




































CHAPTER  14: 
A COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF FABRIC 

SUBSTRATE FORMATION 

 
Contributed by 

Calista Oduchukwu Nwosu and Uchenna R. Dike 

 

INTRODUCTION 

Substrate refers to the underlying material or fabric on which 

various treatments or coatings are applied. In other words, it is a 

foundation or base upon which the desired functional or decorative 

elements are added. In agreement with this definition, Wild, 2016 

penned, A substrate is defined as the primary material upon which 

other materials are applied.  In the case of fabric, a substrate is the 

base cloth upon which ink, paint or pigment are applied to create 

all of the glorious printed fabrics available to us today. The choice 

of substrate plays a crucial role in determining the final 

characteristic and performance of the textile product. It can greatly 

impact factors such as durability, comfort, aesthetics, and 

functionality. The substrate affects the properties of the fabric such 

as strength, durability and drape. The substrate used in textiles can 

be a wide range of materials including natural fibers like cotton, 

silk, wool, and linen as well as synthetic materials such as 

polyesters, nylon, acrylic etc. The substrate selection is based on 

intended application, desired properties and manufacturing process 

involved. Once a substrate is chosen, it undergoes various 

treatments and finishes to enhance its properties or impact specific 

functionalities. These treatments can include dyeing, coating, 

printing, laminating and lots more 

Textile substrates are formed from yarns or fibre webs by 

several techniques including weaving, knitting, tufting, and 



A Comprehensive Analysis of Fabric Substrate Formation 

233 

 

nonwoven formation. In addition, composites of textile substrates 

are formed by methods such as adhesive bonding, the formation of 

back coatings on fabric substrates, and flocking.  

 

Substrate formation methods 

The most common form of interlacing is weaving which 

involves interlacing two sets of yarns usually at right angles to one 

another. The warp yarns are fed into the loom and filling (weft) 

yarns are inserted into the warp using a shuttle or an alternative 

insertion technique. The yarns are held in place by the inter-yarn 

friction. 

Another form of interlacing where the thread in one set 

interlocks with the loops of neighbouring thread by looping is 

called knitting. Knitting involves interconnecting yarns by looping 

them around one another. In warp knitting the yarns in a warp beam 

are looped over adjacent yarns in a zigzag repeating pattern to form 

a fabric, while in fill (weft) knitting a fill yarn is formed into a 

series of loops that are passed through the loops previously formed 

in the fill direction. The interloping of yarns results in positive 

binding. Knitted fabrics are widely used in apparel, home 

furnishing and technical textiles. Lace, crochet and different types 

of net are other forms of interlaced yarn structures. Braiding is 

another way of thread interlacing for fabric formation. Braided 

fabric is formed by diagonal interlacing of yarns. Braided 

structures are mainly used for industrial composite materials.  

Other forms of fabric manufacture use fibres or filaments 

laid down, without interlacing, in a web and bonded together 

mechanically or by using adhesive to make a continuous 

interconnected web. The former are needle-punched nonwovens 

and the latter are spun bonded. The resulting fabric after bonding 

normally produces a flexible and porous structure. These find use 

mostly in industrial and disposable applications. Composites of 

textile substrates are formed by bonding two fabrics together by 



Calista Nwosu and Uchenna Dike 

234 

 

use of an adhesive to form a bonded substrate or backed substrate 

or by application of cut fibres to an adhesive-coated substrate to 

form a flocked substrate. Figure 1 shows the schematics of fabrics 

produced by the methods discussed above. All these fabrics are 

broadly used in three major applications such as apparel, home 

furnishing and industrial.  

 

              
Woven fabric structure          Knitted fabric structure                       

 
Netting fabric structure                                       braiding fabric structure 

                  
 

Non woven fabric structure                             lace fabric structure 



A Comprehensive Analysis of Fabric Substrate Formation 

235 

 

 

Elements of woven fabric structure 

Basic woven textiles are composed of two components: warp and 

weft tows/yarns that are at right angles to each other in the plane of 

the cloth. The warp is along the length and the weft is along the 

width of the fabric. Individual warp and weft yarns are called ends 

and picks. The interlacing between the warp and weft yarn can be 

arranged in uncountable ways, resulting in endless weave 

architectures. Weaving is therefore referred to as interlacing warp 

and weft yarns perpendicularly. 

