
































Insult Terms against Women in Nollywood Movies

Chinyelu Nwaenyi

Abstract

This descriptive study tries to explore insult terms against women to investigate how these insult
terms represent women in the selected Nollywood movies using Sara Mills’ Feminist Stylistics
(1995) approach. The objective of the study is to investigate the characteristics of insult terms
used by the characters, what the components of these insult terms are and their effects on the
female characters. It used qualitative methodology to investigate the phenomenon and data were
collected by observing and taking note of insult terms in the selected Nollywood movies between
the year 2017 and 2020 by purposive sampling technique. The movies are Intervention, Sex and
Love, Isoken, Jenna, Sophia’s Heart, Gold Statue and Love You Two. The findings revealed that
insult terms against women are common in Nollywood movies. The study concluded based on
the findings that the users of language should be made conscious and aware of the dangers of
insult terms which can lead to negative results. It recommended among other things the need to
change these representational practices in order to bring about a change in the thinking of the
people.

Keywords: Feminist stylistics, insult terms, language, Nollywood, movies,

Introduction

Gender discrimination in language has different manifestations in different historical periods and
cultures. Language as a part of culture and society is the main means of learning culture. People
use it to express, share and disseminate their thoughts and experiences. Many degrading words
for women insult them directly (for instance, slut, bitch, frigid, twat,cunt,prostitutes, etc) by
referring to them sexually or in terms of appearance, and there are more of such terms for women
than for men (Cameron, 1992) which can be as a result of patriarchal institutions. Patriarchal
society gives absolute priority to men and to some extent, limits women’s human rights also. It is
a system whereby women are kept subordinate in a number of ways. This subordination takes
various forms, for instance, discrimination, disregard, insult, control, exploitation, oppression,
violence, within the family, at the place of work, and in society.Inclusive languageis thus



championed in the name of shifting from the gendered nature of language, and the unequal
gender relations it is constantly conveying, to a gender-neutral version.

Insults are an interesting linguistic phenomenon, representing the diachronic of language change,
especially regarding semantics. An insult can be said to be a disrespectful abusive remark.Insult
terms are abusive terms used by males, in particular, to undermine, derogate or marginalize
females. They are directed at a particular person, usually to refer to females as less than
human.Through verbal abuse, insult terms are oriented “toward frightening, intimidating, and
silencing the other” (Megarry 2014:p.50). They have the basic intention of hurting the target
emotionally as well as manipulating existing words to add explicit overtones. According to
Ivanishcheva, Bolgova, Shadrina, Gushchina and Nikonov’s (2018:p.217), insult term has three
features: “focus on humiliating honour and dignity, the indecent form and deliberate nature of
the act”. They are of the view that an addressee of insult receives a negative characteristic, which
is expressed in an indecent form. In other words, “when insulting someone, a speaker wants to
get the addressee’s reaction and wants to confirm or improve his or her status” (Ivanishcheva
etal, 2018:p.217).Thus, women are more likely to be on the receiving end of insult terms than
men.

A word or phrase can be said to be an insult when it is disproportionately applied to a member of
a particular gender, and which generally bears some connection to societal expectations or norms
placed upon that gender.In other words, it is understood as the humiliation of the honour and
dignity of another person, which is expressed in an indecent form. When a speaker uses insult,
that speaker invokes not only the lexical meaning of the word, but also the hearer's past
experiences of hearing the word. The use of a word constitutes an act of affiliating oneself with
the group of people who generally use that word—it follows that if a word is saliently associated
with a group of people or a history that is considered to be sexist, then the use of that word may
be considered an act of sexism.Certain words are simply deemed to be more insulting when
attributed to women than when attributed to men. This is not surprising, particularly when it
comes to words that denote sexual promiscuity or aggressiveness. Scholars are of the view that,
not only that certain terms are more insulting when applied to a particular gender, but also that
insults behave differently depending on the speaker’sgender. Words such as ‘bitch’, ‘prostitute’,
‘slut’, ‘whore’ are used in order to affirm the idea of male domination over women and show
their inferior position. These terms consider women as shallow and trivial.Moreover, given the
findings of Preston and Stanley (1987), terms denoting promiscuity are almost exclusively used
to refer to women. Words like ‘ugly’ and ‘fat’ (which are frequently used in a disparaging
manner) depict physical unattractiveness and in insulting contexts, both terms are used primarily
for women.A word like ‘frigid’is used against women to derogate them on the basis of perceived
sexual inflexibility. If one is to assume that the ways various groups are derogated reflects
cultural norms and expectations pertaining to those groups, then this pattern may be seen as
evidence of a larger cultural pattern through which different expectations are placed on the
sexual behavior of women. Words such as ‘nag’, ‘bossy’ and ‘clingy’ are not left out. These



