Conversion/Functional Shift: An Indispensable Tool for Creativity in English language and
Literature

Comfort Obodo

Abstract

English language is dynamic and this attribute makes it outstanding among the languages
existing in our world today. Although, Grammarians and Usage Panels tried tremendously to
establish the standard usage of the English words, the fact remains that according to Calvert
((2017), there is no Academy to define officially accepted words. Neologisms are coined
regularly in all fields of man’s endeavour - Medicine, Science and Technology, Music and
Entertaining Industries; and new slangs are constantly being developed. More often than not,
some of these new words enter wider usage and become listed in the English lexicon while
others remain restricted to small circles; hence, the issue of full and partial conversion
respectively. This study tends to consider the contributions of functional shift in English as a
productive process which ensures maximal creativity on the part of English language users and
the brain behind the thriving of the English language,

Keywords:Creativity, conversion, functionality, the English language, shift

Introduction

English has an extraordinary rich vocabulary and willingness to absorb new words. Left to
borrowings alone, English may not meet the demands of the time; so, it tends to reproduce
exactly its kind through the process of functional shift to accommodate its need in various
regions and times. With this, a word is converted to function as a particular word class whenever
the need arises. Consequently, English language tends to develop consistently and is ever ready
to adapt to the changes inherent in our changing world. So, English language reproduces through
functional shift and voraciously feed on loan words through borrowing and tends to face
extinction/death if it fails in its dynamism.

What is Conversion/Functional Shift?

Simply put, conversion or functional shift is the process of using a word from a particular word-
class and to function as a member of another word-class. That is, turning a noun for instance,
into a verb or turning a verb into an adjective in a quite different context.



Finegan (2012, p. 56) defines conversion/functional shift as Functional shift, or conversion as it
is also called, is the process where a word converts from one syntactic category, that is, word
class or part of speech, to another without any change to the form of the word.

Similarly, Yule(1996, p.67) asserts as follows: ‘A change in the function of word, as for example,
when a nouncomesto be used as averb(withoutanyreduction), isgenerallyknownasconversion.
Otherlabelsforthis verycommon process are ‘category change’ and ‘functional shift’.

Productivity of Functional Shift in the English language

Functional shift is a productive process in English due to the flexibility it affords the users. It
goes further to promote clarity and economy in the use of words. According to Lyons, ‘within
the limits set by the rules of grammar, which are perhaps partly universal and partly specific to
particular languages, native speakers of a language are free to act creatively; ...this notion of rule
governed creativity is closely associated with that of productivity’ (23). In the English language,
virtually all the word-classes of the English language can undergo a functional shift in modern
English; as there do not seem to be any restrictions regarding the forms that can be shifted or
converted (Briton and Briton,2010,p.226). Yule(1996, p.67) notes that the process is particularly
productive in modern English with new uses occurring frequently. Harley confirms it by saying,
“this is a very productive process in English, which people regularly perform on the fly” (105).

(Aitchison,1987, p.161)further notes:

[Functional shift] is extremely productive to increase the English lexicon because it
provides an easy way to create new words from existing ones. Thus, the meaning is
perfectly comprehensible and the speaker can rapidly fill a meaningful gap in his
language or use fewer words.

The productivity of functional shift in English contributes to the thriving of the English
language. Functional shift allows flexibility in the use of words, and this spices up the language
and makes it lively.Many authors have written volumes on this Functional shift, however, its
scope is inexhaustible. Calvert (2017) in quoting Berube made it clear that functional shift has
received attention for many centuries and as far back as 1601, the word impact was first
recorded as a verb (5). Plag (2003, p.219) describes the process as the most popular of all verb-
deriving processes and that all researchers agree that it is an extremely productive process.
Fowler notes that functional shift is “an ancient process” and one which is “exceedingly
common” (181). It is believed that one fifth of all English verbs were originally nouns (Pinker,
1994, p.392). This shows the unique role which functional shift plays in the English language.



