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2023, Volume 14, Issue 2, pages: 165-197 | https://doi.org/10.18662/brain/14.2/450  
Submitted: February 28th, 2023 | Accepted for publication: June 28th, 2023 
 

Social Construction of a 
Pandemic. Medicalization 
of Social Life - Anxiety, 
Frustration and Ethical 
Risks 
 

Antonio SANDU 1 
 
1 Professor PhD. in Sociology, Stefan cel 
Mare University of Suceava, Romania| PhD 
Student in Law, Titu Maiorescu University 
of Bucharest, Romania 

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to analyze the social 
construction process of the Covid-19 pandemic from the perspective of 
the anxiety and frustration felt by the citizens as a threat to their own 
lives and health and to analyze the perceived severity of the Covid-19 
infection during March-June 2020. The present research aims to 
understand the changes that society is going through in the context of 
the pandemic, to analyze the social construction elements of the 
pandemic and the infodemic, in the context of a public health crisis, and 
also to identify the social perception on the pandemic among the affected 
population. 
Social anxiety can be understood: as a side effect of the process of social 
construction of the person's identity, thus being correlated with the 
cultural particularities of the social environment of origin, mainly 
related to the social distinctions between individualism and collectivism; 
as an instance for the social construction of the idea of pandemic; as a 
constructive instance for the medicalization of social life in the pandemic 
and post-pandemic period; as being socially constructed through the 
mechanisms of the interpretive adrift of the meaning of role performance. 
The research was carried out between March and June 2020 and it 
was based on a qualitative methodology derived from Grounded Theory. 
Data collection was done through the technique of a semi-structured 
interview, applied online on a sample of 103 people, mostly in the 
N.E. Region of Romania using an opportunity sample based on the 
snowball method. 
 
Keywords: pandemics; social construction; anxiety; frustration. 
 
How to cite: Sandu, A. (2023). Social Construction of a 
Pandemic. Medicalization of Social Life - Anxiety, 
Frustration and Ethical Risks BRAIN. Broad Research in 
Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience, 14(2), 165-197. 
https://doi.org/10.18662/brain/14.2/450  

https://doi.org/10.18662/brain/14.2/450
https://doi.org/10.18662/brain/14.2/450


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Introduction 

The aim of this paper was to analyze the social construction process 
of the Covid-19 pandemic from the perspective of the anxiety and 
frustration felt by the citizens as a threat to their own lives and health, due to 
the virulence of the virus transmission and the perceived severity of the 
Covid-19 infection during March-June 2020, as well as the unprecedented 
severity of disease prevention measures that led to the closure of most 
economic activities, the quarantine of some regions or cities, the limitation 
of any non-essential movements of the entire population, social distancing - 
later renamed physical distancing -, the obligation to wear a mask etc. We are 
talking about a phenomenon of social reconstruction, due to the significant 
impact of the way communications were made regarding the consequences 
of the disease and the pandemic itself, which led to a skeptical perception of 
helplessness, imminent danger and maximum severity, together with the 
broad limitation of personal rights and freedoms. All these elements, 
through the subjective perception that individuals have built on the idea of 
the pandemic, have had major effects on mental health, inducing anxiety, 
anguish and frustration. 

The present research aims to understand the changes that society is 
going through in the context of the pandemic, the social construction 
elements of the pandemic and the infodemic, in the context of a public 
health crisis, highlighting and analyzing the manifestations of anxiety and 
frustration during the pandemic and the risks they pose to public health, and 
the identification of the social perception on the pandemic among the 
affected population. 

That is why psychological measures to improve mental health are 
important, both those that were actually taken during the pandemic - for 
example, online psychological counseling - and those that will be taken in 
this direction in the post-pandemic period. In order to build an effective 
mental health policy in the post-pandemic period, it is necessary to know the 
dimensions of the phenomenon, as well as its magnitude, in the context of 
understanding the particularities of the social construction of the idea of 
pandemic. 

Anxiety and frustration - meaning of the concepts used in the article 

By anxiety we mean the state of restlessness, tense waiting, 
accompanied by negative respiratory phenomena, which can be considered 
pathological when exceeding a certain threshold. Anxiety manifests itself 



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pathologically as an indeterminate fear, as anxiety for no apparent reason, a 
condition that is often accompanied by physiological disorders. Frustration 
means a state of deprivation that the subject feels - either because of 
limitations imposed on their rights or by some effective harm that is done to 
them, being often considered to have a sexual substratum, in which case it is 
connected with disappointment and deception. 

Frustration occurs when, due to inhibitions or obstacles of any kind, 
the individual fails to fulfill a wish or satisfy a pleasure. Anxiety and 
frustration can be considered phenomena that occur frequently when there 
are - justified or not - changes in living conditions and the level of the quality 
of life to with which the individual is accustomed. 

Research context 

In the context of the pandemic triggered by the SARS-COV-2 virus, 
a number of measures have been taken, including the quarantine of some 
localities, the global lockdown of the population, the obligation of social 
distancing and wearing a mask, which limited access to health services - 
other than for the care of patients suffering from Covid-19 - etc. In this 
context, the emergence of individual behaviors generated by the fear of a 
deteriorating health and possible death are predictable. Also, the feeling of 
helplessness, but also the required stereotypical social behaviors - including 
social distancing -, can generate a large psychological crisis, which would be 
a real threat to public mental health. 

The period of lockdown, which took place between March and June 
2020 in Romania – and, in fact, in almost the whole world - caused a 
significant part of the population to experience phenomena of anxiety and 
frustration, that presented clear elements of pathological anxiety, thus 
representing a problem for the public mental health, that may prove to have 
long-term effects at least as severe as the Covid-19 pandemic. 

The effect of the psychological crisis is considered by researchers 
like Salari et al. (2020) to be more intense in the case of patients who are in 
the early stages of mental disorders, in which case they can lead to 
psychological changes, including on a pathological level. The most likely 
pathologies are those caused by fear, anxiety, depression or insecurity. 

More than a year after the first cases of SARS-COV-2 were reported, 
Romania is facing successive waves of this pandemic, characterized by 
shorter or longer, intermittent periods of local lockdown, but also by other 
phenomena, such as the rejection of vaccination, which can be attributed to 



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the frustration accumulated between March and June 2020 of the first major 
lockdown since the outbreak of the pandemic. 

Confidence in public institutions and, at the same time, confidence 
in the public health system is minimized due to the excessive number of 
false news and partial information that appear, from those related to the 
synthetic origin of the Coronavirus to those related to the fact that we are in 
a situation of hybrid war between globalism and nationalism, carried out 
between globalizing vectors (be they transnational organisms or 
multinational corporations), and nation states, acting somewhat 
independently, presumably in the interest of their own citizens. 

The lack of trust is exacerbated by the competition for medical 
resources, equipment, medical staff, a competition that takes place outside 
the cooperation between states, or even against it, in the context of a crisis 
of social communication that authorities cannot properly manage, and a 
distrust in real communication between states. 

Research assumptions 

The research started from the following assumptions: 
1. The Cronavirus pandemic had a negative influence on the mental 
stability of an important part of the population, and induced feelings 
such as: anxiety, anguish, frustration; 
2. The lockdown measures imposed to limit the spread of the 
pandemic will influence the prosocial behaviors of individuals, 
depending on the severity of their anxiety during the pandemic; 
3. The social, cultural and economic transformations that the society 
registered during the pandemic lead to the sharpening of the 
medicalization of social life and to a raised awareness that the 
current society is a risk society. 

Theoretical approach 

Social anxiety can be understood as a side effect of the process of 
social construction of the person's identity, thus being correlated with the 
cultural particularities of the social environment of origin, mainly related to 
the social distinctions between individualism and collectivism. In collectivist 
cultures, social harmony takes precedence over the individual, who occupies 
a peripheral place in the development of the community. By opposition, in 
individualistic cultures, the person has a central position, as the harmony of 
the community is subordinated to the concerns for the personal well-being 
and social affirmation of the individual. These differences may explain a 



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number of reactions of individuals to stressors - such as the Covid-19 
pandemic. Social anxiety is, in our opinion, an instance for the social 
construction of the idea of pandemic and, through the consequences of this 
social construct, a constructive instance for the medicalization of social life 
in the pandemic and post-pandemic period.  