words are used against womenboth in insulting and deprecating contexts. The word ‘nag’
particularly applies to someone referred to as a wife, mother, or where there is intimate
relationship between the speaker and the target of the term.

With insult terms, women are disproportionally targeted. The root causes of this are
fundamentally linked to the persistent unequal power relations between women and men. It is a
form of violence against women and girls that perpetuates and exacerbates gender inequality. In
fact, every woman and girl is a potential target of insult terms. These insults terms often take
place when women stand against discriminatory or traditional cultural and religious beliefs or
customs. They can harm directly or indirectly, or even both. They may directly offend, denigrate,
humiliate or frighten the persons they purport to describe or harm indirectly and with equal or
even much greater brutality by motivating others to think and act against the persons in
question.Insult terms take place in all forms of social interaction such as at school, in the family,
in social circles, in the public space, at work, via emails, websites and media especially movies.
This paperexamines insult terms against women in seven Nollywood movies since movies are a
picture or reflection of everyday human life. The purpose is to identify and analyse insult terms
against women as used by the characters in the movies.

Nollywood Movies

Film, as a powerful instrument used for shaping and re-shaping individuals and the society at
large, has grown very influential. Krings and Onome (2013: p.75) observe that the term
‘Nollywood’ describes the “entire Nigerian film industry and the entire video film
industry”.Marston, Woodward, and Jones(2007:p. 54) equally describe it as the popular title for
the Nigerian film industry, noting clearly that its videos are “produced in many of the 250 tribal
languages in Nigeria, though Yoruba, Igbo and English are numerically dominant”.In the same
vein, Haynes and Okome (2000) submit that Nollywood film content draws from popular
imaginations that give it popularity among the masses.Being a visual medium, the audience’s
interest is primarily sustained by what they see in the film and not necessarily the story.
Considering the kind of issues treated in these films which permeate the thoughts of its audience,
propelling them to reason alongside the filmmakers’ views of their environment and behaviour,
social change is unarguably catalyzed. Thus, the primary goal of this study is to examineinsult
terms against women in selected Nollywood movies since movies are reflections of the way
society works.

The growth of insult terms against women have inspired serious harm in several ways
which are disseminated by many means which include media especially movies. The male
dominant language used in movies has made women the target of discrepant. It is noted that in
most of the Nollywood movies, the language used is pervasively gendered, which selects or
carries ideological constructs of the community. The language is discriminative and biased.



Women receive no better treatment in the language they are addressed by. In other words, such
language is used to mute women when they appear to challenge traditional male roles which are
manifested through the language the characters, males in particular, use in the movies since the
language pervades patriarchy ideologies and hence continues to subjugate women to continue
obeying the male dominant system. Insult terms have received relatively little empirical attention
in Nollywood movies. Thus, to address this gap, the researcher undertakes a descriptive approach
in examining insult terms used against women in selected Nollywood movies.Therefore, this
paper seeks to answer the following questions:

i. What are the characteristics of insult terms used by the characters?

ii. What are the components of these insult terms?

iii. What are their effects on the female characters?

Literature Review

Bruti (2009) explores the frequency of prototypical structures and lexemes for compliments and
insultsin the Pavia Corpus of Film Dialogue. She concludes that for insults, the picture is more
complex as mismatches in translation occur in all classes. The most common ones are especially
shifts in register and style, in particular in racial insults, where deviance may alter the picture of
the whole social network.

