HOME RANGE, HABITAT USE, AND BEHAVIOR OF THE
EASTERN DIAMONDBACK RATTLESNAKE

(CROTALUSADAMANTEUS) ON THE ORDWAY PRESERVE

Walter W. Timmermani

ABSTRACT

The eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus Beauvois) was studied by
radio-telemetry from 3 September 1985 to 21 February 1989 at the Katharine Ordway Preserve/Carl S.
Swisher Memorial Sanctuary, Putnam County, Florida. Five male and three female snakes were monitored
for durations ranging from 33 days (11 observations) for a small female to 864 days (245 observations) for
an adult male. Intervals between observations averaged 3.3 days. A total of 743 observations was used to
determine home range. habitat use, movements and other behaviors for this species.

Diamondback home ranges were analyzed using the McPAAI computer program (Smithsonian
Institution). Females (n=2) maintained smaller home ranges (mean = 46.5 ha) than males (n=4, mean =
84.3 ha). The ranges of both males and females overlapped, indicating that this species is not territorial.
Diamondback activity patterns suggest that they occupy stable home ranges that remain similar from year to
year.

Although rattlesnakes were recorded in all habitats available to them, the Swamp Forest/Mesic
Hammocks and Xeric Hammocks were favored. They also utilized Wet Prairies during droughts. Eastern
diamondbacks were almost entirely terrestrial, rarely climbing into trees (n=1) and infrequently going
underground (n=35) during their activity season= During winter (Dec-Jan-Feb) rattlesnake movements
decreased, but they remained on the surface 55.4% of the time. Burrows of armadillo (Daopus
novemcinctus, n=57) and gopher tortoise (Gopheruspolyphemus, n=12), as well as root channels beneath
stands of palmettos, were used as winter refugia_

Mean monthly distances traveled increased during fall (Sep·Oct-Nov), when snake movements
averaged over 20 m per day. At this time males made longer moves, probably searching f6r breeding
females, whereas females made shorter movements. Movements were always made during daylight hours.

The hunting strategy of C adamanteus consisted of a sit-and-wait foraging behavior, with the main
posture a tight coil from which it might ambush prey. Snakes spent anywhere from one day to almost a week
coiled in the same hunting location. Necropsies of 14 rattlesnakes (from north-central Florida) that
contained identifiable prey remains indicate that the cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus, n=8) and the rabbit
(probably Sylvilagus floridanus, n=5) are the numerically dominant prey; one sample included a
white-footed mouse (probably Peromyscus gosopinus); other evidence identified the wood rat (Neotoma
flon'dana) as prey for the eastern diamondback

' The author was recently a District Biologist with the Florida Patk Seravice, 13798 S.E. Fedmal Highway, Hobe Sound FL  31455, and now
resides at 712 Da,ty Street, No. 4 Helena Mr 59601, USA

Timmerman,W.W. 1995. Home range, habitat use, and behavior ofthe eastern diamondback rattlesnake
(Crotalus adamanteus) on the Ordway Preserve. Bull. Florida Mus. Nat. Hist. 38, Pt  I(5):127-158.



128 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL 38, PT. 1(5)

RESUMEN

Entre el 3 de septiembre de 1985 y el 21 de febrero de 1989, la serpiente de cascabel de espalda de
diamante del este (Crotalus adamanteus Beauvois) fue estudiada usando radio telemetria en la Reserva
Katharine Ordway/Carl S. Swisher Memorial Sanctuary, en el oeste del Condado de Putnam, Florida. Se
monitorearon cinco serpientes machos y tms serpientes hembras por periodos que variaron entre 33 dias (11
observaciones) para una semiente hembra pequefig hasta 864 dias (245 observaciones) para un macho
adulto. Los intervalos entre observaciones promediaron 3.3 dias. Se utiliz6 un total de 743 observaciones
para determinar el dmbito de hogar, uso de habitat, movimientos y otras conductas de cgta especie.

Lm dmbitos de hogar para esta serpiente cascabel fueron analizados usando el programa
computacional McPAAL (Smithsonian Institution). Las hembras (n = 21 mantuvieron ambitos de hogar
mas pequeaos (promedio = 46.5 ha) clue los machos (n = 4. promedio = 84.3 ha). Los rangos de serpientes
machos y hembras se sobrepusieron, lo cual es indicativo de que esta especie no es territorial. Los patrones
de actividad para esta serpiente cascabel sugieren que 6stas ocupan dmbitos de hogar estables los cuales
permanecen constantes alba aao.

Aun cuando las serpientes de cascabel fueron registradas en todos los habitats disponibles para elias,
6stas prefirieron los habitats de Bosque Inundado/Bosques Altos M6sicos y Bosques Altos X6ricos. Durante
sequias, tambi6n utilizaron Praderas Inundadas. Durante la temporada de actividal esta serpientes fueron
casi enteramente terrestres, ram vez subiendo a drboles (una observaci6n), e infrequentemente
sumergi6ndose bajo tierra (n = 35 observaciones). Durante el invierno (dic-ene-feb), los movimientos de la
serpiente cascabel disminuyeron, pero permanecieron en la superficie 55.4% del tiempo. Madrigueras de
armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus, n = 12), asi como canales de raices ubicados por debajo de agrupaciones
de palmeral fueron utilizados como refugios de invierno.

Las distancias promedio mensuales recorridas aumentaron durante el otofio (sep-oct-nov), cuando los
movimientos de las serpientes promediamn sobre 20 m diarios. En este momento, los machos realizaron
movimientos mAs largos probablemente en busque<la de hembras reproductivas, mientras que las hembras
realizaron movimientos mas cortos. L£smovimientos se realizaron solo durante el dia.

La estrategia de caza de C adamanteus consisti6 en una conducta de sentarse a esperar,
principalmente con una postura enrollada desde la cual podia sorprender a su presa. Las serpientes
estuvieron entre un dia hasta casi una semana enrolladas en la misma localidad de can Necropsias
realizadas a 14 serpientes (provenientes del centro-norte de Florida), y que contenian restos de presa
identificables, indican que el ra16n cola de algod6n (Sigmodon hispidus, n = 8), y el conejo ( probablemente
Sylvitagus foridanus, n = 5) son las presas dominates num6ricamente; una muestra contenia un rat6n de
patas blancas (probablemente Peromyscus gossypinus); tambi6n se identific6 a la rata del bosque (Neoroma
foridana) como presa para la serpiente cascabel.

INTRODUCTION

The eastern diamondback rattlesnake, Crotalus adamanteus, is known to
inhabit many Florida ecosystems, but is more often thought of as a denizen of xeric
uplands (Carr 1940; Wright and Wright 1957; Klauber 1972). Here, it is often
found as a burrow commensal of the gopher tortoise, Gopherus polyphemus. This
large rattlesnake, along with other large snakes such as the eastern indigo
(Drymarchon corais couper"), uie Flodda pine snake (Pituophis melanoleucus
mugitus), and the rat snakes (Elaphe guttata and Elaphe obsoleta), probably exerts
selective pressure on small mammal populations in these habitats. Little has been
published about the life history of any of these reptiles or about the interactions and
dynamics of this large-snake guild. Most of these species may be in need of
conservation and management (Dodd 1987) yet have received little attention when
wildlife-management policies are formulated.

Biological preserves may serve as last bastions for these snakes, but their
home ranges are so large that small preserves are unlikely to meet the requirements



TIMMERMAN : CROTALUS ADAMANTEUS ON ORDWAY PRESERVE 129

for stable populations through time (Dodd et al. 1988). The survival of these
snakes will rest in the hands of preserve managers and government agencies that
manage large tracts of land as wild areas become less common and as undeveloped
tracts of land shrink in size. Resource managers will need information concerning
home range, habitat use, movements, and denning activities in order to make
effective management decisions. I conducted this study to collect information that
will contribute to our knowledge of one of these important reptiles and will assist
in developing management plans for conservation areas. This is the first study of
free-ranging eastern diamondback rattlesnakes in Florida sandhills.