 

Regular weave and Irregular weave 

Regular weaves give a uniform and specific appearance to a fabric. 

The properties of the fabric for such weaves can be easily 

predicted. Irregular weaves are commonly employed when the 

effect of interlacement is masked by the coloured yarn in the fabric. 

Such weaves are common in furnishing fabric.  

 

Weave structures  

The repeating unit of interlacement is called the weave. According 

to Nwosu (2023), ‘weaves refers to the technique or particular way 

the patterns are achieved in the cloth through an interaction 

between the way the warp is threaded through the heddles on the 

harnesses or shafts and the order in which the harnesses or shafts 

are raised or lowered. There are many weave structures developed 

by weavers, but most of them were invented by a combination of 

three simple weave structures namely: plain weave or tabby, twill 

and satin Stout (1970) states that "weaves are classified according 

to the method of the interlacing of the warp and filling yarns and 

the number of sets of warp or filling yarns required". Thorpe and 

Larsen (1967) as cited in Ligom (2017) share the same view that 

plain twill and satin weaves are often considered as the basic 

weaves. Stout however explained that other weaves are largely 



Calista Nwosu and Uchenna Dike 

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combinations or variations of the three basic weaves. Nwosu 

(2015) notes that weaves are consistent in formation, simple in 

themselves and few in variety.  

 

Fundamental weave structures  

Plain Weave 

The plain weave, variously known as “calico” or “tabby” weave is 

the simplest weave. It is formed by yarns at right angles passing 

alternately over and under each other. Plain weave has the simplest 

repeating unit of interlacement and the maximum possible 

frequency of interlacements. Plain weave fabrics are firm and resist 

yarn slippage 

Nwosu (2015) states that "plain weave is the simplest and 

universally known to weavers everywhere and that very high 

proportion of all weaving is done in plain weave". The author 

further adds that "plain weave could either be warp-faced, weft-

faced or balanced". Hollen, Saddler and Langford (1979) report 

that "given the nature of interlacing in plain weave, it requires only 

a two harness loom for construction (one harness up and one 

harness down). As a result, there is no right or wrong side. Plain 

weave variations include; balanced plain weave, unbalanced plain 

weave and basket weave”: 

The plain weave has the following characteristics: 

 It has the maximum number of binding points 

 The threads interlace on alternate order of 1 up and 1 

down. 

 The thread density is limited 

 Cloth thickness and mass per unit area are limited. 

 It produces a relatively stronger fabric  

The principle involved in the construction of plain cloth is the 

interlacement of any two continuous threads either warp or weft in 

an exactly contrary manner to each other, with every thread in each 



A Comprehensive Analysis of Fabric Substrate Formation 

237 

 

series passing alternately under and over consecutive threads of 

other series interlaces uniformly throughout the fabric. By this plan 

of interlacement, every thread in each series interlaces with every 

thread in the other series to the maximum extent, thereby producing 

a comparatively firm and strong texture of cloth. A complete unit 

of the plain weave occupies only two warp threads and two picks 

of weft, which is the design for that weave. Figure 2 shows plain 

weave in direct view and cross-section along warp and weft. The 

weave representation is shown by a grid in which vertical lines 

represent warp and horizontal lines represent weft. Each square 

represents the crossing of an end and a pick. A mark in a square 

indicates that the end is over the pick at the corresponding place in 

the fabric, i.e. warp up. A blank square indicates that the pick is 

over the end, i.e. weft up.  

 

 

 
Figure 2: Plain Weave 

 

Modification of Plain Weave: 

The plain weave may be modified by extending it warp or weft 

way or both. The extension of the plain weave thus produces a rib 

effect. A warp rib results from extending the plain weave in the 

warp direction and a weft rib structure results from extending the 

plain weave in the weft direction. A matt rib results from 

extending the plain weave in both directions (Jara, 2013). 



Calista Nwosu and Uchenna Dike 

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The chart below shows the derivatives/modifications of plain 

weave according to Jara, 2013 

 

 
 

Figure 3: Plain weave modification 

 

Warp Rib Weave: 

These are 

produced by extending 

the plain weave in warp 

wary direction. Figure 3 

shows the warp rib 

weaves constructed on 

regular and irregular 

basis. At A, B and C are 

seen regular warp rib 

weaves and at D, is 

shown the irregular warp 

rib weave. E and F show 

the interlacing of D and 

A respectively 

       

 

 

 

 

Figure 4: Warp Rib Weave 

 

 

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A Comprehensive Analysis of Fabric Substrate Formation 

239 

 

Weft Rib Weave  

These are constructed by extending the plain weave in weft 

direction as shown in Figure 4 

 
Figure 5: Weft Rib Weave 

 

 
Figure 6: Weft rib weave 

 

In both the warp and weft rib weaves, the appearance of the 

cloth depends on the respective thread settings, and to achieve good 

effects, it is necessary to weave a weft rib with a high number of 

picks per inch and a comparatively low number of ends per inch. 

