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CHAPTER  

8 

THE MAKING OF MEANING IN THE THE NSIBIDI VISUAL METHOD 

 

Godwin O. Uka  

Department of Fine and Applied Arts, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 

 

Abstract 

This paper focused on the need to give the Nsibidi art Culture of Eastern Nigeria an artistic visual 

design identity based on their traditional and modern visual communication design approach. 

There is the need therefore to differentiate between traditional and modern visual communication 

design experiences. The exploratory design analysis which is used is based on the concepts ideas 

and materials for the old and new methods of the Nsibidi culture. It has been analyzed and 

synthesized into a more dynamic indigenous system of visual communication in Nigeria that will 

enhance the general development of the society. The analyses of signs, symbols, posters and other 

artworks were carried out based on their artistic, aesthetic and functional design mainly as it 

concerns the Nsibidi visual method of communication design in modern times. The research 

attempted to harmonize the traditional and the modern method to develop a new visual 

communication method based on their culture and technology in recent times. The Nsibidi had a 

definite operational way of communication. The culture just like their close neighbour could also 

reduce these signs and symbols into simple codes for confidentiality, security, affection and 

economic transitions among themselves. 

 

 

INTRODUCTION 

Communities, societies and others worldwide have modes and means of communicating 

ideas, feelings and messages to each other. The Igbo who employ different means is not an 

exception. Traditionally, Igbo and other societies in southeastern Nigeria employed different 

modes of communication in reaching out and doing business with each other. 

The Nsibidi method is one of the ways of communication in the eastern part of Nigeria, 

which is indigenous to the people of southeastern Nigeria. It is also used by neighbouring Ibibio, 

Efike and Igbo communities in Nigeria. Aesthetically compelling and encoded, Nsibidi does not 

in anywhere correspond to any one spoken language of the world. It is an ideographic script whose 

symbolism refers to the abstract concepts actions or things and those used to facilitate 

communication among the people speaking different languages of that area. 

The intra and inter-ethnic nationality of visual communication methods assisted 

communities in Eastern Nigeria to improve and advance their present level of general 

development. Visual communication is a study through visual aids and is described as the 



The Making of Meaning in Nsibidi Visual Method 

 

114 

 

conveyance of ideas and information in a form that can be read or looked up. Visual 

communication in part or whole relies on vision and is primarily presented or expressed with two 

or three-dimensional images; it includes sign, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, 

colour and electronic references. It also explores the idea that a visual message accompanying text 

has greater power to inform, educate, or persuade a person or audience. 

One of man's valuable tendencies, which are common to all communities and nationalities 

irrespective of place and time, has as one of its objectives the achievement of specific 

developmental goals. This success and continuity of such gregariousness and subsequent 

developmental achievements, in turn, depends largely and often wholly on the methods and levels 

of communication, for any form of interaction aimed. Thus communication is the inevitable 

binding force for any form of interactions aimed at development'. 

The early artist did not in all cases consciously start what we refer to today as artistic visual 

communication. Rather, some of them gave meaning to and adapted images and symbols as 

artistic. They, later on, built their visual abilities and functionalities on and around such 

interpretations and adaptations. Some of the comprehensive and figurative representation of their 

experience was pictures simplified into signs. Sketches and designs have been turned into 

sophisticated pieces. By imagination, meaning has been read into clouds in the sky which are seen 

as forming objects like human beings, galloping horses and so on. The same can be said of spilling 

liquids on the flour, many of the shapes and forms can be attached to some meaning. The Jews 

used specific dressing as a very significant visual communication of virgins (Nelson, 1990. p. 287. 

Communication must have a source and target. Parson (1978.36) elaborates on the essential term 

involved in communication. According to him, the person who initiates and sends messages is 

referred to as the 'transmitter', the subject matter being communicated as the 'message', the route 

of communication as the ' form of communication', and whosoever the message is directed as the 

'receiver' or audience. 

All over the world, from the pre-historic to the present time, visual communication has 

passed through various stages. This has consequently affected human development. In the context 

of this paper, therefore, there is a need to differentiate between traditional and modern visual 

communication design. Urdang (1991 pp 276, 511) defines 'tradition' merely as custom, practice 

or habit. On the other hand, he refers to 'modern' as current, contemporary, present-day or latest. 

