwazza, Mburku, Mingang Doso, Miship, Miya, Mom Jango, Montol, Moo, Mumuye, Mundat, 

Mvanip, Mwaghavul, Nde-Gbite, Nde-Nsele-Nta, Ndoe, Ndoola, Ndun, Ndunda, Ngamo, Ngas, 

Nggwahyi, Ngizim, Ngwaba, Nigerian Sign Language, Ningye, Ninzo, Njerep, Nkari, Nkem-

Nkum, Nkoroo, Nkukoli, Nnam, Nshi, Numana-Nunku-Gbantu-Numbu, Nungu, Nupe-Nupe-

Tako, Nyam, Nyeng, Nyong, Nzanyi, Obanliku, Obolo, Obulom, O’chi’chi’, Odual, Odut, Ogbah, 

Ogbia, Ogbogolo, Ogbronuagum, Okobo, Okodia, Oko-Eni-Osayen, Okpamheri, Okpe, Oloma, 

Olulumo-Ikom, Oring, Oro, Oruma, Ososo, Otank, Pa’a, Panawa, Pangseng, Pe, Peere, Pero, 

Pidgin Nigerian, Piti, Piya-Kwonci, Polci, Pongu, Psikye, Putai, Putukwam, Pyapun, Rang, Reshe, 

Rogo, Ron Ruma, Samba Daka, Samba Leko, Sambe, Sanga, Sasaru Saya, Sha, Shakara, Shall-

Zwall, Shamang, Shama-Sambuga, Shanga, Shau, Sheni, Shiki, Shoo-Minda-Nye, Shuwa-Zamani, 

Siri, Somyev, Sorko, Sukur, Sur, Surubu, Tal, Tala, Tamajaq, Tawallammat, Tambas, Tangale, 

Tanjijili, Tarok, Tedaga, Tee, Teme, Tera, Teshenawa, Tha, Tita, Tiv, Toro, Tsikimba, 

Tsishingini, Tso, Tsuvadi, Tula, Tumi, Tunzuii, Tyap, Ubaghara, Ubang, Uda, Uhami, Ukaan, 

Ukpe-Bayobiri, Ukpet-Ehom, Ukue, Ukwa, Ukwuani-Aboh-Ndoni, Ulukwumi, Umon, Uneme, 

Uokha, Urhobo, Usaghade, ut-Ma’in, Uvbie, Uzekwe, Vaghat-Ya-Bijim-Legeri, Vemgo-Mabas, 

Viti, Vono, Voro, Vute, Waja, Waka, Wandala, Wannu, Wapan, Wãpha, Warji, Wom, Yace, Yala, 

Yamba, Yangkam, Yedina, Yekhee, Yendang, Yeskwa, Yiwom, Yoruba, Yukuben, Zangwal, 

Zari, Zarma, Zeem, Zhire, Ziriya, Zizilivakan, Zumbun.  

 

Languages of India 

India is rich in languages. There are a quite a number of languages spoken in India. Some of these 

languages are accepted nationally while others are accepted as dialects of that particular 

region. The Indian languages belong to four language families namely Indo-European, Dravidian, 

Austroasiatic (Austric) and Sino-Tibetan. Majority of India's population are using Indo-European 

and Dravidian languages. The former are spoken mainly in northern and central regions and the 

latter in southern India. Some ethnic groups in Assam and other parts of eastern India speak 

Austric languages. People in the northern Himalayan region and near the Burmese border speak 

Sino-Tibetan languages. According to Lewis (2009) in Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 

‘The number of individual languages listed for India is 452. Of those, 438 are living languages 

and 14 have no known speakers’.  The following is an alphabetical list of Indian languages: 

Aariya, Adi, Adi Galo, Agariya, Ahirani, Ahom, Aimol, Aiton, Aka-Bea, Aka-Bo, Aka-Cari, 

Aka-Jeru, Aka-Kede, Aka-Kol, Aka-Kora, Akar-Bale, Allar, Amri Karbi, Anal, Andaman Creole 

Hindi, Andh,Angika, Apatani Pucikwar, Aranadan, Assamese, Asuri, A’tong, Awadhi, Badaga, 

Bagheli, Bagri, Balochi Eastern, Balti, Bareli Palya, Bareli Pauri, Bareli Rathwi, Bateri, Bauria, 

Bazigar, Bellari, Bengali, Bhadrawahi, Bhalay, Bharia, Bhatola, Bhatri, Bhattiyali, Bhilali, Bhili, 

Bhojpuri, Bhunjia, Biete, Bijori, Bilaspuri,Birhor, Bishnupriya, Bodo, Bodo Parja, Bondo, Braj 