Similarly the warp rib effect can be enhanced with a high number 

of ends per inch and a comparatively low number of picks per inch. 

The prominence of the rib can be increased by suitable use of 

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-wX11pXYb4Js/UpVnbSn2pNI/AAAAAAAAAHw/oPkG5YyctWs/s1600/WEFT+RIB+2.PNG


Calista Nwosu and Uchenna Dike 

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coarse and fine yarns. The dependence of all rib constructions upon 

the correct thread settings is marked. Rib weaves are used in gross 

grain cloths, matelasse fabrics, repp cloth which is extensively 

employed for window blinds in railway carriages and other 

vehicles, upholstering furniture, and cambric picket handkerchief 

 

Matt Rib Weave: 

These weaves are also variously known as hopsack or basket 

weaves. The matt rib structures result from extending the plain 

weave in both directions. On basket weave, Hollen, Sadder and 

Langford (1979) penned, ‘Basket weave refers to weaves made 

with two or more warp yarns used as one, and with two or more 

fillings yarns used as one, placed in the same shed’. The most 

common basket weaves, according to the authors, are 2 x 2 and 4 x 

4. Other combinations include 2 x 1, 2x 3, and so forth.  

In case of regular matt weave, 

the plain weaves are extended 

equally in the warp and weft 

directions, where as in case of 

irregular matt weaves, the 

plain weave is extended 

unevenly or irregularly in the 

warp and weft directions. The 

regular and irregular types are 

shown in Fig. 

 

 

 

 

Figure 5: Matt weave 

 

 

Characteristically, basket weaves are flexible and wrinkle 

resistant because they have few interlacing per square inch. Matt 



A Comprehensive Analysis of Fabric Substrate Formation 

241 

 

weave finds extensive uses for a great variety of fabrics such as 

dress materials, shirting, sailcloth, duck cloth and lots more. 

 

Textural stability of Plain Weave in relation to other weaves: 

The firmness of any woven structure depends on the frequency of 

interlacing between the warp and weft threads. The greater the 

number of intersections the better will be the firmness of the cloth. 

Let us consider the case of two fabrics woven with identical warp 

and weft counts and thread settings. Consider that one is woven as 

plain weave and the other with any other weave such as twill, 

sateen etc. It will be seen that the latter will be less firm, and 

therefore of weaker texture than the former, because the threads 

composing it would be bent in a lesser degree than those of the 

plain weave, thereby causing them to be less firmly compacted. 

Thus it is important that the counts of warp and weft, the number 

of warp threads and picks per inch, and the weave, should be 

properly proportioned, in order to obtain the best results. 

 

Range of texture produced in plain weaves:  

The plain weave is produced in a variety of forms and textures, 

possessing totally different characteristics, which adapt it for 

specific purposes. The variety of forms in textures are produced: 

 By causing a differential tension between the warp threads 

during weaving. 

 By using various counts of yarn for weaving different types 

of fabrics, 

 By using warp and weft yarns of different counts in the 

same fabric, 

The term ‘texture’ is related to type of material, counts of yarn, 

relative density of threads, weight, bulk, feel during handle, and 

other properties. The range of textures produced in plain cloth is 

wide. An ideal plain cloth is one which has identical or similar warp 



Calista Nwosu and Uchenna Dike 

242 

 

and weft constructional parameters. Plain weave finds extensive 

uses in shirting, suiting, cambric, muslin, blanket, canvas and lots 

more. 