Pardo (2015) analyzes the insults in Quentin Tarantino’s films and their translation into
Spanish by highlighting the possible problems when translating insults into Spanish, providing
specific examples in English of the insults collected from the seven films (Reservoir Dogs, Pulp
Fiction, Four Rooms, Jackie Brown, Kill Bill vol i and ii, Death Proof and Inglorious Basterds),
and concludes that from a linguistic perspective, the defining characteristic of Tarantino’s films
is the ability to introduce bawdy language in every film bypassing American censorship.

Corrizzato (2015) compares the original version of the screenplay of the film Bamboozled
(2000) with the Italian dubbed text, offering an analysis of forty-four compliments and forty-four
insults. The findings demonstrate that the contrastive analysis demonstrates that the most
noteworthy discrepancies between the scripts are due to the transposition of lingua-cultural
elements. Moreover, while the illocutionary force of dubbed utterances often coincides with the
original, slang expressions and sub-standard linguistic traits are almost always weakened or
neutralized.

Pavesi and Formentelli (2019) focus on two major categories of insults and explore
contrastively their overall frequency across languages in films, the distinction between genuine
and mock impoliteness and the structural complexity of forms. The results substantiate the
function dubbing serves in cross-cultural mediation by activating an array of frames of reference



that allow the new receiving audiences to experience foreign communication practices from their
native language perspective.

Theoretical Framework

This study adopts the theoretical framework of Sara Mills’ (1995) approach to examine the insult
terms and also the effect of the usage of these insult terms toward the female characters.This
theory was proposed by Mills to prove how women are often marginalized in social life even in
movies. In the modern world, our actions and thinking are greatly influenced by the characters in
the media.Among these, the movies hold a prominent position.Feminist stylistic approach deals
with the representation of women in a text, but for the sake of this study, movies would be used
in place of texts.Mills (1995) believes that the media is not neutral. It is affected by the position
of power around it, that is, the text (movie) might represent female as object due to male
domination over the text (movie) creation.Mills (1995) asserts that while constructing their
characters, the writers (producers) make their linguistic choices in connection with gender
stereotypes. She views characters as nothing more than words that are constructed and
understood on the basis of different stereotypes that exist about men and women in society. In
this way, Mills (1995) finds that characterization, language and gender are interconnected.
Feminist stylistics provides us with such tools that could uncover the hidden bias in
characterization. Through texts (movies), the writer (producer) can also communicate to the
readers (viewers) and introduce a certain ideology without having a direct contact because “texts
are invaded by the social cultural norms, by ideologies, by history, by economic forces, by
fashion, by gender and racial stereotyping, and so on”(Mills 1995:p.157) . However, this does
not mean that the writer (producer or script writer) does not have any power or control over their
work rather they are subject to the interaction with those forces. Through analysing the language
that is used in the texts (movies), the readers (audience) understand the meaning beyond the lines.
Here, the viewers’ expectations, their values, political affiliation, belief and norms play an
important role in presenting a movie to the audience. Mills (1995) proposes three levels of
analysis: word level analysis which focuses on sexist language and its meaning in the movie,
sentence level analysis which looks at naming, ready-made phrases, metaphors, transitivity
choices, jokes or humour that carry ideology that look down on females, and discourse level
analysis which scrutinizes the character or role, fragmentation, focalization and schemata.

Feminist stylistics is mainly concerned with the analysis of how feminist ideology is
expressed through the choices of language (Mills 2006). In other words, feminist analysis of
representation of women in the selected movies is a perspective much focused on the language
aspect. Thus, feminist analysis is concerned with describing sexism in a text (movie). According
to Mills (2006:p.221), “rather than assuming that notions of gender are simply a question of
discriminatory messages about sex difference embedded in texts, feminist stylistics is concerned
with unraveling the complex messages which may be deduced from texts and also with analyzing



the way that readers piece together or resist these messages”. Therefore, the aim of feminist
stylistics is to investigate the way text (movie) writers (producers) employ linguistic features
which specifically project male or female values, and also to consider the way readers (audience)
advertently or inadvertently identify specific gendered meanings in texts (movies). Feminist
stylisticians have tended to favour analyses that display an engaged and political standpoint in
their linguistic description of certain texts (movies), so they have been particularly successful at
pointing out the depiction of female characters as powerless and ineffective, especially when
compared to their male counterparts. According to Burton (1982:p.201), “stylistic analysis is not
just a question of discussing ‘effects’ in language and text, but a powerful method for
understanding the ways in which all sorts of ‘realities’ are constructed through language”.
However, using this approach, this study aims to discover whether or not the characterization is
gendered, whether or not the characterization is informed by stereotypical knowledge about men
and women, whether or not there is any bias involved in the production of male and female
characters.