According to Crystal (1980, p.332), ‘functional shift is one of the features which makes
the English language distinctive’ (Crystal’s assertion seems most plausible if we consider the
flexibility of this process in the language. Although Bauer notes that if there are constraints in
this process, they are yet to be demonstrated (226), Safire (2005, p.136), among others, however;
has a contrary view. Hence, his assertion: ‘Don’t lard your prose with functional shifties’. In
spite of these struggles to curb excesses, greater numbers of words disapproved from shifting
from one class to the other are busy gaining considerations. For instance, Calvert (2017, p.5)
notes:

... Some Usage Panel statistics from survey taken between 1987 and 1996:84
disapproved of access as a verb in non-technical contexts; 74% disapproved of the
sentence - He has authored a dozen books on the subject; 95% disapproved of the use
of impact as a transitive verb; and although contact as a verb met with 66% disapproval
in 1969, it seems to have won a victory less than 20 years later, with 65% of the Usage
Panel accepting this [functional shift].

Today, the word – ‘access’has gained recognition as a verb and can be exemplified with the
following instances:

a) I can’t access most of my data on the computer without using password. (Verb)

b) She can access her profile through face book. (Verb)

c) They will access the data tomorrow. (Verb)

Instances of using the word impact as a transitive verb:

a) If I separate you from Uche, it will impact on your friendship. (Verb)

b) They are decisions that impact our lifestyles. (Verb)

c) When the hammers impact on the nails, they bend. (Verb)

In the process of functional shift, when a derivative adopts all the inflectional markers or features
of the class it is converted into, it is called a full conversion; but when it adopts some features
and not all, it is called a partial conversion.

Instances of Productivity of Functional Shift

It is noted that virtually all the word-classes of the English Language can undergo a functional
shift. Let us exemplify functional shift using the content words as illustratively enshrined in
various sample texts.



Sample Text 1

Find me to marry one with Octavius Caesar, and companion me with my mistress... dear Isis,
keep decorum, and fortune him accordingly! ... And that which most with you should safe my
going/is Fulvia’s death... Since my becomings kill me, when they do not/Eye well to you... This
common body/Like to a vagabond flag upon the stream/Goes to and back, lackeying the varying
tide... that what I would have spoke/was beastly dumb’d by him... a hand that kings/Have lipt
(lipped), and trembled kissing... We have jaded out o’ the field... henceforth/The white hand of a
lady fever thee... The hearts/That spaniel’d me at heels... Wouldst thou be window’din great
Rome, and see...Your wife Octavia/... shall acquire no honour/Demuring upon me... Ballad us
out o’ tune: the quick comedians... Some squea king Cleopatra boy my greatness... (Anthony and
Cleopatra I.ii.31-V.ii.220 in Shakespeare, 1996).

From the text above, it is obvious that Shakespeare made use of these words competently
and, in such a way that they become part of another word class at any point in time as the need
arises. In the instances given, some words are overtly marked by taking inflectional pattern
suitable to the word-class they are converted into just like the words: lackey-lackeying and
demure-demuring, taking the present continuous aspect of the verb being converted to. Also, the
words: dumb-dumbed, lip-lipped, jade-jaded, spaniel-spanieled and window-windowed taking
the past tense marker of the verb they are converted to. However, there are some others that are
covertly marked such as safe, fortune, ballad, fever, eye, companion and boy. These words as
used above are instances where functional shift exhibits its flexibility the most, because these
words are devoid of any form of inflection based on the uses they are subjected to.

Sample Text 2

He doctors sick horses...Would youpaper a room with representations of horses?... ‘You must
paper it’, said the gentleman, rather warmly. ‘You must paper it’, said Thomas Gradgrind,
‘whether you like it or not. Don’t tell us you wouldn’t paper it....’ I would fancy... Suppose you
were going to carpet a room, would you use a carpet having a representation of flowers upon
it?’... [In] prairie manner ... ‘he was goosed last night, he was goosed the night before last, he
was goosed today’... (Dickens,1996, pps 35-45).