Traditional visual communication in the Nigerian context is considered a type of communication 

that was devoid of Western influence while the ' modern’ is what has been influenced by the 

Western world. 

Communication is a way of passing a message from one person to another. Hornsby (1995 

p. 229) says communication is to make something known; exchange information, news or ideas 

with somebody; to make one's idea or feels clear to others. This information exchangeability and 

clarity of the same are dependent on the communication technique employed. 

 

Innovation in indigenous visual communication 

The innovation of new things, ideas, or ways of doing something is one way of changing 

and developing the environment and society. Artists (Uli and Nsibidi) have introduced new ways 

of representing their works in the contemporary era. Innovation and creativity have increasingly 

come to be seen as Africa’s response to their condition or, to put it differently, as the expression 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

115 
 

of local agencies in Africa. Communication in any setting is an important aspect of human activity. 

Most means of human communication are carried out using putting a line around something or by 

drawing a sign or symbol to name it and further enumerate its characteristics 

Nsibidi comprises nearly a thousand symbols that can be drawn in different media as 

gestures, on the ground, on the skin (as tattoos), on houses, and in art forms, such as masks, and 

textiles. Though it is enjoyed as an artistic practice by the general public, deeper knowledge of the 

Nsibidi symbols is restricted to the member of men's association of a certain society in a 

community, which once controlled trade and maintained the social and political order of the 

society. Nsibidi is used on wall designs, calabashes, metals, leaves, swords, and tattoos. It is 

important to state that it is primarily used by the Ekpe leopard secret society, which is mostly found 

across Cross River among the Ekoi, Efik, Igbo people, and other nearby communities. 

The symbols are at least several centuries old:  Early forms appeared on excavated pottery 

as we as what are most likely ceramic stools and headrests from the Calabar region, with a range 

of dates from 400 to 1400 CE. There are thousands of Nsibidi symbols, of which over 500 have 

been recorded. They were once taught in a school to children. Many of the signs deal with love 

affairs; those that deal with warfare and the sacred are kept secret. Nsibidi was divided into a 

sacred version and public, more decorative versions are used by women.  

Traditionally as it concerns the original owner of the tradition that is before the British colonization 

of the area Nsibidi was divided into a sacred version and a public, more decorative version which 

could be used by women. The Ikpe from Enyong written in nsibidi as recorded by J. K. Macgregor 

Nsibidi was used in judgment cases known as 'Ikpe' in some Cross River communities.  

 

In case of any dispute between communities, people or individuals or as the case may be the record 

is of an Ikpe or judgment case. Artistically the illustration can be demonstrated with the visual 

below  

 

COURT 

(a) The court was normally held under a tree as is the custom, 

(b) The parties in the case, 

 (c) The chief who judged it,  

(d) His staff (these are enclosed in a circle),  

(e) Is a man whispering into the ear of another just outside the circle of those concerned,  

(f) Denotes all the members of the party who won the case. Two of them  

(g) Are embracing,  

(h) Is a man who holds a cloth between his finger and thumbs as a sign of contempt? He does not 

care for the words spoken. The lines round and twisting mean that the case was a difficult one 

which the people of the town could not judge for themselves. So they sent to the surrounding towns 

to call the wise men from them and the case was tried by them 

(j) And decided;  

(k) Denotes that the case was one of adultery or No. 20. 

 



The Making of Meaning in Nsibidi Visual Method 

 

116 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1:  Nsibidi Symbols in Design 

 

Visual communication design indeed is an essential part of our daily lives. Design skills 

acquired in visual communication are used to persuade and communicate specific information and 

messages that can inspire thoughts using symbols, signs, words and images informing good design 

for effective problem-solving through practical application. The use of signs, symbols and motifs 

in communication is described as the conveyance of ideas and information in a form that can be 

read or looked upon. It in part or whole relies on vision and is primarily presented or expressed in 

two or three-dimensional images and texts. The term "visual" presentation in graphics 

communication is used to refer to the actual presentation of information to the public through a 

visual medium such as text, images, symbols, and a combination of other graphics elements via 

any of the following graphic media: posters, billboards, labels, flyers, calendars, package postage 

stamps and a lot of others. Graphics designers predominantly use this method of visual 

communication in their professional practice, 

Nsibidi was first documented in the Western world by T. D. Maxwell, district 

commissioner of Calabar, Nigeria. In 1904, he discovered that Nsibidi signs were used as 

decorative symbols on calabashes and native pianos during the exhibition of native goods. No 

historical evidence is available that can help date the creation or evolution of Nsibidi as a cultural 

concept but few writers on Nsibidi insist that it is of considerable age as it possesses a certain 

amount of conventionality about its sign language. It is understood from the available literature 

that it evolved from traditional visual communication as a sign and body language. It can be seen 

as a logographic system of communication that is popular with the southeastern people, 

particularly the Cross-River region of Nigeria.  

