Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

8 

 

CHAPTER  

2 

ART HISTORY AND CRITICISM: A NEW PERSPECTIVE 
 

 

Godwin Ogbu Uka 

Department of Fine and Applied Arts,  

University of Nigeria, Nsukka 

 

Keywords: Art History, Art Criticism, Iconography, Visual Art 

 

Introduction 

Art history is the study of art objects considered within their period and time. The art 

historian in their capacity to study and analyse visual arts: painting, sculpture, graphics, textile, 

fashion and architecture at the time they were created? In art history, students study the art and 

architecture of cultures around the world and across the millennia. A lot of approaches can be 

employed in the study of objects of art, but the main focus of this book will be on the aesthetic 

and historical significance as well as the social relevance of the subject. 

Studying art history provides students with an opportunity to develop essential skills and 

talents that lie at the liberal art education, which include informal and critical reading, writing 

and speaking. The art history study includes visual art and how meaning in visual terms and, how 

we read and understand the world that is largely presented to us as visual information. The study 

of art history of the past teaches students how people have seen themselves and their world, and 

how they want to show this to others. Art history provides means by which we can understand 

our human past and its relationship to our present because the act of producing and making art is 

one of humanity's most obliquities activities. Art history in general terms is the study of our rich 

and fundamental strand of human and culture. It is therefore, the study of art from all over the 

world from different periods and places, in the same way, that others learn and write about other 

related subjects. 

The history of art and design can begin with a survey of the artefacts of prehistoric 

humans, showing how functional objects throughout history have been designed with a sense of 

visual awareness as well as operational needs. It is through art that man had his first instrument 

of writing and feeding. Art was also the first means of communication. This was because of 

language problems, with particular reference to nomenclature and vocabulary. The visual 

illustration was, therefore, interpreted and understood. The visual arts comprise a factor of 

tremendous importance to our cultural growth and development.  

Art was simply known as art in its earliest beginning. Industrialization and the explosion 

of knowledge leading to specialization have been the main factors responsible for classifying art 

into fine, applied/industrial and craft. Fine art was linked with painting and sculpture, which 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

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were appealing because of their beauty, applied art was associated with pottery and utility related 

areas and crafts are known as handcrafts. What we have today as "Fine and Applied Arts” was 

originally not so. 

The history of art and design in its broadest sense as an embodiment of human skill is the 

history of human ingenuity, beginning and self-discipline. This has been part of human culture, 

ever since mankind first emerged two million years ago. However, design in the modern sense 

did not exist until the Industrial Revolution. The intervention of modern technology has created 

tremendous changes in the conception and practice of art and design. It was the Industrial 

Revolution that brought about the transition from manual to machine-based techniques of 

production in Great Britain in the 18th century. To improve the design quality of machine - made 

goods, the German architect, Walter Gropius, founded the Bauhaus School of Design. The 

modern society, which emerged from industrial society demanded modern designs suitable for 

mass production that has led to the present state of the art today. 

 

Definition of Art 

Art is the expression or application of human creative skill and imagination, producing 

works to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power. Art is often considered 

the process or product of deliberately arranging elements in a way that appeals to the sense or 

emotions. Arts encompass a diverse range of human activities, creation, and ways of expression 

including other areas like music, literature, film, glass design, textiles, sculpture, graphics, 

painting, ceramic and so on. 

It can also be looked at as something that is intelligently created to serve the following 

purposes: communicate, represent, decorate, persuade, convey or evoke emotion, and provide 

self-expression, even if work is never shared with another person. Exploring new ideas, 

including what art itself is. Visual art is constructed from very basic elements or components that 

we experience through our sense of sight and/or touch; namely, lines, two and/or three-

dimensional shapes, textures, colours, dark and light qualities, and actual or implied space. 

Almost everything that we see can be described or interpreted in terms of these same visual (or 

sensory) components. Why do we ascribe the term "art" to some of these objects while others are 

merely described as useful or interesting or even beautiful? The subject of Art can be defined in 

many other ways broadly but critically. 

 

What is Art History? 

Art history is the study of art and design in its historical development and stylistic 

contexts; that field is the design, format and style. It can be seen as the study of objects of art 

considered within their period. Art historian analyses visual arts' that is painting, sculpture, 

graphics, ceramics, architecture, textiles and others at the time they were created. The historian 

identifies the visual elements of the art work and interprets its meaning. The main preoccupation 

of art historians is simply to establish the origins of works of art, that is discovering who created 

a particular artwork, when, where and for what reason. Art historians are interested in what the 

works of art represented at the time, they were created, which is a way of learning about the 

civilization of the past. It is very important because is one of the ways to recount stories of past 

events, Art history allows us to look back and understand how our civilization evolved over the 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

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centuries. This is a way we will be able to know ourselves better, in trying to do so; we should 

ask why we have certain values. What shaped the way we think and our vision of the world? It is 

very important to note that the study of art history is all about developing critical thinking ability, 

and is not only about memorizing dates, artists' names, art movements, and so on. Instead, it 

drives the historian to analyze art works. To support this type of analysis, the art historian must 

build rational and convincing arguments, hence developing his/her critical thinking.   

Art history is a field that deals with the study of different groups of people and their 

cultures represented throughout their artwork in different forms, times or periods in the world. It 

can be shown by their attire, architecture, religion, sports or more visual pieces of art such as 

drawing, painting, sculpture and others. Art history is distinguished from art criticism, which is 

concerned with establishing a relative artistic value upon individual work concerning other 

works of comparable style, or on entire style or movement, and art theory or "philosophy of Art", 

which is concerned with the fundamentals of art. One branch of this area is aesthetics, which 

includes investigating the mystery of the sublime and determining the essence of beauty  

Art appreciation and art history 

The study of art history and appreciation are the same but the difference comes to play 

when this knowledge is put into practice. Art appreciation is focused on studying to better 

understand and analyze art while art criticism involves evaluating an art works with formal 

assessment tools. This requires an understanding of art movement, history and techniques. Art 

history as a discipline is the academic study of the history and development of visual art and art 

appreciation, the application of basic tools of literature to understand and appreciate works of art. 

Art historians in any art historical analysis should have the following questions in mind. Why 

does a work of art look the way it does? Who made it and why? What does it mean? These 

questions and others alike should be the major deliberation of art historical inquiry. Art historian 

uses various types of analysis to provide answers. These have varied over time and continue to 

evolve. 

 

Iconography 

Iconography is a branch of art history, that studies the identification, description, and 

interpretation of the content of images employed in an art work, the subject depicted in the 

particular composition and details used to do so and other elements that are different from artistic 

style. It consists in analyzing the symbolism of works of art. For instance, art historians identify 

the visual elements of any work of art and interpret its meaning. Art historians are interested in 

what the works of art represented at the time they were created, which is a way to lean about the 

civilization of the past.  It is important to note that the visual art recounts stories of past events.  

 

Art as physical objects 

A work of art can be considered as the visual arts in physical two or three-dimensional 

objects that is professionally determined or otherwise considered to fulfil a primarily 

independent aesthetic function. Dimensional Form: here the designer or artist draws or crafts 

out his works in various plans of space to represent the real objects intended to produce. This 

type of design process can further be classified into 2D and 3D designs. 2 - Dimensional 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

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designs are works done on flat surface. It involves such activities as drawing, painting on 

fabrics, well paper and advertising layout that is designed in two plans. 3 - Dimensional 

designs are works executed in the round. It includes such activities as sculpture, architecture, 

handicrafts such as jewellery, pottery, leather works, clothing and machine-made objects 

such as chairs, automobiles, packages, 3D animation and so on. A work of art is defined as 

something that is considered to have aesthetic values, something of beauty or a creative skill 

which produces an aesthetic result. Physical art when contrasted with conceptual art refers to the 

art that concretely exists in physical reality, in space and time. 

 

Art as a visual experience  

A focus is on the functions, style and structures of the major visual art forms, It examines 

the connection between the visual, social and physical dimensions of everyday life in which art 

perform essential roles, while illustrating clearly the common features of the theme and culture, 

art critics, artist and all those interested in art criticism. 

 

Art as a cultural artefact 

This term is used to describe anything created by humans who give information about the 

culture of its creator and user. A cultural artefact is more generic and should be considered with 

two words similar, but narrower and fine distinction. It includes objects received from 

archaeological sites i.e. archaeological objects, but also includes objects of modern and early 

modern society 

 

Important Roles of the Artist or designer 

Artists and designers are creators who keep and document visual records of people, 

places, and events of their time and place. They help us to see the world in a new and innovative 

way. Every art creator plays a different and necessary part in contributing to the overall health, 

development, and well - being of our society, as creative thinkers and makers the provide their 

communities with joy, interaction, and inspiration but they also give thoughtful critique to our 

political economic and social system pushing communities to engage in thoughtful and make 

steps towards social progress, from documenting human history to expressing collective 

emotion. They are a major vehicle for expressing universal emotions. This can be personal and 

sometimes universal. They have the ability 'feel strongly' about the paint, gesture or colour. They 

can “absorb” the atmosphere of a place or the memory of a feeling. They are responsible for 

unearthing the truth, their work is to illuminate the margins and make societal changes, tell 

stories and pass traditions, and connect with and inspire people globally. They record and 

preserve our human history, and offer messages of hope. They are ambassadors of the natural 

world and create a sense of community people live in. 

 

Art History in the Present  

 

Historical Context  

Art is a subject of study that exists in every history of the world. Art object created by the 

artist anywhere or in society is a product of materials intention and outcomes that reflects a time 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

12 

 

and place. People interested in art seeking to understand and benefit from the cultural legacy art 

provides, may travel across time and space through art to discover its various interwoven 

histories, in this way it is a form of education in the art. The best way to understand art lies in an 

individual’s conception of what they see in any art work. What is deemed to be aesthetic value 

by their culture or subculture and from which artists and objects are included in histories or 

traditions, they are taught. Art history is not one history but many histories that people have 

different art history. These histories have been developing throughout time, since before 

recorded history, yet many only recently are being included in art history text and discussion. 

It is good and nice to approach the study of art as a global phenomenon; this is so because 

art history refers to art in its present and recent past with a focus on the art world. Art history 

refers to the study of art in the world of humans and society. These art pieces from different 

places are available at multiple places, events, market places. 