Bhasha, Brokskat, Bugun, Buksa, Bundeli, Byangsi, Chakma, Chamari, Chambeali, Changthang, 

Chaudangsi, Chaura, Chenchu, Chetti Wayanad, Chhattisgarhi, Chin Bawm, Chin Falam, Chin 

Haka, Chin Khumi, Chin Mara, Chin Matu, Chin Paite, Chin Tedim, Chin Thado, Chinali, Chiru, 

Chodri, Chug, Churahi, Darlong, Darmiya, Deccan, Degaru, Deori, Desiya, Dhanki, Dhanwar, 

Dhatki, Dhimal, Dhodia, Dhundari, Digaro-Mishmi, Dimasa, Dogri, Domari, Dubli, Dungra Bhil, 

Duruwa, Dzongkha, Eravallan, Gadaba, Bodo, Gadaba Mudhili, Gadaba Pottangi Ollar, Gaddi, 

Gahri, Gamit, Gangte, Garasia Adiwasi, Garasia Rajput, Garhwali, Garo, Gata’, Godwari, Gondi, 

Gondi Northern, Gondi Southern, Gowlan, Gowli, Groma, Gujarati, Gujari, Gurung Western, 

Hadothi, Hajong, Halbi, Haryanvi, Hindi, Hinduri, Hmar, Ho, Holiya, Hrangkhol, Hruso, Idu-

Mishmi, Irula, Jad, Jangshung, Jarawa, Jaunsari, Juang, Juray, Kachari, Kachchi, Kadar, Kaikadi, 

Kalanadi, Kamar, Kamta, Kanashi, Kanauji, Kangri, Kanikkaran, Kanjari, Kannada, Karbi, 

Kashmiri, Katkari, Khaling, Khamba, Khamti, Khamyang, Khandesi, Kharia, Kharia Thar, Khasi, 

Khirwar, Khowar, Kinnauri, Kinnauri, Bhoti, Kinnauri Chitkuli, Kinnauri Harijan, Koch, Koda, 



 
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Kodaku, Kodava, Koireng, Kok Borok, Kolami Northwestern, Kolami Southeastern, Koli Kachi, 

Koli Wadiyara, Kom, Konda-Dora, Konkani, Konkani Goan, Koraga, Korra, Koraga Mudu, 

Korku, Korlai Creole Portuguese, Korwa, Koya, Kudiya, Kudmali, Kui, Kukna, Kulung, 

Kumaoni, Kumarbhag Paharia, Kumbaran, Kunduvadi, Kupia, Kurichiya, Kurmukar, Kurumba 

Alu, Kurumba Attapady, Kurumba Betta, Kurumba Jennu, Kurumba Kannada, Kurumba, Mullu, 

Kurux, Kuvi, Ladakhi, Lambadi, Lamkang, Lepcha, Lhomi, Limbu, Lish, Lisu, Lodhi, Lohar 

Gade, Lohar Lahul, Lyngngam, Magahi, Magar Eastern, Mahali, Maithili, Majhi, Majhwar, Mal 

Paharia, Mala Malasar, Malankuravan, Malapandaram, Malaryan, Malasar, Malavedan, 

Malayalam, Maldivian, Malvi, Manda, Mandeali, Manna-Dora, Mannan, Marathi, Maria, Maria 

Dandami, Marma, Marwari, Mawchi, Meitei, Merwari, Mewari, Mewati, Miji, Miju-Mishmi, 

Mina, Mirgan, Miri, Mizo, Monpa Kalaktang, Monpa Tawang, Mru, Muduga, Mugom, Mukha-

Dora, Munda, Mundari, Muria Eastern, Muria Far Western, Muria Western, Muthuvan, Na, Naga 

Pidgin, Naga Angami, Naga Ao, Naga Chang, Naga Chokri, Naga Chothe, Naga Inpui, Naga 

Kharam, Naga Khezha, Naga Khiamniungan, Naga Khoibu, Naga Konyak, Naga Liangmai, Naga 

Lotha, Naga Makuri, Naga Mao, Naga Maram, Naga Maring, Naga Monsang, Naga Moyon, 

Naga Mzieme, Naga Nocte, Naga Northern Rengma, Naga Phom, Naga Pochuri, Naga Poumei, 

Naga Puimei, Naga Purum, Naga Rongmei, Naga Sangtam, Naga Southern Rengma, Naga Sumi, 

Naga Tangkhul, Naga Tarao, Naga Tase, Naga Thangal, Naga Tutsa, Naga Wancho, Naga 

