Bull. Fla. Mus. Nat. Hist. (2003) 44(1): 171-182 171 HORTICULTIJRAL HUNTERS: SEASONALLY ABUNDANT ANIMAL RESOURCES AND GENDER ROLES IN LATE PREHISTORIC IROQUOIAN SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES Elizabeth M. Scottl Iroquoian subsistence has been interpreted as a strategy that relied heavily on deer and corn. Recent archaeological investigations in western New York State, however, have produced diverse faunal and floral assemblages that a116w a more complex picture of Iroquoian subsistence to emerge. This paper discusses the faunal remains from the Spaulding Lake site (UB2497), located in the town of Clarence in Erie County. This single-component Iroquoian site on the Onondaga Escarpment was occupied seasonally between ca. A.D. 1450 and 1550. It was excavated between 1989 and 1991 by the Archaeological Survey of SUNY-Buffalo. This paper discusses 1) the ethnohistoric and archaeological evidence for animal procurement among Iroquoian and Great Lakes Indian groups, 2) the Spaulding Lake faunal material compared to other Iroquoian faunal assemblages from two nearby sites, the Nursery site (UB227) and the Piestrak site (UB2581), recently excavated, and 3) implications for interpretations of Iroquois settlement and subsistence systems, gender roles, and socio-political organization. Key words: gender roles, Iroquois, recovery techniques, seasonality, subsistence Prehistoric Iroquoian subsistence has been interpreted structural remains at the site may be a result of this as a strategy relying heavily on deer and corn (e.g., destruction. Despite the absence of structural remains, Pendergast 1966; Pratt 1976; Ritchie and Funk 1973; the quantities of artifacts and subsistence remains Tuck 1971, 1978). The dominance of deer and corn in indicate that this was a residential site: a minimum of 68 many Iroquoian archaeological assemblages reflects ceramics vessels (all falling into the 14( date span of A.D. recovery techniques, soil preservation, and an emphasis 1450-1550), 10 projectile points (8 of which are Madison on palisaded villages rather than other types of sites. points), numerous simple and retouched flake tools, cores, Recent archaeological investigations in western New hammerstones, abrading/grinding stones, ceramic smoking York State, however, have found more diverse faunal pipes, and abundant faunal and floral remains (Perrelli et and floral assemblages, allowing a more complex al. 1995:121-149,155, 196-214,254-311). interpretation of subsistence strategies with implications Following a discussion of ethnohistoric and for reinterpreting Iroquoian gender roles and socio- archaeological evidence for animal procurement among political organization. Iroquoian and Great Lakes Indian groups, the paper turns This paper discusses faunal remains from the to a detailed discussion of the faunal data from the Spaulding Lake site (UB2497), located in western New Spaulding Lake site. These data are then compared to York State within the town of Clarence, north of Ellicott other Iroquoian faunal assemblages. Finally, there is a Creek. This single-component Iroquoian site on the discussion of the implications of the findings for Onondaga Escarpment was occupied seasonally from interpretations of Iroquoian settlement and subsistence ca. A.D. 1450 to 1550. There was no lake at the time of systems, gender roles, and socio-political organization. occupation; the present artificial lake is the result of flooding a limestone quarry. The site was excavated IROQUOIAN ANIMAL PROCUREMENT between 1989 and 1991 by the Archaeological Survey The importance of spring fishing in the subsistence rounds of SUNY-Buffalo (Perrelli et al. 1995) and interpreted of several early historic-period Iroquoian groups is as a small (0.5 acre) agricultural hamlet occupied from documented in ethnohistoric and ethnographic records spring to late summer or early fall (Perrelli et al. (Fenton 1978:297, 301; Heidenreich 1978:379, 382; 1995:233-234). Part of the site had been destroyed Morgan 1962:347; Trigger 1985:92). These sources also before it was investigated archaeologically. The lack of record a variety of fishing techniques and technology: 'Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology and hook, line, dip nets, traps, drags, spears, harpoons, bows Anthropology, Illinois State University, Normal, IL61790, USA. and arrows, stone and wooden weirs, and such 172 ZOOARCHAEOLOGY: Papers to Honor Elizabeth S. Wing unspecialized tools as sticks and rocks (Fenton 1978:297, participated to some extent in hunting and fishing trips, 301; Heidenreich 1978:382; Martin 1989:596). in addition to horticultural tasks (Latta 1991:378). In the One piece of worked bone determined to be a postcontact Upper Great Lakes, Indian women partially completed matting or netting needle was participated in fish procurement as well as fish processing recovered from the Spaulding Lake site (Perrelli et al. (Martin 1989:596), and among the postcontact Cree and 1995). Although no bone fishhooks, harpoons, or stone Ojibwa, women fished, hunted small game, and gathered net weights were recovered, evidence of these nuts, berries, and fruits (Devens 1991:51). technologies was found at Chance and Garoga phase There are also references to Iroquoian family groups sites in New York, including the Barnes site (Tuck going to fishing stations in the spring (Fenton 1978:297; 1971:154, 157-160), Temperance House Fort site (Tuck Trigger 1985:92). Trigger (p.88) also interprets late 1971:164), Atwell Fort site (Tuck 1971:169), Goff site precontact Iroquoian subsistence strategies as including (Pratt 1976:100), and the Nichols Pond site (Pratt groups ofmen, women, and