 

Twill Weave 

According to Hassan 2023 definition, A weave that repeats on three 

or more ends and picks produces diagonal lines on the face of the 

fabric. The order of interlacing that creates a diagonal line of warp 

and weft floats to be formed in the fabric is called twill weave 

Kureave and Audu, as cited in Ligom (2017) observed that 

twill weave is the type of weave in which the weft crosses two or 

more warp yarns before going under one or more warp yarns. This 

definition is rather simplistic in nature. Hollen, Saddler and 

Langford (1979) seem to be more elaborate and implicit in their 

definition of twill weave. According to them, twill weave is one in 

which each warp or filling yarn floats across two or more fillings 

or warp yarns with a progression of interlacing by one to the right 

or left to form a distinct diagonal line or wale. Joseph (1980) and 

Lyle (1976) look at twill as the second basic weave used in the 

production of woven fabric, characterized by a diagonal line 

achieved on the front and back of the fabric. Joseph (1980), Hollen, 

Saddler, and Langford (1979) indicate that twill variations are in 

the number of harnesses used. The simplest twill requires three or 

four harnesses. The more complex twills may have as many as 

eighteen (18) picks inserted before repeating, and are woven on a 

loom with a dobby attachment.  



A Comprehensive Analysis of Fabric Substrate Formation 

243 

 

               
 

 
 

Figure 6: 2//2 twill weave. Source: Wood, 2006 

 
Characteristics of Twill Weave 

1. Produce diagonal lines from one selvedge to another. 

2. Smallest repeat size 3*3 

3. At least 3 heald shafts are required. 

4. Generally, the straight draft is used (V draft/ Pointed 

draft, Broken draft). 

5. Draft multiple of 2 or 3 

6. Both sides are face sides, but their appearance is 

different. 

7. Textured and Strong weave. 

8. Less binding point than plain cloth. 

9. Better wrinkle recovery. 

10. Better cover thickness 

 

 



Calista Nwosu and Uchenna Dike 

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Classification of Twill Weave According to: 

1.  directions: 

 Warp-way twill: warp float run in the warp direction. 

 Weft-way twill: weft float run in the weft direction. 

 

2. Twill line 

 S-twill/Left hand Twill: Twill line (Diagonal line) runs 

from the lower right corner to the upper left corner. Exp: 

3/2 S, 2/2 S, 2/3 S etc 

 Z-twill/Left hand Twill: Twill line (Diagonal line) runs 

from the lower left corner to the upper right corner. 

 3. Face Yarn 

a) Warp-face Twill: A predominance of warp yarns is 

seen on the face of the fabric. 

Exp: 2/1, 3/1, 3/2 etc. [Warp up > Warp Down 

b) Warp-face Twill: A predominance of warp yarns is 

seen on the face of the fabric. 

Exp: 1/2, 1/3, 2/3 etc. [Warp up < Warp Down] 

  c) Double face Twill/ Even-sided Twill: Predominance 

of warp & weft yarns on both sides of the fabric. [Warp up 

= Warp Down] 

Exp: 2/2, 3/3, 4/4 

 

 4. Nature of Twill 

a) Simple Twill:  

Each warp end is raised over or lowered under only one pick in 

the repeat. 

Exp: 2/1, 3/1, 1/2, 1/3 etc. 

https://textiledetails.com/textile-fabric-details/


A Comprehensive Analysis of Fabric Substrate Formation 

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i) Simple Warp Twill: Each warp end is lowered under only one 

pick in the repeat. (Warp up > 1, Warp Down = 1) 

Exp- 2/1, 3/1 etc. 

ii) Simple Weft Twill: Each warp end is raised over only one 

pick in the repeat. (Warp up. =1, Warp Down >1) 

Exp: 1/2,1/3 etc… 

b) Expanded Twill:  

Each warp end is raised over or lowered under more than one 

adjacent pick in the repeat. (Both warp up & map down will be 

more than 1) 

Exp- 3/2,2/3,3/3 etc. 

 

c) Multiple Twill: 

It contains at least two warp twill lines or two weft twill lines of 

different widths in each repeat, 

Exp- 3 4 8/  2 3 2, 5 6 8/  2 3 9 

 

Uses of Twill Weave:  
Generally, diamond, diaper and zigzag twill are used for making 

pillows, covers, screens, upholstery, bed sheets, towels etc. Again, 

continuous twill is used for making fabric for shirting, suiting and 

pantin (denim, gaberdine). It is used for making various types of 

ornamental cloth, other derivatives of twill weave are used. 

Moreover, hearing bone twill is used in the cloth of suits and 

overcoats. 

 

Satin Weave  
According to Hasan (2023), Satin weave refers to the construction 

of a weave where there is a weft thread that floats over at least 12 

warps as well as under a single warp. The next weft gets woven in 

different warps over same the number. 