Art history in the present time is considered the breakthrough of the global approach to 

art history within a broader historical, sociological, and institutional context. It is necessary to 

put into perspective the interdisciplinary openness of the global - oriented approach which many 

people, and researchers have been advocating and their impact on the discipline. The scholars of 

global art history borrowed certain ideas from other fields of study. Such as history, 

anthropology, philosophy, and psychology, but their work was gradually put aside in the process 

of building art history as a discipline. 

The idea of global art history has long been started, in a world cat, global library, a global 

database that integrates the print collection of libraries all over the world, the number of 

catalogues items containing the phrase 'art history' that also refers to 'global art history' or 'world 

art history'. In a more detailed disciplinary survey one can carry out an art-historical journal. In 

the academic English - Speaking field of art history, the art Bulletin shows a similar increase in 

the frequency of these terms. The twenty- first century marked the beginning of global 

challenges in art history, with awareness to review and renew the discipline's objects and 

methods. Art history should be global affairs. Basic western art history, such as formal analysis, 

per iodization and iconography, already exist in other countries of the world, such as Chine, 

Africa and others. 

What is art criticism? 

Art criticism is the act of analyzing and evaluating any visual art, in a more precise term, 

art criticism involves a personal interpretation, which is undertaken to understand a particular 

work of art using the knowledge of art theory, establishing where a work fits in with different 

artistic styles and movement throughout art history. Art criticism is the discussion or evaluation 

of visual art. An Art critic usually criticizes art in the content of aesthetics or the theory of 

beauty. A goal of art criticism is the perfectionist of a coherent basis for art and appreciation. Art 

criticism can be broken down into four steps: 

 

1, Description 

2, Analysis 

3. Interpretation 

4. Evaluation 

 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

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Types of art criticism 

The most common division in art criticism is between historical and evaluation, a form of 

art history and contemporary criticism of works of living artists, many different variables 

determine one judgment of art such as aesthetic, cognition or perception  

Assessing a work of art 

Fundamental steps critics/historians should use to describe the elements contained in any 

work of art are: the size, scale, general shape used, the use of vertical and horizontal lines and 

angles, colour and scheme, used, the texture of it, and where and when it was produced to give it 

historical context, following that would be to analyze the work of art by determining what they 

described elements are suggesting and why the artist used those specific colours, angles, shapes 

and so on to convey feelings, ideas or historical events. It is important to describe and analyze 

the composition of the work, focusing on details, such as its use of light, shadow, space and 

landscape. Also, think about the way it shows movement, and how your emotional response to it.  

The next step is interpretation, which is used to establish context, explaining why we think the 

artist created it and what it means when interpreting a work of art, interpret the overall meaning 

of the work by pointing to evidence inside the work, historical context clues such as what is 

going on in history when it was created or produced, and what art theories movement relates to 

it. The last step is evaluation or judgment, the critic/historian must decide where the artwork 

stands alongside similar works and explain what aspect of it are most important when deciding 

its quality, Evaluation can be tricky because the critic can be biased which often come to play 

here, and should not be so. 

What is visual art? 

Visual art is a form of art, made by human thoughts and hands, to be appreciated by 

human sight. Example of such is graphics, ceramics, fashion, painting, sculpture and filmmaking 

as contrasted with literature and music. Visual art is also known in some circle as plastic art 

objects, which are contrasted with the performing arts These includes the following: drawing, 

painting, printmaking, sculpture, ceramics, photography, video, filmmaking, design, craft and 

architecture. Many artistic disciplines such as performing arts, conceptual arts, and textiles art 

also involve aspects of visual arts as well as art of other types. Looking at it more closely, it can 

be defined as the process whereby one learns how to produce art, engage in the aesthetic and 

critical analysis of art, and talk, read and write about art. Although this definition is broad in 

scope, it does not begin to describe the concepts and activities involved in becoming visually and 

aesthetically literate. The process of learning has both form and content; form is concerned with 

how one learns and content pertains to what is learned.  

 

Visual art: definition and meaning 

"Visual arts" can presently be seen in modem times but in precise terms for a broad 

category of art which includes several artistic disciplines from various sub- categories. The 

definition of visual art usually encompasses the following: 

 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

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(a) Fine arts 

All aspects of fine art belong to the general categories of visual arts. These include 

activities, such as drawing, painting,  and sculpture others are graphics art, ceramics, fashion, 

textile, and glass design, with associated activates like manuscript illustration, book illustration, 

calligraphy,  architecture and others. 

(b) Contemporary arts 

Visual art also includes some modern art forms such as assemblage, collage, mixed-

media, conceptual art, installation, happenings and performances and film art, and associated 

disciplines such as photography, video arts and animation, or any combination thereof. This 

group of activities includes high-tech discipline and others like computer graphics and so on. 

Another modern visual art is new environmental or experimental graphics, land art which 

includes transitory forms like ice/snow sculpture and presumably graffiti art. 

(c) Decorative arts and craft 

In addition, the general categories of visual arts encompass many decorative art 

disciplines and crafts, including ceramics and studies in pottery, mosaic art, mobiles, tapestry, 

glass art (including stained glass and others.  

(d) Others  

A wider definition of visual art sometimes includes applied art areas such as graphics 

design, textile, fashion design, glass design and interior design. In addition, a new type of body 

art may also fall under the general heading of visual arts. These include tattoo art, face painting 

and body painting. Visual art and design are about creating and making the general aesthetics of 

the work, For example to create the aesthetics style of any art or any related work of art, it is 

important to work with fundamental elements of art and design, arranging them according to the 

principles. These elements and principles together form the building blocks of art and design and 

a firm understanding of them is crucial in creating visual design/art of any product.  

There are the main media through which especially designers and artists translate images 

and ideas into concrete terms. In man's visual communication experience everything large and 

small, natural or man-made can be described in terms of these elements and principles. 

Sign, symbol and metaphor 

A metaphor is a figure of speech that transfers one thing to another through implied 

comparisons. It is used to infuse writing and speech with vitality, which makes both more 

interesting; an example is when "the artist made minced meat out of his colours. When an artist 

starts thinking beyond merely identifying a work's visual elements (the character of its lines, 

shapes, colours, and so on.) and how these elements are organized. It is essential to consider the 

proposition that works of art speak to us through both their formal organization and the signs, 

symbols and metaphors that can be associated with them. Works of art become most meaningful 

for us when they evoke thoughts and feelings. “Visual metaphors are implied as a consequence 

of analyzing the relationships between the formal structures and subject matter of works of art. In 

addition to their role as symbols, the crosses can also function as visual metaphors if the artist 

will take the time to analyze their form - content relationships. 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

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Another way to think about sign, symbol and metaphor is to relate these concepts to the 

notions of what is denoted (actually there) and what is connoted (what is implied) in works of 

art. Signs for objects are denoted; the signs exist in works as representations of objects. These 

signs for objects function as symbols only if appropriate associations can be made with them; 

therefore, symbols are connoted or implied. They are inferred from what can be observed. Visual 

metaphors are also connoted, but they are inferred from a holistic interpretation of the objects in 

a work and the way the work is put together; i.e., its subject matter, its technical properties (how 

it is rendered), and its formal style.  

How to identify what is in a work of art 

How best can artists and others identify what is in a work of art? Perceiving works of art 

aesthetically begins with an objective analysis of their inherent qualities or properties, which can 

reveal the following features of a work of art. 

 

Sensory Properties - The elements of art are very necessary for any visual discussion, 

assailment and criticism, the qualities that we experience through our senses: shape, line, texture, 

value, colour, space, and scale are very important. A common practice when looking at a work of 

art is to briefly study its surface and then conclude what its subject appears to be and how much 

the work is to be admired. However, to begin to arrive at the actual aesthetic and expressive 

significance of the work, its surface must first be very carefully examined. The specific character 

of its lines, shapes, textures, values, colours, scale, space and volume, and the images these 

elements are associated with need to be identified.  

 

Formal properties - sensory properties are organized to achieve a sense of unity, balance, 

movement, and dominance. What can be seen in a work of art includes the ways visual elements 

and images have been arranged, how the work has been formed, in other words, its formal 

properties. A careful and critical study of a work will reveal: the means used to achieve a sense 

of unity, the elements that appear to be dominant, the nature of implied movements, and how 

balance is achieved ranging between symmetry and asymmetry.  

Technical properties- appearances of shapes, values, colours, and others, that are due to the use 

of particular materials and techniques. While carefully observing a work's sensory and formal 

properties is essential to speculating productively about what the work appears to be expressing. 

Expressive properties of a work's subject, for instance, can contribute to evoking: (a) feelings 

such as fear, loneliness or joy, or a sense of tension or tranquillity, and/or (b) ideas and ideals 

associated with, for example, the power of nature or the innocence of youth. 

The art historian is trained to determine after identifying a work's sensory and formal 

properties, should be able to speculate about how these particular properties contribute to what 

the work may be saying to us, literally, symbolically and metaphorically; that is, its expressive 

properties. What appears to be the mood of the work (sombre, gay, and menacing)? What is its 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

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dynamic state (tension, conflict, relaxation)? What ideas and/or ideals does the work evoke 

(bravery, intelligence, hard work and so on.)?  

In addition to these properties, a work of art will reflect the time and the geographic area 

in which it was produced, and/or the particular way its creator utilizes and organizes its 

properties. When a work of art is analyzed in terms of these characteristics, the nature of its 

"style" is investigated. The style of a work of art refers to its distinctive features, a family of 

characteristics, that recur in particular works is an important thing to note in any art analysis. 

In addition to creating works with distinctive formal characteristics, artists of every age 

employ particular subjects, themes and symbols. Art historians help us to understand works of art 

by relating individual works to other works and to the ideas, values and events associated with 

the time and culture in which such works were produced. Identifying the style of works of art 

and the meanings associated with their subjects, themes and symbols are tasks for the art 

historian. 

Art historians all over the world help people to understand works of art by relating 

individual works to other works and to the ideas, values and events associated with the time and 

culture in which such works were produced. In so doing the art historian identifies the style of 

works of art and the meanings associated with their subjects, themes and symbols. 

Visual art is constructed from very basic elements or components that we experience 

through our sense of sight and/or touch; namely, lines, two and/or three-dimensional shapes, 

textures, colours, dark and light qualities, and actual or implied space. For any analysis and 

criticism of any work of art, the following should be critically considered or looked into: 

 

• Should natural objects be considered as works of art?  

• Is art anything we want it to be, or does the term "art" refer to objects that have special 

characteristics?  