Methodology

This study adopts the descriptive qualitative method to explore insult terms against women in
selected Nollywood movies by purposive sampling. The population is the movies while the
samples are the insult terms. Data are obtained from the conversations among the characters by
watching the movies, analyzing data and classifying data. In order to accomplish this, the
researcher gathers the data by observing and taking note of insult terms against women
insevenNollywood movies;“Intervention” produced by Remi Ibinola (2017), “Sex and Love”
produced by Ruth Kadiri (2017),“Isoken” produced by JadesolaOsiberu (2017),“Jenna”
produced by Charles Brian Nnoshiri (2018), “Sophia’s Heart” produced by Steph Okolie
(2018),“Gold Statue” produced by TadeOgidan (2019) and “Love You Two” produced by Susan
Oriahi (2020).

Analysis

This study finds out that there are phrases or sentences that contain insult terms based on
ideology and stereotypes that are used by the characters based on Mills’ (1995) approach.

Presentation of Data and Analysis

Exchange 1

Tari: Yes, Alex will totally understand. His parents have totally given

up on him. They’re just hoping he would, ehh, impregnate one

girl by mistake.

Alex: Dude, trust me, mehhn. That’s never gonna happen.



Tari: You see and yet they look at him like the stable one when men like

me still exist. I’m engaged…

Alex: Com’n shut up. What do you mean you are engaged? You call

that thing engagement, that caging that you’ve caged that girl for how

many years? You see that song Lucky Dube sang, “I’m a prisoner”,

he sang it for her. Release that girl and let her go.

Tari: You don’t even know what’s up. I don’t blame you because of the way

you live your life. Girls live for that title, ‘I’m engaged’. They love

it because it gives them a sense of, ehmm, you know, belonging,

credibility, assurance and ehh, you know, stability.

(Jenna)

Here, we see the age old belief that women are only good enough for marriage being
reinforced by Tari. According to him, women aspire for nothing more than being engaged. Tari’s
statement that girls live for the title, ‘I’m engaged’, is a big slap on the face of every woman
because it gives the impression that marriage is all women live for. Another example is seen in
the exchange below taken from the movie, Gold Statue.

Exchange 2

Akitade: Christy, Christy, are you alright?

Christy: Very much alright, Akitade.

Akitade: You abandoned your home and business in Lagos only to end up

in Ilesha feasting prisoners?

Christy: (sobbing) Aki, our child is in trouble. How can we abandon him?

Adewale is in the hands of criminals of this town. If it’s cooking

and giving food, drinks, anything that will give him his favour or

his freedom, I’ll keep doing it until he leaves that place. My son is

never a troublesome child and I know there’s something wrong, you

refuse to say it. Something is going on for him to attempt to steal a car.



Akitade: Well, maybe we don’t even know our child.

Christy: Ahh, we know our children. Adewale is never a troublesome child and

I know that God will expose whoever it is. We have never had any

problem with any of our children, do you realize that?

Akitade: Well, he obviously hid his true character from us. If he had succeeded

in stealing the car, Christy, would we have known about it?

Christy: I reject it. My son is not a thief.

Akitade:Why do women choose to live in a land of perpetual fantasy when

they are confronted with stack reality like this?

(Gold Statue)

The above statement implies that women imagine and reason like children. They always
like to fantasize with their heads in the clouds instead of being realistic and practical. Further
examples are found in the movie, Love You Two, as shown in exchange 3.

Exchange 3

Loretta:We cannot stop talking about it. Your mother keeps blaming me

like it’s my fault.

Ronald:Sowhose fault is it?

Loretta: Are you asking me? As far as I’m concerned, I am very very fine.

So maybe you should go to the hospital and get checked.

Ronald: What are you insinuating?