The main objectives of this study on C adamanteus were: (1) to determine
its home range; (2) to identify the habitats used by them in north-central Florida
sandhills; (3) to delineate their ovenvintering and activity seasons; and (4) to
determine whether unique sites are critical to them as overwintering refuges.

Background.- The eastern diamondback (Serpentes: Crotalidae) is the
world's largest rattlesnake, averaging 130 cm in total length, with the largest
reported at 244 cm (Conant and Collins 1991). It ranges along the coastal
lowlands from southeastern North Carolina to eastern Louisiana, including all of
Florida and its keys. Until recently, the diamondback was very common
throughout most of Florida but, although it is still occasionally seen, does not
appear to be as abundant. Herpetologists have noticed a decline in the numbers of
large individuals (those attaining lengths of around 170 cm) over the past 20 years
(S.R. Telford, Jr., and F.W. King, pers. comm.). The principal cause of their
decline is habitat destruction, which results in fragmentation of populations, and
highway mortality. In addition, there remains in the South, as elsewhere, a
lingering prejudice against rattlesnakes which continues to lead to their
destruction. This was made evident to me by the fact that a Putnam County,
Florida  reptile-skin business was able to purchase over 8,000 eastern diamondback
rattlesnakes that had been killed by north Florida and south Georgia residents in
1988 alone (J. A. Smith pers. comm.).

The little that has been published on the diamondback is largely anecdotal.
Carr (1940) noted that the diamondback was "widely distributed; most abundant in
palmetto flatwoods" and that they fed on "rats (Sigmodon hispidus) and mice
(Peromyscus spp.)." Conant and Collins (1991) stated that they were "at home in
the palmetto flatwoods and dry pinelan(Is" and that they "frequently...take refuge in
burrows of gopher tortoises, in holes beneath stumps, etc. Rabbits, rodents and
birds are eaten." Klauber (1972) related that "it is said to live in almost any
available type of habitat  except in especially wet places" and that "in most areas
the Florida and eastern cottontails (Sylvilagusf floridanus and S. f. mallurus) and
the marsh rabbits (S. p. palustris and S. p. paludicola) are the mainstays of the
adult diamondbacks." Allen (1961), a naturalist with probably more experience
with this species than anyone, said that "it lives in all sorts of country: on the
sandhills, in the "hammocks" (hardwood stands), in salt marsh, in natwoocis, and



130 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 38, PT. 1(5)

many other situations. Favorite places include old fields, overgrown with weeds
and broomsedge; the sandhills with plenty of scrubby oaks and longleaf pines; and
stands of good hardw=Is such as oaks, hickories, magnolia, and holly. In the hot
summer it may move down into the cool, brushy tangles around the borders of
ponds and lakes."

Although no field studies of this species have been published, Meahs (1985,
1986) outlined its natural history in two unpublished reports of his radio-telemetry
study at Tall Timbers Research Station (33 km north of Tallahassee, Florida). He
found that adult diamondbacks have large home ranges-up to 200 ha.
Rattlesnakes at Tall Timbers are active from late March to early November and
remain somewhat active on the surface throughout winter if not forced
underground by cold weather. While Means observed eastern diamondbacks using
gopher tortoise burrows as overwintering refuges, the snakes also used the stump
holes of rotted trees or cavities in burned-out pines. Means also stated that
"courtship and mating in the north-central portion of the geographic range of the
eastern diamondback rattlesnake takes place between 15 August and 15
September." This also happens to be the time that female diamondbacks give birth
to live young (Klauber 1972; Means 1986; Timmerman 1989).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the Board of Directors of the Katharine Ordway Preserve/Carl S. Swisher
Memorial Sanctuary for the permission to conduct this study. My thesis chairman, John Eisenberg  provided
the guidance, equipment and funds to complete the study. Truman Perry, Richard Franz Melvin E.
Sunquist, Mark Ludlow, Bert Charest C. Kenneth Dodd, Jr., Cheri Jones, uslie HaySmith, Brian Smith,
Marje Voeten, John Thorbjamarson, and Deborah Wright assisted by capturing, or helping to capture, live
rattlesnakes used in the study. Elliot Jacobson and Paul Moler made helpful recommendations concerning
transmitter implantations. Joan Berish, John Thorbjarnarson, Bert Charest, C. Kenneth Dodd, Jr., Melvin E.
Sunquist. Kent Vliet, Stephen Walsh, and Richard Franz gave assistance during surgeries. Col. Robert
Morris and D.A Sanders, DVM, kindly allowed use of their properties while I was tracking rattlesnakes.
My colleagues and friends at the Florida Museum of Natural History provided valuable help during the
course of the study, particularly Walter Auffenberg David Auth, Carter Gilbert  George Burgess  Stephen
Walsh, Barbara Stanton, Rhoda J. Bryant, and Dianna Carver. Karan Newman computed home ranges with
the aid of the McPAAl program. Ian Breheny drew the finished maps from my rough sketches and field
maps. I.aurie Wilkins made the identification of prey items from rattlesnake scats and stomach contents.
William Maples took the radiograph of M l after it had eaten the wood rat. My wife, Karen Kupke
Timmerman, has had to endure the usual rigors surrounding the study of large venomous snakes. To all
these people I am indebted. Finally, this study is dedicated to the memory of my friend, the late Ross Allen
(1908-1981), who first introduced me to the eastern diamondback rattlesnake.



TIMMERMAN: CR07*LUSADAMRAVEUS ON ORDWAY PRESERVE 131

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Study Site.- This study was conducted at the 3750 ha Katharine Ordway
Preserve/Carl S. Swisher Memorial Sanctuary (hereafter referred to as the
"Ordway") east of the town of Melrose in western Putnam County, Florida (lat. 29,
41'; long. 82, 00'). The Ordway consists of a series of sandy-soil habitats lying
within the Trail Ridge and Interlachen Karstic Highlands geologic districts.
Upland soils are coarse and well-drained, belonging to the Apopka, Candlier, and
Tavares series, whereas the lower moister slopes and depressions consist of less
well-{trained sediments such as Myakka Fine Sand, Millhopper, and Lockloosa
series (Franz unpubl. data). The elevation ranges from about 27 m to 55 m above
sea level. The most common habitats include High Pine Forests and Old Fields;
however, one-third of the tract is wetlands in the form of lakes, marshes, and
swamps. The major connected wetland system is the Mill Creek system which
flows easterly from Lake Melrose through the Ordway, filling dark-water lakes,
swamps, and wet prairies before exiting the preserve near the town of Putnam Hall
at the northeast corner of the property. These waters eventually make their way to
the St. Johns River via Rice Creek. In addition, there are numerous isolated
clear-water lakes lying in solution depressions between sand ridges. These lake
basins support vegetative communities that differ from those of the connected
dark-water wetland systems. The following are brief descriptions of the habitats
referred to throughout the text: Lake Meadow, a grass-dominated habitat that
surrounds most of the clear-water lakes; Xeric Hammock, a canopied dry forest of
oaks, usually with a thick carpet of oak leaves on the forest floor; Old Fields,
cleared openings, in various stages of succession, from former homesteads; High
Pine Forest  better known as sandhiUs, these forests are dominated by longleaf
pines and turkey oaks, with a ground cover of wiregrass; Mesic Hammock, a
closed-canopied, moist forest dominated by hardwood trees such as laurel oak,
pignut hickory, and sweet gum, often with a spotty understory of saw palmetto;
Swamp Forest, a seasonally inundated forest of black gum, red maple, loblolly
pine, and other flood-tolerant trees; and Wet Prairie, a freshwater marsh with
maidencane and other grasses, and a few shrubs such as Virginia willow. For
detailed descriptions of the habitats of the Ordway Preserve, consult Franz and Hall
(1990).

