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The Lanna Golden Age of Pali Literature Composition

Phisit Kotsupho

Yueng Pannengpetch

Phra Athiwat Thammawatsiri

Phra Witawat Kochakan

Phra Theeratphid Salawin phonphana

 

Abstract
This article explores the Golden Age of Pali Buddhist literature in the 

Lanna Kingdom (14th-16th centuries CE), focusing on the reign of King Tilokarat 

and his successor, King Kaew (Tilokapanadda). It examines the historical, social, 

and religious context that fostered a vibrant intellectual environment, leading 

to the composition of numerous significant Pali texts. The article highlights 

the contributions of prominent scholar monks like Ñāṇakitti, Ratanappañña, 

Bodhiraṃsī, and Sirimangalācariya, whose works continue to be influential 

in Theravada Buddhist studies. It also analyzes the unique characteristics of 

Lanna Pali literature, demonstrating its deep connection to Sri Lankan traditions 

while showcasing distinct local developments. The lasting impact of this literary 

flourishing on Pali scholarship and Buddhist practice in Thailand is emphasized, 

particularly through the inclusion of Lanna texts like the Mangalattadīpanī in 

monastic education. This study underscores the Lanna Kingdom’s significant 

role as a center of Theravada Buddhist learning and literary excellence during 

its Golden Age.

Keywords: Lanna Kingdom, Pali literature, Theravada Buddhism, Buddhist 

                        scholarship King Tilokkarat



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Introduction
The Lanna Kingdom was a land with a flourishing civilization and culture, 

both socially and religiously, for a long time (Ongsakul, 2552, p. 45). Counting 

from the establishment of the Lanna Kingdom when Phaya Mangrai from Chiang 

Rai came to rule this region and founded a new city called Abhinavapura, or 

commonly known as Chiang Mai, as the capital in 1839 BE, it has been no less 

than 700 years to the present day (Penth, 2548, p. 123).

In terms of social culture, Lanna people are gentle, generous, and 

have a way of life that integrates Buddhist principles with traditional beliefs, such 

as the worship of guardian spirits and ancestors, in a harmonious way (Premjit, 

2556, p. 87). This is considered a unique characteristic of the Lanna people or 

the “city way of life.”

In the political dimension, the Lanna Kingdom was an independent 

and sovereign state, existing alongside the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya Kingdoms 

(Wannasai, 2522, p. 98). A prominent Lanna ruler during the Sukhothai period was 

Phaya Kue Na, who invited Venerable Mahāsumana Thera from Sukhothai during 

the reign of Phaya Lithai to revive Theravada Buddhism of the original Lanka 

lineage (known as the Araññanikāya) at Wat Suan Dok (Na Bangchang, 2539, p. 

156). Meanwhile, a powerful Ayutthaya king, Borommatrailokkanat, attempted 

to expand his power to conquer Lanna but faced the formidable might of Phaya 

Tilokarat, who was equally powerful (Ongsakul, 2552, p. 134). They fought many 

battles but neither could defeat the other. Even the names of the two kings, 

“Borommatrailokkanat” of Ayutthaya and “Tilokarat” of Lanna, mean “the great 

ruler of the three worlds” (heaven, earth, and the underworld), similar to the god 

deva Nārāyaṇa, whose name is “Phra Tri Bhuvanat.”

In the dimension of Buddhism, the Lanna land was a great melting pot 

that nurtured Buddhist monks into leading scholars of Buddhism in this region, 

no less than the monks in the Pagan Kingdom at that time, and alongside the 



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monks of Sri Lanka (Premjit, 2013, p. 87). When Phaya Kue Na invited Phra Sumana 

Thera to revive Theravada Buddhism of the Laṅkāvaṃsa lineage, it led to the  

flourishing of this lineage in Lanna, with Wat Puppharam or Wat Suan Dok as the 

center of propagation (Na Bangchang, 1996, p. 156). During the reign of King Sam 

Fang Kaen, monks from Lanna and neighboring lands like Laos and Cambodia went 

to study Buddhism in Sri Lanka, bringing back the new Laṅkāvaṃsa lineage to Lan-

na and establishing the Vanarattaram or Wat Pa Daeng monastery in Chiang Mai 

(Suksawadi, 2013, p. 112). The monks of both groups, Suan Dok and Pa Daeng, 

initially engaged in debates and criticisms (Kotsupho, 2002, p. 98).