In our opinion, social anxiety is socially constructed through the 
mechanisms of the interpretive adrift of the meaning of role performance, in 
the context of approximating the cultural values of the society of which the 
individual is part and/or of anticipatory resocialization, in different cultural 
contexts.  

The risk society and the medicalization of social life 

As socially constructed diseases - such as social anxiety - gain a 
significant impact on public health, and society reacts by accepting the 
pathological, we begin to talk about a deeply medicalized society. The idea of 
a medical society is very often connected with that of a risk society, when 
the medical risks which the society is partially unable to manage are involved 
in the discussion, other than emphasizing the pathological referral of any 
altered mental or social conditions, and this is made in order not to "miss" 
the goal of sustainable social development, which consists in providing 
specialized care to all those who are supposed to need it.  

The medicalization of society is practically the effect of the "risk 
society" (Williams & Calnan, 1996), the fact that society is more easily aware 
of the various risks that individuals feel threaten them (Conrad, 2007). It 
sometimes comes down to the idea of "medicalizing the human condition," 
which is nothing more than a "treatable disorder." The medicalization of 
social life, as we understand it, is "an overuse of tools originally from the 
medical field, but little or unscientifically adapted to everyday life, but which 
mark our daily lives" (Sandu, 2020).  

The term risk society was proposed by Ulrich Beck (1992), and 
extends the traditional concept of risk, understood as the probability that an 
adverse event might occur, summed up with the magnitude of its 
consequences, to include the subjective perception of risk - which appears in 
intersubjective risk communication - as well as the social experience of living 
in a risky environment. Finally, risk society theorists claim that not only 
health and the environment are endangered, but also fundamental socio-
political values: freedom, equality, justice, respect for individual rights and 
democracy (Ekberg, 2007). The management of the risk society is more 



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difficult to achieve, due to the fact that the population is more obviously 
aware of the risks to which it is subjected.  

In the case of the current pandemic, this is one of the most 
important ethical issues is the social construction of trust in the health 
system as a whole. This is not necessarily a new issue, but the crisis caused 
by Covid-19 underscores the need for confidence in the measures taken by 
the medical system, including those restricting the autonomy of individuals 
and their fundamental freedoms. Basically, it is about trust in public health, 
which suddenly seems to become imperialist, partially subordinating its 
public policy systems, both at state and supranational level.  

The medicalization of social life brings with it a lifestyle based on a 
sometimes-exaggerated care for the health condition, on an increased 
consumption of pharmacological products or, on the contrary, of natural 
products, which are supposed to have an almost miraculous effect in 
maintaining health.  

Pandemics and social fear 

Social Anxiety Disorder is defined as a disorder in which social 
interactions generate a constant state of stress for the subject, which causes 
them to either avoid interactions and frequent social contact, or to 
experience these interactions in a painful way, due to a disproportionate fear 
of the real social context (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2013). The basis of social 
phobias is the person's fear that they will not be able to properly cope to the 
situation, and will be negatively labeled by others. 

The diagnosis of social anxiety must take into account, according to 
DSM-5, the cultural component of the personality and the way in which the 
individual constitutes the rationality of their fears, based on the dominant 
cultural experience of the society to which they belong. According to the 
textbook cited above (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2013), culture refers to the 
system of knowledge, concepts, rules and practices learned and transmitted 
across generations, including language, religion, spirituality, family structures, 
life cycle stages, rituals and customs, moral and legal systems. In 
contemporary society, the individual is exposed to several cultures, which 
they use in the construction of their own identity, to build the meaning of 
their own experience. Various forms of social anxiety can be found today 
due to the cultural contamination and interculturality specific to the 
postmodern society. 

Social fear has been directed, over time, at various subjective 
alterities, including the supernatural - with its forms: divine, demonic or 
magical -, but also the stranger - that is, a person who belongs to another 



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culture, religion, civilization, which individuals subjectively perceive as 
“different,” to whom interests contrary to those of the community are 
attributed. Included in this category are the dysmorphic – with real 
dysmorphic disorder (people with various disabilities or bodily dysmorphia) 
but also with imagined dysmorphic disorders (the gnome, the giant) and, last 
but not least, the sick - as a receptacle of celestial anger or as a bearer of the 
stigma of their own actions. 

In the collective mind - both medieval and modern, the plague – 
and, by extrapolation, any form of pandemic - was correlated with two other 
scourges, war and famine, which increased the destructive power of 
epidemics. 

The media's mention of pandemics such as the Spanish plague or the 
flu has caused the population to become more anxious, especially with 
regard to the virulence of the epidemic and the mortality involved. On the 
other hand, with the existing evidence on Covid-19 mortality, the same 
comparison with other historical pandemics has led to a minimization of the 
perception, among a part of the population, of the severity and risks 
involved in the pandemic and, implicitly, to the refusal to comply to 
protection measures or to the questioning of the legitimacy of restrictions 
placed on individual rights and freedoms on the basis of public good / 
health interests. 

The social construction of the pandemics 

Sandra Maria Pfister (2020) draws attention to the fact that social 
events related to the pandemic - both current and, by way of memory, 
previous, or future ones, in the coming decades - are paving the way for a 
new branch of sociology, in general, and for medical sociology, in particular: 
the sociology of the pandemic. The emergence of this new branch of 
sociology will be delayed as long as social research on the pandemic is 
maintained at the instrumental level of studying the attitudes and 
perceptions of the population regarding it, without moving on to an in-
depth analysis of the communicative paradigm generated by the pandemic. 
The social construction of the pandemic must take into account the 
symbolic dimension and the interactive ways in which the pandemic 
becomes a social reality, beyond a strictly medical reality (Dingwall et al., 
2013). 

Anthony Oliver-Smith (2022) points out that natural disasters, 
including those triggered by epidemics or pandemics, are mere games of 
chance, as long as they do not intersect with elements of anthropological 



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consciousness that give them meaning and distance them from the natural 
setting of events. a socially significant one. In this regard, the quoted author 
states that "The COVID-19 pandemic is a disaster, and disasters do not just 
happen" (Oliver-Smith, 2022). 

The literature on the social construction of the Covid-19 pandemic 
emphasizes the role of the digital media and especially of social networks in 
the construction of the idea of the pandemic as a form of collective anxiety. 
W.T. Fesmire (2021) examines how comparisons are made between other 
known pandemics throughout history, especially recent history, and the 
Covid-19 pandemic, in the sense of a hyperbolization of the risk in order to 
strengthen the communicative power of the message transmitted to the 
public. This historicizing of the message determines a special form of 
communicative action (Habermas, 1985), în order to generate a consensus 
on the meanings of the term pandemic - as a new social status. 

Practically, we are talking about a process of creating meaning, in 
which the intellectual elites and the significant ones from the communicative 
point of view create meaning through the construction of emotions that 
legitimize a certain type of discourse and a certain narrative that allows the 
individuals to familiarize themselves with an unprecedented social reality 
(Yeomans & Bowman, 2021). 

Methodology 

The research, carried out between March and June 2020, was based 
on a qualitative methodology derived from Grounded Theory, and data 
collection was done through the technique of a semi-structured interview, 
applied online. 

Sampling and the actual conduct of the research 

The research was conducted on a sample of 103 people, mostly in 
the N.E. Region of Romania (67) as follows: Suceava (42), Botoşani (15), 
Iaşi (10), but also from other counties: Cluj (1), Bucharest (2). People from 
the Republic of Moldova (12) were also interviewed, as well as Romanian 
citizens residing in other countries such as: Austria (1), Spain (1), Italy (1), 
Belgium (1), Germany (1), Great Britain (1). There were also persons who 
did not declare their region / country of residence: unspecified (15). 

The interviewees were female (62), male (31) and a number of 7 
people did not specify their gender. 

The age of the interviewed persons is between 18-24 years (47), 25-
30 years (26), 35-45 years (14), 45-60 years (9), 60-90 years (3), unspecified 
(4). 