• What conditions need to exist before we are willing to classify something as art?  

Art Works and Styles 

 

What is Style?  

Art style describes the way the artwork looks, it describes how the artist portrays his or 

her subject matter and how the artist compresses his or her vision. All of these stylistic elements 

are defined by the choices artists make while composing their artwork. In visual art, style is a 

"distinctive manner which permits the group of works into related categories" and made it refers 

to the visual appearance of a work of art that relate to other works by the same artist or any other 

from the same period, location, training, school, art movement. The notion of style has long been 

the art historian's principal mode of classifying works of art. By style, the historian selects and 

shapes the history of art. Style is often divided into the general style of the period, country, 

cultural group or artist or art movement and individual styles of artists within the group style. 

 

How does Style of work relate to the world of art? 

 An informed understanding of a work of art should include its content, iconography, and 

a genuine appreciation for its relative significance. The answer to these questions provides 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

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insights into a work of art that enable a more comprehensive response to the work. Without such 

information, it will be difficult to place such a work. Before you can consider a work it is proper 

to understand the following:   

 

Temporal (time) 

Pre-historic (Paleolithic, Upper-Paleolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age, Stone Age, Iron 

Age), Egyptian, Greek, Byzantine, Etruscan, Roman, Early Christian, Medieval, Carolingian, 

Ottoman, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, 18th century, 19th century, 20th century, Pre-

Columbian, Ming, Sung, Chou, Han, Fujiwara, Kamakura, Ashikaga, and Nara. 

Geographical (place) 

Temporal (time) 

Pre-historic (Paleolithic, Upper-Paleolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age, Stone Age, Iron 

Age), Egyptian, Greek, Byzantine, Etruscan, Roman, Early Christian, Medieval, Carolingian, 

Ottoman, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, 18th century, 19th century, 20th century, Pre-

Columbian, Ming, Sung, Chou, Han, Kamakura, Ashikaga, and Nara. 

Geographical (place) 

Geographical places include African, American, Assyrian, Chinese, Egyptian, European, 

Greek, India, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Oceanic, Northern European, Persian, Peruvian, and 

Sumerian.     

Cultural 

Different art cultures include Balinese, Amana, Celtic, Chinese, Egyptian, Eskimo, blur, 

Kwakiutl, Maori, Mayan, Minoan, Moorish, Navajo, Peloponnesian, Roman, Snafu, Sioux. 

Types of Styles 

abstract, abstract-geometric, anti-mannerist, archaic, baroque, classic, impressionistic, 

mannerism, naturalistic, neoclassic, non-objective, painterly, realistic, representational, and 

romantic. 

 

School/Custom/Tradition 

Abstract Expressionism, Ash Can, Barbizon, Bauhaus, Reiter, Byzantine, Cinema Verity,  

Constructivism, Hudson River, Impressionism, Coptic, Cubism, Dadaism, Expressionism, 

Fauvism, Florentine, Futurism, Hard-edge, Hellenistic, Minimal, Naturalism, New Realism, Op, 

Orphism, Pointillism, Pop, Precisionist, Primitivism, Realism, Regionalism, Song, Surrealism, 

Venetian, Yamato-e. Idioms (styles of individual artists, just a few examples): 

Bergman, Bernini, Bramante, Brunelleschi, Cellini, Fellini, Giotto, Kurosawa, Rembrandt, La 

Tours, Van Gogh, Frank Lloyd Wright 

Fusion of Styles 

Etruscan - Italian, French-Baroque, Greco - Roman, Hellenistic, Italian Renaissance, Northern 

Renaissance, Spanish Gothic. 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

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Who makes art? 

There are, of course, many types of artists. Artists are people who make aesthetic 

decisions as they produce objects (paintings or pottery) and/or organize events (motion pictures 

or television programs). Artist - designers plan and/or produce all manner of commodities. These 

range from packages for food to children's toys which stimulate imagination, from photographs 

and illustrations for books and magazines to symbolic forms which enhance religious 

ceremonies.  

 

The variables that can affect the appraisal of works of art  

Appraising art work requires the need to comprehend the technical, formal and symbolic 

aspects of the art. Technical considerations include knowing how works of art are constructed. 

All art forms contain 'formal' elements such as shapes, values and some form of balance. It is 

essential to practice identifying and describing these elements because (a) the ways they are 

organized evoke feelings such as a sense of tranquillity or tension and (b) this kind of analysis 

precedes interpreting the possible meanings in a work of art. One should also realize that art 

works often depict or employ objects which represent or symbolize particular meanings and 

feelings. Being aware of how judging works of art can be conditioned by cultural, political and 

economic values is an important factor. Thus, studying art as a subject should include the 

consideration of variables which affect responses not inherent within the forms, themselves.  

One needs to be conscious of the fact that appraisals of art are always relative to 

particular criteria. By making these criteria explicit, it is possible to develop logical justifications 

for one's judgments about art. In addition, objective justifications, rather than mere expressions 

of personal preference (e.g., "I love it" or "I hate it"), make provocative and productive discourse 

about particular works of art feasible.  

Terms used when examining and evaluating art 

Perceive: apprehend, attend, be acquainted with, be aware of, be conscious of, 

comprehend, conceive, detect, discern, discover, distinguish, experience, get the idea, grasp- 

identify, know, look, make out, name, notice, observe, realize, respond, see, sense, view, watch, 

witness.  

 

React: apprehend, be aware of, empathize, encounter, examine, experience, feel, go through, 

handle, hear, know, listen, look, manipulate, perceive, react, respond, see, sense, smell, suppose, 

sympathize, taste, touch, undergo. 

Talk: acknowledge, admit, analyze, answer, argue, ask, cite, comment, comment upon, 

communicate, consider, concede, contend, contest, converse, convey, deal with, debate, declare, 

disclose, discuss, dispute, examine, express, generalize, go into, handle, hypothesize, investigate, 

justify, mention, name, note, observe, present, propose, prove, question, rationalize, reason, 

recall, recite, reflect, relate, remember, reply, report, review, say, speak, speculate, state, suggest, 

take sides, take up, talk, talk over, theorize, treat, verbalize, verify. 

Analyze: account for, arrange, catalogue, categorize, characterize, choose, cite, clarify, classify, 

compare, contrast, define, delineate, demonstrate, depict, describe, differentiate, discriminate, 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

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draw, examine, exclude, explain, explore, express, give a reason for, give the meaning of, grade, 

group, illustrate, list, make clear, match, name, organize, outline, pair, pick, picture, place, point, 

portray, prefer, prove, question, rank, read into, represent, select, symbolize, test, translate, 

understand, verify. 

Judge: accept, appraise, approve, ascertain, assess, assume, believe, comment upon, conceive, 

conclude, consider, criticize, decide, determine, disapprove, dislike, estimate, evaluate, favour, 

feel, find, form an opinion, gather, guess, have an idea, imagine, infer, justify, look upon, object 

to, oppose, predict, rank, rate, regard, reject, resolve, review, suppose, theorize, think, tolerate, 

understand, value. 

Valuing art: admire, appraise, appreciate, assess, care for, estimate, evaluate, gauge, give 

importance to, like, order, prefer, prize, rank, rate highly, regard, respect, think of, treasure, 

weigh. 

Technical Skills in a Work of Art 

Tools and materials utilized to produce visual qualities constitute a major component of 

the artwork. If one is to make expressive visual statements that communicate meanings to others, 

some knowledge of how to use these media is required. If students are asked to use crayons or oil 

pastels, for instance, they should be able to investigate the characteristics of these drawing 

media; that is learn how to use the point and side, how to apply more or less pressure to vary 

values and intensity, and how to mix and blend colours utilizing surface textures. Examples of 

other technical skills include: stippling, hatching and cross-hatching with pencil, pen, crayon or 

brush; folding, scoring, perforating, shredding, curling, and cutting paper; producing washes of 

flat and graduated colour, and other painting,  and glazing, with paint; and pounding, pinching, 

rolling, texturing, wheel - throwing, glazing, and firing clay and so on. 

  

Observational skills  

Knowing how to look at something and see its essential character that is adaptable into an 

expressive statement is a way of art appropriation. What you are describing is the way artists 

look at objects or images. Artists do not usually seek to reproduce the complexities that exist in 

nature. What is sought are the aspects of an object that will convey appearances and/or will serve 

as a stimulus to expressing something about the object; e.g., its majesty, loneliness, delicacy, 

peace of mind and so on. 

 

Skills of representation and interpretation 

The visual arts employ a spatial aesthetic - emotions or thoughts that may be evoked in 

response to works of art that possess visual qualities that exist in either actual or illusionist space. 

If the media of art are to be utilized for expressive purposes, skills need to be developed for 

employing such media to produce visual qualities that range from thin to thick and straight to 

curved lines, light to dark values, organic to geometric shapes, rough to smooth textures, and 

transparent to opaque and dull to bright colours. These fundamental skills are required to 

exemplify objects such as trees, houses, furniture, human and animal forms, and anything else 

that we encounter visually. 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

20 

 

Interpretative skills always come into play because we do not produce or reproduce the 

objects and events that are stimuli for expression. When we look at a painting or sculpture or 

animation of a man or woman, for instance, we are not responding to a real person; the person is 

not present. It is always the artist's representation and interpretation of the person to which we 

respond. We may look at a nose, hand or any other part of the body, but we do not see a nose or 

hand. We see a "sign" for the object; i.e., shapes and colours that add up to an image that 

represents a nose or hand. 

In addition, objects or subjects are interpreted in ways that convey meanings that go 

beyond what is there, and what is being denoted. As appearances are produced they carry 

connotations of strength, weakness, elegance, fragility, etc., which are evoked as a consequence 

of how media are utilized and visual qualities are produced. For example, rendering a hand using 

pale colours and very thin lines may convey a sense of delicacy. 

Being able to produce art implies possessing some control over media coupled with skills 

for observing the visual world artistically (not just scientifically), and for representing and 

interpreting visual qualities while producing an assortment of appearances that convey a variety 

of meanings.  

Creative skills 

Creativity is a term that is often used indiscriminately. Distinctions are not made between 

"making," "producing" or "creating" works of art. Artists are expected to create such works 

whenever they are engaged in art activities. "Creative self-expression" implies that when artists 

are expressing reactions to their own experiences they are being creative. 