Nsibidi is referred to by Macgregor (1909:209) as “the native name for writing, used in the 

Calabar district of the eastern province of southern Nigeria, more largely up the cross river and the 

inland”. Macgregor then a Presbyterian missionary posted to teach at Hope Waddel Training 

Institute, Calabar.  Kalu (1978:77) describes Nsibidi as an ancient script, that existed before the 

coming of the Europeans. Kalu (1978:84), Umoetuk (1985:40) and Ubom (1987:75) agreed that 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

117 
 

Nsibidi was an ancient pictographic writing used within and around South Eastern State before the 

coming of the colonial masters. They stated that Nsibidi was not restricted to secret societies but 

that it was secularized to meet the economic and social needs of the people. Ubom further stated 

that it was used for the identification of labels, public notices, private warnings, declaration of 

taboos, amorous messages, reckoning goods and money, keeping records and body decoration. 

Most Nsibidi symbols are also used for their body adornment as enumerated by Umoetuk 

(1985:40-49).  

Isichei (1983) states that Nsibidi writing forms worked on the same principle as Chinese 

Writing. He further states that these writing were in the form of tattoos on the human body, 

paintings or incisions on calabashes, stems, house walls and drawings on the ground. Nsibidi signs 

or objects serve economic, political, cultural and social functions; it is used within secular and 

sacred systems in sending public notice, public warning, and recording goods and money as well 

as for decoration. Nsibidi transmits and conceals various kinds of information using a wide fluid 

vocabulary of geometric and naturalistic signs placed on objects.   

Nsibidi as a symbol is important to visual communication design because it has been 

described as a fluid system of communication that has hundred of pictographic signs. In the 

traditional era, it was used for messages, cut or painted on split palm stems, it is a kind of primitive 

secret writing, chiefly carried out using poke work on calabashes, canoes, stools and so on, but 

occasionally by marking on the body and face (Talbot 1912:308, 1969:932). This traditional motif 

known as Nsibidi is generally associated with or originated from the Ekoi people of Southern 

Nigeria. It is primarily used or employed by the Ekpe Secret Society of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. 

Nsibidi is a means of transmitting or communicating in secret terms the Ekpe symbolism. It is a 

form of drawing or design used or found on walls, calabashes, metal, leaves, swords and as tattoos. 

Nsibidi as a visual communication design concept is used for recording decisions, facts, thoughts 

and communicating messages. The type of messages varies but the most frequent are short 

messages and letters sent at a distance. These motifs are still in use by contemporary artists in their 

work and linking it with visual communication.  

Visual communication has been in existence from the older generation (the time of our 

forefathers) through the use of traditional motifs, symbols, and patterns, which are art forms and 

also part of our cultural heritage. Some of these traditional Nigerian motifs include Uli design of 

the Igbo culture of Nigeria, the Nsibidi design of Southern Nigeria, and Islamic motifs of Northern 

Nigeria to mention but a few. 

 

The Artist Victor Ekpuk and His Works 

The artist and his works who have engaged in the innovation of re-creating indigenous art 

forms, Nsibidi and Uli concepts of representation here presented and discussed Victor Ekpuk 

attended the Obafemi Awolowo University, IIe-Ife, with a BA degree in Fine and Applied Arts 

(specializing in Painting), during his years in the University, he was an active member of Ona 

group of Artist. This group encouraged the use of traditional or indigenous motifs such as Uli, 

Nsibidi and others in creating contemporary artworks. Victor has for long being producing and 

exhibiting artworks, especially with Uli and Nsibidi motifs.  