children leaving villages for 1976:149) and late prehistoric Iroquoian sites along the "considerable periods" in warm weather for camps that St. Lawrence River in Ontario, e.g., the Salem and Grays were some distance away to hunt, fish, and gather nuts. Creek sites (Pendergast 1966:32-35,57-58). Ethnohistoric accounts of early historic Iroquoian SPAULDING LAKE FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGE groups note the use of nets to fish and to capture The faunal remains from Spaulding Lake were identiEed passenger pigeon (Fenton 1978:297,301), quail, and other by the author using the comparative osteological small fowl (Morgan 1962:345). Other means ofcapturing collections of the Illinois State Museum in Springfield birds included bow, spear, snare, air-gun and arrow, and (Table 1). Numbers of fragments and weight in grams long poles (Fenton 1978:297-298, 301; Heidenreich were recorded for all remains. Minimum numbers of 1978:382; Morgan 1962:379). These accountsalso write individuals (MNIs) and estimates of meat weight that traps and snares were used for small and large (biomass) represented by the bones were calculated mammals (Fenton 1978:298; Heidenreich 1978:382; (Reitz and Scarry 1985; Reitz et al. 1987; Wing and Morgan 1962:345). Deer were hunted with snares, traps, Brown 1979), the latter of which was used to interpret bows, and in communal drives (Fenton 1978:298; the dietary importance of various species (Scott 1995:265- Heidenreich 1978:382). Smaller mammals were hunted 311). I discuss only those remains from features and with bow, spear, or snare (Heidenreich 1978:382). Frogs undisturbed levels of the test units, which total some recovered from the site were probably "gigged" (speared), 12,724 fragments of bone and shell. For the most part although ethnohistoric accounts do not mention this. the material will be discussed from the site as a whole, The lithic assemblage at Spaulding Lake includes as a single-component site, although tentative evidence hunting implements in the form of some 10 points, most for slight change through time will be put forth as well. of which are small, triangular Madison points. The Dietary dam. One of the most striking aspects of assemblage also includes many bifacially and unifacially the faunal assemblage from the Spaulding Lake site is retouched flakes, likely used to prepare meat and skins, the importance of fish, 50.4% of the total estimated meat among other functions. represented by the faunal remains. Mammals were only Ethnohistoric sources generally agree that Huron slightly less impoftant, comprising 40.6%. Birds and Iroquoian men conducted most of the hunting contributed slightly more meat than did frogs. (Fenton 1978: 297-298; Heidenreich 1978: 379, 383) and In calculating the numbers of individuals represented fishing (Fenton 1978: 297-298,301; Heidenreich 1978: here, I have disregarded the 147 gastropod individuals, 379-380), while Huron and Iroquoian women controlled since they probably do not represent food remains. Thus the agriculture, usually at multiple locations (Fenton 1978: the MNI percentages here are based on a total of 107 297-298; Heidenreich 1978: 379, 382-383), and collected individuals. Fish provided the greatest number of firewood (Heidenreich 1978: 379), roots, berries, greens, individuals (n = 52,48.6%), with mammals, reptiles/ nuts, and other plant foods and products (Fenton 1978: amphibians, and birds lagging'far -behind. 297-299„301). The most important fishes in the diet were walleye Among the Huron, women sometimes accompanied and sauger, providing 9.0% of the total estimated meat the deer hunts to help drive the deer, butcher them, and weight and at least 20 individuals. Next were lake take the meat back to the village (Heidenreich 1978: sturgeon, followed by sucker and redhorse. A variety of 382). Among the postcontact Iroquois, women other fish supplemented these: pike, white bass, sunfishes SCOTT: Horticultural hunters: Iroquoian subsistence strategies 173 Table 1. Spaulding Lake (UB2497) fauna (MNI total excludes gastropods). MNI Biomass TAXON NISP Wt (g) no. % kg % White-tailed deer 10 25.2 1 0.9 0.48 4.2 Black bear 3 6.6 1 0.9 0.14 1.2 Dog/coyote 22 54.0 3 2.8 0.95 8.3 Cf. Dog/coyote 1 0.9 0.02 0.2 Gray fox/red fox 5 2.2 1 0.9 0.05 0.4 Cf. Gray fox/red fox 1 0.2 1 0.9 0.01 0.1 Unid. carnivore 9 2.2 1 0.9 0.05 04 Muskrat 3 3.5 1 0.9 0.08 0.7 Cricetidae (mouse/vole) 1 0.1 1 0,9 <0.01 <0.1 Eastern chipmunk 6 0.5 2 1.9 0.01 0.1 Cf. Eastern chipmunk 1 <0.1 <0.01 <0.1 Gray squirrel 90 18.5 5 4.7 0.36 3.1 Red squirrel - 2 0.3 1 0.9 0.01 0.1 Unidentified rodent 5 1 4.0 4 3.7 0.09 0.8 Unidentified mammal 1077 151.5 2.41 21.0 MAMMAL SUBTOTAL 1282 269.7 22 20.3 4.66 40.6 Swans/Geese 6 1.6 1 0.9 0.03 0.3 Hawk sp. (cf. goshawk) 1 0.6 1 0.9 0.01 0.1 Ruffed grouse 2 0.5 1 0.9 0.01 0.1 Passenger pigeon 52 7.2 7 6.5 0.12 1.1 Cf. Passenger pigeon 1 0.2 0.01 0.1 Woodpeckers/flickers/sapsuckers 1 0. i 1 0.9 <0.01 <0.1 Passeriformes 1 0.1 1 0.9 <0.01 <0.1 Unidentified bird 224 28.8 0.44 3.8 BIRD SUBTOTAL 288 39.1 12 11.0 0.62 5.5 Painted turtle 23 10.3 1 0.9 0.15 1.3 Unidentified turtle 12 0.9 0.03 0.3 Frog sp. 118 3.6 15 14.0 0.25 2.2 Frog sp./toad sp. 8 0.1 0.01 0.1 REPTILE/AMPHIBIAN SUBTOTAL 161 14.9 16 14.9 0.44 3.9 Lake sturgeon 244 52.8 1 0.9 0.69 6.0 Longnose gar 2 0.1 1 0.9 0.01 0.1 Lake whitefish 4 0.2 2 1.9 0.01 0.1 Cf. Lake whitefish 1 <0.1 <0.01 <0.1 Round whitefish 2 0.1 1 0.9 0.01 0.1 Cf. Round whitefish 2 0.1 0.01 0.1 Whitefishes/ciscoes 38 1.4 1 0.9 0.04 0.4 Trouts/whitefishes/ciscoes 1 0.1 0.01 0.1 Quillback carpsucker 1 0.4 1 0.9 0.02 0.2 Redhorse sp. 36 10.6 7 6.5 0.20 1.8 Suckers/redhorses 32 7.7 0.15 1.3 Catfishes/bullheads 