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As a source of origin, the interviewees belong to rural areas (42), 
urban areas (25), unspecified (36). 

As a level of education, the participants in the research stated as 
formal education: higher education (63), secondary education (31), 
unspecified (9). 

The following were highlighted as occupational profiles of the 
persons included in the sample: salesperson (7), medical staff (6), student 
(35) pupil (9), teacher (5), economist (3), clerk (1), civil servant (10), 
commercial worker (3), unemployed (4), housewife (6), retired (7), 
unspecified (7). 

The sample was an opportunity sample, the selection of the sample 
was made based on the snowball method, and the analysis of the collected 
data took into account the need for the theoretical saturation of the 
proposed model (no new discursive categories were identified in subsequent 
interviews). In fact, the saturation of the model was achieved, in general, 
after the analysis of the first 20 interviews, but the analysis continued to 
identify significant subcategories that, although they did not bring new 
discursive categories, better configured the existing categories. 

The research was conducted on the basis of unstructured interviews, 
made online or by telephone. The vast majority of the interviews were 
conducted via video conferencing applications and transcribed. A limited 
number of interviews were conducted through programs such as Messenger, 
Whatsapp - where both questions and answers took place in writing, the 
answers being given by the interviewees immediately after receiving the 
question - thus ensuring real-time communication. The interviews mainly 
focused on how the families of the students, as well as those of their friends 
and acquaintances, related to the situation created by the pandemic. 

We mention that during the research period, both Romania and 
other countries where the respondents resided were in a period of lockdown, 
characterized by the closure of non-essential economic activities, limiting the 
mobility of people by imposing the obligation to make a statement assuming 
responsibility for the duration and route of any travel, a complete ban on 
travel between certain time slots or even a complete quarantine of persons 
suspected of being infected with SARS-COV-2 or of entire localities, where 
the infection rate was higher than the national average. 

Analysis of results by Grounded Theory 

For the interpretation of the data, the qualitative analysis 
methodology called Grounded Theory (G.T.) was used (Corbin & Strauss, 
2008; Creswell, 2007; Goulding, 1999). The method consists in a process of 



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systematic generation of conceptual categories, aiming to obtain an 
increasing level of generality, which would explain the researched topic. The 
approach is an inductive one, through successive stages of work, starting 
from the information provided by the interviewed subjects. The research is 
generally exploratory, being used when investigating a unique psycho-social 
phenomenon, about which there are not enough data in the literature or for 
which theories that already exist in the literature are no longer applicable, 
due to the change of the socio-cultural contexts in which the social 
phenomenon takes place. 

Due to the exploratory nature of the method, it aims to create a new 
theoretical corpus and less to validate a set of preliminary hypotheses 
(Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Goulding, 1999; Sandu, 2010). The hypotheses may 
exist in the form of presuppositions, which derive either from the literature 
or from a first empirical analysis of the studied social phenomenon, but the 
research does not have a proper confirmatory value. This type of research 
being limited to highlighting possible causal links, without being able to 
effectively confirm them and without being able to specify exactly the causal 
dynamics of the social phenomenon. 

The results thus obtained will be summarized in the form of a 
model, the constituent elements of which, formulated in the form of 
possible causal relationships, may constitute working hypotheses for future 
research. These would clarify the resulting, model as well as the extent of its 
validity. 

The data coding was performed in two successive phases: the initial 
coding and, respectively, the selective coding - focused coding (Adam, 2009) 
- which we called, according to Cresswel (2007), axial coding. The purpose 
of these successive inductive stages is to identify significant discursive 
themes or categories, followed by the construction of a theoretical model 
explaining the social phenomena that accompany anxiety and frustration, 
which appeared as an effect of the pandemic, but also of measures to 
prevent Covid-19 infection. The aim was to classify the "codes" or 
categories they were obtained and to group together the initial categories, 
which are semantically adjacent. In the first stage, open coding was used, 
followed, in the analysis process, by axial coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). 
Thus, from the thematic axes that were analyzed, resulted a series of 
theoretical constructs with explanatory role in the elaboration of an 
instrumental model of understanding the perceived dimensions of the social 
phenomena related to the pandemic, but also the possible pathologies 
generated by anxiety and frustration. 



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Results of research 

Discursive categories obtained in the open coding stage 

1. Information on the Covid-19 virus / pandemic: origins, cause, 
manifestation, treatment 

Interviewees have an ambivalent view of the pandemic, most of 
them consider themselves to be sufficiently informed (S.D.B.) by using the 
online environment (A.A.), (D.A.B.), (G.F.C.), but also the traditional media 
(L.B.), (G.F.C.), (B.S.A.). Some of them show that they consider themselves 
sufficiently informed about the symptoms that Covid-19 infection may 
present: fever, dry cough (AA), while others show that they know only about 
the severity of the disease, but not about the its symptoms: I only know that 
it affects the body very strongly (D.A.B.). 

A credible source of information on the manifestations and symptoms 
of the disease is, for some respondents, communication with infected 
people and especially with those who have gone through the disease and 
managed to overcome it. In this case, the information obtained can be a 
source of optimism and confidence that the disease can be overcome (I.E.). 
The same is not true when a close person infected with Covid-19 have lost 
their lifes. Then, the interviewed subjects are deeply aware of the risks that 
the SARS-COV-2 infection can bring, both for them and for those close to 
them, especially if they are elderly or suffering from comorbidities (S.P.). 

To avoid misinformation due to the abundance of information 
sources, many of which are contradictory, some people have decided to select 
the sources of information, giving credibility especially to medical and 
scientific sources, as well as to the personal accounts of recent patients (I.E.). 

2. Personal experience of infection with the Covid-19 virus 

A significant experience that the interviewed subjects mentioned was 
that of their own infection with the Covid-19 virus and, respectively, of the 
situations in which close people became infected with this virus. When there 
were people close to them who lost their lives due to the virus infection, the 
described experience was one of anguish for their own health and, especially, 
for those close to them (S.P.). 

3. Experience communicating with persons infected with the Covid-19 virus 
and the perception on the experience of these persons 

A number of communication experiences with people infected 
with the Covid-19 virus (L.B.) have been highlighted, with manifestations of 
varying intensity and severity, from people who have gone through this 



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experience easily and recovered, to people who suffered physically and 
mentally, having suffered a traumatic experience by getting infected. The 
interviewed subjects showed that they also had people who lost the fight 
against the virus among the more or less close acquaintances (A.A.). 

Feelings of empathy and even joy are shown towards infected 
people when they prove to be cured (A.A.). It is worth noting answers like 
Yes, I have acquaintances who have had such people in their family and have had to be 
quarantined, but this has not changed my behavior in any way. Everything remained 
exactly as before, the virus can't change who you are (L.B.). Such statements are true 
pleadings against discrimination of infected persons - discrimination that 
may occur, on the one hand due to the social fear of infection and infected 
persons, but on the other hand may also be induced by the severity of 
quarantine measures, both of individuals (quarantined individually, as 
mere contacts) and of communities (where the virus spread is higher than 
the national average). 

Direct contact with an infected person, especially when that 
person's case appeared in the media, becomes a source of anxiety and even 
despair, the interviewee being concerned about his own health condition, 
but also about the possibility that he himself may be a vector of virus 
transmission: When I realized that this virus had reached the place where I live, I was 
quite scared because, first of all, I had contact with a person who had contact with the first 
case of Covid from the locality. […] Social distancing affected me primarily during that 
two-week period when my family and I were isolated, because I thought I had come in 
contact with the person I mentioned earlier (B.A.G.). 

4. The subjective experience of quarantine, social distancing and lockdown 
measures 

Respondents indicated that they feel affected by the pandemic on 
several levels - personal, social, professional, emotional, material, mental etc. 
(C.J.). 

The subjective experience of quarantine depends on how 
individuals perceive the risks that the disease for which quarantine has been 
imposed may pose to their own lives and those of their loved ones, and only 
then the harm it brings to their own freedoms, lifestyle and agent capacity. 
People who feel more vulnerable - due to age or comorbidities - may be 
more inclined to accept stricter quarantine measures or even to adopt a 
quarantined lifestyle for themselves and their loved ones, that precautionarily 
exceeds the minimum measures required by authorities (G.G.). 