However, when Phaya Tilokarat ascended to the throne after Phaya 

Sam Fang Kaen, he supported the return of the Sihala Sangha to Chiang Mai for 

propagation, while also providing patronage to the existing Araññanikāya Sangha 

(Ongsakul, 2009, p. 134). Due to the dedication of the new Sihala Sangha to the 

study of Buddhist texts, especially the Pali language, the existing Sangha also 

had to strive to improve themselves and compete in studying the scriptures 

(Kotsupho, 2002, p. 101). This was considered a competition in doing good for 

Buddhism, leading to monks becoming proficient in the Dhamma teachings, 

grammar, and phonetics, enabling them to accurately examine the main Buddhist 

scriptures.

As a result of the Lanna monks’ expertise in Pali, a Buddhist council 

was held in Chiang Mai, Lanna, in 2020 BE at Wat Bodharam or Wat Chedi Chet 

Yot (Penth, 2005, p. 234). This was considered the 8th Buddhist council, called 

the “At�t�hama Saṅgāyana,” and the first council held in Lanna or Thailand (Suk-

sawadi, 2013, p. 115). The result of the council was the inscription of the Pali 

Tipit�aka onto palm leaves, known as the Lanna script Pali Tipit�aka, which took 

one year to complete.

This led to the great flourishing of Buddhism during this period, with its 

fame spreading throughout neighboring countries. As a result, King Tilokarat was  

bestowed the title “Phra Chao Siri Dhammacakkavatti Lokarāja Mahādhammi-
karāja, Phra Chao Nakhon Ping Chiang Mai.” The Tipit�aka revised during Phaya 



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Tilokarat’s reign is considered one of the most important Buddhist scriptures 

in Lanna, passed down to the present day (Wannasai, 1979, p. 189). There is 

evidence that Phaya Phothisarat, the ruler of Lan Xang, requested a copy of the 

Lanna script Pali Tipit�aka to be kept in Luang Prabang (Ongsakul, 2009, p. 145).

From the reign of Phaya Tilokarat (1984-2030 BE) to the reign of Phaya 

Kaeo or Phaya Tilokapan�n�atti (2038-2068 BE), a period of 84 years, almost a 

century, the country was peaceful, the Sangha was united, and there was strong 

support for Buddhism (Ongsakul, 2009, p. 134). This led to the emergence of 

many Buddhist scholar monks who composed Buddhist scriptures in the Pali 

language, known as the works of Lanna master monks. The era of Phaya Kaeo 

can be considered the golden age of Buddhist literature or the highest peak of 

Buddhist literature in Lanna, as many scholar monks emerged during this time 

(Suksawadi, 2013, p. 115).

Each of them composed important Buddhist and historical texts 

in Pali, such as Phra Ñāṇakitti who composed the Yojanā Vinaya and Yojanā 
Abhidhamma, Phra Ratanappañña who composed the Vajira Sāraṭṭhasaṅgaha 
and the Jinakālamālī, Phra Bodhiraṃsī who composed the Cāmadevivaṃsa, 
and Phra Sirimangalācariya who composed four texts: Vessantara Dīpanī,  
Cakkavāḷa Dīpanī, Saṅkhyā Pakāsaka Ṭīkā, and Mangalattadīpanī, composed in 

2067 BE (Phrabrahmarajapanya, 1987). Another text, whose author is unknown 

but widely known, is the “Paññāsa Jātaka,” or “Siṃhemā Paññāsa” as it is called 

in Myanmar, which is a collection of folk tales composed in Pali, imitating the 

style of the Jātaka tales.

These are the results of the golden age of Lanna governance, with  

righteous kings who patronized Buddhism (Penth, 2005, p. 234). The  

aforementioned atmosphere was a crucible that produced many scholar monks 

who could compose Buddhist texts in Pali with mastery. These texts are used 

by the three Thai monastic orders today as the core curriculum for Pali studies 

in levels 4-7 (Kotsupho, 2002, p. 105). The teachings from these texts, translated 

into Lanna or other local languages, are all important Buddhist teachings that 



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have shaped the traditions, customs, and Buddhist way of life of Lanna, leaving 

a legacy for future generations to this day.