Articulating the skills associated with the production of art includes clarifying the aspects 

of creative behaviour that are agreeable to change in the process of art creation. For example, 

"fluency" and "flexibility" are traits that are associated with creative behaviour. To insure that 

these traits are nurtured, art activities must be assigned that require students to generate a variety 

of responses (fluency) and/or easily alter their works (flexibility) to increase their expressive 

impact. 

It must be remembered, however, that the extent to which artists will be successful and 

creative (producing art that is both worthy as art and innovative) will depend on the artists 

having acquired an adequate range of the technical, observational, representational and 

interpretative skills that are essential to the production of art. 

What constitutes the vocabulary of art? 

Attempting to respond to art logically and analytically the critic or historian will 

demonstrate the importance of words (concepts) in guiding perception, and developing 

understanding and appreciation. There are, of course, many terms which comprise the 

vocabulary relevant to art. When these terms are known, and employed with precision, they 

facilitate discussions about art as well as contribute significantly to increasing levels of visual - 

aesthetic literacy. The following is an extensive listing of a variety of terms which can be 

associated with art. This list should prove to be an invaluable aid to becoming acquainted with 

the scope of the subject, and when thinking, writing or speaking about the visual arts. 

Manufactured forms as potential sources for aesthetic experience: 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

21 
 

Advertisement, arch, architecture, aquatint, assemblage, basketry, bas-relief, book, 

bridge, building, calligraphy, caricature, cathedral, chapel, ceramic, church, collage, computer 

graphics, computer sculpture, construction, costume, design, drawing, embroidery, enamel, 

engraving, etching, factory, film, fountain, fresco, furniture, garden, glass, graphics, happening, 

highway, house, illumination, medal, mezzotint, mobile, monument, mosaic, mural, musical 

instrument, palace, painting, photograph, porcelain, poster, print, rug, sculpture, serigraph, 

stained glass window, statue, synagogue, temple, textile, tomb, tool, typography, utensil, vase, 

watercolour, and woodcut. 

Aesthetics 

Generally speaking, aesthetics can be a set of principles that concern the nature and 

appreciation of beauty, specifically, a set of principles underling the work of a particular artist or 

artistic movement. In fine and applied art, aesthetics can be looked at as a branch of philosophy 

that deals with the nature of beauty and taste as well as the philosophy of art. Aesthetics is a 

branch of philosophy that examines the nature of art and our experience of it. 

In fine and applied art, aesthetic qualities are qualities seen by the viewer when looking at 

the artwork For the artist/designer, aesthetic qualities are when art elements and principles come 

together to create a certain feel, to the image such as warm colour which creates a sense of 

beauty and harmony.  

The area of aesthetics can be divided into five groupings of issues, questions and 

problems that are usually addressed by a philosopher - aestheticians. When approached in ways 

that are relevant to particular groups, these areas can also be investigated by non - philosophers;  

1) Defining what is and what is not art: what conditions must be present for something to be 

called art? What concepts enable us to identify qualities in works of art and the nature of their 

aesthetic form? What meanings can be conveyed by works of art? 

2) Engaging in the aesthetic encounter and making valid responses to works of art: what is the 

nature of aesthetic experience? What are appropriate ways for looking at art? What does a work 

of art express? 

3) Identifying standards and making critical judgments about art: what are the differences 

between personal preferences and objective judgments? Can there be a set of standards for what 

is beautiful? How do we distinguish between beauty and ugliness? 

4) Clarifying the role of the artist and the creative process: how does making art differ from other 

activities? What does it mean to be expressive, imaginative, or original? 

5) Exploring the nature of the art world, and the relationships between art and ideology and 

morality: how do the meanings in works of art relate to the artist's culture? Is art amoral? a 

political? Are art forms parts of other values? How does the "art world" relate to other cultural 

institutions? 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

22 

 

There are, of course, no single "right" answers to these questions. It is when searching for 

the most logical, relevant and reasonable explanations and conclusions that one expands his or 

her understanding of and appreciation for the nature and values of art. 

 

What is aesthetics? 

When an artist is engaged in the study of aesthetics, the following three groups of questions 

will help to clarify the meaning of "aesthetics" as a domain to be investigated 

 

• What are the subject and the theme of a particular work of art?  

• How are illusions of space and volume created?  

• What ideas and/or emotions are being expressed?  

• What social conditions existed when this particular work was created?  

• What artistic style is associated with this particle work  

• Who created this work of art?  

• How do ordinary and master works of art differ?  

• Why do works of art evoke emotional responses?  

• How are works of art different from other objects?  

Which of these groups of questions relate to the area of aesthetics?  

It is only the last set of questions that can be associated with the types of issues addressed 

by aestheticians, philosophers who study systematically the nature of art. Philosophy is a field 

that is usually divided into three specialized areas:  

 

The first group is concerned with identifying formal and expressive qualities in specific works of 

art, which implies engaging in art criticism.  

An interest in the socio-cultural context of particular works characterizes the second set of 

questions, which relate to art history. 

• Practical philosophy - concerned with ethics (worth of human actions, and judgments of 

what is right and good) and aesthetics (defining the nature of beauty and art, formulating 

principles governing its production and evaluation). 

• Speculative philosophy - concerned with metaphysics (first principles and causes) and 

epistemology (methods for gaining valid knowledge)  

• Applied philosophy - relating philosophical concepts and methods to other fields 

(philosophy of science, philosophy of education, philosophy of history, etc.)  

What is an aesthetic quality? 

Aesthetics means "pleasing to people's senses" but the sub - meaning is "pleasing to 

people's sensibilities". Our senses tell us various things about the environment we live in, and the 

objects in it these objects evoke to some degree emotional statue people may or may not be 

aware of. 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

23 
 

An example of someone who is aesthetics might be an artist/designer. Aesthetic in a more 

general sense means the pleasant, positive and artful appearance of a person or a thing. An 

example of the word aesthetics is to say that a particular art work or car design or any other thing 

is beautiful. 

How do we engage in the aesthetic analysis of a work of art? 

How do we make sense out of works of art? Very often a work's vital statistics (names, 

dates, styles) and its creator's views (if known) are the only items of information available. Can 

we only comment about a work's subject and the degree to which it is liked or disliked?  

It is as if the question "what does a work of art express" can only be answered by citing its vital 

statistics, discovering the intentions of the artist or, even more frequently, by leaving it to 

personal preference; i.e., whatever one believes it expresses.  

While these approaches have their merits they also have one great limitation: the expressive 

import of the work - its content that involves us most profoundly in its aesthetic character, the 

primary basis for its emotional appeal - is seldom investigated. 

 

What is the importance of aesthetic analysis in any work of art?  

The foregoing approach to making sense of works of art can be described as aesthetic 

analysis. Aesthetic provides a systematic means for encountering a work of art those results in 

responding to what is inherent within the work itself. As a consequence, the work of art acts 

upon the viewer; it speaks of its unique character and forms the basis for both more objective and 

profound responses.  

Aesthetic analyses can only inform us about the expressive nature of works of art. To 

fully appreciate the work and to appraise it critically, it is also essential to know about the 

historical -cultural milieu in which it was created.  

To demonstrate the value of learning about the cultural context of works of art, the 

aesthetic analysis exercise that follows will also include reviewing some of the cultural 

components associated with the work. 

 

Words related to aesthetics 

Alluring, appealing, charming, cunning, delightful, engaging, fascinating, glamorous, 

exquisite glorious, magnificent,  perfect, radiant delicate and so on. While all types of objects 

and events may involve us in the aesthetic aspects of experience, are we willing to call all of 

them art? 

 

• What are the components of an aesthetic response?  

• How does an aesthetic focus differ from other types of emphases?  

• We may respond to the aesthetic qualities in a variety of objects produced by people who 

have no word for art in their language. Are we willing to call such objects art even though 

they were produced primarily as objects to give form to values and traditions, and not as 

art, per se; i.e., objects designed primarily to evoke responses to aesthetic qualities?  

• Can people who have not been taught how to make art produce works of art?  

• Are children able to produce art?  



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

24 

 

What does a work of art express? 

• The intentions of the artist?  

• Only what art historians tell us about the work?  

• Anything we want it to express? Is it strictly an individual thing?  

 

 

Subject and theme in art works 

         Subject matter; Images or topics which comprise the subject matter of a work of art include: 

 

Dreams, emotions, fantasies, figures (symbolic, mythological, nudes, single and group portraits), 

historical and/or political events, landscapes, religious events, still-life (flowers, interiors, tables 

of fruit). 

 

Some possible themes: 

Ideas which appear to permeate a work of art reflect themes such as Anguish, barbarism, 

bravery, brutality, debauchery, delicacy, domesticity, fear, gracefulness, horror, humour, 

injustice, joy, love, passion, patriotism, pleasure, sadness, terror, and tranquillity. 

Words used to describe the processes for making art? 

The following terms describe what is done when one participates in the art-making process 

include: 

 

Accomplish, achieve, act, adapt, add, adjust, alter, amplify, assemble, attain bring about, build,  

invent, join, make, manage, manipulate, modify, obtain, operate, order, originate, perform, plan, 

practice, prepare, present, produce, put together realize, rearrange, render, reorder, represent, 

reshape, reveal, revise, set up, shape, show, structure, succeed, symbolize transform, try out, use, 

utilize, work, work out. Enlarge, erect, execute, exhibit, expand, experiment, express, extend 

fashion, form, formulate fulfil, gather, generate, improve, improvise, incorporate, indicate,    

Carry out, carry through, cause, change, collect, combine, complete, compose, construct, control, 

correct, create demonstrate, develop, devise, display, do, elaborate, employ, enlarge, erect, 

execute, exhibit, expand, experiment, express, extend 

 

Art History and its relationship with the society? 

Art history and society are inseparable from each other, just as the environment is to 

human beings. It is good to understand that there is the largest number of human beings who in 

one way or the other interact to satisfy their social needs and share a common culture. Society as 

an organization is a system created to achieve common goals through people-to-people and 

people to - work relationships. It can be seen as a group of people involved with each other 

through persistent relations, or a large social group sharing the same geographical or social 

territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectation. Art history is 

all about that. 