Radio-telemetry.- Eastern diamondback rattlesnakes were studied by
radio-telemetry from 3 September 1985 to 21 February 1989. Snakes were caught
using the snake-hook and dip-net technique devised by Allen (1961). Snakes were
captured as they crossed roads (n=7), in natural settings (n=4), and during
controlled burns (n=2).

Miniature radio transmitters (AVM Instrument Co., LTD., Wildlife
Materials, Custom Telemetry and Consulting, Inc.) broadcasting in the frequencies



132 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL 38, PT. I(5)

of 164-166 MHz, were surgically implanted into the peritoneal cavity of the snake
following the procedures outlined in Reinert and Cundall (1982). Transmitters
weighed from 6 to 27 g and comprised up to 2% of the total body weight of the
study animal. Transmitters measured from 30 to 70 mm and were attached to a
flexible antenna measuring about 45 cm. Estimated life expectancies of these
transmitters varied from 60 days to over a year.

Radio signals were received using a TR2 (Telonics) receiver. A truck with a
mounted dipole antenna was driven over the roads in the area of the snake's last
location. The search was continued until the transmission of the snake's radio was
intercepted. The specific location was then determined by proceeding on foot with
a hand-held. 2-element, H-antenna. Occasionally, snakes retreated to inaccessible
areas of the preserve that necessitated search by canoe or airplane.

Snakes were located one to five times per week. Visits were restricted to less
than five minutes during which time data were recorded. Care was taken to
minimize disturbance to the area in order to insure that the reptile's behavior was
unaffected. For each location, the following data were noted: date, time (eastern
standard time), habitat type, whether snake was visible to observer, snake's position
in vertical strata (in tree, on ground, below ground), snake's physical position or
activity (coiled, loosely coiled, crawling), identity of burrows used (gopher tortoise,
armadillo, or other), if snake rattled during visit, if snake's eyes appeared opaque
(before shedding), if snake had recently shed, and if snake had recently fed (lump
visible in body).

Each location was given a unique number and recorded on a blue survey nag
placed as close as possible (within 1 m) to the snake's position. Attached to the
flag wire was a small aluminum tag (Al Tag) bearing the location number and the
snake's code name. The metal tags served as permanent markers in the event that
snakes returned to these sites. Each location was marked on a Florida Department
of Transportation aerial photograph (scale: 1"= 200'). These photographs are of
such resolution that individual trees, roads, and other features could be used to
establish the snake's location.

Necropsies.- To gain information on food habits, necropsies were performed
on 22 C. adamanteus. These specimens were obtained as road kills from
north-central Florida counties (Alachua, Bradford, Gilchrist  Marion, Putnam, and
Union).

Data Analysis.- Home ranges were measured using the McPAAI
(Smithsonian Institution) computer program. Minimum convex polygons, concave
polygons, and 95% ellipses were calculated for snakes with a record of 50 or more
observations. Movements between consecutive locations were measured as
straight-line distances directly from the aerial photographs. Activity seasons and
overwintering periods were subjectively assigned to each snake based on daily
activities and general movement patterns.



TIMMERMAN: CROTALUSADAMANTEUSON ORDWAY PRESERVE 133

Habitats were determined by a visual inspection of the environment and by
reference to Ordway vegetation maps (Franz unpubl. data; Myers 1984). Since it
was often difficult to distinguish between Mesic Hammocks and Swamp Forests on
aerial photographs, these forests were combined for habitat analysis. Swamps were
not inundated with water and looked superficially like extensions of the mesic
forests for most of the study. Habitat utilization-availability analyses included a
Pearson's Chi-square goodness-of-fit test and a Bonferroni
simultaneous-confidence-intervals test. Both tests made comparisons between
expected use and observed use for all habitats within each snake's range. The
Pearson's Chi-square test was used to determine if snakes used the various habitats
in proportion to their availability. Selection for or against certain habitats was
evaluated using Bonferroni confidence intervals (Byers et al. 1984).

For the habitat analyses, the cumulative number of days that the snake was
seen to occupy a certain area was used instead of the actual number of field
observations. In other words, if the snake was visited on Monday, Wednesday, and
Friday and had occupied the same site or a closely knit constellation of sites in a
particular habitat, then five observation-days were scored for that particular habitat
even though the snake had not been observed using it every day of that period. For
an ambush hunter like the diamondback, the inclusion of these intermediate
periods should more accurately reflect the proportions of time spent in various
habitats. I decided on this procedure when preliminary 24-hour tracking bouts
showed me that these snakes maintain their ambush positions hour after hour, and
sometimes day after day. Additionally, for those times when snakes were not
observed daily, the number of observation-days assigned to habitat-use were split
evenly between two habitats when a snake moved from one habitat to another.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Eight eastern diamondback rattlesnakes (five males and three females) were
radio-tracked for varying periods of time. An additional five snakes were
implanted, but they did not contribute sufficient data, due mostly to transmitter
failure. Home ranges were plotted for six snakes (four males and two females)
tracked eight months or more. Ordway rattlesnakes were radio-tracked for
durations ranging from 33 days (11 observations) for a small female, to 864 days
(245 observations) for an adult male. Intervals between observations ranged from
1.5 hours to 20 days (mean = 3.3 days). The longer intervals were caused by
snakes that retreated to inaccessible areas ofthe preserve.

Home Range- Six snakes were radio-tracked for a minimum of eight
months, including Male Number 3 (M3), who was followed for two consecutive



134  
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 FLO

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5)

Table 1. Summary ofradio-telemetry data for eight eastern diamondback rattlesnakes at the Ordway Preserve, Putnam County, Florida. SVL = snout-vent length

Home Ranges (ha)

SVL Period Duration No. No. Convex Concave 95%
Snake Sex (cm) Observed (Days) Obs. Sites Polygon Polygon Ellipse

Ml M 132.5 09/03/85-06/03/86 273 82 28 53.80 31.73 165.62
M2 M 75.8 09/18/85-05/11/86 234 71 28 100.19 67.95 259.16
M3 M 126.5 09/06/86-01/16/89 864 245 131 ***

calendar yr 1987 75.69 46.16 170.12
calendar yr 1988 166.15 69.26 341.66

M 136.0 04/07/87-01/13/88 281 105 54 25.70 0.00 40.64
F 132.5 08/18/87-08/27/88 375 126 58 39.58 0.00 68.46
F 126.4 07/20/87-05/28/88 312 74 41 53.47 30.53 109.11
F 85.0 12/14/8841/16/89 33 11 4 -
M 129.0 11/25/88-02/21/89 89 29 5 -

* * * Yearly ranges are s#own below.



TIMMERMAN: CROTALUSADAA£ANTEUS ON ORDWAY PRESERVE 135

years. The mean home range for these diamondbacks (minimum convex polygon)
was 73.5 ha (Table 1). Females averaged 46.5 ha  while males averaged 84.3 ha.
M3 exhibited a different-sized home range between years. In 1987 it used 75.7 ha
and in 1988 it used 166.2 ha  encompassing much of the previous year's range.
The smallest home range (25.7 ha) belonged to M4.