 



The Making of Meaning in Nsibidi Visual Method 

 

118 

 

Victor was born into a culture where nsibidi is an open secret.  Nsibidi ceremony is usually 

performed among members of Ekpe and Ekpo secret societies. During ceremonial rites of passage, 

some nsibidi signs were painted as decorations on the bodies of maidens. Nsibidi is an ancient 

form of sacred communication among the male secret societies of the Ibibio, Efik, Ejagham and 

Igbo (Ohafia) peoples of southeastern Nigeria. It uses mime, speech, and placement of objects and 

graphic symbols that represent concepts. Being secret codes of communication, their meanings 

were revealed only to initiates. Some aspects of these signs are secularized and used for public 

notices and record keeping. The graphic aspect of Nsibidi thus becomes one of Africa’s indigenous 

writing systems. 

Victor Ekpuk derives his artistic creative artistic inspiration from different sources (Uli art, 

Nsibidi and others) are Nigerian indigenous communicative visual ideas.  In his renderings mainly 

on black and white backgrounds as a narrative to his art, employs many mediums from sand to 

black and colour marker to creatively express both traditional and contemporary human 

experiences, which are so evident in almost all his works.  According to Ekpuk, his limited 

knowledge of Nsibidi signs today is from a memory of observations and documented 

anthropological archives. He further stated that what immensely inspired the direction of his work 

has taken the past two decades as a professional visual artist and his contact with Nsibidi has 

inspired the essence of an ancient art form to express contemporary experience. 

He now resides in the U.S.A Victors as among the exponent of this new innovation into 

indigenous traditional art form, began an exploration 

of Nsibidi traditional visual communication and 

writing system in Nigeria from which he has 

developed a style of drawing and graphics means of 

communication. 

Critical looking at his works, forms are 

reduced to their linear essence, depicting the interplay 

between art and writing in the form of drawing. His 

works showcase a wide spectrum of meaning that is 

deeply rooted not only in African culture but in global 

contemporary art discourse.  

 

Some of his works are here presented and discussed                                                               

Plate 1: “Kiss and Tell” shows two figures presented 

in abstract form, these figures seem to be having fun 

by kissing each other. According to the artist as 

interviewed by Egwu 2013 the title came about as a 

reference to “Don’t Ask Don’t Tell which use to be 

the official position of gays and lesbians in the 

United States military.  

Plate 1: Kiss and Tell. Ekpuk 

 

 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

119 
 

  There are red oval shapes seen in the heads of the 

figures. The background of the work has tiny Nsibidi designs 

which form an oval shape and the upper parts of the figures are 

inside the oval-shaped design. Another work titled “Fiestpad 

Blues” by Victor used bright colours. He used orange, blue, and 

green in addition to black to harmonies the design. Lines are 

used to create designs in different ways; an eye can be seen and 

under it are blue dots. Three figures presented abstractly can also 

be seen, the one in the middle appears to be the mother and the 

other two her children, one in her front and the other at her back 

on a bicycle. According to the artist interviewed by Egwu 2013, 

the artist noted that the work was inspired by his memory of the 

Netherlands properly when visited the country. He further stated 

that the bicycle is very central to the everyday life of the Dutch 

people. 

 

 

 

Plate2:  Night Watch (54" x 45") 

Victor Ekpuk   

 

 

Victor in this work made use of lines in “ 

Night Watch” plate 2 to form animals, one of the 

animals has half its body with dots around it like 

that of a leopard, and another seems to have 

ornaments on it, and there are about four houses, two 

with doors and the other with none. The 

background of the work has small dots all around 

forming a circle. A moon can also be seen in the 

pictures treated in blue with a candle-like object 

around it. The artist made use of lines and shapes of 

different wavelengths in his rendering. 

                                          

   

 

 

 

Plate 3: Escape Goat. Victor Ekpuk 

 

Plate 3 is titled “Escape Goat”; here symbols are used to form a square with an opening in 

it that has the picture of two figures carrying an animal probably as suggested by the title of the 

work. The animal is being carried on a stick with the figures holding each end of the stick. In other 



The Making of Meaning in Nsibidi Visual Method 

 

120 

 

parts of the work, there are figures of animals that seem to be running, and also pictures of what 

appears to be a hunter chasing or hunting the animal. The title of the work expresses the human 

condition. 

 

 

Plate 4 is titled “Child in the Wilderness”, here the artist 

made use of lines ranging from bold lines to tiny lines, 

the child is presented abstractly and these tiny lines 

form a circle around the head, the hands of the child 

have the look of wings and it has one foot. Also it 

appears to have very features on its face such as the eyes 

and nose, it does not seem to have a mouth. There is also 

a red spiral circle at the top. According to the artist as 

interviewed by Egwu (2013) the artist was considering 

a state of loneliness in a world of chaos. The figure in 

the middle is a stylized form of Akwaba doll from 

Ghana, he explores the aesthetics of classical African 

sculpture in this work. 