 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

25 
 

Art history therefore, is the study of the visual art in its historical development and stylistic 

contexts; it can be seen as the study of objects of art considered within their period. The work of 

the Art historian is to analyse the visual arts' at the time they were created. In any work of art, the 

historian’s work is to identify the visual elements of the art work and interprets its meaning. The 

main preoccupation of art historians is therefore to establish the origins of works of art, that is 

discovering who created a particular artwork, when, where and for what reason. Art historians 

are interested in what the works of art represented at the time, they were created, which is a way 

of learning about the civilization of the past. It is very important because is one of the ways to 

recount stories of past events. Art history allows us to look back and understand how our 

civilization evolved over the centuries. This is a way to know ourselves better, and in trying to 

do so; we should ask why we have certain values in what we do. What shaped the way we think 

and our vision of the world should be put into consideration. 

Art impacts and influences society by changing opinions, instilling values and translating 

experience, across space and time in different ways. Art in this sense is communication; it allows 

people from different cultures and different times to communicate with each other via images, 

sound and stories. Art is often a vehicle for social change.  

Art history deals with the historical development of a community, which includes the 

study of objects of art considered within their period. The work of the Art historian is to analyse 

the visual arts' at the time they were created. The historian's work is to identify the visual 

elements of the art work and interprets its meaning. The main preoccupation of art historians is 

to establish the origins of works of art, that is discovering who created a particular artwork, 

when, where and for what reason. 

It is important to note that the study of art history is all about developing critical thinking 

ability, and is not only about memorizing dates, artists' names, art movements, and so on. 

Instead, it drives the historian to analyze art works. To support this type of analysis, the art 

historian must build rational and convincing arguments, hence developing his/her critical 

thinking abilities.  

Why is art history important – it is important because it gives humanities subjects, 

relating them to draw conclusions and critical evaluation of different artwork from different 

places. The history behind these artworks at separate times helps to learn about different tribes 

and their cultures. Art impacts and influences society by changing opinions, instilling values and 

translating experience, across space and time in different ways. Art in this sense is 

communication; it allows people from different cultures and different times to communicate with 

each other via images, sound and stories. Art is often a vehicle for social change.  

Art History and Context 

Global challenges in art history, with awareness to review and renew the discipline's 

objects and methods, are ongoing, art history in a real sense should be a global affair because, 

.basic western art histories, such as formal analysis, per iodization and iconography, already exist 

in other countries of the world, such as Chine, Africa and others. The idea of global art history 

has long been started, in a world cat, in the global database that integrates the print collection of 

libraries all over the world, the number of catalogues items containing the phrase 'art history' that 

also refers to 'global art history' or 'world art history'. In a more detailed disciplinary survey one 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

26 

 

can carry out on art-historical journal. In the academic English - Speaking field of art history, the 

art Bulletin shows a similar increase in the frequency of these terms. 

 

The way moving forward 

There have been new developments, and challenges in recent times and also there has 

been great interest shown by people in artistic production all over the world hitherto has enabled 

some art historians to work on small production and to find their research. It has enabled 

researchers from geographical areas considered peripheral to introduce their interpretation, 

readings, methodologies, and even theoretical perspective into the western academic sphere. 

Recently, we have seen the redesign of the program of art museums and anthropology museums, 

with a significant shift towards the contemporary with contemporary art works included in 

exhibitions of ancient themes.  

It is also good to note that museum collection strategies have also been renewed. A new 

vocabulary has become widespread, preferring the plural to the singular; art world rather than 

world art, modernity's rather a modernity. Cross-fertilization, world market, institutional reforms, 

museum policies and their evolution, artistic migration, legacies and plural heritage are the 

subject of numerous theses that have opened a horizon of the art historical discipline that is now 

aware of the need to break away with this way of thinking. Nevertheless, most of these 

challenges remain to be resolved, which could also explain why the debate on global art history 

and its possibilities are not closed. The most heated concern is the identities of those who make 

the global art history and their authority to do so, as debates about feminist studies and the study 

of 'black arts’ and much more. 

The pressure of globalization has undoubtedly many positive effects, including a concern 

to account for the artistic creation of all countries, without hierarchies. Global approaches to art 

history should include a lot of art activities as it concerns artists, objects, culture and individuals. 

The documentation of objects and stories of diverse women and men who have created artistic 

objects, events and ideas, bringing the excitement and influence of history into the present is 

good in any artistic study. Art history reveals the many ways that people make art and new 

technologies, events and resources affect art making. Intentions, audience and interpretations 

vary even more than styles and media. Formal and contextual appreciation vary with emphasis 

on both forms, meaning should be incorporated into a more encompassing view of art objects. 

More importantly, Museums and classrooms should be centred on the learning motivation, 

questions and reference points bringing art to life, not facts to memorize processes and concepts 

to be taught 

There are many ways in which art history and society are related. This can be seen in the 

ways events and technology affect the content. The pervasiveness and centrality of art in society 

amplified its cultural gifts. Histories and cultural ideologies are revealed through various art 

forms reflecting concepts of time and space. The interconnections of history and art can be seen 

in the interplay of events and the art world. What is displayed and where is determined by the 

valuing and editing of art. In some countries more freedom is given to artists than other works at 

various times in history, thus pointing to or restricting artistic production, content and public 

access to it. Creating and sharing art celebrates the freedom of the human creative spirit. It is 

equally important to know that the roles and training of artists may be determined by the artist, 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

27 
 

the society that they function in or by historians. Some people create exquisite aesthetic objects 

but do not consider art as separate from daily life. Others strive to become a part of an elite group 

of artists, they consider to be exemplary or famous. Artists may be informally educated, self-

taught or apprenticed in various ways. All these people are all artists. 

Art has utilized materials and technologies that are as simple as two leaves on a bed of 

grass, and as complex as intricate computer programming. Availability of materials and 

discoveries at any particular time and space affects the form of art example, it takes Fire 

proceeded the firing of ceramic pottery. Oil paint in tubes enables paining on location outdoors 

to occur. Photography documented events not seen before. Society creates art and records its 

history in various ways that reflect differing concepts of time and space. The recording and 

sharing of these cultural achievements give a sense of unity and life to art history. 

 

Art History in the present? 
Art and artist of the past influence and enrich current knowledge and creation of the arts, which have been 

shaped and reshaped by art, art itself is reaffirmed and redefined what is seen, how it is valued and that 

history is shaped, and shaped by public awareness and appreciation. Art history is studied across time as 

well as across cultures. Interesting recurring trends weave histories such as stories of creation, 

explorations of the nature of the power of art to urge social change, and celebration of birth, adulthood 

and marriage. Thematic cycles reveal timelessness (Visual tracking may evidence the recurrence of visual 

imagery as well). Trends and styles in art are related to processes, content and preference.  

It is important to note that the urge to create is universal. The name of artists or cultural 

contributions is a source of rich study and valuable influences on art. The audience provides 

another important dimension of the art experience. The definition and roles of the artist and 

audience can change in differing places and times. There is no one way of interpreting art. 

Artists' interactions may be communicated through a variety of symbols, visuals, configurations, 

and metaphors, and interpretations vary and should be discussed about meanings for current 

classroom seminar, conference  and audience as well as within the original cultural context for 

the initial intended meaning 

There are many ways of understanding the world as reflected in many disciplines of 

study. Visual art's relationship with other disciplines has changed throughout time. Art is 

separate from life, psychology, culture, sociology, and ecology. Wonderful harmonies of 

knowledge through thoughtful balance in interdisciplinary connection can expand the field of art 

rather than diminish it  

 

Global Perspective in art education 

The cultural history of art is by nature multicultural. Global perspectives in art education 

foster the inclusion of multicultural histories, promote equality in gender representation, 

embraces a variety of art forms and aesthetics and use resources consciously with the 

interconnected and pluralistic nature of life as a foundation. It is good to note that multiple art 

histories are worthy of inclusion in any art historical study. Many may have oral traditions. The 

naming of cultural groups should replace labels connoting inferiority such as "primitive", and" 

native “this type of language should not be used in global art history. Social agendas have 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

28 

 

determined the historic inclusion of certain art of the past. Inclusiveness of Artists and Art Forms 

is very important, which is the attitude of welcoming all sorts of artistss and art forms into the 

world of art and art history. Women artistss have existed throughout time "Histories", are being 

acknowledged as important, reversing impressionss and exclusion of women's's art forms. Art 

began to bring attention and change to inequities in art history, women's issues, artistic 

achievements of women, the art of crafts and the value of collaboration and multiple 

interpretation of art.  

Most recently, incorporating a global perspective attends to consideration have utilized 

natural and synthetic materials in many ways, and careful use of resources can affect their 

suitability. The definition and Boundaries of art have changed. Art has aesthetic qualities and 

may be functional or formal. Artifacts, frequently art of non - western culture are now more 

included as art. The audience as well as experts can determine what is called art by what they 

treasure. 

Every Design Table-ware, clothes, furniture, found objects and glassware are now found 

in museums and considered expressive of the art and design impulse. Each art form must be 

evaluated by its definition of qualities, not by a single overall standard. Assemblage found 

objects and collage frequently give a new identity to reuse materials in art, ideas of what is 

considered desirable art materials are affected by cultural aesthetic and economic influences. 

Innovative and creative art teachers interested in conservation promote imaginative reuse. 

Some movement of ancient times has lasted for thousands of years, challenging eternity in their 

permanence. Other art forms are ephemeral, lasting only as long as the split second required to 

take photographs as documentation of the structures or events. Time affects works of art in many 

ways. Art may use or attempt to counteract time on their work. Display and Conservation: 

Traditionally, galleries were founded on the desire to acquire, preserve and display art.  

 

Historical Context Teaching Art 

Learning about art history should be lively, interactive and effectively as well as 

cognitively rewarding. Dry facts disconnected from students' experiences develop the inquiring 

attitude and appreciation of different artistic expressions that begin a life of rich art appreciation.  

Some suggestions for meaningful and lasting learning would include: 

 

• Sharing the global communities of art processes, purpose and themes 

• Discussing and applying personal, family, community, national and world history 

• Studying the present and past multiple functions of art and including diverse pluralistic        

histories of culture and subculture groups 

• Avoiding teaching the ethnocentric perspective of history that exclusively focuses on 

western (Europe/American) and African art. 

• Exploring cross-cultural themes as well as rich cultural and historic contexts 

• Using lively creative motivations and art projects that incorporate students authentically 

with expansive knowledge of the world of art. 

 

 

 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

29 
 

Functions of Art 

The most important function of art is to contribute towards the development of human 

society in general by stimulating the imagination and expanding our perception of ideas. The 

actual function of an artwork depends on context; it is important and ideally, to look at a piece 

and know where it came from and when. The best-case scenario includes identifying the artist, as 

well, because the artist is half of the contextual equation (i.e.: What was the artist thinking at the 

time s/he created the work?). You, the viewer, are the other half and are important (i.e.: What 

does this piece of art mean to you, living right now?). These are all factors that should be 

considered before trying to assign functions to artworks. 