It has been suggested that seasonal changes in habitat productivity may result
in changes in home range size (Harestad and Bunnell 1979). If this is true, it is
likely that the home range of C adamanteus changes over time, iluctuating as the
home range of M3 did from 1987 to 1988. Sigmodon hispidus, one of the
diamondback's principal prey, becomes exceedingly rare during droughts (J.F.
Eisenberg unpubl. data), which are fairly common in north-central Florida..
Therefore, snakes may have to increase their home range size to find sufficient
food. The Ordway has experienced reduced rainfall over the past several years
(Franz and Dodd unpubl. data), but the historic rain patterns are unknown.

Average home ranges for Ordway diamondbacks are somewhat smaller than
the ranges for Tall Timbers rattlesnakes (Means 1985). Tall Timbers females
ranged over about 80 ha compared to about 50 ha for Ordway females and males
used up to 200 ha compared to about 85 ha for Ordway males. However, we did
not use identical home-range analytical techniques (Means pers. comm.), so it is
not surprising that the values are somewhat different. Alternate methods of home-
range estimation can provide different results, even in the same data set. As an
example, using the minimum convex polygon method, which I have reported here,
the home range ofM1 is about 54 ha. However, using the 95% ellipse method, the
same plotted coordinates yield a home range of 166 ha, an increase of 307% (see
Table 1). Based on other radio-telemetry studies at the Ordway Preserve, Florida
pine snakes (Franz 1984), eastern indigos, and eastern coachwhips (Dodd et al.
1988) have ranges that are similar in size to that of the eastern diamondback.

Some rattlesnake home ranges overlapped (Fig. 1). In addition to the
radio-tagged snakes whose ranges are outlined in this figure, eight other
rattlesnakes were seen by field personnel in the areas used by telemetered snakes.
This evidence suggests that diamondback rattlesnakes are not territorial.

Density.- No authoritative density estimates of C adamanteus in native
habitats has ever been made. Nevertheless, a crude density estimate is possible
based on the observations of Ordway field personnel over the course of this study.
A total of ten adult rattlesnakes were observed in the area just northeast of Ross
Lake. Applying the average home range from this study, and drawing circular
ranges around their locations, it can be estimated that this aggregation was
occupying roughly 100 ha. We know that this sample does not represent 0% of the
population in that 100 ha, nor does it likely represent 100% of the population. If
we assume that it accounted for about 50%, we can derive a population of 20 adult
snakes. This results in a crude density estimate of 1 rattlesnake per 5 ha. If we



136 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL- 38, PT. 1(5)

mitA-r

\

1 1_P A. 1000 1

'SE=72=-1m•'•.0 \
\ i ,

.\ d / LI~03 ~ ,»;*
d 4 1 0 Lurv -

r 6*A .4L #- 0

63, sh (.e- - -  /1-, 0

FIGURE 1.-Home ranges ofsix eastern diamondback rattlesnakes at the Ordway Preserve, Putnam Co., FL.
The home range represented by the dashed line corresponds to M3, who was tracked for 864 days. The
symbol within each range represents the sex ofthe snake. 1 = Ashley Lake; 2 = Goose L.ake; 3 = McCIoud
Lake; 4 = Anderson Cue Lake; 5 = Long Pond.

continue with this line of reasoning, and make the bold assumption that all upland
habitats (2500 ha) at the Ordway are similarly blessed with diamondbacks, there
are approximately 500 adult C adamanteus residing on the preserve. Means
estimated that there were roughly 49 adult diamondbacks at the 400-ha Tall
Timbers study area, or a density of 1 rattlesnake per 8 ha (Means 1986).

Seasonal Activity Patterns.- I have been able to identify, from the literature,
four seasonal activity patterns for snakes. The first pattern consists of movements
by temperate snakes to and from a hibernaculum. Most snakes of cold environs,
including all the temperate species of rattlesnakes in the genera Crotalus and
Sistrurus, aggregate in ancestral dens during the winter, either because reliable
denning  areas are a scarce resource or because the possibility of dehydration is
lessened from the large mass of bodies in close proximity (Costanzo 1989)- In the
spring, snakes bask at the den; mating may take place there before they leave for
their summer ranges. These ranges may be nearby or may lie several kilometers
away (Landreth 1973). The snakes forage during the summer and return to the
same, or a nearby, den in the fall. Home ranges of these snakes consist of denning



TIMMERMAN: CROTALUSADA#HAVEUS ON ORDWAY PRESERVE 137

areas, summer ranges, and the corridors connecting them. They may be consistent
from year to year (Parker and Brown 1980).

The second pattern involves movements by snakes that use shifting activity
centers. These snakes continually move over new areas and do not return to
familiar ones--at least not during the same season. Franz (1988) believes this to be
the pattern shown by rat snakes (Etaphe obsoleta quadrivittata and E. guttata) in
north-central Florida. He characterized the annual home range of these species as
consisting of "winter use areas" and "summer use areas" connected by "migratory
corridors," and never saw rat snakes returning to or from these two seasonal
ranges. Several snakes made long distance moves (up to 17 km) along the
migratory corridors. Franz reasons that the abundance ofwinter den sites available
to the rat snakes in the mild Florida winter, and an inconsistent prey base (see
previous Sigmodon discussion), may account for this pattern.

The same pattern of shifting activity centers has been reported for certain
Wisconsin populations of the water snake (Nerodia sipedon) during their summer
season (Tiebout and Carey 1987), but its pattern is different from that of Florida rat
snakes. Every fall these temperate-zone water snakes find their way back to the
same unique hibernaculum. Therefore, although they may forage in shifting
ranges, their annual course describes a loop or a circle, since they return to the
original starting point-the winter den site.

The fourth snake-movement pattern is the one exhibited by C adamanteus.
In this pattern, snakes have a fairly stable home range and use the same general
area from year to year. There are no discernable migratory routes or summer and
winter ranges. The snakes make somewhat circuitous routes through their
environment often passing over the same terrain at different times of year.

Employing this movement strategy, the snake becomes thoroughly familiar
with its environment, gaining knowledge through experience. Theoretically, the
success of a sit-and-wait predator should depend on the identification of prime
ambush sites. The diamondback knows its environment well enough to return to
specific favorable locations within its home range. Rattlesnakes were observed
returning to previously used sites on 35 occasions during the course of this study.
For example, M3 used the hollow bottom of a large sweet gum (Liquidambar
so,racifua) snag on the northeast shore of Ross Lake on three separate occasions--
August 1987, September 1987, and May 1988.

The activity pattern shown by C adamanteus is similar to that of Ordway
populations of the Florida pine snake (Franz 1984), the eastern coachwhip and the
eastern indigo (Dodd pers. comm.). These snakes have stable home ranges and
may use certain locations more than once during the year.

Food Habits.- None of the snakes was observed capturing or consuming prey
during the study. Several searches for snake scats at locations recently occupied by
study animals were unsuccessful. Rattlesnakes were detected with stomach bulges
(an indication of feeding) only twice (out of 490 observations), but because snakes



138 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 38, PT. I(5)

were hidden from view on 120 occasions during the summer, a few large meals
probably went undetected. Food items consisting of anything smaller than rabbits
and large squirrels are difficult to discern in a coiled diamondback.

Four species of mammals were identified as prey items in the gastro-intestinal
tracts of 14 eastern diamondback rattlesnakes from north-central Florida (Table 2).
The dominant prey were rabbits (Sylvilagus sp.) and cotton rats (Sigmodon
hispidus). Three prey remains were of unidentified mammals. Two of the
identifiable remains were taken from Ordway rattlesnakes; remains of a cotton
mouse (Peromyscus gosopinus) were taken from the small intestine of M4.
Cotton mice occur on the preserve in densities of 4-20/ha (Brand 1987) making it
one of the more common prey available to C adamanteus. A rabbit was taken
from the stomach of a captured male that died during an October cold spell at the
Ordway pole barn.