4 0.5 2 1.9 0.02 0.2 Cf. Catfishes/bullheads 1 0.1 0.01 0.1 Northern pike 7 3.0 1 0.9 0.07 0.6 White bass 30 8.5 5 4.7 0.16 1.4 CL White bass 1 0.1 <0.01 <0.1 Smallmouth bass 1 0.1 1 0.9 <0.01 <0.1 Smallmouth/largemouth bass 22 5.7 3 2.8 0.12 1.1 Rock bass 38 4.3 5 4.7 0.09 0.8 Centrarchidae (sunfishes) 1 0.2 0.01 0.1 Wa~leye/sauger 379 75.0 18 16.8 0.99 8.6 17 1.7 2 1.9 0.04 0.4 Freshwater drum 2 1.1 1 0.9 0.04 0.4 Unidentified fish 7549 305.7 3.04 26.5 FISH SUBTOTAL 8415 479.5 52 48.4 5.74 50.4 Spike 3 47.1 3 2.8 Black sand shell 1 13.5 1 0.9 Kidneyshell 1 8.7 1 0.9 Unidentified bivalve 152 39.7 Unidentified gastropod 582 41.6 Unidentified shell 1 <0.1 - Unidentified invertebrate 1 <0.1 INVERTEBRATE SUBTOTAL 741 150.6 5 4.6 Unidentified bone 1837 18.4 TOTALS 12,724 972.2 107 99.2 11.46 100.4 174 ZOOARCHAEOLOGY: Papers to Honor Elizabeth S. Wing (smallmouth and rock bass), freshwater drum, catfish one carapace and may represent food remains, but no or bullhead, and whitefish. Garfish, represented by only meat-bearing skeletal elements were recovered. If turtle one skull fragment and one scale fragment, is probably was a food resource, it was not an important one. Several the least important fish in the diet of the site's inhabitants. shell fragments have been cut, although their functions Also, several elements from minnow-sized fish were could not be determined. present, but time and budgetary constraints did not allow Seasonality. The abundance of spring-spawning fish identification of these to the genus or species level. provides strong evidence for a warm-weather occupation Mammals provided the bulk of the rest of the meat of the site. Except for the whitefishes, all the fish species diet at the site. The species providing the greatest present spawn in the spring. In addition, the most percentage of meat was dog of coyote, 8.5% of the abundant bird species, the passenger pigeon, would have total, represented by at least 3 individuals. White-tail deer been in the area from Spring until fall, and would have was next in percentage of estimated meat weight, then been available in large numbers during migration. This is squirrels. Black bear, fox, and muskrat supplemented these. true as well for migratory waterfowl, such as the swan Birds represent 5.5% of the total estimated or goose. Finally, the frogs would have been most biomass. The most important single bird was passenger abundant and most easily caught during the spring, when pigeon, represented by at least 7 individuals. Grouse, hawk, large numbers gather for mating. and swan or goose supplemented passenger pigeons. White-tail deer and the whitefish family are the only Frog and frog/toad species, represented by at least species indicative of fall occupation, but do not occur in 15 individuals, provided 2.3% of the total estimated sufficient numbers to suggest they were significant in biomass, contributing more to the diet than did any of the diet of the site's residents. Ten deer fragments from the individual bird species. More than half the frog remains two leg bones (radius and metatarsal) and several worn (54.8%) are elements from the pelvis and back legs, antler fragments are the only deer remains from the site. portions with the greatest meat. Most of the rest of the The deer radius is unfused, indicating a juvenile or elements are from front legs and upper body, but only subadult. Whitefish and ciscoes spawn in the fall, but two skull fragments were present. This suggests that this happens in the Gfeat Lakes, distant from the site. removal of the heads (and probably gutting) took place Ethnohistoric accounts state that Indian groups either elsewhere on the site or at the place of capture. throughout the Great Lakes caught whitefish in large Non-food animal remains. Although fur-bearers numbers during the spawning runs, then smoked and were most likely utilized for both meat and fur, some dried them for use through the winter (Heidenreich skeletal elements in an assemblage might best be 1978:382; Martin 1989:596; Trigger 1985:85). Thus, interpreted not as food remains but as the remains of whitefish would be precisely the food staple one would furs, pouches, or medicine bags. For example, the only expect at a spring site as the last remnants of the winter's bear elements at the Spaulding Lake site are one canine food supply. This interpretation is strengthened by the tooth and one foot bone. These remains might be expected fact that, of the 48 fragments of whitefish and related from hide-skinning activities or from a pelt; that is, they are species recovered at Spaulding Lake, 40 are vertebrae. from the head and foot, and could have been left on a pelt Thus an abundance 6f skull fragments, which would (which has since decayed) orbeen cut off when thefinished suggest catching and processing fish, is not present for fur was taken. Thus the bear remains might be questioned the fall-spawning fish, but is present for the spring- as food remains. The only muskrat elements are from the spawning species that occur in habitats near the site. lower leg (ulna) and head (mandible) and also might The other mammals, birds, and turtles in the represent fur-processing activities or a pelt. assemblage could have been present in the site area Deer, fox, and squirrel elements from the site include year round. Fur-bearers, such as the fox, muskrat, and several parts of the skeleton, suggesting their use as black bear in the assemblage, would have had their food, although fur, skin, or both probably were utilized as thickest furs during the winter, and might indicate winter well. Dog or coyote remains include elements from most or early spring capture. Several