 

 

 

 

 

Plate 4: Child in the Wilderness. Victor 

Ekpuk 

 

 

 

  

Plate 5 titled “Uyan Iban” shows an abstract figure 

with a foot, and a very large head that has what looks 

like the brain treated in white and red dots, with black 

underneath. It also has an outer circular layer around 

it. The figure has tiny streaks of hair, about four 

stranding out on its head; while the other parts went 

down in such a way that one can say is a female figure. 

This work is one of his recent renderings or drawings; 

here he tries to explore the female aesthetics in the 

hairstyle of the Ibibio Culture of South Eastern 

Nigeria. “Uyan Iban” means Beautiful Maide 

 

 

Plate 5 Uyan Iban. Victor Ekpuk 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

121 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Plate 6 is titled “Bird Call”, the artist made use of lines to 

create different forms, abstract faces, figures, and shapes 

when looked at closely. The lines and forms depict an 

aspect of the Igbo and Ibibio Cultures of Nigeria. The bird 

is done with red colour and blue and white dots on its 

body. The bird has a very long leg, with its claw. The 

background of the work has a mixture of white and 

yellow patches; there are also blue patches that can be 

seen at closer observation.  

 

 

Plate 6: Bird Call. Victor Ekpuk. 

 

Analysis of Victor Ekpuk’s Works 

The aesthetics philosophy of Nsibidi rendering where that ideas and forms are reduced to their 

essence, forms the basis of Victor Ekpuk’s works. Sometimes there are specific uses of Nsibidi 

signs in his compositions, if the subject matter demands it at other times, he uses symbols. There 

are times when symbols are not used at all. The general idea of his work is not so it could be read 

literally, grasping the essence of the work is equally important. The artist believes that his styles 

of artwork have aroused conversation about literacy, writing and other modes of communication 

in Africa. Victor in his innovative thinking and exploration believes that his works have added to 

the conversation that challenges the Eurocentric notion of Africa as an illiterate culture 

Some of his works are meant to explore the aesthetic pleasure of the composition rather 

than meaning. “Kiss and Tells” (Plate 1). In this presentation, the artist depicts an experience of 

two women lovers kissing on the street of The Netherlands. The artist asserts that the title came 

about as a reference to “Don’t Ask Don’t Tell “It used to be the united official position of guys 

and lesbians in the United State Military. Plate 2 “Fiestpad blues” was inspired by Victor’s memory 

of the Netherlands. The bicycle was central to the everyday life of Dutch people. The figure in the 

centre is a woman and her two children on a bicycle.   

Plate 3 titled “Night Watch” expressed a typical nightlife where lines were employed to 

form animals. A moon is depicted shining and watching over them in a cluster can also see up the 

pictures treated in blue with candle-like objects around them. In this work, one can see a 

combination of different techniques and media that indicates an experiment with different 

materials. The contemporary mood is seen in The Night Watch and it is the relative simplicity of 



The Making of Meaning in Nsibidi Visual Method 

 

122 

 

this particular work that seems modern and I think is influenced by modernist art forms and shapes. 

It is visible clear that the animal forms in this work “Night Watch” the artist was inspired by 

terracotta equestrian figurines of the Niger region in Mali. It is important to observe that the artist's 

works are highly stylized and relatively simplified in terms of forms and functions which make his 

works wear a contemporary look.  

 Plate 3 titled “Escape Goat” expresses the situation about the human condition; the pictures 

depict a statement or show hardship. Plate 4 titled “Child in the Wilderness” the work depicts 

loneliness in a world full of chaos. The figure represented in the middle of the work is probably a 

stylized form of Akwaba doll from Ghana, here he tries to explore the aesthetics of classical 

African sculpture. On closer observation, one can see the amalgam of symbols and can recognize 

signs that could further explain the representation 

“Uyan Iban” plate 5 is one of Victor’s recent drawings where he explores the female 

aesthetics in Ibibio culture, “Uyan Iban” means Beautiful Maiden, and the focus here is on the 

hairstyle. Plate 6 titled Bird Call, here is the idea and forms of Nsibidi's aesthetic philosophy in his 

lyrical presentation of lines and various images within a certain environment. 