Sample Text 3

There wet for your pains... You and your ragged books ... oh make me want to pulp your
brain... And I will scorn the jibes of these bush minds... And you must chirrup like a cockatoo...
Shaming our heritage before the world... Tethered, as it were, to my dirtied heels... I dislike this
strange unhealthy mouthing you perform... but the Bale is still feasting his eyes on the images...



Will guru morin wet my throat? ... And we are not feuding in something I have forgotten... Have
you forgotten? If he has serve him a slap to wake his brain... He seeks to have me as his property
where I must fade beneath his jealous hold...Do any of my wives report a failing in my
manliness? ... That, with a virgin young and hot within, my failing strength would rise and save
my pride... Or will the smell of the wet soil be too much for your delicate nostrils? ... Is a man’s
bedroom to be made naked to any flea that chances to wander through? ... A python for mother,
and fathered beyond doubt by a blubber-bottomed baboon... planning for a final burst of life, he
husbands his strength and before I even don a cap, I find yet another stranger in my bed...
Below the humming birds which smoke the face of Sango... in years to come, we must leave
virgin plot of lives, rich decay... (Soyinka,1963, pps 1-52).

In the above extract, the highlighted words have multiple class members. The word wet
could be adjective, noun or verb depending on usage. In the initial and second usage of the word
in the above text, it is used as verb while in the third usage; it is used as an adjective. The word
rag is a noun, but here, it is used as verb-ragged, the word pulp could be adjective, noun, or verb,
but it is used as a verb. These words - mouthing, feasting and feuding are all of noun origin, but
were used as verbs. The word dirty could be verb, adverb, or adjective but it is used as verb. The
word slap could be a noun, verb or adverb but it is used as a noun in the text under analysis. The
word fade could be verb, adjective, or noun, but used as verb, the words chances and smoke
could be noun, verb or adjective but are used as verbs. The words father, husbandand don are
nouns but are used as verbs. The word virgin could be a noun or an adjective but is used as
adjective.

For a word to change classes and still, maintain a multiple class membership is evidence
of flexibility. It is also a way to exploit a reader’s existing knowledge because some of these
words in question are not new to the language. For one to associate the meaning of the converted
word to the word from which it is converted is a sign of sharing a semantic relation and/or
evidence of semantic extension. Hence, the possibility of writers or speakers to exploit a reader’s
existing knowledge

In addition to the above examples, the following are given to support some of the cases of
functional shift in sentences using the following words: round, down, back, second, reverse,
past and dream

1. Examples using the word ‘round’:

a) We went round Lagos in a taxi. (Preposition)



b) She rounded off the discussion. (Verb)

c) I tried to bring him round. (Adverb)

d) Caroline has a round face like a moon. (Adjective)

e) The nurse was on her round to look after the patients. (Noun)

(Murthy 2007, p.8)

Similarly,Eyisi (2006,p.19) made her marks in the use of the word ‘round’ as:

a) He ate six whole rounds of bread and butter. (Noun)

b) She rounded the corner at top speed. (Verb)

c) Peter has a round mirror in his room. (Adjective)

d) Drake sailed round the world and came back to England. (Preposition).

e) Turn your chair round and face me. (Adverb)

Apart from Murthy and Eyisi’s contributions, the above examples can be rewritten in
such a way that the word round will function without inflections on the form. Consider the
following:

a) He ate a round of fruit salad. (Noun)

b) We are to round the corner at top speed. (Verb)

c) I have a round table in the dinning. (Adjective)

d) He danced round the tree for fun. (Preposition)

e) Turn the table round to face your audience. (Adverb)

2. Examples using the word ‘down’:

a) She ran down the road. (Preposition)

b) She fell down. (Adverb)

c) She is feeling very down today. (Adjective)

d) My doona is filled with down. (noun)

e) Watch him down this schooner of beer. (Verb)