fish species in the parts of the skeleton and also many teeth. Several teeth assemblage can be caught with nets or spears under the and long bones were worked, suggesting the use of dog ice and may represent "year round" species. Of the 52 or coyote first as food and later as raw material for individuals represented by the fish remains, 48 (94.3%) utilitarian and decorative objects (awls and pendants). are from fish that spawn in the spring and are available The turtle remains from the site are nearly all from in large numbers that are easily caught at that time. SCOTT: Horticultural hunters: Iroquoian subsistence strategies 175 The plant remains, analyzed by Paul Gardner (1995), time of occupation, the site was part of a climax point to a spring and summer occupation as well. Corn hardwood forest, including beech, maple, hemlock, and and beans are present, and most of the edible wild species oak (Perrelli et al. 1995), appropriate habitat for the present are. those that ripen in late spring to early summer animal remains recovered at the site. People hunted (strawberries), mid-summer (blackberries and mammals and birds in forests and open and semi-open elderberries), and late summer to early fall (plum/cherry, areas, and fished in inland streams and wetlands. They grape, and hawthorn). The few nuts present (acorn, also planted corn and beans, probably on lands below hickory, and butternut) may, like the whitefish, represent the bluff, and gathered wild fruits and possibly nuts from remnants from stored winter foods. both forested and open areas. In short, they appear to There is some evidence of a slight change through have utilized all the foodresources available to them. time in food resource utilization and length of seasonal Worked bone. A total of 85 pieces of wofked bone occupation at the site. Based on radiocarbon dates and were recovered from the undisturbed proveniences, about ceramic cross-mends, sevefal proveniences can be two-thirds of which are mammal bone and one-third of associated with a median date ofA.D. 1440 and several which are bird bone. Two worked fish bones are a drilled others with a date ofA.D. 1525 (Perrelli et al. 1995:158). tooth and a cut/worked skull fragment. The most Over time, there is a marked decrease in the importance numerous identifiable bone artifacts are tubular beads, of mammals at the site, and a marked increase in the made from long bone.shafts. Nine beadsare of mammal importance of fish, in particular, walleye, sturgeon, sucker, bones, representing a minimum of four whole beads. fedhorse, and bass, which increase in importance, as do Twenty-five specimens are of bird bones, representing deer and squirrels. The main decrease is in the importance a minimum of 11 whole beads, nearly three times as of dog or coyote to the diet, although, even with the many as from mammal bones. Although one tubular shell decrease, dog remains more important in the diet than bead from a bivalve also was recovered, none of the deer at the 1525 date. Birds contribute similar bivalve shells recovered in the assemblage showed signs percentages to the diet at both dates. ofbeing worked. The next most numerous bone artifact When the plant remains are added to the analysis, a category was awls, 10 made from bird and mammal clearer picture emerges. In the A.D. 1440 material, maize long bones, four of which are from dog or coyote. Three kernels and cupules are present, along with blackberries teeth, drilled in the roots, were recovered, probably and elderberries, which ripen in mid-summer; acorn and representing pendants or other items of adornment. Two butternut are present in small amounts. Inthe A.D. 1525 were dog or coyote canines and one was a fish tooth. material, however, there are fruits that ripen both earlier Thirty-seven other mammal, bird, or fish bone (strawberry) and later (plum/cherry and hawthorn), in fragments showed signs of being cut, incised, smoothed, addition to blackberries and elderberries. Besides corn sharpened, or combinations of these techniques. Several kernels and cupules, corn shanks are present, as are w6rked bone fragments appear to have been smoothed beans, suggesting harvesting of crops; Small amounts of with a rodent incisor. This is apparent on the bones from hickory and butternut also are present. All this suggests long lines of scoring with the incisor, which differ in length use of the site from spring until early fall by A.D. 1525. and regularity from rodent-gnawing marks. Pendergast Together, then, the plant and animal remains seem to (1966:32-35, 57-58, 73-75) noted modified beaver or indicate that, through time, people were staying at the woodchuck incisors used as chisels or other tools at the site longer. Salem, Grays Creek, and Beckstead sites in Ontario. A Habitat exploitation. The closest source of water beaver- incisor tool with a ground edge also was to the site at that time would have been a spring about recovered from the Garoga site (Tuck 1978:331). 600 feet to the south (where the artifical lake is today). Bone artifacts similar to the Spaulding Lake material In addition, Got Creek, probably the closest source of have been found at numerous late precontact Iroquois fish, flows along the base of the esca€pment north of the sites in New York and Ontario (e.g., Pendergast 1966:32- site, and a small marshy wetland area is some 800 feet 35,57-58,73-74; Pratt 1976:100,149; Tuck 1971:117- west of the site (Perrelli et al. 1995). Numerous wetlands 118,122,125,135,154, 157-160,164,169). Absent from and small creeks are to be found in the flat, glaciated Spaulding Lake are worked deer phalanges, ubiquitous area below the escarpment. The large Ellicott Creek is elsewhere, and worked antler points and flaking tools, roughly 3 miles to the south and the larger Tonawanda thus lending additional support to the interpretation that Creek is approximately 6 to 8 miles to the north. At the the site was used during warm months. 