Lifestyle change, whether in a pleasurable or unpleasant way, is 
representative for the subjective experience of the interviewees when it comes 



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to quarantine, social distancing, and lockdown measures: I had become accustomed 
to a certain lifestyle, and now everything is different (E.L.). The period of lockdown 
was considered by some people as a time of respite in daily activities, which 
allowed them to engage in hobbies or recreational activities that they would 
not have allowed themselves to indulge in during a normal period. 

Many of the interviewees believe that they have been affected by the 
restrictions imposed, one of them stating that he has not seen his family for two 
months (A.A.). Mentions of missing or diminished relationships with family 
members or loved ones during the quarantine or lockdown period appeared 
in most interviews. The reason why some of the interviewees agreed with 
the measures imposed and respected them was the protection of those close 
to them and was linked less to their own protection. 

The constituent elements of a normal life were affected in the case 
of some of the respondents, including relationships with friends and, 
implicitly, their sociability (a.n.), generating a need to spend more time outdoors 
(L.B.). Congruent to these statements, some interviewees considered the 
lockdown period as one in which they had the opportunity to spend more 
time with family and loved ones (G.N.). This changed the quality of 
relations between family members living in the same household, either in 
the sense of strengthening solidarity between its members (due to 
increased communication) or in the sense of leading to a depreciation of 
these relations - due to the escalation of latent conflicts and a mandatory 
long lasting cohabitation.  

There were also confessions of dissatisfaction related to the 
impossibility of organizing the special events of life that represented unique 
moments for individuals in a normal manner (S.D.B.), (S.D.). The 
impossibility of practicing certain religious rituals, including those related 
to funeral practices, was called into question. The restriction of religious 
freedom, leading to a total ban on public religious services, even during 
religious holidays of the highest importance for believers of all religions, was 
considered a serious cause for concern regarding the respect for individual 
rights, but also a source of emotional trauma for some deeply religious 
people. The hardest time during the isolation was the Easter holidays. We, in the village, 
have our habits, we go to church, to the cemetery, we could not get used to the idea that we 
are forbidden to do so (M.T.). However, there are also voices welcoming this 
measure, considering it beneficial for limiting the infection rate (P.I.2). 

Another issue that affected the population during this period was 
technical unemployment due to the temporary closure of the company 
in which they had their job, which situation turned into a source of anxiety 
including for the future economic situation (A.B.), (G.F.C. ). 



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The fact that for loved ones were placed in quarantine is also a 
source of anxiety and frustration, especially when those people are the main 
/ only providers of income for the family, and they do not benefit from 
technical unemployment or other forms of social work: I am concerned that my 
husband, who is in a foreign country heavily affected by this virus, faces various obstacles in 
returning to normalcy. […] My husband has already been in quarantine for a month and 
a half, and is not guaranteed any financial support, such as technical unemployment, the 
situation is equally unclear as regards the resumption of activity (N.A.). 

A source of concern about deteriorating health during the pandemic 
and the indirect effect of the pandemic is the issue of mental health, 
which is considered to be impaired by the lack of direct communication 
with others, the monotony of activities and mental fatigue (G.N.). Home 
isolation made everything difficult and depressant (L.A.E.). Among the effects 
mentioned by the respondents were those related to the decrease of the 
quality of life in general and the general well-being, including health, as 
sleep dysfunctions were noticed (A.B.), which, once they become chronic, 
can lead to the exacerbation of already existing health conditions or to the 
new disorders. Also, the subjective quality of life was affected by 
lockdown measures and the obligation to stay at home was perceived as a 
severe restriction on freedom of movement (G.F.C.). 

Restricting freedom of movement, achieved either by quarantining 
certain areas or by traffic bans at certain time intervals, is considered a source 
of concern, but also of frustration, in the context of imposing on people to 
sign a declaration assuming responsibility for their travel itinerary, along 
with the purpose and duration of their travel outside their house premises. 
This measure has a profound negative impact, as it is associated, in the 
collective mind, with the state of siege and the imminence of catastrophes - 
in this case, for public health. Having no experience of such situations in the past, I 
had to think, to be careful if I have the statement with me, if I have completed it, if I am in 
the proper range and so on (V.A.R.). Restricting freedom of movement in itself 
undermines the dignity of the person, style and way of life, personal 
freedom, guaranteed by the Constitution and international conventions, which 
in the collective mind of a country that has not long ago had a communist 
regime, such as Romania, may suggest the installation of a dictatorship - called 
by some sources "White Dictatorship" or "Medical Dictatorship". 
Especially in the case of minorities who have historically been persecuted, 
such measures can trigger negative emotional stimuli related to personal 
security, especially in the context when images of law enforcement agents 
who were enforcing lockdown measures have been accessible, at least online, 
and were quite viewed by the public. The impact of these images was 



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exacerbated by the communications - whether desired or not – issued by the 
authorities, who, through the "Military Ordinances", emphasized the martial 
capacity of the State and less its solidarity with the population. The "guilt of 
being infected with Covid-19" was induced in the population as an idea, 
even if the purpose of the restrictive messages was attributed to the desire to 
protect the population. 

The vulnerability of the population to a repressive system was 
highlighted - even if this was not the intention of the measures - even in the 
case of a democratic society, which accepts and respects human rights, as is 
the case for Romanian, where the present research was done. Social fear, 
such as pandemics, coupled with inappropriate reactions from the 
authorities, can lead to a setback in freedom, but also an increase in the 
aggressive mentality of vulnerable populations - as is the case of patients 
infected with Covid-19. Extending discrimination to anyone with suspicious 
symptoms - see temperature gauges in all public places - can be an impetus 
for social segregation, with physical distance being replaced by real social 
distancing, not just in terms of maintaining a safe distance, but also in the 
sense of limiting sociability. 

In some cases, a distinction is made between centrally designed 
measures, which might be appropriate, and the way they are inforced in 
counties and localities, which appears to be erroneous, unadapted to the 
particular situation, thus causing the dissatisfaction of citizens, especially in 
quarantined localities, for whom additional restrictions have been 
introduced, supplementary to those faced by the entire population of the 
country. Regardless of the level and size at which the pandemic affected the 
population, in the end the ability of each individual to cope with this 
particular form of stress, not previously encountered, can be defining for 
overcoming the inconveniences of the period – and, implicitly, anxiety and 
frustration. It is the resistance to anxiety and anguish that is a coping 
element, which can help those who approach such an attitude overcome 
more easily the aforementioned states of mind and any other forms of 
discomfort, if they stay mentally positive (T.S.). 

The report on the lockdown can be drawn in terms of social fears, 
abundantly present in virtually all sources of information to which the 
population has access, or in terms of the moment of respite, interruption 
of daily agitation, return to introspection, to things that otherwise 
individuals did not have time to contemplate, deepening their relationship 
with themselves and with those whom they had to quarantine with. 

Privacy is seen as related to family, friends and, in general, 
emotional stability, and less to the career and social expectations of the 



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individual - which are perceived as secondary, on the periphery of the core 
of personality. We can assume that there is, at least among young people 
from certain socio-economic backgrounds, a distance from the social model 
based on the evolution on the social ladder and job security, the person's 
interest shifting to emotional security, experiencing the present moment 
and the immediate satisfaction given by everyday life. 

As such, we can say that, at least in certain situations, we are not only 
witnessing a medicalization of the social life, but also the emergence of a 
"society of personal development", correlated with the dissolution of 
social solidarity. The interest for oneself and for those close to them 
takes precedence over the interests of society, and jobs are only an alienating 
element, which disturb the focus on the person. On the other hand, we can 
notice the emergence of a culture of precariousness and the focus on the 
immediate, in which individuals refuse long-term planning, to the detriment 
of experiencing the immediate. 