These two prey remains would be the extent of our knowledge of Ordway
rattlesnake food habits if it had not been for the circumstances surrounding the
disappearance of a radio-collared wood rat (Neotoma floridana) on 9 April 1989.
An adult female, one of the subjects of a study on this species (HaySmith 1991),
could not be located for several weeks. Then, a signal was discovered transmitting
from a position near the prairie edge on the western side of Goose Lake. The radio
collar was now in the stomach of an adult eastern diamondback rattlesnake coiled
in a sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense) stand.

A radiograph was taken to locate the position of the wood rat's transmitter in
the snake's GI tract when it was discovered that the snake was carrying two radio
transmitters, one from the ingested wood rat, and one which I had implanted on 5
April 1986 (Fig. 2). This was Ml, my first study subject, who I had lostin the Mill
Creek Swamp when his radio failed in May 1986; he had been living in the wild
for three years since last seen. His location in the saw grass was about 200 m from
where the snake had originally been captured on 27 August 1985. Wood rats occur
in densities of 1 -3/ha on the preserve (Eisenberg unpubl. data) and represent a
fairly large meal for a rattlesnake (about 130 g). A number of Ordway rattlesnake
locations in mesic-hammock palmettos were very close to wood rat nests
(HaySmith et al. in prep.). In addition to the rodents and rabbits reported here,
diamondbacks also are known to occasionally feed on such birds as towhee,
bobwhite, king rail, and wild turkey (Klauber 1972).

Habitat Use.- Locations of five Ordway rattlesnakes were used in the
analysis of habitat selection. Female Number 2 (F2) did not have equal access to
several of the habitats being considered and was eliminated from the analysis
(Byers et al. 1984)  Habitat-use data for one rattlesnake (M3) tracked for two
consecutive years were treated separately, yielding a sample size of six.

Rattlesnakes preferred the Swamp Fores/Mesic Hammocks, Xeric
Hammocks, and Wet Prairies to other habitats within the Ordway (Table 3). Based
on utilization-availability analysis, rattlesnakes used these habitats, which



Table 2. Prey identified from scat and stomach samples of eastern diamondback rattlesnakes from north-central Florida  showing sex and SVL (=snout-vent
length; in crn) ofsnake and location in GI tract•.

Prey County Sex SVL Date Location Notes on prey

Sylvilagus sp Alachua F 136 . 5 04 Oct 1987 3
Sylvilagus sp Putnamb M 146 . 0 26 Sep 1987 1 ,2 ,3 -
Sylvilagus sp Alachua M 108.0 10 Sep 1987 1 ,2 Teeth present, probably ajuvenile
Sylvilagus sp Alachua M 129.0 Aug-Sep 1987 1 ,2,3 Infant

TIM
M

E
R

M
A

N
: 

C
R

O
TALU

SAD
AA<U

N
TEU

S O
N

 O
R

D
W

AY
 PRESERVE 

139

Sylvilagus sp. Alachua M 102 . 0 Nov 1988 1 ,2,3 -
Neotoma floridanct Putnamb M 132 . 5 09 Apr 1989 - Adult female, 218g
Sigmodon hispidus Gilchrist M 132 . 0 20 Oct 1987 Sample included a tooth
Sigmodon hispidus - - - - - -
Sigmodon hispidus Bradford M 110. 0 29 Aug 1988 3 Sample incuded a tooth
Sigmodon hispidus Alachua M 120 . 0 29 Sep 1986 1 ,2 Sample contained a jaw
Sigmodon hispidus Alachua M 135.0 Sep 1986 3 ----
Sigmodon hispidus* Marion F 104 . 0 Sep 1987 3 Foot bones in sample
Sigmodon hispidus* Alachua M 102. 5 07 Oct 1987 3 Foot bones in sample
Sigmodon hispidus * Union M 78. 5 29 Aug 1988 1 ,2, 3 --
Peromyscus sp.** Putnamd M 135 . 0 13 Jan 1988 2 -
Cricetid rodent Putnam F 116.0 09 Oct 1987 Hair sample degraded
Unidentified mammal --- M - - - No diagnostic hairs
Unidentified mammal Putnam M 48.0 06 Oct 1987 3 No diagnostic hairs
Unidentified mammal Putnam' M 56.2 Jun 1988 Seat No diagnostic hairs

I l=Stomach, 2=Small intestine, 3=Large intestine
b From Ordway Preserve
c Radio-collared woodrat from Ordway Preserve
d M4 from this study; dissected after found dead
I Indicates "probable" prey identification
** This is almost certainly P. gou,pinus based on habitat



140 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 38, PT. I(5)

F*-4...I

54' %

l·

FIGURE 2 -Radiograph of an eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Ml) that has ingested a radio-collared
wood rat. The uppermost transmitter is the wood rat's radio collar. The lower transmitter (cylindrical) was
implanted into the snake during this study.



Table 3. Habitat use by eastern diamondback rattlesnakes at the Ordway Preserve, Putnam County, Florida.

NO. Actual
Total Proportion Observed use Observation- Proportion Bonferroni

Habital' Area (ha) Available (No. Sites) Days~ Used Intervals Selectioni

TIM
M

E
R

M
A

N
: 

C
R

O
TALU

SAD
,4*,£4N

TEU
S O

N
 O

R
D

W
AY

 PRESERVE 
141

OF 71 0.170 6 7 0.004 0 SPEO.009
XH 52 0.125 56 299 0.203 0.176 Ep.50.231
HP 186 0.446 33 174 0.118 0.096 EPSO. 140
S/MH 73 0.175 164 742 0.572 0.539 EPS'0.606
WP 30 0.072 22 148 0.100 0.080 SPCO.121

I
+
!
+
+
I

LM 5 0.012 0 0 0.000 4

'Habitats am Old Field (OF), High Pine (HP), Xeric Hammock (XH), Swamp Forest-Mesic Hammock (S/MH), Wet Prairie (WP) and Lake Meadow (LM)
'See section on data analysis for explanation of "observation-days.'
' Selection indicates whether the expected use fell within (0), below (-), or above (+) the confidence interval (alpha= 0.10) of the observed use derived from
the Bonferonni z statistic (Byers et al. 1984).
'Confdenae interval could not be calculated but avoidance indicated.



142 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 38, PT. I(5)

constituted about 37% of the total area available, more than would be expected if
movements within habitats were completely random (1189 observation-days, 242
sites). Snakes used the Old Fields and High Pine Forests, which constituted more
than 60% of the area available, less than would be expected (181 observation-days,
39 sites). The Lake Meadow, which constituted less than 1% of the area available,
also was used less than would be expected (0 observations).

The Wet Prairie, a habitat with a wide array of possible prey species, was
used by two radio-tagged rattlesnakes during drought periods in 1988. On 20
April, Fl entered the prairie on the west side of Goose Lake and remained in that
habitat until about 25 August. During this period she used over 15 locations and
traveled over an area approximately 20 ha in size. On about 1 August, M3 entered
the same prairie and remained until about 26 August. At this time rain caused a
rise in water levels, which presumably drove the snakes from the marshes. The use
of the Wet Prairie by these snakes demonstrate the diamondback's ability to exploit
an ephemeral resource. Except under drought conditions, the wet prairie is
inundated by water and is unsuitable to diamondback foraging since these snakes
do not hunt in watery or wet conditions. They are adept swimmers, however (Carr
1940).