176 ZOOARCHAEOLOGY: Papers to Honor Elizabeth S. Wing INTERSITE COMPARISONS and Piestrak sites; suckers were most important at the Although differences in recovery and analytical Nursery site. techniques between the 1960s and 1990s make Spaulding Lake, where fish were more important than comparisons difficult, at the sites excavated earlier, deer mammals in terms of both biomass and MNIs, also had the and turkey remains are much more numerous than at greatest variety of fish species. It is possible that the more Spaulding Lake. The Spaulding Lake site is set apart limited variety of fish species at the Nursery site is related from Late Woodland Five Nations Iroquois sites and Late te the fact that it was a palisaded village rather than a Woodland Huron sites (e.g., Schoff, Bloody Hill, Keough, hamlet, thus a more permanent site than Spaulding Lake. Burke, Cemetery [Tuck 1971], Nichols Pond, Buyea, Birds were slightly more important at the Nursery Goff [Pratt 1976]) by the presence of large numbers of site than at Spaulding Lake, and hardly present at all at spring-spawning fish, as well as waterfowl, passenger Piestrak. Passenger pigeon was the most importantbird pigeon, and frogs not recovered from the other sites species at Spaulding Lake, while at the Nursery site excavated earlier (Scott 1993). turkey, present only at that site, and passenger pigeon Recently more sites in New York and Ontario have dominated the bird assemblage. produced assemblages dominated by fish, birds, and small and medium mammals (Perrelli et al. 1993; Perrelli et DISCUSSION al. 1995; Perrelli 1997; Thomas 1996). In particular, two The faunal assemblages from the Spaulding Lake, contemporaneous sites in Erie County have produced Nursery, and Piestrak sites differ markedly from those well-preserved faunal assemblages useful for comparison of Late Woodland Five Nations Iroquois sites and Late (Perrelli 1997:67-71; Scott 1997). The Nursefy site Woodland Huron sites. Faunal assemblages suggest (UB227), located in the town of Lancaster, was a seasonal occupation with implications for interpretations palisaded village encompassing 1.5 to 2.0 aeres, occupied of gender roles in Iroquoian society as well. ca. A.D. 1400 (Table 2). The Piestrak site (UB2581), One explanation of the different subsistence located in Clarence about 300 meters south of the strategies between the three Western New York State Spaulding Lake site, was a much smaller (c. 60 x 50 m) sites and the Five Nations Iroquois or Huron sites is that late summer and fall camp used between A.D. 1400 the Spaulding Lake, Nursery, and Piestrak sites may have and 1500, primarily by women and children, for been occupied by Neutral, Erie, or Wenro Iroquoian harvesting and processing specific resources, including groups, rather than Five Nations groups (Perrelli et al. nuts and corn (Perrelli 1997:67-72) (Table 3). 1995:238-240), although only a few Neutral, Erie, or Faunal assemblages at all three sites were dominated Wenro Iroquoian sites have been excavated in western by small and medium mammals and fish with little New York (e.g., Lennox and Fitzgerald 1990). It also might evidence that large mammals contributed to the diets be the case that Spaulding Lake, Nursery, and Piestrak there (Table 4; Fig. 1). At the Nursery site, large represent different types of Five Nations Iroquois sites mammals (deer) contributed 11.8% of the total estimated from the traditional palisaded hilltop village occupied year biomass, while small and medium mammals contributed round or in the cold months. To addfess this uncertainty, 27.5%. At the Piestrak site, large mammals (probably scholars have called for regional surveys that might reveal elk) contributed only 3.9% of the total biomass, while such camps or hamlets occupied for exploitation of small and medium mammals contributed 22.2%. At the specific resources (e.g., Trigger 1985:72-73). Spaulding Lake site, large mammals (deer and black Settlement type and settlement location. The bear) contributed only 5.4% of the total biomass; small Spaulding Lake site providedaccess to multiple natural and medium mammals contributed 14.2%. At the Nursery resources: fish and other aquatic species from creeks site, nearly one-quarter of the estimated meat weight and wetlands; passenger pigeons from nesting areas in came from small mammals, mostly squirrels. the beech trees of the nearby forests (Fenton 1978:301); Three groups of spring-spawning fish were most probably sugar from the maple trees there; numerous important at all three sites: walleyes and saugers, lake berries; suitable land below the blufffor corn and bean sturgeon, and suckers. At the- Spaulding Lake site agriculture; and Onondaga chert deposits from the they provided 18.3% of total estimated meat weight; escarpment itself (and,there is evidence offairly intensive at the Nursery site 18.4%; and at Piestrak, where chat exploitation). Although no structures were found, fish were less important, 10.3%. Walleyes and the artifactual and subsistence remains indicate a saugers were most important at the Spaulding Lake residential occupation. There is at least one palisaded SCOTT: Horticultural hunters: Iroquoian,subsistence strategies 177 Table 2. Nursery site (UB227) fauna. MNI Biomass TAXON NISP Wt (g) no. % kg % White-tailed deer 1 1.5 0.83 11.8 Unid. large mammal 0.12 1.7 Bobcat/lynx 1 1.5 0.01 0.1 Raccoon 1 1.5 0.05 0.7 Unid. carnivore 