There were also opinions that the pandemic could be considered a 
divine punishment for the sins accumulated by humanity in general or by 
the community in particular, and the responsibility for the pandemic should 
be assumed in line with a possible feeling of guilt. The divine sanction can, 
in some situations, be thought of in its apocalyptic dimensions, especially 
since at least one of the signs of divine wrath is represented by such 
pandemics in the collective mind (A.O.). Divine intervention, for those who 
thus see the current pandemic, may have a punitive purpose, as I have 
presented, but also an educational one, corrective for humanity (D.I.). 

On the other hand, the belief in divine help is a reason for courage 
and overcoming the uncertainty that arises related to the sudden and 
radical change of lifestyle for an uncertain period of time (P.A.). 

5. The perception on the restrictive measures imposed by the authorities 
during the pandemic 

In most European Union countries, the authorities have taken 
measures to prevent infection, such as lockdowns, social distancing, the 
obligation to wear masks and gloves, restricting travel outside home, the 
obligation to sign a declaration assuming responsibility regarding the 
purpose, duration and route of travel, etc. All these measures aimed at 
reducing the rate of infection of the population and, in addition to its direct 
protection, also had the role of avoiding overcrowding the hospitals with 
patients infected with Covid-19, thus leading to the impossibility of 
providing medical care to all the persons who required it. 



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The interviewees have an ambivalent perception of the measures 
taken by the authorities, some of them considering them beneficial for the 
prevention of diseases and the uncontrollable spread of the virus (DAB), 
and others insisting that these measures were not effective, that they did 
not really contributed to the reduction of the risk of infection (L.B.). The 
disproportionate nature of the sanctioning measures imposed in the 
cases of non-compliance with quarantine, compared to other punitive 
measures, in other situations of law violation is accentuated, and even 
ridiculed, but also the ability of law enforcement personnel to impose these 
sanctions: thieves and rapists don’t do time, do you think that those who do not respect 
isolation will? It's a lie, just to scare those who came in the country recently (V.C.). 

Those who stated that they accepted and even appreciated the 
protection measures requested by the authorities, stated that they respected 
them (A.A.), (N.I.). Respondents also observed social distancing as a 
measure to prevent infection (D.A.B.), (G.F.C.), (A.M.). The use of 
disinfectant and other hygiene measures is also presented as a form of a 
symbolic distancing oneself - even if people are unaware of it - from the other, 
when the interviewee wants to specify that, following the hygiene measures 
indicated by the authorities, he disinfects his hands when he touches objects 
that were touched by other people (N.N.2). Even if, strictly speaking, this 
practice reduces the risk of infection, the subjective perception of this gesture 
strengthens the belief that any person - even if they are not present - can be a 
threat, by simply touching objects. If such a habit is beneficial and salutary 
during an epidemic in the phase of its maximum outbreak, the long-term 
perpetuation of this habit leaves room for a perpetuation of social fear 
regarding the other, as a source of risk to their own health or well-being. It 
will also strengthen the perception that the current society is a risky one, 
that not all measures are taken in order to prevent all risks, which accentuates 
the medicalization of social life, by accepting the inevitability of negative 
effects when comming into contact with others. Every day I was in 
quarantine I felt like a prisoner at home, I was afraid to leave the house and, if I went 
shopping, I always wanted to avoid other people, because I was afraid I might get this virus 
(N.N.2). The feeling of being imprisoned in one's own home is not only 
related to the restriction of certain rights and freedoms, which is somewhat 
understandable in a time of crisis for public health, but also to feelings of self-
blame or blaming others for one's own condition and the perception of the 
medicalization of social life as a radicalization of oppression, in the 
name of dangers perceived as uncertain. 



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Such a perception may give rise to widespread mistrust in public 
health systems, as vectors of oppression that were once blamed exclusively 
on politics or economics. 

There is also criticism of the measures taken by the authorities, 
considering that they were not necessarily effective, with an emphasis on appearances; the 
situation could have been handled much better (L.B.). We cannot fail to draw 
attention to this view that the authorities have reacted to appearances 
that can be speculated in mass communication - such as wearing masks, 
social distancing, temperature checking - instead of focusing on protecting 
healthcare professionals, ensuring necessary and appropriate equipment 
and technology. 

Some criticisms of the state explicitly refer to the lack of medical 
equipment, which should have existed in hospitals regardless of the current 
state of emergency or not (A.B.). This makes respondents distrustful of the 
state's ability to manage the crisis - neither regarding health issuen, nor 
on an economic and / or social level. 

Authorities are believed to have taken on an authoritarian but 
benevolent attitude, effective in the first period of the pandemic, but 
quickly eroded by public distrust and diverted to the idea of a "white 
dictatorship" or public health dictatorship. It is interesting that an attitude 
of refusal to comply with the preventive measures imposed was mentioned 
even by the interviewees who stated that they showed symptoms, but 
refused to get tested, but also by people who, being positively confirmed as 
infected, refused to get admitted in the hospital - although at that time it 
was mandatory -, mentioning the fear of an aggravating suffering from the 
state of the Romanian health system, considered to be deficient. 

A source of dissatisfaction with the measures taken by the authorities 
to increase the care capacity of patients with Covid-19 is the transformation 
of many hospitals into "exclusively Covid" hospitals - which care only for 
patients with Covid-19 - leaving risky and difficult patients with 
conditions other than Covid-19 untreated or forcing them to travel, 
endangering their health and even their life (PI2). 

6. The perception on the existence of resources needed to overcome the 
pandemic 

A concern of the interviewees is the ability to cope with the 
pandemic, from the perspective of the existence or non-existence of 
medical, human, material, financial resources - both at the individual level 
and at the collective / community or even societal level. Confidence in the 
existence of resources diminishes the anxiety generated by the pandemic, 



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while the prospect of insufficient resources can be a source of collective 
panic. 

There have been frequent reports of people overstocking up on 
food and medicine, but this panic has been halted when the permanent 
supply of food and especially pharmaceutical stores has been established 
(G.G.). The lack of basic food items and, above all, the fear of the complete 
closure of stores, including food stores, or the impossibility of supplying 
them were sources of panic declared by several interviewees (P.M.). 

On the other hand, the lack of protective masks and medical 
equipment - including for medical staff - has been a source of anxiety, 
especially for those who came into direct contact with patients, but also for 
society as a whole. Concerns have been expressed about the lack of 
medical staff, especially when they are at increased risk of infection in the 
hospital setting, given the lack of protective equipment and the absence of a 
specific medication or vaccine (at the time of the interviews there was not 
no vaccine available on the market – a.n.) (P.I.2). 

The distrust in the Romanian medical system is considered by 
the interviewees who chose to answer on this topic, to be a result of an 
inconsistency of the political factor, but also of the inefficiency of 
communication during the crisis, shown by the authorities (A.M.). 
Compared to the answer mentioned above, we cannot clearly distinguish the 
effects of frustration with the pandemic from the need to find a person 
responsible for the situation of discomfort, or from the political opinions 
of the interviewees - but the two types of discourse, the political and the 
personal one, converge in the case presented above. 

7. Impact of news on the pandemic 

The interviewees expressed their views on the impact of the 
pandemic news, which is mostly negative, but there are also people who 
showed that they were not extremely affected (P.I.2). There are also voices 
emphasizing the positive role that the media should play in such a situation - 
to encourage the population to comply with the necessary protection 
measures and, at the same time, to inform the population about possible 
slippages from normality (A.C.). 

8. Perceived effects of the pandemic 

Positive effects: Some interviewees stated that the Coronavirus 
pandemic also had beneficial effects, including appreciation of important 
things in life and time spent with loved ones (D.A.B.), (I.A.B.), (A.S.B.). 
Another important thing, considered to be a positive effect of crossing 



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through this pandemic, is, according to one of the respondents: we started 
to love life more (L.C.). Acute awareness of the fear of death means that 
other elements of dissatisfaction, related to the standard of living, quality of 
life, etc., are no longer viewed with such importance, in relation to the value 
of life itself. There are, among the interviewees, some respondents who 
appreciate the positive role of the pandemic in the social construction of 
responsibility towards one's own health, towards others and towards the 
environment (N.N.4), (I.E.). 