Land and Kingdom
Land

The original territory covered areas of Chiang Mai, Lamphun, Lampang, 

Chiang Rai, Phayao, and Mae Hong Son provinces (excluding Phrae and Nan, which 

were independently governed) (Ongsakul, 2009, p. 115). The territory expanded 

during King Tilokarat’s reign (1984-2030 BE), capturing Phrae and Nan (1984-1994 

BE, constructing Phra Chao Thong Thip at Wat Suan Tan, Nan province) and thus  

incorporating Phrae and Nan into the kingdom (Penth, 2005, p. 212). The  

influence extended to the Shan States of Burma, Kengtung, Mong Nai, Mong 

Hsipaw, Mong Yong, the Xishuangbanna area, and Luang Prabang (Wannasai, 

1979, p. 167).

Geographically, the Lanna Kingdom in the north is bordered by the 

Daen Lao Range, with the Thongchai Range in the west, and the Phi Pan Nam 

Range and Luang Prabang Range in the east (Ongsakul, 2009, p. 23). The area is 

rich in natural resources, abundant forests, and sources of major rivers such as 

the Ping, Wang, Yom, Nan, Mae Kuang, Pai, Yuam, Moei, Tuen, Chaem, Kok, Lao, 

and Ing rivers (Suksawadi, 2013, p. 56). The primary occupations include  

agriculture, farming, and forestry, primarily situated in valley plains in key city  

basins like Chiang Rai-Phayao and Chiang Mai-Lamphun, with some areas  

engaged in the forest industry (Wannasai, 1979, p. 89).

Kingdom:

The Lanna Kingdom was established by King Mangrai in 1839 BE,  

integrating the Hariphunchai Kingdom under Queen Cāmadevī from the 13th 

century (Ongsakul, 2009, p. 115). Chiang Mai became the capital city, and the 

kingdom consisted of various ethnic groups, with the largest group referring to 

themselves as “Khon Mueang” (city people) (Penth, 2005, p. 118). Historically, 

the Lanna Kingdom flourished with high civilization and cultural development 

(Wannasai, 1979, p. 167). The Mangrai Code was the ancient law for governance, 



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and the kingdom covered key cities such as Lamphun, Lampang, Chiang Rai, 

Chiang Saen, Nan, Phrae, Phayao, Mae Hong Son, Kengtung, and Xishuangbanna 

(Suksawadi, 2013, p. 78). The primary language was Lanna or Tai Tham, though 

other dialects like Khün and Lü were also spoken (Penth, 2005, p. 124).

Religiously, the traditional beliefs in spirits and ancestral worship were 

prevalent (Premjit, 2013, p. 87). Buddhism, introduced to the region, became the 

primary spiritual foundation, integrating traditions such as the annual temple 

and relic worship ceremonies (Na Bangchang, 1996, p. 156). Lanna culture is 

characterized by unique customs and traditions that blend ancient beliefs and 

Buddhism, such as the temple worship, New Year celebrations, Yi Peng Festival 

(lantern festival), and the alms-giving ceremony on the full moon of Wednesday 

(Peng Phut) (Suksawadi, 2013, p. 92). The society values high social cohesion, 

gentleness, hospitality, and sincerity towards outsiders (Kotsupho, 2002, p. 98).

Currently, the Lanna Kingdom remains in the upper northern provinces,  

with Chiang Mai as the cultural, economic, educational, and tourism center 

(Ongsakul, 2009, p. 134). The government has expanded higher education  

institutions from the central region to the provines, with Chiang Mai  

University being the first regional university (Penth, 2005, p. 289). Oth-

er state universities include Maejo University, Chiang Mai Rajabhat Uni-

versity, and Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna, along with  

private institutions such as Payap University, MCU Chiang Mai  

Campus, MBU Lanna Campus, North-Chiang Mai University, and Far 

Eastern University (Suksawadi, 2013, p. 115). Other provinces also have  

significant educational institutions like Chiang Rai Rajabhat University, Mae Fah 

Luang University in Chiang Rai, Phayao University, Lampang Rajabhat University, 

Yonok University, and Thammasat University Lampang Center (Wannasai, 1979, 

p. 201).