0.02 0.3 Woodchuck 3 4.6 0.22 3.1 Eastern gray squirrel 13 19.7 0.72 10.3 Fox squirrel 2 3.0 0.06 0.9 Eastern gray/fox squirrel 3 4.6 0.66 9.4 Red squirrel 1 1.5 0.02 0.3 Eastern chipmunk 3 4.6 0.02 0.3 Sciuridae (squirfels) 0.01 0.1 Muskrat 1 1.5 0.08 1.1 Cricetidae (New World rats and mice) 1 1.5 <0.01 <0.1 Unidentified rodent 0.04 0.6 Snowshoe hare 1 1.5 0.02 0.3 Leporidae (hares,and rabbits) <0.01 <0.1 Unidentified mammal 1.40 19.9 MAMMAL SUBTOTAL 1568 213.2 31 47.0 4.28 60.9 American bittern 1 1.5 0.02 0.3 Anatinae (ducks) 2 3.0 0.05 0.7 Accipitridae (hawks and eagles) 1 1.5 0.03 0.4 Ruffed grouse 1 1.5 0.01 0.1 Turkey <0.1 1 1.5 0.22 3.1 Phasianidae (turkey and grouse fam.) <0.01 Passengerpigeon 4 6.1 0.11 1.6 Columbidae (pigeons and doves) 0.01 0.1 Pileated woodpecker 1 1.5 0.01 0.1 Woodpecker sp. <0.01 <0.1 Passeriformes 2 3.0 <0.01 <0.1 Unidentified bird 0.07 1.0 BIRD SUBTOTAL 144 28.8 13 19.6 0.53 7.4 Unidentified snake 1 1.5 <0.01 <0.1 Frog sp. <0.01 <0.1 2 3.0 0.04 0.6 Unidentified frog/toad REPTILE/AMPHIBIAN SUBTOTAL 11 0.5 3 4.5 0.04 0.6 Lake sturgeon 1 1.5 0.32 4.6 Cf. Whitefish group 1 1.5 <0.01 <0.1 Cf. River redhorse 1 1.5 0.01 0.1 Cf. Golden redhorse 1 1.5 0.01 0.1 Cf. Northern shorthead redhorse 2 3.0 0.06 0.9 Redhorse sp. 0.16 2.3 Catastomidae (suckers) 2 3.0 0.32 4.6 Rock bass 1 1.5 0.01 0.1 Walleye 1 1.5 0.26 3.7 4 6.1 0.15 2.1 Walleye/sauger Freshwater drum 1 1.5 0.07 1.0 Unidentified fish 2 3.0 0.80 11.4 FISH SUBTOTAL 1567 109.0 17 25.6 2.17 30.9 Unidentified biyalve 102 29.8 2 3.0 Unidentified gastropods 22 0.8 INVERTEBRATE SUBTOTAL 124 30.6 2 3.0 Unidentified bone 1730 10.9 TOTALS* 5144 393.0 66 99.7 7.02 99.8 *NISP total excludes 2 human teeth; MNI total excludes gastropods. 178 ZOOARCHAEOLOGY: Papers to Honor Elizabeth S. Wing Table 3. Piestrak site (UB2581) fauna. MNI Biomass TAXON NISP Wt (g) no. % kg % Cf. Elk 1 3.2 0.1_2 3.9 Dog/coyote 2 6.5 0.19 6.1 Gray fox 1 3.2 0.24 7.7 Canidae (wolf and fox family) <0.01 <0.1 Unid. carnivore <0.01 <0.1 Muskrat I 3.2 0.05 1.6 Gray squirrel 1 3.2 <0.01 <0.1 Squirrel sp. (cf. gray squirrel) 0.01 0.3 Squirrel sp. 0.02 0.6 Woodchuck 2 6.5 0.12 3.9 Eastern chipmunk 1 3.2 <0.01 <0.1 Sciuridae (squirrels) <0.01 <0.1 Short-tailed shrew 1 3.2 <0.01 <0.1 Unidentified rodent <0.01 <0.1 Opossum 1 3.2 0.06 1.9 Unidentified mammal 1.47 47.3 MAMMAL SUBTOTAL 1577 124.6 11 35.4 2.28 73.3 Anatinae (ducks) 1 3.2 0.01 0.3 Uriidentified bird 1 3.2 0.03 1.0 BIRD SUBTOTAL 108 1.9 2 6.4 0.04 1.3 Unidentified snake 1 3.2 <0.01 <0.1 Frog sp. 6.01 0.3 2 6.5 0.01 0.3 REPTILE/AMPHIBIAN SUBTOTAL 4 0.2 3 9.7 Lake sturgeon 1 3.2 0.08 2.6 Ylii3ishes/ciscoes 1 3.2 <0.01 <0.1 1 3.2 <0.01 <0.1 Catastomidae (suckers) 2 6.5 0.09 2.9 White bass 1 3.2 <0.01 <0.1 Centrarchidae (sunfishes) 1 3.2 0.01 0.3 Walleye 1 31 <0.01 <0.1 3 9.7 0.13 4.2 Sauger Walleye/sauger 0.02 0.6 Unidentified fish 1 3.2 0.45 14.5 FISH SUBTOTAL 2798 44.2 12 38.6 0.78 25.1 Unidentified crustacean 21 <0.1 1 3.2 Unidentified bivalve 5 <0.1 2 6.5 Unidentified gastropod 857 4.1 Unidentified shell 10 <0. I INVERTEBRATE SUBTOTAL 893 4.1 3 9.7 Unidentified bone 4026 18.4 TOTALS* 9406 193.4 31 99.8 3.11 100.0 *MNI total excludes gastropods. Late Woodland village in Clarence, about 2 miles west process particular plant resources; the less diverse faunal of the site, which could have been the fall and winter assemblage reflects short-term resource extraction. The home for the Spaulding Lake residents. Nursery site was a palisaded village occupied Only in The faunal assemblages for these three sites also the warm months; the village was not as close to the reflect differences in site types. The Spaulding Lake variety of micro-environments that characterized the site was a warm-weather agricultural hamlet, occupied Spaulding Lake site, and its fauna is less diverse. intermittently throughout the clearing and growing season. Garden hunting. Ofiginally used by Linares (1976) The Piestrak site was a smaller site, used to extract and for tropical environments, the term "garden hunting" SCOTT: Horticultural hunters: Iroquoian subsistence strategies 179 refers to the opportunistic hunting of animal species that Table 4. Intersite comparisons (% Total Site Biomass). are attracted to gardens or to the clearings in which Spaulding horticultural plots are located. Garden hunting is a Animal class Lake Nursery Piestrak strategy that serves the dual needs of horticulturalists: Mammal 406 60.9 73.3 1) it provides a meat source that can be obtained while Bird 5.5 7.4 1.3 attending to the requirements of agricultural crops Reptiles & amphibians 3.9 0.6 0.3 (clearing, planting, weeding, harvesting), and 2) it rids the .Fish 50.4 30.9 25.1 gardens of animal pests that feed on the plants or crops. Total.site biomass (kg) 11.46 7.02 3.11 Archaeologists in temperate areas have only recently Total site MNIs (N) 107 66 31 Total NISP 12,724 5,144 9,406begun to look for evidence of garden hunting among the Total bone/shell weight (g) 972.2 393.0 193.4 Hohokam (Szuter 1994,2000), Anasazi (Neusius 1996a), Iroquoian groups (Neusius 1990; Scott 1994), and southeastern Mississippian groups (Neusius 1996b). Szuter 1994:60, 2000:200-203). With these caveats, it is In the woodlands of the midwestern and eastern useful to consider the evidence for possible garden U.S., detection of garden hunting is complicated by the hunting and incidental hunting at the Spaulding Lake, fact that sites often are located at intersections ofseveral Nursery, and Piestrak sites. The overwhelming majority microenvironments, including streams, forests, swamps, of mammal and bird species present in the faunal marshes, clearings, and the ecotones between (and it is assemblages