Functions of art normally fall within three categories. These are personal, social or 

physical functions. These categories can, and (often) do, overlap in any given piece of art. 

The physical functions of art are most easily dealt with. Works of art that are created to perform 

some service have physical functions, ceramics ware are produced to serve a physical function. 

Architecture, any of the crafts and industrial design are all types of art that have physical 

functions. 

Art has social functions when it addresses aspects of (collective) life, as opposed to one 

person's point of view or experience. (Political art) Art that depicts social conditions performs 

social functions. Sometimes having specific pieces of art in a community can perform the social 

function of elevating that community's status.  

The personal functions of art are the most difficult to explain in great detail. There are 

many of them, and they vary from person to person. An artist may create out of a need for self-

expression, or gratification. S/he might have wanted to communicate a thought or point to the 

viewer. Perhaps the artist was trying to provide an aesthetic experience, both for self and 

viewers. A piece might have been meant to "merely" entertain others. Sometimes a piece isn't 

meant to have any meaning at all. Art may serve the personal functions of control. Art has been 

used to attempt to exert magical control over time, the seasons or even the acquisition of food. 

Art is used to bring order to a messy and disorderly world. Conversely, art can be used to create 

chaos when an artist feels life is too serious and ordinary.  

Art can also be therapeutic - for both the artist and the viewer. Art therapy as a subject of 

study integrates the fields of human development, visual art (drawing, painting, sculpture, and 

other art forms), and the creative process with models of counselling and psychotherapy. 

In terms of religion, some art forms serve as objects of reverence to transcendental 

deities. Christendom, especially Catholic depicts the iconographies of Christianity in three-

dimensional forms, as metaphors. Again, in traditional societies, carved images are symbols of 

the invisible beings that humans owe the obligation of consultations. In the Muslim world, 

emphasis is laid on motifs, calligraphy and architecture, as against sculptural depiction of 

historical icons. 

Biological functions of art would include fertility symbols (in any culture)"The functions 

of art": (1) context and (2) personal, (3) social and (4) physical functions. 

 

Terms used to describe the purpose of art forms? 

Terms describing purposes for which a work is created (for aesthetic, intrinsic appeal or utility in 

serving a religious, domestic or industrial function) include: 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

30 

 

• aesthetic, amusing, artistic, cathartic, commemorative, commercial, cultural 

• decorative, economic, educational, entertaining, experimental, expressive, historical, 

hypnotic, instructional 

• magical, moral, persuasive, political, practical, propagandistic, psychological, religious 

• Satirical, sensitizing, social (didactic, satiric), spiritual, stimulating, and therapeutic. 

 

Cultural-historical context of works of art 

A thorough aesthetic analysis of a work of art will reveal the nature of its formal and 

expressive content; it will also answer the following types of questions. When one provides 

answers to the following types of questions that will help learn about the cultural and historical 

context of art. When and where was the work produced? Who created the work of art, and what 

were the artist's motivations? How was the work created and what were the sources for the 

artist's particular approach? What is the style of the work and how does it relate to the world of 

art?  

The answers to these questions provide insights into a work of art that enable a more 

comprehensive response to the work. Without such information, an informed understanding of its 

content, its iconography, and a genuine appreciation for its relative significance are not possible. 

These latter categories are essential to engaging in art criticism.  

 

Socio-cultural functions of art 

Works of art are significant players in the evolution of culture in that they contribute both 

to cultural continuity and, through innovations in forms and techniques, to cultural change. It is 

good to note that works of art give form to fundamental beliefs and feelings when such works are 

employed; they serve as culture carriers in communication. Such works make a significant 

contribution to transmitting ideas, values and attitudes from person to person and from 

generation to generation. Beliefs in the mystical and all-powerful role of natural forces or the 

possibility of an immortal existence in paradise would be extremely difficult to communicate 

without such works. It is important to note that Art forms are essential to engage in the rituals 

that serve as the ingredients required to nurture and sustain any society.  

Art functions in a myriad of ways for individuals and society. A life without art or a 

society devoid of art would not only be uninteresting, it would be unthinkable. It appears that 

humans instinctively seek to enhance and beautify their lives. The visual arts and other art forms 

-- literature, music, dance, theatre, and film - range from very primitive to very sophisticated 

models of expression and communication.  

 

Personal and Psychological needs of art 

An involvement with art can serve us personally and psychologically. Art has important 

social and educational roles to perform. In addition, art is essential to maintaining a healthy 

economy. Enhancing the appearance of objects, whether they are utilitarian, recreational, 

religious and/or commemorative, is the most obvious and pervasive function of art. It would be 

hard to imagine a world devoid of art. Almost everything manufactured (as opposed to what is 

natural) that we see or use is, at least in part, the result of making choices and decisions that 

involve us in the aesthetic aspects of experience. Although most manufactured or contrived 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

31 
 

objects and events would not be classified primarily as works of art, they are the result of 

humans deciding to make something appear to be, for instance, elegant, comfortable, or high-

tech in appearance. In other words, an arrangement of visual elements - shapes, colours, textures, 

etc. - has been created for expressive purposes, which is one way to define art. 

An important psychological function for art is to create an awareness of subjective reality 

because works of art reflect and give form to our inner thoughts and feelings, making them 

public and, therefore, perceivable and knowable. Works of art can offer convincing insights into 

a wide range of ideas, moods and passions derived from the collection of human experience. It 

may mean a sense of the magnitude of the task and how such burdens must be endured when 

machines are not available. 

 

Historical artworks can be employed to create or reflect our times 

Cultural and historical context also come into play when one considers more direct 

influences of the past upon the present. Some contemporary artists employ acknowledged 

masterworks as the subject of their works. Modifications are normally made by artists that can 

change the theme of a given work, which makes the work more relevant to contemporary issues 

and values. An example of this process – is where the old artist is the source of inspiration for the 

new. 

    

Roles played by media and techniques 

Almost anything can be used to make art. However, whether media are traditional or non-

conventional, the visual qualities they produce should become the focus of study. One needs to 

recognize that particular media are utilized in different ways to produce qualities such as 

roundness, thickness, sharpness, fuzziness, and brilliance. These qualities can be organized to 

evoke various feelings and meanings for the viewer. One can experiment by painting lines which 

convey a sense of vigour or relaxation, drawing a tree which appears to be ancient and decayed, 

or manipulating clay to create a form which evokes an illusion of tender 

 

Educational values of art 

In general education, art contributes to the development of a very important area of 

literacy by cultivating abilities to utilize a non-verbal language of expression and 

communication. Art plays an essential role in supporting and changing culture. It enhances 

almost everything that humans manufacture. Art is so important in our personal lives and as 

fundamental as a vehicle of expression and communication that individuals and societies could 

hardly exist without it.  

The artist engaging in cognitive activity includes acquiring and utilizing the storehouse of 

mental images that are the basis for concept formation and comprehension. Art can make an 

important contribution to building this storehouse because it is an image-centered phenomenon. 

Making or responding to art requires that one be involved in either producing or decoding a 

variety of images. 

For instance, understanding complex concepts such as tension, symmetry, and abstraction 

is dependent upon possessing relevant images (mental pictures or percepts) for these concepts. 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

32 

 

These images can be acquired by producing them in appropriate art activities or by observing 

them in particular works of art. 

Picture making and picture study involve using one's imagination; that is engaging in generating 

or identifying images that are associated with particular ideas by relating percepts to concepts. 

Relevant mental pictures are developed and stored through appropriate learning experiences 

which include observing examples that incorporate these images and engaging in discussions that 

clarify similarities and differences. 

For example, creating an illustration for an animated film or any other illustration that 

involves a human figure requires that one imagine his enormous size, as well as body and facial 

structure and the design of his clothing. As one produces such an illustration, images are created 

that reflect and define the following list of complex concepts: scale, proportion, gesture, space, 

illusion, power, strength, and asymmetry. In other words, as one engages in this art activity, 

opportunities are provided to increase one's comprehension and repertoire of essential concepts. 

Responding to works of art requires the use of one's imagination to make sense of the 

difference between what is implied and what exists (coloured pigments on a canvas, carved or 

chiselled wood, etc.). Both images and concepts (ideas) are represented through the use of signs 

and symbols. Actual objects such as eyes or houses or trees are not observed in works of art. 

Shapes and other visual qualities are fashioned to serve as signs for objects. We may recognize a 

particular rendering of a shape as a sign of a hand. If it is depicted in a certain way, as a fist, for 

instance, the shape may also function as a symbol of power or strength. Transforming mental 

shapes, colours and textures into signs and symbols is a complex intellectual task requiring both 

analytical and critical thinking. 

Acquiring the skills and knowledge associated with art production is critical for those 

who aspire to be artists, designers, architects, and others. Involvement in art production activities 

is also necessary when educating the general student who only aspires to become an informed 

consumer of art. 

 

Art History Assignment 

Formal analysis 

In any formal analysis assignment, what is expected or required is a detailed description 

of the "formal" qualities of the art objects (formal here means "related to the form", not "fancy or 

elegant") in order words, what the artist is looking at, is it the individual design elements, such as 

compositions (arrangement of part of or in the work), colour, line, texture, scale, proportion, 

balance, contrast, and rhythm. 

The art student should be critical in his observation; the primary concern in this 

assignment is to attempt to explain how the artist arranges and uses these various elements. 

Usually, the student has to look at the objects for a long time and then write down what he/she 

sees. In this case, the lecturer expects a highly detailed description of the objects. You might 

struggle with this assignment because it is hard to translate what you see in words - don't give up 

and take more notes than you might think you need. Why would your lecturer ask you to do this 

assignment? First, translating something from visual language to textual language is one of the 

most vital tasks of the art historian. Most art historians at some point describe fully and 

accurately their objects of study to communicate their ideas about them. 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

33 
 

 

Art historians vary in their approach to art, and there are a few common approaches that form the 

backbone of the field. You may already have found this tendency helpful in reading your 

textbook or another assignment your lecturer realizes that you are not accustomed to scrutinizing 

objects in this way and know that you need to practice doing so. Lecturers who assign formal 

analyses want you to look and look carefully. Think of the objects as a series of decisions that an 

artist made. Your job is to figure out and describe, explain and interpret these decisions and why 

the artist may have made them. 