Calista Nwosu and Uchenna Dike 

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Nwosu, 2023 opined that the satin and sateen weaves may 

be considered to be opposites of each other. They are characterized 

by their smooth lustrous surfaces due to warp floats in satin and 

weft floats in sateen. In satin weave, each warp yarn floats over 

four or more weft yarns (up to about 12) and interlaces with the 

next weft yarn. Interlacing progresses by one thread up, and by at 

least two threads either to the right or to the left. Alternatively, in a 

sateen weave, each weft yarn floats over four (or more) warp yarns 

and interlaces with the next warp yarn, with interfacings 

progressing two or more either to the left or to the right. 

 Hollen, Saddler and Langford (1979) have it that, satin 

fabrics are characterized by lustre because of the long floats that 

cover the surface. When warp yarns cover the surface, the fabric is 

a warp-faced satin and the warp count is high. Similarly, when 

filling floats cover the surface, the fabric is filling and the filling 

count is high. Satin weave, according to Joseph (1980), is 

characterized by long floats on the surface. These threads are 

caught under cross threads at intersections as far apart as possible 

for particular constructions. The author posits that adjacent parallel 

yarns do not interlace in a position of contact 

 

The basic characteristics of satin/sateen weaves are: 

 They are either warp or weft-faced weaves. 

 Have no prominent weave structures. 

 Only one binding point in each end or pick 

 No continuous twill lines 

 Have poor seam strength due to thread mobility 

 More thread density is possible in warp and weft 

 More mass per unit area is possible 

 Have less binding points and more float lengths 

 Use of move numbers (intervals of selection) is necessary 

to construct these weaves. 

 



A Comprehensive Analysis of Fabric Substrate Formation 

247 

 

 
Figure 24: Sateen weave. Source: Errol Wood, 2012  

 

Besides, satin weave needs 

more shafts in the part of weaving 

compared to other plain or twill 

weaves. Consequently, the cost of 

production increases. Satin weave 

fabrics notably are Brocade, Crepe-

satin, velvet satin, etc. Meanwhile, 

the Sateen is a variation of the satin 

weave constructed with another type 

of yarn except for silk. It produces a 

smooth, glossy surface on the fabric 

due to the interlacing points covered 

up by the threads’ floats.   

 

 

 

 

Fig: Example of Satin 

regular and irregular 

weave structure 

 

 

Supplementary weft pattern weave: also called extra weft, 

pattern weft, supplementary weft, a structurally non-essential weft 

https://textiledetails.com/what-is-twill-weave-characteristics-derivatives/
https://textiledetails.com/what-is-twill-weave-characteristics-derivatives/


Calista Nwosu and Uchenna Dike 

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used to add pattern to a ground structure. The supplementary weave 

can be of the warp or of the weft.   

Supplementary warp pattern weave: also called the extra 

warp, pattern warp, supplementary warp that weaves in on the top 

of the background fabric or below depending on how it is treadled.   

Compound weave: contains more than one weaves structure. 

 

Modelling different weaves 

 The firmness of a woven fabric depends on the density of 

threads and frequency of interlacements in a repeat. Fabrics made 

from different weaves cannot be compared easily with regard to 

their physical and mechanical properties unless the weave effect 

is normalized. The concept of average float has long been in use, 

particularly for calculating maximum threads per cm. It is defined 

as the average ends per intersection in a unit repeat. Recently this 

ratio, known as weave factor has been used to estimate the 

tightness factor in fabrics. 

 

Summary 

Textile substrates are formed from yarns or fiber webs by several 

techniques including weaving, knitting, tufting, and nonwoven 

formation. In addition, composites of textile substrates are formed 

by methods such as adhesive bonding, formation of back coatings 

on fabric substrates, and flocking. Weaving is the most common 

method of forming fabrics. Basic woven textiles are composed of 

two components: warp and weft tows/yarns that are interlaced with 

each other to produce a layer. The three basic weaves, plain, satin 

and twill weave and their derivatives were discussed. 

 

Questions 

Name the main componetnts of Basic woven textiles  

Explain twill weave in details 

What are the characteristics of a twill weave? 



A Comprehensive Analysis of Fabric Substrate Formation 

249 

 

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Theory and applications.  

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Hassan, M. (2023, February 26). Derivatives of Twill 

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