Of other large Ordway snakes, only the two rat snakes are reported to use the
mesic forests to the same extent that C adamanteus used such habitats. However,
these species use the habitat in a somewhat different fashion. The yellow rat snake
is decidedly arboreal, favoring the holes of live oak trees in which to hide. The
corn snake is more terrestrial and semi-fossorial, choosing mole (Scalopus
aquaticus) runways and other mammal burrows (Franz 1988). Since the three
species of snakes feed on similar prey (small mammals and birds) and use similar
habitats, it is interesting to note that their niches do not greatly overlap. This
apparent resource partitioning would tend to reduce competition among the snakes
for food.

Activity Seasons.- Unlike some snakes we studied at the Ordway, C
adamanteus did not seek refuge for long periods during the winter. It may seek
shelter in some burrow for a few days or, rarely, a few weeks, but will remain on
the surface as long as the weather is not too inclement. For this reason, it is often
difficult to say exactly when winter begins and ends for the eastern diamondback
rattlesnake. Means (1985) characterized the winter behavior of C adamanteus as
a "picture of restless inactivity." It appears that this species takes advantage of
every opportunity to remain on the surface.

The earliest date I believe snakes began overwintering at the Ordway was 27
November, and the latest was 30 December; both animals were adult females. The
earliest date for the resumption of summer activity patterns was 11 March, and the
latest was 10 April; both were adult males. The winter season for eastern
diamondbacks at the Ordway is thus roughly December through February. Snakes
move very little, if any, during this period, but are quite vagile during the



TIMMERMAN: CROTALUSADAMMNTEUS ON ORDWAY PRESERVE 143

"summer," from March to November. Means (1985) recorded the activity seasons
of Tall Timbers diamondbacks as late March to early November, which is just
slightly shorter than the activity period on the Ordway Preserve.

Movements.- Diamondbacks traveled farther during the months of
September, October and November than any other period, averaging over 20 m per
day (Table 4). During winter (December, January, and February) they moved less
than 10 m per day. Snakes were included in the sample pool for a particular
month only if they had been tracked for at least 20 days during that month.
Although a small sample size precludes statistical analysis of intrasexual
movement patterns, it appears that females may move nearly as far as some males,
but use their home ranges more intensely, making more localized moves (Table 5).
The movements of five Ordway rattlesnakes are depicted in Figures 3-7.

Means (1985) believes that increased snake movements in the fall, observed
in both our studies, relate to three separate diamondback behaviors. The first is the
fall mating behavior, during which time males make long moves searching for
prospective mates. Next, an increase in movements related to foraging efforts is
noticed, Means reasons, because of high mammal and bird populations due to
recruitment by young of the year. Finally, the onset of cold weather stimulates
snakes to search for suitable wintering grounds. We must await further studies to
discover whether his interpretation of these seasonal movements is correct.

Snakes were observed crawling on 40 occasions. The majority of these
observations were made between 0600 and 1800 hours (Table 6). Eastern
diamondbacks move during the day and are only rarely seen traveling at night.
Nevertheless, Ditmars (1936) believed that in South Carolina, "their tracks across

Table 4. Mean monthly distances traveled by eastern diamondback rattlesnakes at the Ordway Preserve,
Putnam County, Florida. Samples include only those individuals tracked 20+ days during the month.

Sample Average Distance
Month Size Range On) Moved Per Day (m)

January 5 0.0 - 15.4 4.5
February 7 0.0 - 4.5 4.2
March 5 1.1 - 32.6 17.5
April 6 3.9 - 26.7 12.3
May 6 0.6 - 52.3 21.4
June 4 8.7 - 19.5 13.1
July 4 10.5 - 26.9 18.6
August 4 8.8 - 23.1 15.2
September 6 12.0 - 36.7 24.9
October 7 2.9 - 45.5 22.2
November 7 4.4 - 34.2 28.3
December 7 0.06 - 19.5 9.1



144 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL„ 38, PT.-1(5)

Table 5. Distances traveled by eastern diamondback rattlesnakes at the Ordway Preserve, Putnam County,
Florida

Total Duration Interval Distance Distance
Distance Tracked No. Between Obs. Per Obs. Per Day
(m) Snake (days) Obs. (days) (m) (m)

3,409 Ml 273 82 3.3 41.6 12.5
5,697 M2 234 71 3.3 80.2 24.3
22,420 M3 864 245 3.5 91.5 25.9
3,816 M4 281 105 2.7 36.3 13.6
5,664 Fl 375 126 2.9 45.0 15.1
5,184 F2 312 74 4.2 70.1 16.6
554 D 33 11 3.0 50.4 16.8
649 M5 89 29 3.1 22.4 7.3

Table 6. Activities of eight eastern diamondback rattlesnakes at the Ordway Preserve, Putnam County,
Florida  Numbers in parentheses represent percentages of observations for that particular time interval.

No. Snake
Not

Hours Obs. Coiled Loose Crawling Visible

0600-1200 449 217 (75.1) 47 (16.3) 25 (8.6) 160
1201-1800 240 129 (75.9) 27(15.9) 14 (8.2) 70
1801-2400 44 21 (84.0) 3 (12.0) 1(4.0) 19
2401-0559 10 6 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 4

Totals 743 373 (76.1) 77(15.7) 40 (8.2) 253

the sandy roads were frequently seen, and always demonstrating their prowlings to
be at night," and Ernst (1992) reported that "many are run over by autos at night."
I can find no evidence in my study, or elsewhere, to support these claims; no
rattlesnakes in the present study were observed traveling after sundown. However,
one diamondback rattlesnake was seen crawling at the Ordway in September 1983
at about 2200 hrs at the Smith Lake house (Franz pers. comm.).

Because of their diurnal movement pattern, and because diamondbacks eat
diurnal mammals such as rabbits and squirrels, Means (1985) classifies the



TIMMERMAN: CROTALUSADAMANTEUS ON ORDWAY PRESERVE 145

HP XH

HP XH OF

XH

MH
MH

OF1
Ross Lake

MH +~M~.---___Ii:< MH MH
0 100 200

meters

RMH
Hp

I. 4>

5 MH
OF 

f

XH

OF ". 2 OF

XH \

HP~ Lake <

FIGURE 3.-Movements of a male eastern diamondback rattlesnake (M 1) at the Ordway Preserve, Putnam
Co., FL. R indicates point of capture and release. OF=old field. XH=xeric hammock. HP=high pine forest
(sandhill)  MH=mesic hammock. SF=swamp forest. WP=wet prairie. LM=lake meadow. Bold lines denote
sand roads.

diamondback as a diurnal predator. I prefer to think of this rattlesnake as
holotemporal. This is a term originated by Means and used by Cook (1983) to
describe the activity patterns of the cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorous) another
Florida crotalid. Although eastern diamondbacks eat diurnal prey, they also takes
nocturnal animals, such as wood rats and cotton mice. When located at night,
diamondbacks were always noted in the same hunting postures as they were during
daylight hours, indicating that they are ready to catch prey both day and night.
Because they move between ambush sites mostly during the daylight hours, I
suggest that they are more commonly nocturnal feeders.

Theoretically, a predator relying on crypsis to capture crepuscular and
nocturnal prey must be in position long before it hopes to ambush its victim,
therefore it should change to a new location only during the time ofday when these
prey would be less likely to move--during the morning hours. A predator that
feeds solely on active diurnal prey should change ambush positions more often at
night, before the next sunrise.