People who appreciated the beneficial effects of the lockdown 
referred, among other things, to the development of a capacity for self-
control over daily routines, more efficient organization of activities and 
the adoption of a responsible lifestyle (A.M.). 

Adverse effects: Among the negative effects of the pandemic, there 
were mentioned: the deterioration in the long-term health of many 
people (length of convalescence, sedentary lifestyle imposed by the 
pandemic - which predisposes to a weakened immune system and the vitality 
of the body), but also the loss of human lives. The lack of bodily exercise 
is also discussed - at least outdoor (B.S.A.), (A.B.). The risks of mental 
disorders are highlighted in the context of discussing the reduction of 
hobbies and, especially, outdoor activities (A.M.). 

The interviewees express their hope that the experience of the 
pandemic will also have transformative effects, in the sense of changing 
the attitude / behavior of people towards the environment, and not only 
(L.B). 

The very risk of undue death of patients with Covid-19 is 
discussed, as well as other collateral causes, such as the lack of access to 
health services, the lack of basic care for the elderly and, why not, the 
severe deterioration of the health condition for psychiatric patients and 
people belonging to vulnerable categories: This crisis makes the elderly remain 
locked in the house and perish (PI2). 

There is also a perceived risk of social marginalization (D.B.) of 
various sections of the population affected by both the health and economic 
crisis, associated with a lack or reduction of material resources - especially 
against the perception of lack of resources, which was generalized within 
society, but especially at the state level, to overcome the economic and social 
crisis, which is perceived as a severe one. 

The negative impact on the population was also felt by restricting 
the right to work and limiting the right to free movement, a situation 
described by one of the interviewees as generating a state of helplessness 
(D.M.C.). 



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Another element perceived as a generator of anxiety and frustration 
was the obligation of self-quarantine (D.B.) of those who carried out their 
professional activity in medical, social or medical-social care institutions. 
This situation has often been perceived as a form of deprivation of liberty 
(L.C.) and, implicitly, a violation of fundamental rights. Also in this 
context can be included the lack of treatment of people suffering from 
various pathologies - other than Covid-19 - and the limitation, by the 
military ordinances in force, of the development of medical acts 
considered non-essential. 

Another effect, this time perceived at the level of the economic 
environment, is the imminence of the bankruptcy of many small and 
medium businesses, but also of some large companies, caused by the 
temporary closure of activity, lack of liquidity, inability to pay, etc. (G.S.). 

9. Credibility of information sources and infodemia 

Respondents pointed out that the available sources of 
information, especially the media, are not generally credible - they are 
manipulative (L.B.) - and therefore the respondents cannot be fully, correctly 
and especially credibly informed from these sources. The increase in the 
number of fake news was also a source of stress and anxiety for citizens, the 
interviewees showing that they felt threatened by the explosion of the 
number of fake news (A.B.). This was attributed to the media's desire to 
confuse them with so much information (A.B.). There are people who have 
pointed out that in such situations, such as those in which the state of 
emergency is active, taking measures to restrict freedom of expression - in 
order to control false and, in particular, alarmist news - is welcome (G.G.). 

10. Perception on the post-pandemic period 

Many of the interviewees believe that sooner or later the situation will 
return to normal (D.M.C.) in terms of epidemiology and public health, many of 
them being rather concerned about the evolution of the economic and social 
situation. The hope of returning to normal is, from our point of view, the 
attempt to humanize the pandemic experience (all interviews were 
conducted during the period when the state of lockdown was established in 
Romania; as such, the interviewee expresses a desire for the moment when 
these measures will be relaxed – a.n.) (DC). 

Another idea, which also leads to the construction of a post-
pandemic normalcy, is that it means the return of the freedom of 
movement, at least outside one’s home, without the risk of being stopped by 
the police and questioned about the destination, duration of travel, etc.: I will 



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be able to go where I want in the city, without being afraid if the police would stop me 
(N.I.). The humanization of everyday life is the key goal for the post-
pandemic society. In this humanization of everyday life, a particularly 
important element is the elimination of fear from the forefront of relating 
to social life. 

Basically, the pandemic is also seen as an invitation to 
responsibility - both to the immediate responsibility of everyone and to the 
long-term responsibility of individuals and communities. Immediate effects, 
such as increasing the level of hygiene of individuals and communities, 
reducing emissions with polluting effects were examples of responsible 
attitudes that can become long-term social habits. Without them, even if the 
pandemic ends, their effects could last much longer (T.C.). The post-
pandemic society is seen by some respondents as one of an increased 
responsibility installed in the collective mind (for example, in the form 
of wearing a daily mask): I see the future with many people with masks on the street, 
but more careful than ever. […] There will always be ill people (N.N.1). This 
responsibility towards the other and towards one's own health condition is, 
in our opinion, a marker of the acceptance of the post-pandemic society as a 
risk society and of the accentuation of the medicalization of society, in the 
sense that the human condition will be perceived as a disease, a treatable 
disorder, and the encounter with the Other will be perceived in the sense of 
an encounter with danger - in this case, with a possible source of infection. 
Unfortunately, we will avoid each other. We will all be a danger to all (B.R.). The 
depreciation of the relationship with the other through the 
deculturalized and deculturalizing presence of the mask, if it becomes a 
defining element of the post-pandemic society, will be able to destruct 
sociability to a point where the uniqueness of individuals can no longer be 
compensated by communication processes, thus accentuating the tendency 
towards an individualistic and, ultimately, selfish society. A dissociated 
society generates an anxiety of the other's presence as a possible source 
of infection and that goes so far as to deny them their presence in one’s 
immediate vicinity, the subject itself can become the source of anxiety, 
related to an impaired quality of life in relation to health. 

There are also opinions that it will be impossible to return to 
"normal", the virus will continue to exist, as there are other dangerous 
viruses, and society will get used to living with the threat of new 
pandemic waves (A.M.). Those who say that life in the post-pandemic 
period will be different or even radically different from the one before the 
first outbreak of the pandemic, believe that the style and way of life will be 
different, but the population will adapt. 



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11. The post-pandemic immediate 

A widespread opinion among the interviewees is that at the end of 
the lockdown, the recovery of sociability will have to be made a priority. 
Measures of social distancing, although aimed at creating a safe space around 
the person, bring with them restrictions in terms of sociability or, more 
precisely, the social rituals with which individuals are accustomed, which 
radically change: shaking hands, hugging, kissing cheeks - these are as many 
gestures with the value of social ritual that are not only forbidden, but also 
acquire a value of social risk, even when we are not talking about strict 
quarantine and travel is possible in certain areas, even with a statement, the 
number of people in a group, the number of people who can attend an 
event, the duration of meetings and, most importantly, performing these 
social rituals with the value of expressing solidarity and sociability. Their 
recovery is seen as a recovery of the essential (C.C.). From the statements 
of the interviewees, sociability transpires as a fundamental ethical and 
cultural value for the subjects, the communication with those close to them 
being considered as an element of maximum importance for their subjective 
well-being. The desire for normalcy is expressed in the form of a return to 
everyday life, a part of life that was perhaps the most affected during the 
pandemic: I will walk with my loved one in the park (D.C.). 

12. Virtualization of social space 

Some interviewees pointed out that the work from home or home 
schooling which were imposed have radically changed their work 
schedule. This is true in many professional areas, where companies or 
institutions have chosen to switch to work from home / online activity. A 
significant case, in which all the activity was transferred online, is that of 
education, in which from the beginning of the pandemic until the end of 
the state of emergency, but also after its end, the activity was carried out 
exclusively online, which significantly disturbed both the work schedule 
as well as the lifestyle - both of the pupils and students, and of the 
teachers (B.S.A.). At the beginning, my whole program was turned upside down, I lost 
track of my usual days, time and routine, I had to force myself to go back to the original 
period and reorganize (A.M.). The development of online learning is hampered 
by the lack of feedback from students, but also by the relative novelty of this 
style of teaching / learning. The lack of direct and personal interactions 
between teachers and pupils / students is another reason for dissatisfaction 
with online education, which is therefore considered to be much more 
difficult (B.S.A.). In this context, some people point out that going online is 



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a source of discomfort, and can even lead to various forms of migraines 
and even impaired health (S.D.). 