are those that frequent gardens or the likely that prehistoric peoples intentionally settled in those cleared areas surrounding them (Table 5). Since garden intersecting locations) where the species that would be hunting and incidental hunting are opportunistic, there attracted to garden areas were already present within a shouldbe a high degree of diversity in assemblages where kilometer or so of the site. Evidence from ethnographic these are the primary methods of hunting (Neusius sources in the southwestern and southeastern U.S. 1996a). When the Shannon-Weaver index of diversity suggests that much incidental hunting was carried out in (Reitz and Scarry 1985:20) is calculated for each site, the course of other activities, such as gathering firewood, the assemblages are found to be moderately to highly hauling water, or collecting wild plant resources, not only diverse (Table 6). Based on MNIs, all three assemblages by men and boys, but also by women and girls (Holt 1996; have a similar degree of diversity. There is much more 80 - m Mammal 70 - m Bird M Reptiles & Amphibians 1 Fish 60 - li 50 - % To ta l S ite B iom as s 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 - O - 6 Spaulding Lake Nursery Piestrak Figure 1. Intersite comparisons. 180 ZOOARCHAEOLOGY: Papers to Honor Elizabeth S. Wing Table 5. Garden taxa present in Spaulding Lake, Nursery, and scenarios bring us back to the likelihood that women Piestrak assemblages. and children, as well as men, captured the animals whose White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) remains we find at the Spaulding Lake site. cf. Elk (ef. Cervus elaphus) The shift to agriculture. Besides the lack of any Black bear ( Ursus americanus) quantity of deer remains, the Spaulding Lake, Nursery, Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) and Piestrak sites were identified as warm weather Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) occupations because of the presence of large numbersWoodchuck (Marmota monax) of spring-spawning fish, spring and summer berries, andGray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) agricultural remains. It is likely that more fish and berriesFox squirrel (Sciurus niger) Eastern chipmunk (hamias striatus) would be found on more late Iroquoian sites if fine- Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) screened mesh and flotation were used more frequently. Snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) The biases introduced by recovery techniques can have Hawk spp. (Accipitrinae) far-reaching effects on interpretations of subsistence and Ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) other archaeological data (Popper 1988; Szuter 1994;Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) Wing and Quitmyer 1985). More warm weather sites of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries might indicate heavier reliance on fishing and hunting activities,variation when diversity is based on biomass figures, with Spaulding Lake having the highest index (4.55 out especially in spring and summer. Perhaps the shift toward horticulture and away from seasonally abundantof a possible 4.99), Piestrak having the lowest index (1.93), and Nursery falling in the middle (2.77). resources in the Late Woodland northeast was not as Gender roles and subsistence . The faunal data dramatic or as widespread as generally thought. from these recent sites have implications as well for the Subsistence data and socio-political organization. archaeological evidence of gender-based roles in In addition to the dominance of small mammals and fish subsistence. One interpretation of the Spaulding Lake at these sites, the warm-weather occupation of the site is that it was occupied, at least intermittently, by Nursery site palisaded village is also unexpected, with entire family groups, with men, women, and children implications for understanding Iroquoian socio-p61itical present at the same time; this would explain the artifacts organization. Archaeologists traditionally view matrilocal that seem to be related to men's, women's, and children ,~ residence and women's control of village-related activities activities. The presence of children is Seen particularly as a consequence of the absence of men from the village in eight "juvenile" ceramic vessels recovered at the site for long periods of time (e.g., Trigger 1985:89). Theevidence from these three sites in western New(Perrelli et al. 1995:192). Another interpretatien is that York suggests that Iroquoian social and politicalthe site was used by men and women sequentially, at different times of the year and for different purposes organization was more complex and perhaps more (Perrelli et al. 1995:233-237, 241-245). Ethnohistoric variable from group to group than has been thought. records indicate that early historic-period Iroquoian men Whether or not different gender and age groups occupied cleared the fields for planting. Men may have occupied the Spaulding Lake,site at the same time or sequentially, the Spaulding Lake site in the early spring while clearing it is clear that women and children, as well as men, were highly mobile between a village and various agriculturalthe fields and procuring chert and other local resources hamlets and short-term resource processing sites such(Perrelli et al. 1995:242-244). If so, they subsisted on as Piestrak. Were men and women away'from the villageabundant spring-spawning fish, small mammals, and at different times of the year? Did whole family groupspossibly the first flocks of passenger pigeons arriving in move from the village to a residential hamlet in warmthe area. In contrast, ethnohistoric records