Yimchungru, Naga Zeme, Nagarchal, Nahali, Nahari, Nefamese, Nepali, Newar, Nicobarese Car, 

Nicobarese Central, Nicobarese Southern, Nihali, Nimadi, Nisi, Noiri, Oko-Juwoi, Öñge, Oriya, 

Oriya Adivasi, Pahari Kullu, Pahari Mahasu, Pali, Paliyan, Panchpargania, Pangwali, Panjabi 

Eastern, Panjabi Western, Pankhu, Pao, Pardhan, Pardhi, Parenga, Parsi, Pathiya, Pattani, Pengo, 

Phake, Phudagi, Pnar, Powari, Purik, Rabha, Rajasthani, Ralte, Rangkas, Ranglong, Rathawi, 

Ravula, Rawang, Rawat, Reli, Riang, Rongpo, Ruga, Sadri, Sakachep, Samvedi, Sansi, Sanskrit, 

Santali, Sartang, Saurashtra, Sauria Paharia, Savara, Sentinel, Seraiki, Shekhawati, Shendu, 

Sherdukpen, Sherpa, Shina, Sholaga, Shom Peng, Shumcho, Sikkimese, Simte, Sindhi, Singpho, 

Sirmauri, Sora, Spiti Bhoti, Stod Bhoti, Sulung, Sunam, Surjapuri, Sylheti,Tamang Eastern, 

Tamil, Telugu, Teressa, Thachanadan, Thangmi, Tharu Chitwania, Tharu Dangaura, Tharu 

Kathoriya, Tharu Kochila, Tharu Rana, Thulung, Tibetan, Tinani, Tiwa, Toda, Toto, Tshangla, 

Tukpa,Tulu, Turi, Turung, Ullatan, Urali, Urdu, Vaagri Booli, Vaiphei, Varhadi-Nagpuri, Varli, 

Vasavi, Vishavan, Waddar, Wagdi, War-Jaintia, Yakha, Yerukula, Zakhring, Zangskari, Zou, 

Zyphe. 

 

Nigeria and India are similar in that both are multicultural and multilingual nations. It is likely 

assumed that both are facing the same problems of having too many ethnic groups with different 

cultures and languages. The next section will open us to the problems in choosing national and 

official languages in Nigeria and India. We will also see how English language dominates other 

languages in both nations due to colonial history. Nigeria and India were former British colonies 

and English language was inherited from the Britain.   

 

 

Official and National languages in Nigeria and India 

 

Nigerian official and national languages 

Formal western type of education was introduced into the country by Christian Missionaries just 

before the middle of the nineteenth century. For about four decades after the initial date, both the 

nature and main thrust of Language Education in the country were completely left to those 

missionaries to decide (Taiwo 1980:10-11). And given the well-known belief of most such 

missionaries, first, that African child was best taught in his native language (Hair 1967:6). Quite 

the contrary, members of the then elite were widely of the view that the people turned out under 

that system of education were not well enough suited to the job market of those days, whose 



 
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unsatisfied needs were for persons with training in English rather than in the indigenous 

languages (Taiwo 1980:11). Over the years the policy changed so well that interest in language 

education in the country shifted gradually away from the indigenous languages towards English 

language, the language of the colonial master- Britain. Bamgbose (1976:12-13) affirms the above: 

  

 ‘Not only have some indigenous languages thus been taught in schools since 

 formal western type of education was first introduced into the country, after 

 the attainment of political independence in 1960, the wisdom of giving English 

 so much importance in government and education also began gradually to be 

 questioned. Thus, some people felt, and openly canvassed in Parliament for  

 English to be replaced as official language by one of our indigenous languages 

 some years after independence’.  

 

As a result of this, the federal government began to see the indigenous languages as a veritable 

and practical means of communication and as a way of preserving the people’s culture and 

national integration. For this to work, the federal government made it a law that every child in 

Primary School must study two languages, namely: i) mother-tongue (if available for study) or an 

indigenous language of wide communication in his area, that is, language of his immediate 

community, and ii) English language; in Junior Secondary School, every child must study three 

languages, viz: (i) mother-tongue (if available for study) or an indigenous language of wide 

communication in his area, that is, language of his immediate community, (ii) English language, 

(iii) any one of the three major indigenous languages in the country, namely: Hausa, Igbo, and 

Yoruba, provided the language chosen is different from the child’s mother-tongue; and in Senior 

Secondary School, every student must study two languages, viz: (i) an indigenous language, and 