(Collins and Hollo, 32)

Similarly, Yadugiri (2008, pps.210-211) uses the word ‘down’ thus:

a) Prices will come down. (Adverb)

b) We went down the road. (Preposition)

c) My computer is down. (Adjective)

d) The storm has downed several trees in the region. (Verb)

e) There was a slight down on her arms. (Noun)

3. Examples using the word ‘back’:

a) She will come back tomorrow. (adverb)

b) We forgot to lock the back door. (adjective)

c) All her friends backed her when she decided to contest the election. (verb)

d)Please sign on the back of the cheque. (noun)

(Yadugiri, 2008, p.211)

4. Examples using the word ‘second’:

a) She came second in the race. (Adverb)

b) She is second in the list. (Adjective)

c) I seconded Ravi’s proposal. (Verb)

d) Change from the first to the second . (Noun)

(Yadugiri,2008,p.211)

5. Examples using the word ‘reverse’:

a) She went in the reverse direction. (adjective)

b) She reversed into the garage. (verb)



c) The quality hasn’t improved, quite the reverse. (noun)

(Yadugiri, 2008,p.211)

6. Examples using the word ‘past’:

a) A car drove past the door. (preposition)

b) A car drove past . (prepositional adverb)

(Quirk and Greenbaum, 2004,p.145)

Grammatical words as Verbs

down downed (As in: they downed their drinks)

out outed (As in: they were outed)

but but (As in: but me no but)

In addition, these conjunctions: if, and together with but can be used as nouns, the
adjective yellow is used as verb, the prepositions up and down are used as noun. The interjection
ho hoho served as noun. The adverb how and why are used as noun. As for the productivity of
zero-derivation, virtually all the word-classes of the English language can undergo zero-
derivation including affixes. For instance, “biology and zoology are welcomed; any other logy
is prohibited”. Quirk and Greenbaum (2004, p. 442) gave another instance as “patriotism, and
any other isms you’d like to name”.

Creativity of Functional Shift

Creativity may have other senses but for this study it is meant to portray English language users’
ability to manipulate English words skilfully in such a way that they reflect the users’ intended
meaning at least possible cost and at the right circumstance. For this analysis, the works of
Davies(2018) and Chukwu(2011) will be used to that effect. In this study, creativity is viewed in
two ways - ‘Dominant creativity’ and ‘Recessive creativity’. These terms are employed to
bring to light the easily perceived creativity and receding creativity. While the work of
Davies(2018) will be used to analyse the dominant creativity, the work of Chukwu(2011) will be
used for recessive creativity.



Sample Text 5

My wife’s expected date of delivery will be in October and she was advised by our family doctor
to have enough rest. However, on this fateful day – 28th September, 2018, she hollywooded till
2am. When I got up in the middle of the night, I thought she was drinking a glass of water; but
no, she was merely beveraging. Surprisingly, the list of names to be chosen from for our baby
that will be octobered was still where I kept it untouched. Angrily, I asked her why she had not
attended to it. She told me that she was sorry for hollywooding all the while; that she was
carried away by the interesting episode. She confessed that she even forgot that her boss, who
will be novembering, gave her an assignment to draft an invitation card. Then, I asked her to
turn off the video. She was like asking me to give her some minutes to round off. Seeing my stern
look and determined disposition, she turned off the video, took the list of names and selected
‘Florence’. ‘Why Florence’, I asked? She told me that she expected our daughter to take up a
nursing profession and become a ‘Florence Nightingale’ of our time; having visualised how she
will be Florence Nightingale-ing round the casualty ward, soothing the wounds of the casualties
and mopping the fevered brows, the name was therefore chosen for her. ‘Since when did you
turn out to be kind-hearted and selfless’? I queried. ‘Why not choose the name Elizabeth’? ‘Am I
not worthy to have Queen Elizabeth in my home’? I blushed. ‘In short, be informed, you have
wombed a queen and she cannot be exchanged for a nurse; no way!’ ‘But nurses are highly
valued abroad’, my wife persisted. ‘Keep quiet!’ I shouted. ‘I wouldn’t want any person to queen
me an inch further after the next twenty to twenty five years to come; and negotiation is hereby
terminated!’ – ‘The matter closed!’ ‘My baby will be named after Queen Elizabeth’. That’s all!