146 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 38, PT. 1(5)

MH SF

MHSF

MH
1

1 OF HP

1

XH; YHP

1

9 HP
OF

2
4

1 /

0 100 200
meters

MH

OF
1 Anderson HP

Cue
Lake

LM

0XH
MH

HP
kR

FIGURE 4. Movements of a male eastern diamondback rattlesnake (112) at the Ordway Preserve, Putnam
Co., FL. R indicates point of capture and release. OF=old field  XH=xeric hammock. HP=high pine forest
(sandhill)  MH=mesic hammock SF=swamp forest WP=wet prairie. LM=lake meadow. Bold lines denote
sand roads.



TIMMERMAN: CROTALUSADAA£4NTEUS ON ORDWAY PRESERVE 147

~ Blue Pond ~
- XHj)

HP

XH

0

HP

OF
4

XH XH

MH **
OF

OF

0 100 200 -..I- \
meters rIVIH

Ross Lake - L \

R OF r SF

OF ~L x
XH -r-~.

MH

FIGURE 5.-Movements of a male eastern diamondback rattlesnake (M4) at the Ordway Preserve, Putnam
Co., FL. R indicates point of capture and release. OF=old field. XH=xeric hammock. HP=high pine forest
(sandhill). MH=mesic hammock. SF=swamp forest WP=wet prairie. LM=lake meadow Bold lines denote
sand roads.



148 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 38, PT. I(5)

MH Ashley Lake
OF

WP

Wp

MH
4

SF
w Goose Lake

WP 4

MH
O 100 200

meters»e--
XH

XH
OF

OF 0G

FIGURE 6.-Movements of a female eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Fl) atthe Ordway Preserve, Putnam
Co., FL. R indicates point of capture and release. OF=old field. XH=xeric hammock HP=high pine forest
(sandhill). MH=mesic hammock SF=swamp forest WP=wet prairie. LM=lake meadow. Bold lines denote
sand roads.



TIMMERMAN: CROTALUS ADAMANTEUSON ORDWAY PRESERVE 149

LM

HPXH
XH

Lake * I 9. LM-=40

Barco , 1 \ :*04.

XH

-- Long Lake

LM

LM
100 200

meters

,1 XH
LM

Goodson h

Lake

XH

XH
OF

HP

HP

FIGURE 7.-Movements of a female eastern diamondback rattlesnake (F2) at the Ordway Preserve, Putnam
Co., FL. R indicates point of capture and release. OF=old field. XH=xeric hammock. HP=high pine forest
(sandhill). MH=mesic hammock. SF=swamp forest. WP=wet pr~irie  LM=lake meadow. Bold lines denote
sand roads.



150 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 38, PT. I(5)

Behavior.- Eastern diamondbacks were usually seen tightly coiled (373 obs.,
76.1% of obs.) in a position from which they could ambush prey. They spent
anywhere from one day to a week coiled in the same position. The snakes were
seen in a loosely coiled position in 77 cases (15.7% of obs., Table 6). The function I
of this "loose" position is unknown, although Martin (1987) thought that these
configurations were related to thermoregulatory behavior. Outside of the winter
season, Ordway diamondbacks seem to spend little or no effort at thermoregulating
as far as I can determine. In this respect, the species also is similar to the
cottonmouth (Cook 1983).

Snakes were almost entirely terrestrial, spending almost no time above the
surface of the ground, and spending little time below the surface (Table 7). The
only observation of the diamondback's climbing ability was made on 6 Oct 1985 at
0913 hrs when M2 was seen about 1 m off the ground, coiled in a leaning turkey
oak tree in High Pine Forest. The ambient air temperature was 19° C and the
snake's core body temperature was 16° C. Perhaps the snake was attempting to
thermoregulate by positioning itself in the direct sun. In general, the eastern
diamondback rattlesnake is a very poor climber, rarely getting off the ground more
than a meter. This is borne out by this study and by the observations of numerous
colleagues. It is difficult to accept the observation of Rutledge (1936), who
claimed to have seen an adult diamondback 15 feet high in a tree, and another in
the nest of a woodpecker after it had eaten the resident bird and several eggs. In
addition, although we know that any rattlesnake may occasionally climb into a low
tree or bush, the statement by Ernst (1992) that the diamondback's "activity is not
restricted to ground level" is too strong. C adamanteus rarely climbs for any
reason.

During the summer, snakes were seen on the surface 91.8% of the time (403
obs.). They were observed using burrows or other refuges below the surface on
only 35 occasions (8.0 %). In winter, burrow use was more common, yet
diamondbacks sought refuge below ground only 44.6 % of the time (95 obs.). In
addition, they were occasionally seen above ground during weather so cool that it
was uncomfortable to the human researchers accustomed to Ordway summers.

As an extreme example of this behavior, Fl spent the night of 26 January
1988 coiled on the forest floor in a mesic hammock near Goose Lake when the
minimum temperature recorded in a xeric hammock 1.5 km away was -2° C.
Although it is likely that the vegetation of a mesic hammock would ameliorate
conditions by a degree or two, this would still be one of the lowest reported
voluntary temperatures tolerated by any species of snake, including Mpera berus, a
snake that ranges slightly above the Arctic circle (Lillywhite 1987).

Means (1985) observed the same behavior by Tall Timbers rattlesnakes in the
winter. He reported that rattlesnakes there became so frost-bitten by rapidly
moving cold fronts that they were forced to retreat to an underground refugium for



TIMMERMAN: CROTALUSADAMANTEUS ON ORDWAY PRESERVE 151

Table 7. Arboreal, terrestrial, and fossorial habitat use by eight eastern diamondback rattlesnakes at the
Ordway Preserve, Putnam County, Florida. Numbers in parentheses represent percentages of the
observations in that season.

Arboreall Terrestria12 Fossorial' Unknowni

"Winter"
December-February 0 112 95 11

(0.0) (55.4) (44.6)
"Summer"
March-November 1 403 35 85

(0.2) (91.8) (8.0)

9 tree or bush
2 On surface ofground
' In bunrow or hole below the ground
4 Snake was not visible due to thick vegetation--it could not be determined whether snake was on surface or below ground

2 to 4 weeks. Klauber (1972) reported several instances when temperate-zone
rattlesnakes were killed by early cold snaps as the snakes tried to make their way to
dens.

Winter Habitats and Den Sites.- Snakes used Mesic Hammocks, Xeric
Hammocks, High Pine forests, and Lake Meadows as ovenvintering habitats. Old
Fields, Swamp Forests, and Wet Prairies were not used. Of the 76 observations of
burrow use, 94% of which were made in the winter (December through February),
only 12 were gopher tortoise burrows. Four records were of unidentified holes, and
57 were identified as dens of the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)
although it should be noted that this animal often commandeers and reshapes old
Gopherus holes. Means observed that his study animals used gopher tortoise
burrows, stump holes, or some other reliable shelter during winter. Ordway
rattlesnakes often used dilapidated holes as a base of operations and were often
visible within a meter of the burrow mouth. The cooler weather at Tall Timbers
probably dictates that rattlesnakes choose good den sites that will be reliable during
a frost. Ordway diamondbacks should be able to use less-protected den sites
because of the slightly milder winters here.

Snakes always used more than one winter site during this study. In a few
cases, movements between these winter locations included changes in habitat. For
example, M3 began the winter of 1986-87 in a Mesic Hammock. But, on 7
January he moved to a Xeric Hammock, and used four different sites within this
vegetation zone. Then, on 21 January, he moved back to a Mesic Hammock and
disappeared into a palmetto thicket, probably taking refuge in channels among the
root systems. He did not reappear above-ground until 16 March. This same snake



152 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 38, PT. I(5)

was the only individual observed over three winters. M3 used the same
overwintering areas in 1987-88 and 1988-89, which was different from the habitat
he had used in the winter of 1986-87.