(ii) English language. This policy or law on language use in education in Nigeria was and still is 

not successful due to many factors. The teaching of these indigenous languages including the 

three major languages did not go well. Lack of suitable pedagogical materials, qualified teachers, 

adequate funding, good supervision, and negative attitude from the people resulted in the failure 

in implementing the policy or law. The dominance and popularity of English language is another 

factor affecting the implementation of this policy. Aito (2005) describes the dominance and 

popularity of English language this way: 

 

 ‘English has for well over a century has continued to enjoyed the pride of  

 place in the nation’s educational  system. Thus, whereas indigenous  

 languages are rarely given more than three lesson periods a week on the 

 school time-table, English never has less than five periods, and may even 

 be given as many as seven or eight periods particularly in schools that  

 prepare students for the Oral English Examination. Avidly patronized 

 by commercial publishers, the language enjoys a profusion of pedagogical 

 materials, and in this respect contrasts sharply with the indigenous languages, 

 the vast majority of which lack enough materials for teaching them as L1  

 even for a few years in primary school’.  

 

 

Indian official and national languages 

In British India, English language was the only language used for administrative purposes as well 

as well as for higher education purpose. When India became independent in 1947, the India 

legislators had the challenge of choosing a language for official communication among hundreds 

of ethnic groups with different languages. The choices available were: 1) Hindi, 2) English, and 3) 

Hindi and English. The India constitution in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanageri script to be the 

official language of the union (India). Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for 



 
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Odinye & Odinye                                                                                                            639 

 

official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, which is on 26 

January, 1965. The idea of the changeover, however, led to opposition in the non-Hindi speaking 

areas, especially Dravidian-speaking areas in South India whose languages are not related to 

Hindi. As a request of the opposition by non-speaking Hindi Indians, Parliament enacted the 

Official Languages Act, 1963, which provided for the continued use of English for official 

purposes along with Hindi, till date. The individual states can adopt their own official languages, 

depending on their linguistic demographics. Articles 345 of the India constitution authorizes the 

several states to adopt either Standard Hindi or any one or more of the languages spoken in that 

state as ‘official language’ which people of the state can use in all dealings with all branches of 

the local, state and federal governments. The ‘official languages’ sometimes called ‘national 

languages’ are numbered twenty two at present. India has no single national language; neither the 

constitution of India nor Indian law specifies a national language. However, languages listed in 

the Eighth Schedule of the India Constitution are sometimes referred to, without legal standing, as 

the national languages of India.  

 

The Indian education system is truly multilingual in its character. Indian government has 

introduced the ‘Three Language Formula’ in its educational system, which requires every child to 

study two more languages other than their first language. This formula aims at developing and 

strengthening the multilingual character of India. The two languages are introduced 

simultaneously at upper primary level. At secondary level students are allowed to choose between 

Sanskrit and a foreign language like French, German, Arabic, etc. The whole system is 

complicated. Unfortunately the ‘Three Language Formula’ has not been successful. There are 

many problems in implementing the ‘Three Language Formula’. For example, firstly, students are 

directly introduced to writing system without giving any exposure to spoken variety; secondly, 

there is no reference to the mother-tongue or home language in the formula; and finally, students 

never understand the purpose of learning these languages because they are not taught to use these 

languages meaningfully and very often the learning of these languages is considered a waste of 

time and energy. This negative attitude is only towards the indigenous languages unlike the 

English language.  Sridhar (2002) thus said, ‘English in India because of colonial history and its 

association with currently valued domain of higher education and administration, science and 

technology, international commerce, western culture and pop entertainment, is perceived as all 

powerful and ticket to upward mobility’.  

 

Conclusion 

Nigeria and India have many things in common historically, linguistically and otherwise. They 

were both colonized by Great Britain. Both nations have hundreds of languages and ethnic groups. 

English language plays a dominating role in Nigeria and India. Both nations are facing the 

problem of choosing a single national language out of their more than five hundred indigenous 

languages. Nigeria and India are democratic nations. However, they are different in some areas. 

India has more a billion people while Nigeria has only 1.5 million people. India has a 

parliamentary system of government like Britain while Nigeria has a presidential system like 

United States. Nigeria had a civil war and is still having some ethnic and religious crises. This is 

not the situation in India.  

 

Multilingualism is a situation in a community or nation where more than two languages are in use. 

In a multilingual society or nation, not everybody is multilingual. A multilingual person is one 

who has some level of proficiency in more than two languages. Multilingualism exists in both 

Nigeria and India. Multilingualism is a common phenomenon in most nations of the world. 

Multilingualism has both advantages and disadvantages. In Nigeria and India, multilingualism is 

a problem rather than a blessing. The governments of both nations have a long way to go in order 

to achieve unity in diversity, if it will ever be achieved. 



 
The Humanities and Good Governance, (Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Faculty of 

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