Loretta: All I’m saying is that I’m very very fine, there’s nothing wrong with me.

Ronald: Listen, if there’s anyone who needs to be checked, that will be you not me.

Loretta: Why should women be blamed all the time for childlessness?

Ronald: Because women are the ones who do all kinds of nasty things and get

their womb ruined. That’s why.

(Love You Two)



In the conversation above, women are presented as those who live a wayward life, that is, they
are depicted as prostitutes. They are blamed for everything. Such stereotypical statements are not
only derogatory, but degrading as well.Further examples include the following from the movie
Intervention.

Exchange 4

Arit: (phone conversation) Hello.

Tunde: Yes, hello. May I speak with Arit, please.

Arit: Yes, who is this?

Tunde: This is Tunde Da Silver. I believe you are expecting my call.

Arit: Ahh, yes, hi, good evening.

Tunde: Well, I understand you want a date or some sort.

Arit: No, I never asked for a date. I just asked that we should meet

and get to know each other based on ehmm…

Tunde: Quite frankly, whatever you need to know about me, you

can find it in business magazines or whatever gossip blogs or

publications you females indulge in.

(Intervention)

The statement above depicts women as gossips. They are presented as jobless people that only
engage in gossip to keep themselves busy. More examples of this view of women are seen in the
movie Sex and Love.

Exchange 5

Stanley: (Laurel hits him on his face)What’s wrong withyou? You want

to kill your only brother because of a woman?

Laurel: You’ve had this coming for a long time. You won’t be satisfied

until you’ve had everything I wanted.

Stanley: You should be thanking me for saving you from that



money-thirsty-bitch. For your information, I didn’t force the ring

on her hand, she accepted.

Laurel: Will you just shut up?

Stanley: You shut up and listen to me.Money controls the heart of a woman.

You better get a crib of your emotions and stop this game you are playing.

(Sex and Love)

From the statements above, women are presented as people who can do anything whatsoever for
the sake of money. Though Stanley forced the ring on Christie’s finger, he still claims that she
accepted the ring willingly to prove to the brother that with money, he can get any woman he
wants; with money, every woman dances to his tune.

Exchange 6

Steve: So what of these ladies, Clara and Ada? Have you heard from them?

Fred: No, I haven’t. Why?

Steve: Because this whole scenario seems to me like ehmm, a woman’s

retaliation.

Fred: You could be right. I mean given the fact that these two women at one

point threatened me at the same time. You could be right, but look, Steve,

ehm, no. I don’t want to get them involved in this.

Steve: And why?

Fred: Look, these are women, Steve, these are women, alright? You bring

them into the picture, you know, they begin to dig up old holes and

then they complicate matters for me, no. I just want to concentrate on

finding my wife.

Steve: You should never underestimate the power of any woman, no matter

how small you think she is. Never.

(Sophia’s Heart)



From the statement above, women are seen as people who are capable of doing any kind of
unimaginable evil, as people who can never be trusted at all. The same thing is applicable in the
movie, Isoken:

Exchange 7

Friend 1(female): When are you two gonna need a bestman?

Osaze: So guys, I think we should just allow these ladies bond with …

Friend 2(female): No, that’s an escape strategy, no.

Friend 3(male): Don’t you ladies need to compare notes on asoebi or

something?

Isoken: Because we are women automatically we would have to talk

about asoebi?

Friend 3: Mmh, we have a feminist here.

(Isoken)

The statement above shows that the only thing women discuss whenever they are together is
asoebi; they don’t discuss any reasonable issue.

Discussion of Findings

The results of the findings from this study are discussed in line with the research questions that
were raised at the beginning of the study.

Research Question 1: What are the Characteristics of Insult Terms Used by the

Characters?

As shown in the exchanges above, the characteristics of insult termsused by the charactersare:
insult terms focus on the humiliation of females’ honour and dignity, they come in an indecent
form and are done deliberately.For instance, in exchange 5, the phrases ‘money-thirsty-bitch’
and‘Money controls the heart of a woman’are deliberately used by Stanley in an indecent
manner to humiliate the honour and dignity of Christie (a female character) who he believes is
proving hard-to-get, therefore, he should get her by all means, but fails in the process. Moreover,
in exchange 1,we see Tari deliberately insulting females by saying that “Girls live for that title,



‘I’m engaged’. They love it because it gives them a sense of, ehmm, you know, belonging,
credibility, assurance and ehh, you know, stability.”This is also humiliating because
invariably he presents females as those who must depend on males to be complete.Here, insult
terms are used by males as tools for promoting destructive ways of thinking about their targets
which are females.