The massive virtualization of social interactions - in this case the 
educational ones - during the lockdown period took many by surprise, 
therefore in the beginning, when all the courses took place online, they were 
not at the better educational standards, as students are accustomed to on site 
courses, for which the mechanisms of online study have not yet been 
properly and fully developed (A.M.). 

The transition to the virtual environment of many economic and 
educational activities is seen as ambivalent, on the one hand saving the 
time and effort of students, teachers, employees, etc., on the other hand 
requiring an adaptation of professional activities and behaviors in the 
virtual environment (M.A.). 

A positive effect of the virtualization of social space is 
represented by the possibility of communicating with people at a distance, 
people with whom otherwise the interviewed persons are less often 
connected when the activity takes place mainly in the physical environment. 
Some interviewees indicated that they keep in touch with those close to 
them through social networks, as it is impossible for them to meet them 
physically, due to the isolation and self-isolation measures imposed (A.S.B.). 
In such times of lockdown, when socializing actions are transferred to the 
online environment, physical distances are suppressed by online 
communication, and physical proximity is no longer necessary to maintain 
or rediscover relationships. I've talked to all the people I've probably never talked to 
so often before, or I've never talked to so many (A.M.). 

13. Protection and reporting measures during the pandemic, proposed by 
the interviewees 

According to some measures imposed publicly by the authorities, the 
interviewees also emphasized the importance of preventive testing for the 
detection of infected, but asymptomatic people, the existence of 
disinfectants and hygiene products (these measures are already in place 
and in every public space disinfectants are made available to people, but at 
the time of the interview, in Romania there was a shortage of disinfectants, 
which were missing from the market – a.n.), of drastically limiting public 
meetings and events (B.S.A.). There have been rumors that there is a need to 
improve triage measures in hospitals or care centers (B.R.). Some 
interviewees recommended that everyone stay calm and lucid (D.M.C.) in 
order to be able to more easily overcome problems during this period. 
Religious experience, but also daily routines are other measures that 



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individuals consider useful to reduce the psychological effects of the 
pandemic, which may be associated with methods to reduce the biological 
effects of virus transmission. 

An interesting suggestion for overcoming stress during this period is 
to write down thoughts, ideas, experiences lived during the pandemic in the 
form of a diary: I wrote on paper what bothered me and so I can say that I did not fall 
on my knees out of fear (I.E.). Another solution to overcoming stress and 
anxiety caused by a pandemic is the presence of pets (B.A.). 

14. Pandemic and Coronavirus conspiracy theories 

There are people who say they are convinced of the non-existence 
of the SARS-COV-2 virus and the disease it causes, and the so-called 
"pandemic" is, in their view, a global conspiracy: it is nothing more than a 
worldwide conspiracy. It is a total invention, this virus does not exist (V.C.). Consistent 
with his own point of view, the person shows that he refuses to comply 
with the protection measures imposed by the authorities and violates the 
quarantine. In the public debate, especially in the alternative media and on 
social networks, the acceptance or denial of the existence of the virus 
becomes a fact of faith expressed by phrases such as "I believe / do not 
believe in Covid". This attitude towards Covid-19 is related to the trust in 
science, the authorities and the various sources of information to which the 
individual has access. 

The existence of inexplicable elements or that are incorrectly 
explained by the authorities, contradictory messages and radical 
prevention measures, which seem to be overestimated compared to the 
perceived situation in the immediate vicinity of people, which is in contrast 
to that presented by the media, makes those who, for various reasons, show 
distrust in the authorities, adhere to denialist views, conspiracy theories, 
which question the existence of the virus or, on the contrary, places it in the 
category of weapons of mass destruction, used by occult forces to 
reduce population etc. 

Among the interviewees there are some that consider the Covid-19 
virus is a biological weapon designed to reduce the number of people in the world (L.C.). 
The interviewee comes to this conclusion precisely because of the way the 
virus spreads, which allows it to spread its traces very quickly and thus endanger the 
entire universe (L.C.). Indeed, there is a widespread tendency - among those 
who are followers of various conspiracy theories about this virus - to 
hyperbolize the spread of the virus to give weight to their claims, the global 
spread being extrapolated to the entire universe. The idea that this virus is 
of synthetic origin is widespread, being maintained even by statements of 



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some political officials, influential people in the media, but also 
representatives of the medical community. 

Another approach, which may be related to conspiracy theory, is that 
the measures taken by the authorities are not really aimed at reducing the 
number of infected people, but at generating and exacerbating the already 
existing economic and social crisis (L.C.). The idea of the virus, but also of 
the crisis caused by the pandemic, in general, is put by some interviewees on 
the existence of an unconventional war - either between the great powers 
of the world or between supranational organizations that use biological 
terrorism and biological weapons, possibly out of control, to generate panic 
and to create economic, political, but also military instability globally. This 
position is sometimes accentuated by the idea of reducing the population, 
a common idea in many conspiracy theories, but there are also answers that 
underline the economic impact of this crisis, which generates economic and 
political instability, and may even lead to a New World Order (D.S.), to 
restoring the military balance, but especially economically, globally: this virus 
was designed to affect the world economy (P.I.4). 

The contradictory nature of the news in the media and especially 
in the new media has upset public opinion, making the infodemia - or 
epidemic of fake news - sometimes considered more serious than the 
pandemic itself. Censorship of communication on various online channels, 
under the pretext of "violating community standards", has been applied to 
some voices in science and politics, the case of censoring Donald Trump's 
speeches being eloquent. Although the measure of censoring messages 
that generate anarchy and panic is beneficial to a certain extent and 
absolutely necessary to achieve social balance in a time of crisis, large 
sections of the population have felt the return of censorship, and especially 
citizens of former communists countries associate it with left or right 
dictatorships  (N.G.).  

15. Perception of the pandemic 

Regarding the general perception of the pandemic, which the 
interviewees experienced, it refers to issues such as severity, impact, 
emotional referral, lifestyle changes, all of which are included in other 
specific categories or subcategories. In this category, we have retained those 
references to the perceptions of the subjects that could not be included in 
other categories, but which we cannot ignore, due to the informational load 
on how the subjects create a meaning on the situation they face. We notice 
an interpretive adrift of some concepts that the subjects perceive as 



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ambivalent, in terms of their relation to the pandemic as a life situation - 
beyond the created psychological states, perceived or estimated effects, etc. 

A first such subjective perception of the pandemic concerns its 
violent and unexpected nature. What interests us, from the perspective of 
this category, is the personification of the pandemic as an almost 
anthropological force, which seems to be credited with its own will and its 
own mode of action, which leads us to think of the personification of the 
forces of nature in the form of gods or benevolent or evil demons: I perceived 
it as a storm coming out of nowhere, which struck the Earth (I.E.). This 
subjectivized autonomy of the virus makes the subject relate to it not as a 
random genetic event (genetic mutation in the viral structure), but as an 
energy or force that makes its presence and potency felt, seeming to have a 
purpose - obvious or imperceptible - and against which a magical / 
mystical approach is needed, or at least an animistic one. In general, people 
who, consciously or not, have this tendency to totemize such topics, will be 
more likely to reject the scientific approach (genome sequencing, creation 
of a vaccine through synthetic biology, etc.). Such an attitude can be 
understood as a "re-enchantment of the world", as a reaction to the 
apparent failure of technology. In a world where hidden and intentional 
meanings are attributed to such events, scientific neutrality is "sanctioned" as 
the result of a "plan" - that is of an occult intentionality, thus giving way to 
conspiracy theories. However, in this context, we must mention that the 
interviewed subject quoted above, although somewhat personifying the 
appearance of the virus, does not refer to elements that could lead to the 
thought of a theory on the synthetic origin on the virus, and remains in the 
register of an anthropomorphization of the nature, of a magical, even 
shamanic battle with this invisible force (I.E.). 