Indigenous People of Lanna:
According to the Cāmadevīvaṃsa and the Jinakālamālī, the original 



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inhabitants of Lanna during Queen Cāmadevī’s time were the Lua and Mon people, 

led by Khun Wilangka (Penth, 2005, p. 118). When the Lanna people settled, they 

called themselves “Khon Mueang,” speaking the “Khon Mueang” language with 

their own script known as “Tai Tham” (Ongsakul, 2009, p. 115).

Periods in Lanna History

In terms of social, political, and administrative aspects, the land of 

Lanna has undergone various eras, from its inception to its peak and eventual 

decline. There are two primary perspectives on this:

Hans Penth, a scholar specializing in inscriptions in Northern Thailand, 

divides Lanna society into four periods (Penth, 2005, p. 123):

1. The Era of the Tai Migration and Settlement in Lanna (1600-1804 

BE): Before King Mangrai (204 years).

2. The Founding Era of Lanna (1804-1914 BE): From King Mangrai to 

King Kuena (110 years).

3. The Golden Age of Lanna (1914-2068 BE): From King Saenmuangma 

to King Kaew (105 years).

4. The Decline of Lanna (2068-2101 BE): After King Kaew to the Bur-

mese conquest (33 years).

Surasawadi Ongsakul, a historian from the Faculty of Humanities, 

Chiang Mai University, divides Lanna society into three periods (Ongsakul, 2009, 

p. 134):

1. The Founding Era of Lanna (1839-1898 BE): Early Mangrai dynasty to 

the end of King Payao’s reign (59 years).

2. The Golden Age of the Lanna Kingdom (1898-2068 BE): From King 

Kuena to King Kaew (170 years), reaching its zenith during King Tilokarat’s reign 

(1984-2030 BE).

3. The Decline and Fall of Lanna (2068-2101 BE): From King Kaechet-

tharat (2068-2081 BE) to the Burmese conquest (2101 BE) (33 years).



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The Golden Age of the Lanna Kingdom: Key Components and Con-

ditions
Regarding the golden age or the prosperous period of Lanna society, 

the author classifies it into two aspects:

The Golden Age of the Kingdom:

Hans Penth defines the golden age of Lanna to encompass various 

significant events (Penth, 2005, p. 212):

1. Strong Military Forces (Political Stability)

2. Knowledgeable Monks in Dhamma and Vinaya (Strong Religious 

Institutions)

3. Just Laws (Rule of Law)

4. Skilled Craftsmen Creating High-Value Art (Lanna Sculpture)

5. Advanced Agricultural and Irrigation Systems (Mueang Fai System)

6. Economic Stability (Well-being of the People)

Among these six components, Hans Penth highlights the adoption of 

Theravada Buddhism from Lanka as the most crucial factor for the golden age 

(Penth, 2005, p. 212). This was brought to Chiang Mai during King Kuena’s reign 

by Venerable Sumana Thera from Sukhothai, who established Wat Suan Dok as 

an Aranyavasi (forest monastery) (Na Bangchang, 1996, p. 156). This tradition con-

tinued, leading to ordinations in the Lankan style on rafts in the Kalayani River.

During King Tilokarat’s reign, the new Laṅkāvaṃsa sect (Sihala) was 

specially supported, leading to a flourishing scholarly pursuit of the Pali Canon, 

resulting in many scholars who wrote significant Pali texts (Ongsakul, 2009, p. 

134).

The economic factor also contributed to the golden age. Both rulers 

and the populace actively supported Buddhist activities, including building nu-

merous monasteries and casting Buddha images (Suksawadi, 2013, p. 92). Royalty 

and nobility often donated land for the benefit of the monasteries and provided 



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labor to maintain these religious sites (Kotsupho, 2002, p. 101).

The Golden Age of Buddhism in Lanna:
The author outlines the key events that shaped and developed the 

golden age of Buddhism in Lanna into four periods:

Before King Tilokkarat’s Reign:

During King Sam Fang Kaen’s reign, a new monastic group that had 

studied in Lanka, known as the Sihala sect or Lanka New Sect, settled at Wat Pa 

Daeng (Suksawadi, 2013, p. 112). This group emphasized Pali studies and strict 

adherence to the Vinaya, leading to conflicts with the older Araññanikāya sect, 

which they accused of improper practices (Kotsupho, 2002, p. 98). These con-

flicts were addressed through debates and rulings, often mediated by the king.