Ideally, if you were to give your written formal analysis to somebody who had never seen 

the objects, s/he would be able to describe or draw the object for you, or at least pick it out of a 

lineup. In writing a formal analysis, focus on creating a logical order so that your reader doesn't 

get lost, your lecturer already knows what you are talking about. Here are some guidelines, 

 

1. Summarize the overall appearance; the artist can describe the details of the object. 

2. Describe the composition and then move on to a description of the material used (for example 

acrylic, watercolour, plaster, etc) 

3. Begin discussing one side of the work and then move across the object to the other side 

4. Describe things in the order in which they draw your eye around the object starting with the 

first you notice and moving to the next. 

 

Some lecturers would want your formal analysis to consist of pure description with little 

interpretation or no interpretation. In this case, you should just describe your object, while others 

will expect you to go further and comment on the significance of what you have observed. Find 

out which way your lecturer wants you to write your formal analysis in your assignment. Most 

art historians include formal analysis at some point in their essays; there are lots of examples to 

look at in textbooks and other reading materials. 

 

Stylistic analysis 

You may be asking to look at an object and talk about its style. Some lecturers will want 

you to discuss how an object fits into a particular stylistic category - for example, impressionism, 

Renaissance, early Macedonian or others. More often, they will ask you to compare two works in 

either the same or very different stylistic categories e.g. comparing one impressionist painting by 

Monet to one by Morisot or comparing a Correggio still life with Picasso's life. You will still 

focus on the formal qualities of the objects but this time you will probably be expected to 

conclude one of the following: 

   

• How the work fits the stylistic category 

• How the work does not fit the category 

• How two works with the same type of content look 

 

Different from each other, because of style (for example, both paintings are still lives, but they 

show different approaches to three-dimensional etc. A stylistic analysis will acquaint us with 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

34 

 

some of the large historical trends and forces in the culture and how they influence the 

development of art. 

 

Iconography/ Iconology 

This kind of assignment occurs in courses covering art before the Modern Period: Here 

you will for a particular element that occurs in the object (an object, action, gesture, pose) and 

explain either: When some elements occur in other objects through history and how this object's 

representation of it is unique, or what that element means generally in art or to art historian in 

other words, the traditional association an art historian might make between that depiction and 

other things. If you are confused,  makes a clear distinction between iconography and iconology 

but many art historians do not- they often use the word "iconography" when they mean both. Art 

historian study iconography and iconology so often that they have compiled reference texts that 

list many of the famous works that show particular themes.  

 

Provenance/Patronage Study 

Some assignment requires you to examine the life of the object itself: the circumstances 

surrounding its production and/or where and why it has changed hands throughout history. These 

assignments focus on either: how, when, where and why the patrons, (the person who orders or 

buys the object, or generally supports the artist) ask for or acquired the object from the artist. The 

assignment may ask you to comment on what the patronage suggests about how the artist made 

their living at different points in history, how, /why the patron choose the artist they did or the 

history of the object passing from art to patron to museum etc. Such assignments usually appear 

in classes oriented towards museum studies. The assignment may also ask you to comment on 

the significance of this history. 

 

Theory/Criticism 

All four of the previous assignment types focus on the objects themselves (the painting, 

sculpture, drawing, or building.) However, in some courses, particularly in Modern Art courses 

you may be asked to look beyond or through the objects toward the theoretical, historical, or 

social context of the object, artist or time. The lecturer may want you to talk about how the 

formal or stylistic qualities of the object reflect or affect the time in which they were made. More 

specifically, you may ask to look at the object's relationship to ideas about gender class, artistic 

relation, culture, or politics associated with that time, or you may be asked to connect artworks 

with the theories of a particular person. You can talk or discuss one popular modern artist and 

look at how many different ways he has been studied from a theoretical/critical perspective or 

another. 

 

• Streaming from and/ or helping to create a traditional or modern Nigerian art culture 

of masculinity and superiority 

• Exploring the relationship between Nigerian culture and others. 

• Portraying a stylistic progression from a more abstract representation that emphasizes 

the flatness of the canvas and the paint over the content or narrative. 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

35 
 

As you can see, these assignment may leave you a fair amount of latitude in finding and pursing 

a topic, Regardless of the theatrical perspectives you use or apply, be sure that your paper 

contains a strong argument. Remember to pay attention to your lecturer also when you are 

writing a paper on theory /criticism, the art object or objects should be at the forefront of your 

discussion. The theory or criticism should arise out of the art, rather than be imposed on it. Focus 

on the object first, to write a formal analysis before getting the theory; you may not include this 

analysis in your final paper, but writing it will give you insight into the object or objects you are 

discussing. You may also wish to keep an image of the object or objects in view,  

 

Tracking down the resources 

It is necessary to review resources that will help you to answer that type of question. You may 

have to find any or all of the following books or materials: 

 

• The object itself or a book that talks about it at length. 

• Your textbook (look through the whole thing - there are often helpful glossaries and 

timelines. art bibliographies for further reading 

• Standard art historical reference text (especially for iconographical or patronage 

studies 

• Theory or analysis of what has already been written (usually articles or books rather 

than survey text or dictionaries) 

 

The more object-oriented research assignment requires you to spend more time with 

monographs; catalogues and other art history reference books. The first two types of books focus 

on an artist's entire body of work and/or biography and give details that might not show up in a 

more theoretical text (like the measurement of the object, their provenance, details about their 

condition etc. The more theoretical the assignment the more time you will spend reading journals 

and articles (sometimes directly related) books Even when writing a more theoretical paper don't 

ever forget the art object- it is the reason for your power.               

The "pure" formal analysis is the only paper in which description alone is enough- so if 

you are asked to compare two objects, do not just list their similar or different qualities. Instead, 

suggest what those differences or similarities mean and analyze them on some level. 

 

Additional resources 

Some books that can help you write your paper in art history, are widely available 

Examples; 

 

1. Action, Mary, Leaning to look at Paintings. New York: Rutledge 1997 

2. Barnet, Sylvan, A short guide to writing about Art. New York: Harper Collins College, 1993 

 

A Glossary of Art Terms 

Students and professionals of art and design need to engage in a great deal of discussion 

about the possible meanings of art vocabulary. It is through the process and examining 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

36 

 

alternative definitions for art terms that words evolve into functional concepts for thinking about, 

analyzing, criticizing, appreciating, and producing the varied forms of the visual arts. 

 

Abstraction - a device in art which alters or simplifies reality (nature) to facilitate the expressive 

purposes of the artist (e.g., the exaggerated antelope horns and ears of the masks used in some 

African artworks 

 

Aesthetic analysis - is a careful investigation of the qualities which belong to objects and events 

that evoke thoughts and feelings because of the character of these qualities and the particular 

ways they are organized. 

 

Aesthetic aspects of experience - that are inherent within the experience itself and to which we 

respond through our senses, whatever the primary nature of the experience. 

 

Aesthetic response - a felt sense of pleasure, joy or excitement (and, under certain conditions, a 

sense of tension or apprehension) when responding to the surface and representational qualities 

inherent within a natural or manufactured object and/or event. 

 

Allegory - pictorial device in which characters or events stand for abstract ideas or principles, 

enabling what is represented to suggest deeper symbolic meanings; e.g., employed in the 

masterpieces by Botticelli and Vermeer. 

 

Art - objects and events formulated primarily (consciously or unintentionally) to evoke aesthetic 

responses; or, put more simply, forms made by people which because of the way they are created 

arouse emotional reactions in others. 

 

Assemblage - three-dimensional artworks 'assembled' from a variety of existing objects and 

materials. 

Balance – does a perceived equilibrium exist among visual, surface qualities? 

 

Asymmetrical, dynamic or informal balance – is a controlling opposite force by manipulating 

visual components to create a sense of equilibrium (e.g., a large grey area balanced by a small 

red shape). 

 

Symmetrical, static or formal balance – is an equal distribution of similar visual components 

on either side of an implied or actual central axis. 

 

Baroque – is a major art style characterized by a dramatic unification of complex elements and 

undulating spatial forces. The baroque style achieved its greatest heights in the 17th and 18th 

centuries; its tenets are still practised by artists and architects today. 

 

Classicism - an emphasis upon idealized subjects and themes initiated in Ancient Greece and 

given renewed impetus in the 'perfection of the form' achieved by such Renaissance masters as 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

37 
 

Botticelli. (Artists continue to seek ideal relationships even in the nonobjective works of the 20th 

century; e.g., the classical linear compositions of Piet Mondrian.) 

 

Cubism - a 20th-century style which focuses upon the structural character of objects; analytical 

cubism presents several views of an object simultaneously; synthetic cubism is more decorative 

because it stresses the two-dimensional nature of the canvas and does not attempt to create 

spatial illusions. 

 

Cultural context - aspects of objects and events that exemplify the values, beliefs, traditions, 

economy and/or other characteristics that can be associated with a particular individual, group or 

society.  

   

Dada - is an anti-art movement which emerged in Europe in 1916 as a reaction against the 

antihuman calamity of World War I. It continues today when artists interpret irrational and 

nihilistic social forces by creating ridiculous and ridiculing sensory images. 

 

Distortion – is the modification and exaggeration of visual qualities to enhance expressive 

impact. 

 

Dominance - emphasizing an idea and/or particular visual components (through repeated use, 

the intensity of colour, and/or relative scale) to the degree that all other aspects of a work become 

subordinate. 

 

Elaboration - the embellishment of an idea or object through constant repetition and/or variation 

of some visual components while other components may remain simplified or lack complexity. 

Expressionism - a style which deliberately abandons 'naturalistic' and 'idealistic' approaches, and 

utilizes exaggerations and distortions of form and colour, which often result in a more direct and 

greater emotional impact. 

 

Expressive character – is the sensory, formal and technical aspects of works of art (objects or 

events) that result in evoking particular thoughts and/or emotions. 

 

Expressive properties - the ideas or ideals, dynamic states, and/or mood or spirit that can be 

identified and/or associated with objects or events, which, when coupled with a work's other 

properties, contribute to the evocation of particular thoughts and feelings. 

 

Formal properties –it is the means by whereby sensory properties (shapes, colours, textures, 

etc.) are formed; e.g., unified, emphasized, and balanced, and so on. 