The finding of this paper indicates that visual communication design is an essential part of 

our daily lives. Design skills acquired in visual communication are used to persuade and 

communicate specific information and messages that can inspire thoughts using symbols, signs, 

words and images informing good design for effective problem-solving through practical 

application. Graphics designers predominantly use this method of visual communication in their 

professional practice; Nsibidi transmits and conceals various kinds of information using a wide 

fluid vocabulary of geometric and naturalistic signs placed on objects.   

Nsibidi as a symbol is important to visual communication design because it has been 

described as a fluid system of communication that has hundreds of pictographic signs. Artist 8n 

general in recent time has have engaged in the innovation of re-creating indigenous art forms, 

especially using Nsibidi and Uli concepts of representation in the eastern part of Nigeria 

 

Conclusion 

The ideas or ways of doing something new are one way of changing and developing our 

environment. Uli and Nsibidi artists have introduced new ways of representing their works in the 

contemporary era. Africans have embraced creativity and innovation as a way forward towards the 

expression of our artistic ingenuity to the whole world. Creativity and spontaneity may succeed in 

limiting uncertainty leading to more stable living conditions in Africans. Changes brought by 

creativity and spontaneity can be subsumed under the more general framework of a quest for order 

which can be assumed to lie at the heart of any kind of socialization. The symbols, signs and motifs 

used by Nsibidi and Uli artists are a form of visual presentation and communication which indeed 

form part of our daily living. In the traditional setting these signs, symbols and motifs were used 

by the past generations to communicate messages, ideas and information in a form that can be read 

or looked upon for aesthetics and other purposes. The term "visual" presentation in graphics 

communication is used to refer to the actual presentation of information to the public through a 

visual medium such as text, images, symbols, and a combination of other graphics elements via a 

particular media of presentation.  



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

123 
 

A lot of modern Nigerian artists have been using these indigenous images in this 

contemporary period for aesthetics, function and other purposes. Among these artists are Uche 

Okeke, Aniakor, Obiora Ude Uchukwu, El Anatsui, Tayo Adenaikke, Godwin  O. Uka, Kyris 

Ikuemmessi, Chijioke Onoura, Ekene to mention a few and Victor Ekuk whose works have been 

used for this analysis. Victor’s technical proficiency in drawing, design, composition and surface 

manipulation are basic tools that convey his visual imagery that captures and sustain the attention 

of viewers. This paper has tried to analyse and expose indigenous symbols, images, signs and their 

role in visual communication using victors works as case study. 

 

Pointing the way forward 

More similar research papers are encouraged thereby. 

 

REFERENCES 

Arnot  A.S. (1937) “Art and Industry in Arochukwu” Nigeria. No. 12, pp9-11 

 

Isichei Elizabeth (1975) A History of the Igbo people, London: Macmillan, p. 3. 

 

Jefferys, M.D. W (1957) ‘Negro abstract art or ibo body patterns’. S. A.M. A. B. (South African 

 

Kalu, O.U. (1978 Ed). “Writing in pre-colonial Africa; A case study of Nsibidi”, African Cultural 

Development. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers. 

 

Macgregor, J.K. (1909). “Some notes on Nsibidi” in The Journal of the Royal Anthological 

Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Vol. 30.  

 

Murrey K.C. (1972) ‘Ibo body painting’ Unpublished notes and drawings 

 

Museums Association Bulletin) No. 6, pp. 219-229 

 

Talbot 1912:308, 1969:932). Peoples, IV, pp95-96 

 

Ubom, I.P. (1987); “Cultural development in Cross River State” in Akwa Ibom and Cross River 

State: the Land, the People and Their Culture: Abasiattai Monday B. (Ed), Calabar, Wusesn 

Press Limited. 

 

Udechukwu Obiora (1981) Uli AND LI: aspects of Igbo AND Chinese Drawing and Painting.  

          Nigeria Magazine NOS. 134-135 

 

Umoetuk, O. U. (1985); “Body Art in Ibibio Culture” Nigeria Magazine; Vol. 53 No. 2 April-June.   

 

Willis Elizabeth A (1987) A LEXICON OF IGBO ULI MOTIFS in Nsukka Journal of the  

          Humanities Number 1, June 1987 