reveal that months to utilize a wide variety of resources? Or didwomen took care of horticulture for the rest of the year, including planting, tending, weeding, and harvesting whole villages move elsewhere for the cold months? (Perrelli et al. 1995:244-245). This would mean that SOME CLOSING THOUGHTS ONsome women, and probably children, would have to stay RECOVERY TECHNIQUESnear the fields to keep away (or capture) pests, including The abundance of faunal remains at the Spaulding Lakeanimal pests that would be attracted to the growing corn site may be attributed to two things: 1) excellent boneand beans. They likelywould have relied on other nearby preservation provided by the limestone substrate of thefood resources, such as fish and passenger pigeons. Both SCOTT: Horticultural hunters: Iroquoian subsistence strategies 181 escarpment and significant quantities of eharcoal and Table 6. Diversity indices. ash in the deposits, and 2) the use of flotation in addition MNI biomass taxon diversity no. taxa (n) diversity kgto 1/4-inch screening. Approximately 60 to 70% of the faunal remains were recovered by flotation, and usually Spaulding Lake 3.06 107 33 4.55 11.46 between 50 and 100% of the soils in eachfeature or test Nufsery 3.16 66 30 2.77 7.02 Piestrak 3.11 31 21 1.93 3.11unit was floated. In 1992, when I began looking for Iroquoian faunal data to compare with the Spaulding Lake material, I the varieties and. complexities of Iroquoian subsistence mostly encountered reports or species lists enumerating and settlement in the late.prehistoric period. the bones of larger animals, such as deer and turkey, and plant remains that were clearly visible, such as corn ACKNOWLEDGMENTS kernels and cobs. Throughout much of the area where I would like to thank R. Bruce McMillan and Terrance Iroquoian sites are located, soil preservation and recovery J. Martin for generous permission to use the comparative techniques had not allowed for the inclusion of small osteological collections at the Illinois State Museum, animal or plant remains. I was reminded that, until the Springfield. Terrance Martin also graciously identified late 1970s and early 1980s, the prevailing interpretation the freshwater mussel remains from the sites. All three of prehistoric subsistence in the southeastern U.S. was sites discussed here were excavated as part of CRM one of heavy reliance on those species with large remains: mitigation: the Spaulding Lake and Piestrak sites by the deer, catfish, and corn. Beginning in the late 1970s, what Archaeological Survey at SUNY-Buffalo, Elaine Herold, changed in the study of southeastern U.S. archaeological director; and the Nursery site by Robert Dean, Dean sites, however; were recovery techniques. Through their and BarbourAssociates, Inc. Some of the ideas put forth insistence on fine-gauge recovery techniques, the work here were first presented in conference papers (Scott of Elizabeth Wing and her students revolutionized the 1993,1994). Discussions with Douglas Perrelli and Sarah picture of subsistence among prehistoric southeastern Neusius have proved especially helpful, although neither Indian groups. should be held responsible for the interpretations Until we have samples from well-preserved sites, presented herein. Finally, I owe much to Elizabeth Wing, such as at Spaulding Lake, Nursery, and Piestrak, and who has been an inspiring role model for me through similar use of fine-screening and flotation, we will be nearly twenty years, and continues to be so. hampered in our attempts to clarify the overdrawn (and LITERATURE CITEDincorrect) traditional picture of an Iroquoian diet Devens, C. 1991. Gender and colonization in Native Canadiandominated by deer and corn. If we had such communities: Examining thehistorical record. Pp. 510-515 assemblages from year-round or winter village sites in D. Walde and N. D. Willows, eds. The Archaeology of available for comparison, we could begin to understand Gender. Calgary: Archaeological Association, University of Calgary.Iroquoian peoples' use (or non-use) of additional Fenton, W N. 1978. Northern Iroquoian culture patterns. Pp. 296-resources at the time of year when deer were readily 321 inB.G. Trigger,ed. HandbookofNorthAmericanIndians,available. It may be that small mammals continued to be Vol. 15. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. important to the diet in winter, even with the addition of Gardner, R S. 1995. Analysis of the Spaulding Lake site greater amounts of deer meat. Whitefish and lake trout carbonized floral material. Pp. 253-264 in D. J. Perrelli, spawn in the fall and several fish species available near N.R. Herter, R S. Gardner, and E. M. Scott. Stage 3 Archaeological Investigations of the Spaulding Lake Sitethese sites may be taken through the ice. It would be (UB 2497),Town ofClarence, ErieCounty, NewYork. Reportsuseful to know what role these fish might have played in of the Archaeological Survey 27 (1). Buffalo: Department the fall and winter diet, and how important they were of Anthropology, State University of New York. compared to the deer. Without assemblages recovered Heidenreich, C. E. 1978. Huron. Pp. 368-388 in B. G Trigger, ed. with fine-gauge techniques, however, we will not know HandbookofNorthAmerican Indians, Vol. 15. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.whether the minimal number of bones from small Holt, J. Z. 1996. AG Church site subsistence remains: Themammals,and fish at fall and winter villages truly reflects procurement and exchange of plant and animal products food choices or simply reflects the effect of hand during the Mississippian emergence. 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