King Tilokarat’s Reign (1984-2030 BE):
King Tilokarat was a major patron of Buddhism, supporting the Lanka 

New Sect and appointing their leaders to high positions (Ongsakul, 2009, p. 134). 

He built several significant temples, including Wat Mahābodhārāma (Wat Jed Yod), 

where a significant council was held to review and purify the Pali Canon in 2020 

BE (Penth, 2005, p. 234). This council, recognized as the 8th Buddhist Council, 

was attended by over 100 learned monks and resulted in the authoritative Pali 

texts used in Lanna (Na Bangchang, 1996, p. 156).

King Yod Chiang Rai’s Reign (2030-2038 BE):
King Yod Chiang Rai continued religious activities, including the purifi-

cation of boundary markers for ordination halls (Ongsakul, 2009, p. 134). He also 

conducted major religious ceremonies, reinforcing the kingdom’s commitment 

to Buddhism.

King Kaew’s Reign (2038-2068 BE):

King Kaew, also known as King Tilokapanadda, was a devout support-



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er of Buddhism (Penth, 2005, p. 289). His reign saw significant construction and 

renovation of temples, support for all three major monastic groups, and the 

promotion of Pali studies and scriptural composition (Suksawadi, 2013, p. 115). 

This period is marked by the prolific output of Pali literature, with numerous 

significant texts being written by Lanna scholars.

The Peak of Pali Buddhist Literature in Lanna
King Kaew’s reign (2038-2068 BE)

King Kaew, also known as King Tilokapanadda, gave significant support 

to scholars who were well-versed in Pali, leading to the creation of many import-

ant religious texts in the Pali language (Phrabrahmarajapanya, 1987).

The tradition of composing treatises to explain the words and mean-

ings in the Tipit�aka has been affirmed by many scholars to date back to the time 

of the Buddha (Kotsupho, 2002, p. 105). Notable works include the Nettippa-

karan�a and Pet�akopadesa, composed by the eminent disciple Mahā Kaccāna 
Thera. Approximately 400 years after the Buddha’s time, the Milindapañha was 

another prominent composition (Na Bangchang, 1996, p. 156).

The most prolific period for composing Pali commentaries 

(aṭṭhakathā) occurred in Sri Lanka during the Anuradhapura era (10th-11th cen-

turies BE), while the peak of ṭīkā (sub-commentary) compositions was during the 

Polonnaruwa era, also in Sri Lanka. In Thailand, eight notable new Pali literary 

works were identified, including Vessantara Dīpanī, Cakkavāḷa Dīpanī, Saṅkhyā 
Pakāsaka Ṭīkā, Mangalattadīpanī, Vajirasāraṭṭhasaṅgaha Ṭīkā, Malaiyavatu 

Dīpanī Ṭīkā, Loka Sannatthana Coḷatthaṅkhatī, and Paritta Saṅgahaṭṭhakathā 

(Phisit Kotsupho, 2002, p. 105). These works exhibit influences from Sri Lankan 

commentarial literature while also displaying unique developments in Thailand.

During King Kaew’s reign, the flourishing of Buddhist literature marked 

the peak of Pali literary composition in Lanna (Suksawadi, 2013, p. 115). Several 

notable scholars emerged, composing significant Pali texts that continue to be 

esteemed:



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1. Venerable Ñāṇakitti Thera: Composed around ten treatises, includ-

ing the Yojanā Vinaya and Yojanā Abhidhamma (Phrabrahmarajapanya, 1987).

2.Venerable Ratanappañña Thera: Composed the Vajira 

Sāraṭṭhasaṅgaha and the Jinakālamālī (2059 BE) (Phyarattanapanya Thera, 1974).