 

Genre - specifically, artworks that depict scenes of everyday life; e.g., 17th-century Dutch 

paintings of domestic settings; more generally, art forms which share certain structural or 

stylistic characteristics; for example marine or still-life paintings. 

 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

38 

 

Gradation - subduing contrast through related steps; example developing spatial illusion in a 

landscape by using slightly changing value contrasts from foreground to background. 

  

Iconography - the subject matter in works of art; specific and/or traditional symbolic 

representations or elements associated with the subject or themes of works of art. 

 

Innovation – is bringing into being something new; an original (creative) way of depicting 

subjects or themes. 

 

Line - a device used to abstract and delineate space into shapes on a two-dimensional surface. 

 

Lost wax - also known as cire perdue, is a technique for casting metal that involves producing a 

model in wax, investing the completed model in clay, heating the clay mould so that the wax 

melts and can be poured out of the mould, and filling the negative space with molten metal. It is 

a technique that has been practised by various cultures around the world over the last several 

thousand years. 

 

Motif - a design or arrangement which is the basic element within a patterned surface; e.g., an 

abstract flower used repeatedly to create an overall visual texture. 

 

Naturalism - a style which emphasizes the conscious emulation, but not necessarily the 

imitation of natural phenomena. 

 

Nonobjective – is a type of art that evokes responses to surface qualities which do not allude, in 

any way, to recognizable objects or events (the opposite of naturalism). 

Opposition - a method for achieving contrast and conflict between visual qualities those results 

in the creation of heightened interest and the arousal of a sense of tension or turmoil. 

 

Primitive – is a type of art characterized by flat and somewhat unrealistic forms which reflect 

the artist's lack of formal training; e.g., the painting of a cat by an anonymous artist. The term 

"naive" is often used in the same context which is not supposed to be in a global art history. 

 

Realism - a style of art that is characterized by a denial of 'idealized' or 'romanticized' subjects 

and interpretations, and stresses the factual recording of more 'earthy' objects and events. 

 

Romanticism - an artistic style initiated in early 19th century Europe as a reaction against the 

detached and formal emphases of the neoclassicism of the time. It is characterized by a freer, 

more expressive use of media to depict highly dramatic, mysterious and exotic themes. 

 

Rhythm - a sense of an actual or implied movement existing within some form of organized 

pattern.  

     



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

39 
 

Scale - is the relationship between the size or intensity of surface qualities which establishes a 

sense of relative proportion and emphasis. 

 

Sensory properties - the qualities which are inherent within (belong to) an object or event that is 

experienced through one's sense of sight, touch, hearing and/or smell. 

 

Sensual - a response to the visual, aural, kinesthetic and/or olfactory aspects of objects or events 

with a special focus on sexual connotations. 

 

Sensuous – is a response to the physical character of stimuli; e.g., shapes colours and textures. 

 

Surrealism - a 20th-century movement which emphasizes imaginative and intuitive 

interpretations of the subconscious. 

 

Technical properties - particular attributes of works of art that result from how tools and 

materials are employed. 

 

Tension - an implied opposition of visual forces which evoke a sense of strained relationships 

between surface qualities, thereby, creating feelings of tautness or excitement. 

 

Texture - the suggested, implied (visual) or actual (tactile) character of an object's surface. 

 

Unity - a sense of 'wholeness' or 'relatedness' achieved through various techniques such as 

repetition, gradation, alternation, or radiation of visual qualities. 

 

Value - the term used to identify the variations in dark and light qualities of visual phenomena. 

Careers and occupations associated with the visual arts 

 

Food: Designer Of Cooking and Baking Utensils, Dinnerware, Flatware, Packages, and Paper 

Goods ALSO: Ceramist (dinnerware- pottery), Chef, Merchandiser, Pastry Decorator Clothing 

and appearance 

 

Fashion: Buyer, Commentator, Coordinator, Designer, Editor, Illustrator, Photographer, 

Costume Designer, Dress Maker, Fabric Draper, Furrier, Hair Stylist, Jewelry Designer and 

Jewelry Maker, Make-up Consultant, Milliner, Textile Designer, Shelter 

 

Architect: Commercial, Domestic, Industrial, Landscape, School DESIGNER OF: Fabric, Floor 

Coverings ALSO: Cabinet Maker, Ceramist (tiles), City Planner, House Painter, Paperhanger, 

Stained Glass Designer/Maker, Stonemason, Woodworker 

 

Education: Pre School: Aide, Sitter, Teacher ELEMENTARY: Art Consultant, Art Supervisor, 

Principal, Teacher SECONDARY: Arts Supervisor, Art Teacher, Artist - in - Residence, Craft –  

 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

40 

 

Home Economics - Industrial Arts - Photography Teacher POST SECONDARY: Community 

College Art Instructor, University Studio - Art History - Art Education - Aesthetics Professor 

 

Museum 

Catalogue Designer, Curator, Director, Educator, Exhibition Designer/Builder, Framer, 

Photographer, Restorer, Conservator 

 

Mass Media 

Billboard-Poster: Designer, Painter, Printer, Serigraphy MAGAZINE: Art Critic, Art Director, 

Art Editor, Cartoonist, Comic Strip Creator, Illustrator, Letterer, Photographer  

 

Motion Picture and Television: Animator, Art Director, Camera Operator, Costume 

Designer/Maker, Hair Dresser, Make-up Artist, Mock-up Builder, Set Designer and Builder, 

Titles Creator, Cartoonist COMPUTER: Web Site Designers, Computer Images and Graphics  

Religion 

 

Architect, Illustrator, Silversmith, Stained Glass Designer and/or Fabricator 

 

Transportation 

Aeroplane: Interior Stylist, Technical Illustrator, Trademark - Uniform Designer  

Automobile: Body Repairer, Brochure Designer, Illustrator, Customizer, Map Cartographer, 

Model Designer/ Maker, Painter, Stylist BICYCLE-MOTORCYCLE: Body Stylist, Painter, Pin-

Striper, Mobile Home: Equipment - Interior - Exterior Designer RECREATION Vehicles: 

Equipment - Interior - Shell Designer; Exterior Scenic Painter TRAIN: Interior - Sign - Station 

Designer  

Truck: Designer, Painter, Sign-Poster Designer/Painter 

Services 

Medical: Art Therapist, Illustrator, Model maker, Occupational Therapist 

Library: Fine Arts Librarian, Sign/Display Maker  

Police: Composite Sketch Artist, Court Artist,  

 

Photographer MILITARY: Aerial Photographer, Arts & Crafts Instructor, Combat 

Artist/Photographer, Training Aids Designer/Builder 

 

Shopping 

Advertising Designer, Advertising Agency Art Director, Catalogue Designer/Illustrator, Direct 

Mail Designer, Florist, Gift Wrapper, Point-of-Sale Display Designer/Maker, Product Designer, 

Toy Designer, Window Decorator 

 

The Arts 

Ballet/Opera/Theatre: Costume Designer, Publicity Designer/Photographer, Program Designer, 

Set Designer/Builder LITERATURE: Book Binder, Book Jacket Designer, Story Illustrator, 

Layout/Type Designer VISUAL ARTS: Calligrapher, Enamellist, Glass Blower, Jeweler, 



Contemporary issues in the Visual Arts in Nigeria 

41 
 

Mosaics, Muralist, Painter, Printmaker, Potter, Sculptor, Silversmith, Weaver ALSO: Arts & 

Crafts Camp Counselor, Art Auctioneer, Candlemaker, Circus Wagon - Poster Designer, 

Heraldry - Trophy - Award Designer, Parade Float Designer/Builder 

 

Conclusion 

This chapter discussed art history, appreciation, criticism and other components of art 

history. Art history uses the same language and approach that art historian considers the meaning 

of art in a large social context. Art is the study of objects of art in their historical development 

and stylistic content. Art appreciation is normally narrowed down to the value attached to art, 

that is focusing on art objects to better understand and analyze its content and take out meaning 

from it. Art criticism in a similar way involves evaluations of artwork with formal assignment 

tools. This to a greater extent requires an understanding of art movement, history and techniques 

of production. In recent time art history is the academic study of the history and development of 

visual arts and art appreciation, the application of basic tools of visual literacy to understand and 

appreciate works and understand their meaning.  

Art history is the study of objects considered within a specific time. Art historians are 

preoccupied with the main aim to analyze the visual arts to find the meaning of the work at the 

time they were created, for instance, to identify the visual elements of the work and interpret its 

meaning. Art history's mission, therefore, is to establish the authorial origin of artworks, i.e. 

discovering who created a particular artwork, when, where and for what reason or purpose. This 

is why it is very important to study a branch of art history called iconography, which consists of 

analyzing the symbolism of works of art here, the historian identifies the visual elements of any 

branch of visual art and interprets its meaning.  

 

Art historians are interested in what the works of art represent at the time they were created so 

doing it is a way to learn about the civilization of the past. Art history is important, in that, it 

helps individuals to understand their culture. Visual art recount stories of the past, it gives an 

account of past events. Art history allows us to look back and understand how civilization 

evolved over the centuries. It is a way to know ourselves better, why do we have certain values? 

What shaped the way we think and our vision of the world? 

 

Historical Context Bibliography 

Biscom, William. (1973). African Art in Cultural Perspective. New York: W.W. Norton & 

Company. 

Chalmers, Graeme. (1996). Celebrating Pluralism: Art Education and Cultural Diversity. 

California: The Getty Education for the Arts 

Congdon, Kristen. (1996). Gender Issues in Art Education: Art History, Traditional Art, and 

Artistic Practice. Reston, VA: NAEA. 

Dake, Dennis. (Spring, 1995). Effective Uses of Art History in the K-12 Art Classroom Part 1: 

Reshm King. Attitude towards Art History Reston VA NAEA 

Fitchner - Rathus, Lois(1995).Understanding Art. What is Art? Meaning, Purpose, Styles. New 

Jersey: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs 

Gablik, Suzi. (1991).The Enchantments of Art New York: Themes &Hudson. 



Art History and Criticism: A New Perspective 

42 

 

Hobbs, Jack &Salome, Richard (1991).The Visual Experience. Westchester M.A. Davies 

Publications 

Lippard, Lucy. (1083). Overlay Contemporary Art and Art History of Prehistory. New York: 

New Press 

Marquez, Gabriel Garcia & Matthiessen , Peter (1991).The Circle of Life. New York. Cohen 

Publishers 

Preble, D. & S. (1994). Art Form New York: Harper Collins College Publication 

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