[Davies, 2018, pps. 48-54(emphasis mine)]

Considering these words -‘hollywooded’, ‘beveraging’, ‘octobered’, ‘hollywooding’,
‘novembering’, ‘Florence Nightingale-ing’, ‘fevered’, ‘wombed’ and ‘queen’,they obviously
reflect very clear instances of creativity. Even people with little knowledge of English will know
that the words are used in an uncommon way. These easily noticed traits of functional shift are
termed dominant creativity.

However, some other times, we observe a rather smooth transition of word from one
wordclass to the other without attracting much attention. This is possible because such words are
not new in the language but are used in other sense. Not only that, they tend to fit in, in the
grammatical structure of the language; so much so that even the native speakers hardly see it as
an ungrammatical usage of English words. For such usages, let us consider extracts from
Chukwu’s literary work.

Sample Text 7



... In fact, what will I recount that I’m still lacking in the face of the earth. Yet, I need a caretaker
to man all these in the way I treasure...I hope this dining and wining will cement our
relationship! ... (You’ve done well! You wanted to be like me, but your chase proved a wild
goose!) ... I have been grinding and feeding your mouth but you’ve been grinding yours and
blinding my eyes! ... Papa, you panicked me!... Trading is good but what happens if after your
years of service you’re booted out ignominiously on a trumped up charge, what then will become
of the person?... Every stone will be turned to ferret out resources for nurture ... Keep fit and
may God speed you in your enterprise! ... He couldn’t look at our faces and was somewhat
quailing... How can a person be owed over three months arrears and yet you call the person a
salaried earner...Suffering and success are recognised as God’s makings, but there is a plea that
the better should remain. Now, therefore, will you have to go with the worse? (Chukwu, 2011,
pps.63-119).

The highlighted words could be used as other parts of speech other than the ones they are
used in the above extract. For instance, the words: man, treasure, cement, chase, blind(ing),
panick (ed), boot(ed), ferret, quail(ing), salary (ied), make (ings), better, and worse could
serve as other word class other than the ones they served currently, provided they are reverted to
their bases and inflections removed. Therefore, they can serve the following: The word man is of
noun origin and could serve as noun or verb but is used as verb. The word treasure could be a
noun or verb but is used as a verb; cement could be a noun or verb but is used as a verb; chase
could be a noun or verb but it is used as a noun. The word blind (with -ing inflection removed)
could serve as adjective or verb but used as verb; panick(with -ed inflection removed) could
serve as adjective, noun or verb but used as verb; boot (with -ed inflection removed) could serve
as noun or verb but used as verb; quail (with -ing inflection removed) could serve as a noun or a
verb but used as a verb; salary is of noun origin but with the present inflection -ied as in
salaried, it then serves as an adjective. The words better and worse could serve as adjective,
adverb, verb or noun simultaneously, but are used as nouns.

In these highlighted words, there are smooth transitions from one word class to the other
unlike the examples in the Sample Text 6. With this smooth transition, the process is termed
recessive creativity. In this case, the writer uses the words skilfully in such a way that they do
exactly what the writer intends them to do at a particular point in time and in the right
circumstance. This is what we call creativity and/or competence!

Conclusion

Functional shift is actually a veritable tool in the hands of competent users of English as this
gives them a good platform for ingenious use of English words in such a way that they satisfy
maximally, all their communicative needs. Functional shift spices up the English language and
gives it polish; hence, its ability to overcome language death. Some languages today are



considered as dead languages like Latin. However, the English language is alive, dynamic and
needs no revitalization.

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