3. Venerable Bodhiraṃsī Thera: Composed the Cāmadevivaṃsa 
(Phrabodhirangsi, 1920).

4. Venerable Nanda Ācariya: Composed the Sāraṭṭhasaṅgaha.
5. Venerable Suvaṇṇaraṃsī Thera: Composed the Pat�t�hama Sam-

bodhasaṅghapa.
6. Suvaṇṇadīpa Thera: Composed the Aheggusaraṭṭhadīpanī.
7. Venerable Sirimangalācariya: Composed four notable treatises:

1. Vessantara Dīpanī (completed in CS 879, 2060 BE, at Vihāra 
Suan Kwan)

2. Cakkavāḷa Dīpanī (completed in CS 882, 2063 BE, at Vihāra 
Suan Kwan)

3. Saṅkhyā Pakāsaka Ṭīkā (completed in CS 882, 2063 BE, at 

Vihāra Suan Kwan)

4. Mangalattadīpanī (completed in CS 886, 2067 BE, at Suññakara 

of Veluvanārāma, or Wat Phai Kao Ko)

One additional work, “Paññāsa Jātaka” or ‘Siṃhemā Paññāsa’ in Bur-

mese, is known widely but its author remains unidentified. It comprises local 

folklore written in Pali, mimicking the style of Jātaka tales.
Venerable Sirimangalācariya is renowned for his exceptional schol-

arship, profound knowledge of Pali, and expertise in the principles of Buddhism 

(Kotsupho, 2002, p. 105). He meticulously composed treatises, integrating nar-

ratives and substantiated references to facilitate future study. His works, such as 

the Mangalattadīpanī, reflect an unprejudiced academic approach, presenting 

all perspectives before allowing the reader to form an informed judgment. This 

unbiased methodology exemplifies the ideal qualities of a scholar.

Despite being a native Lanna monk with a different vernacular, Ven-



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erable Sirimangalācariya Thera excelled in Pali, crafting texts with remarkable 

fluency and precision. His writings adhere strictly to factual information, show-

casing thorough research and academic integrity.

Notable Works:
“Mangalattadīpanī”: Esteemed as a model literary work, praised for 

its structure, language, and balance of scholarly and artistic merit (Kotsupho, 

2002, p. 105). It stands on par with the “Visuddhimagga” by Buddhaghosa Thera, 

a renowned Indian commentator from the 10th century BE.

The Pali texts composed by Lanna scholars have had a lasting impact 

on Pali studies, particularly the Mangalattadīpanī, which serves as a foundational 

text for Pali education in Thailand (Suksawadi, 2013, p. 115). The Thai Sangha has 

incorporated it into the curriculum for Pali studies at various levels.

The Body of Knowledge in this Article 

Conclusion
The golden age of Pāli literature in the Laṅkā Kingdom represents 

a period of remarkable intellectual and cultural prosperity that significantly 



864

contributed to the Theravāda Buddhist tradition. The convergence of political 

stability, economic prosperity, and strong monastic support created an environ-

ment in which scholarly endeavors could thrive. The patronage of rulers like King 

Tilokarat was crucial in supporting the religious and educational institutions that 

facilitated the production of Pāli texts.
Key scholars, such as Venerable Ñāṇakitti Thera, Venerable Ratanap-

pañña Thera, and Venerable Sirimangalācariya Thera, played pivotal roles in 

this literary renaissance. Their works, encompassing commentaries (aṭṭhakathā), 
sub-commentaries (ṭīkā), and independent treatises, showcased a profound un-

derstanding of the Dhamma and mastery of Pāli. These texts have left an endur-

ing legacy, becoming integral components of Buddhist education and practice.

The Laṅkā Kingdom’s commitment to Buddhism, exemplified by the 

8th Buddhist Council at Wat Mahābodhārāma, reinforced the importance of 

preserving and disseminating the Pāli Canon. This era of scholarly activity not 

only enriched the religious life of contemporary Laṅkā but also contributed 

to the broader Theravāda Buddhist world, influencing regions far beyond the 

kingdom’s borders.

In conclusion, the Lanna golden age of Pāli literature stands as a 

testament to the kingdom’s intellectual vibrancy and cultural sophistication. 

The works produced during this time continue to be revered and studied, un-

derscoring Lanna’s pivotal role in the history of Buddhist scholarship. This period 

remains a beacon of literary and religious excellence, reflecting the enduring 

impact of Lanna’s contributions to the Theravāda Buddhist tradition.

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Phisit Kotsupho. (2002). Philosophical Concepts in Lanna Texts.



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