In parallel with the animist attitude, another subjective perception of 
the pandemic is teleological - all life events, including this pandemic, have 
a purpose that may or may not be deciphered. The existence of a deep, 
sometimes even evolutionary purpose of events - or at least the belief in this 
existence - helps the person to cope psychologically with anxiety generated 
by situations perceived as absurd and which the individual cannot easily 
oppose, such as: anxiety in in the face of death or terrible suffering, anxiety 
in the face of loneliness and the impossibility or limitation of 
communication with others, the limitation of the capacity and freedom of 
action, etc. All these anxieties, in the face of the various limits of the human 
condition, have been evoked by this pandemic, and the reaction of assigning 
it a purpose, along with an intention, helps people who adhere to the faith in 
an animated Universe of unseen forces - Divinity, subtle, demonic presences 



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- to give meaning to events and thus to free themselves from the burden of 
their own ineffectiveness, placing the pandemic at the will of the Universe or 
of some forces whose efficiency is unsuspected and unknown. 

A remark made by an interviewed person caught our attention, as we 
consider it an exercise of reflection on the essence of the human condition, 
when humanity is placed in a situation that seems to be extreme - not so 
much by its dramatic dimensions, but especially by its novelty, which leaves 
room for imagination to create monsters or open doors to evolution, in the 
sense of awakening responsibility and awareness of one's place in society, as 
well as of a particular community in the ecosystem in which it exists. I hope 
that we will give up this species-specific arrogance and understand that even though we are 
many, almost 8 billion, we are neither so strong, nor so intelligent, nor so well organized, 
nor as prepared as we like to believe. (O.N.). 

Axial coding. The theoretical model generated by the anxiety and 
frustration felt during the pandemic 

Following the axial coding stage, the results obtained from the 
analysis of the interviews were recoded in the form of axial categories and 
thematic axes, which allows us to propose a theoretical model on the impact 
of the pandemic, from the perspective of the anguish and anxiety felt by a 
large part of population. 

1. The analysis of the obtained results. Axial coding 

The main axial categories we propose are: 

• Fear generated by the perceived risks of the pandemic 
(high rate of morbidity and even mortality). The concept of a risk society 
takes into account the fact that, during this period, the subjects are more 
aware than previously of the risks that appear in the daily life and to which 
they have to adapt, for a good social functionality. The first risks highlighted 
were those related to one's own health and life. 

• Distrust in the authorities' ability to manage the pandemic 
and the refusal of hospitalization. Many of the respondents showed that 
they are afraid for their own health, which is why they refused to be 
hospitalized, even when they had suspicions - confirmed or not - of being 
infected with Covid-19, because the Romanian health system does not react 
well uner the pressure that the pandemic is placing on this system. 

• Awareness of the increasing medicalization of society, 
awareness of today's society as a "risk society". The medicalized society 
is the society in which each of us finds ourselves as potential patients. 



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• Distrust of the real dimensions of the pandemic and the 
ease of accepting fake pandemic news, amid the ambivalent attitude of the 
authorities. 

• Distrust in science - especially in medical science - due to the 
appearance of contradictory news about possible treatments or therapeutic 
schemes, which were later invalidated. Another source of mistrust in science 
is the partial non-compliance with ethical standards in research on human 
subjects when creating vaccines. 

• Distrust in public health systems and health authorities - 
which is due to causes such as: the lack of selection criteria for prioritizing 
patients, violations of patients' rights - through lack of treatment, 
involuntary hospitalization, violations of the rights of health personnel (with 
direct reference to the situation of Suceava County Hospital); possible 
discrimination based on the medical condition and health, the risk of abuse 
related to medical practices (temperature measurement, wearing a mask); the 
existence of the risk of authoritarian behavior, interpreted as a "white 
dictatorship". All these infringements are committed in the name of the right 
to health and the public good, but are not sufficiently explained during 
public communication. 

• A general distrust in public authorities - due to violations of 
rights such as the freedom of movement - by closing borders, proposing a 
health passport, imposing quarantine - including some measures 
insufficiently explained to the population; violations of religious freedom 
and freedom of conscience - including a ban on attending Easter services 
and other religious, public or private ceremonies, weddings, baptisms, 
funerals. 

• Virtualization of the social space - online transfer of 
educational, professional, medical activities. 

• Destructuring sociability - the symbolic transfer of the mask, 
from a simple sanitary mask to a social mask. 

Validation of research hypotheses and (bio)ethical reflections 
on the medicalization of social life 

Within the ethical discourse we have two main directions, in the first 
stage a normative one (which is, in fact, a component of the professional 
status of the corpus of medical or professional knowledge in general), while 
another component refers to the acceptability (ethical and, ultimately, social) 
of the way in which a medical phenomenon influences social life through the 
medicalization of society. 



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Therefore, the bioethical discourse should be outlined in a debate in 
the social sphere, but in which not only specialists in the medical field, but 
also in other branches should participate - such as the sphere of public 
policy, that of the sociology of health and quality of life, philosophy, political 
science and, why not, law. 

We note not only the role of bioethics in times of crisis, but also the 
deep crisis of bioethics, which today has failed to maintain sociability, while 
society has failed to respect the principles of bioethics: the principle of 
beneficence, the principle of non-maleficience, the respect towards personal 
autonomy, social justice. 

Regarding the hypotheses / assumptions from which we started in 
outlining the paper, following the analysis of the interviews, it is was found 
that: 

✓ Contrary to the assumption that the appearance of anxiety and 
anguish during the pandemic should be very common and we can detect 
various explicit symptoms of these conditions - possible anxiety disorders -, 
many answers were received by which the subjects stated that they were not 
affected by the pandemic. Later, however, some of them recounted and 
showed that they actually had distressing and stressful experiences during the 
pandemic, but did not identify them as such - in the form of suffering or 
disturbance - as the subjects did not manifest clearly symptoms of anxiety, 
which by externalization are perceptible both for the subject and for those 
close to them, because they only noticed changes in their mental state or 
mood, which did not affect self-expression on the outside. This can express 
a resistance to frustration, which would temporarily allow good coping, but 
which would generate long-term effects, in the form of possible phobias, 
resentments, etc. 

✓ The main sources of anxiety highlighted were related to the 
interruption of daily activities, quarantine, the fact that people were forced to 
stay away from those close to them - which is, in our view, an extension of 
the idea of social distancing, to limit physical proximity, to limit social 
communication. 

✓ The hope of returning to normal is, from our point of view, the 
attempt to humanize the pandemic experience. The humanization of 
everyday life is the key goal for the post-pandemic society. In this 
humanization of everyday life, a particularly important element is the 
elimination of fear from the forefront of relating to social life. 
  



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Conclusions 

The responsibility towards the other and towards one's own health 
condition is, in our opinion, a marker of the social construction of the post-
pandemic society as a risk society and of the accentuation of the 
medicalization of society, in the sense that the human condition will be 
perceived as a treatable disorder, and the encounter with the Other will be 
perceived in the sense of an encounter with danger - in this case, with a 
possible source of infection. 

A dissociated society generates an anxiety of the other's presence as a 
possible source of infection and that goes so far as to deny them the 
presence in the immediate vicinity, the subject itself can become the source 
of anxiety, which is related to an impaired quality of life in relation to health. 

The medicalization of society is an effect of perception on 
postmodern society as a risk society. In the risk society, community 
members are more easily aware of the various types of risks that individuals 
feel threatened by. When the medicalization of society becomes a mass 
phenomenon, one can come to the idea of medicalizing the human 
condition, the humanity of individuals being considered a treatable 
syndrome. 

The general conclusion of this research was that we have moved on 
to another epoch, based on what we call the virtualization of social space 
and interactions, and this virtualization affects family life. 

Life in a medicalized society can at some point be an escape from 
any risks, but once it reaches its climax, it can eliminate the subjective quality 
of life, for the sake of a so-called objective quality, measured in an apparent 
state of health, translated by the absence of an acute infection, but with the 
permanent presence of social or psychological dysfunctions. 

Acknowledgement 

The paper has been presented within the 16th World Congress of 
Bioethics (WCB) - Basel, Switzerland, 20-22 of July, 2022 
  



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