Research Question 2: What are the Components of These Insult Terms?

Insult terms are usually abusive terms used to undermine, derogate or marginalize others. In the
movies used in this paper, males are seen using these insult terms to make females feel less
human. Therefore, the components of these insult terms can be said to be that an addressee
(females in this case) of insult receives a negative characteristic, and the second one is that this
negative characteristic is expressed in an indecent form. In exchange 7, “Don’t you ladies need
to compare notes on asoebi or something?”This means that women do not engage in
reasonable conversations; as long as men are concerned, the only thing they (women) talk about
is asoebi. Even when Isoken tries to correct the notion, he refers to her as a feminist.This is also
seen in exchange 6, where Fred makes a comment like, “Look, these are women, Steve, these
are women, alright? You bringthem into the picture, you know, they begin to dig up old
holes and then they complicate matters for me”. He does not even believe that a woman can
find a solution to his problem rather he sees women as those that can never be relied on (those
that will complicate matters for him). Looking at the examples in exchanges 6 and 7, these
components are clearly seen because Isoken and her friends receive the negative characteristic
which is presented in an indecent manner. Fred’s comment is not left out here as we can see how
he characterized women negatively in an indecent form as well.

Research Question 3: What are the Effects of These Insult Terms on the Female

Characters?

Words are powerful. While positive words can boost one’s self esteem and self-image, negative
words can have long-lasting detrimental effects. Insult terms affect women in many different
ways and trigger a series of singular emotions and feelings. The way a person reacts to an insult
depends on the event, the person, the environment and the stakes involved.Insult terms can have
the effect of silencing women, obliging them to adapt their behaviour and limit their movements
andparticipation in diverse human activities since they are expressions thatdenigrate or
stigmatize a person.Since insults strike directly at a person’s feelings, self-esteem, pride, identity,
and ego, no matter why an insult happens or when it happens, the truth of the matter is it leaves a
scar. They can greatly impair psychological development and social interaction.



Conclusion

This study investigates insult terms against women in Nollywood movies. Insult terms play on
hidden desires and vulnerabilities and are highly imaginative and ingenious. Like jokes, insult
terms depend on timing and must touch a vital nerve. This is to say that they unleash anger.From
the findings, the norms and practices that define women as inferior to men and impose controls
on them, are present everywhere in our families, social relations, religious, laws, schools,
textbooks, factories, offices, and media especially movies. The results of this study show that
female characters are represented negatively. On the basis of the findings, this study makes the
users of language conscious and aware of the dangers of insult terms which can lead to negative
results. It is, therefore, recommended that these representational practices need to change in
order to bring about a change in the thinking of the people.

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Filmography

Ibinola, R. (Producer) and Egbon, K. E. (Director). (2017). Intervention (Motion Picture).

Nigeria. Applause Entertainment Productions.

Kadiri, R. (Producer) and Ifeanyi, O. (Director). (2017). Sex and Love (Motion Picture).

Nigeria. Mindset Studio.

Nnoshiri, C. B. (Producer) and Nnoshiri, C. B. (Director). (2018). Jenna (Motion

Picture). Nigeria. Synergy Studios.

Ogidan, T. (Producer) and Ogidan, T. (Director). (2019). Gold Statue (Motion Picture).

Nigeria. Grand Media Projects Production.



Okolie, S. (Producer) and Williams, A. (Director). (2018). Sophia’s Heart (Motion

Picture). Nigeria. Da’Vic Studios.

Osiberu, J. (Producer) and Osiberu, J. (Director). (2017). Isoken (Motion Picture).

Nigeria. Tribe 85 Productions.

Oriahi, S. (Producer) and Akaemeh, E. (Director). (2020). Love You Two (Motion Picture).

Nigeria. Eaglesville Multimedia Productions.