Ecdysis.- Ten sloughing events were recorded during the course of the study.
If all sloughings were successfully recorded, which is not certain since rattle
segments were not color-coded during this study, the interval between events
averaged 246.1 days (1.5 sloughings per snake per year). Klauber (1972) reported
that a captive C adamanteus at the San Diego Zoo shed an average of 2.1 times
per year over a nine-year period, however, he was uncertain as to how captivity
affects shedding frequency in snakes. Diamondbacks were observed in the
"opaque" stage of ecdysis an average of 18.2 days (n=9).

Defensive Behavior.- Much has been written about the impressive defensive
display of the eastern diamondback rattlesnake. Ditmars (1936) had this to say:
"Most formidable of the North American poisonous snakes and ranking in size
with the largest of the tropical venomous sen)ents of both the New and the Old
World, this huge rattlesnake with its bright and symmetrical markings is a
beautiful and a terrible creature. Ever bold and alert, retaining its wild nature
when captive, there is awe-inspiring grandeur about the coil of this reptile: the
glittering black eyes, the slowly waving tongue, and the incessant rasping note of
the rattle. All dignity, the diamond-back scorns to flee when surprised. His
neighbor, the cane-brake rattler, may retreat in good order, rattling as he goes, but
retreating nevertheless; with this reptile of the hummocks it is different. The
vibration of a step throws the creature upon guard. Taking a deep inhalation, the
snake inflates the rough, scaly body to the tune of a low, rushing sound of air.
Shifting the coils to uncover the rattle, this is 'sprung' with the abruptness of an
electric bell. There is no hysterical striking, but careful watching, and if the
opportunity to effect a blow is presented, the result may be mortal."

Conant and Collins (1991) wrote that the diamondback was "an ominously
impressive snake to meet in the field; suddenly finding yourself in close proximity
to the compact coils, broad head, and loud buzzing rattle is almost certain to raise
the hair on the nape ofyour neck."

In fact, the defensive behavior and subsequent reactions of C adamanteus to
an immediate threat vary widely, from a seemingly unconcerned immobility to an
impressive, animated display, such as has been described above. Carr (1940) noted
that "there seems to be great individual variation in disposition; on a few occasions
I have heard diamond-backs rattle in apparent rage at my presence when they were
concealed in palmettos twenty or thirty feet away. Much more often, however, they
permit one to approach within two or three feet before becoming agitated. I have
stepped directly over two which showed no signs of resentment, and I once had the
unsettling experience of placing my foot squarely upon a six-foot individual coiled
neatly at the mouth of a gopher hole in thick broom-sedge, mashing its head into



TIMMERMAN: CROTALUS ADAMANTEUS ON ORDWAY PRESERVE 153

the sand. Apparently the only annoyance which this indignity caused the snake
accrued from the mouth-full of sand which it got, for it never sounded its rattle and
made no attempt to strike, but merely gaped and twisted itsjaws."

As long ago as the late 1700's, Bartram recognized that, more often than not,
the diamondback was a "wonderful creature" that is "never known to strike until he
is first assaulted or fears himself in danger" (Bartram 1928). In only 9 of my 743
visits to diamondback locations was the rattling behavior elicited. In 6 cases the
snake was in open terrain, crawling or stretched out, and in 2 cases the snake was
in the opaque stage of ecdysis, a situation which tends to make many species
nervous (pers. observ.). In no case did any of the snakes make an attempt to strike
or bite me while I was tracking them to their locations. Occasionally, due to
carelessness on my part, I stepped very close to, or over the top of, coiled
diamondbacks, affording them ample provocation to strike in self-defense.

Such passive behavior seems to be typical today, but it should be recognized
that intense selection has probably been at work on the rattlesnake's more
aggressive nature by humans. An easily agitated diamondback. quick to sonnd its
rattle, may be perfectly adapted for living peacefully with some of the large,
slow-moving, hoofed mammals of the Pleistocene age, but it is not adapted for
living in harmony with humans in the 20th century.

Mortality.- Two radio-tagged snakes died during the study. At 1050 on 13
Jan 1988 I tracked M4 to his winter den site at an armadillo burrow in a small
palmetto thicket near Goose Lake. The snake was found dead, about 3 m from the
burrow, lying on its back. The anterior portion of the head was battered and both
functional fangs were missing. One small hole had been made through the dorsum
of the head--the rest of the body was not damaged. The right fang, with part of the
maxillary bone, lay close to the head. After an investigation of the corpse and its
vicinity, I concluded that the snake had been killed by an enemy that does not eat
snakes, a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Deer tracks were commonly
seen leading down from the main clay road to this area, and a fresh set of tracks
were discovered that day.

Deer have been reported to kill snakes since at least 150 B.C. (Nicander
1953); this behavior is not restricted to Old World deer species (Klauber 1972).
Klauber corresponded with various outdoorsmen across the United States who
personally witnessed the killing of rattlesnakes by native deer, some as far south as
Mississippi and Louisiana. To my knowledge, this behavior has never been
witnessed in Florida.

On 28 May 1988 I tracked F2 to a xeric hammock on the property of Dr. D.
A. Sanders. I discovered that the snake had been killed and eaten. The snake had
last been seen alive 6 days earlier. The carcass, consisting of the skeleton with a
little dried tissue adhering to it, was approximately 10 m from the snake's last
location. The head and tail were missing, otherwise the carcass was intact and the
skeleton was articulated. The transmitter, connected to the carcass by its antenna



154 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL 38, PT. 1(5)

wire, was still functioning. Because the skeleton had not been crushed or scattered
in the manner characteristic of our local mammals, I concluded that this snake had
been killed and eaten by a raptor, probably a red-tailed hawk, Buteojamaicensis.

Although many species of hawks may feed on snakes, the red-tailed is
probably the most notorious (Knight and Erickson 1976). Klauber (1972) cited
many instances of red-tailed hawks making away with adult rattlesnakes, mostly in
the western states. If the intended prey is small enough, the hawk may fly to
several hundred feet and drop the snake to the ground in an effort to incapacitate it.

On 17 July 1986 a radio-tagged, male indigo (Domarchon corais)
approximately 133 cm in total length, was seen consuming a diamondback
rattlesnake (approx. 65 cm in total length) in the Brantley Lake area of the
preserve (Charest pers. comm.). Indigos, along with king snakes (Lampropeltis
getulus), are known to be long-standing enemies of rattlesnakes (Klauber 1972).
King snakes have not been reported from the Ordway, and indigos appear to be
quite rare (Franz and Dodd pers. comm.).

CONCLUSIONS

Summary.- The eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) is
an ambush predator, feeding on small mammals, mainly Sylvilagus and Sigmodon,
and some birds. It hunts from a tight coil, remaining motionless, waiting to
ambush prey. Diamondbacks may spend from one day to as much as a week coiled
in the same position and move between selected hunting locations mainly during
the daylight hours.

Belying this sedentary foraging behavior is the fact that these snakes possess
large home ranges. Females use about 40 ha  whereas males maintain ranges that
may reach 170 ha. During the fall, snakes travel farther than other times of year,
and at least one researcher feels that these long-distance movements are made in
search of breeding females. Although females may move nearly as far, in total
distances, as some males, their movements are more localized, suggesting that they
use their home range more intensely. This reptile maintains a rather stable home
range from year to year. It makes somewhat circuitous routes through its
environment, passing over some of the same terrains at different times. It may
return to certain locations more than once during the year.

At the Ordway, their preferred habitats include the Swamp Forests/Mesic
Hammocks and Xeric Hammocks, areas that Ordway field studies have shown
probably contain the highest prey diversity, but they also make opportunistic forays
into Wet Prairies when water levels recede during droughts. Rattlesnakes use
armadillo and gopher tortoise burrows in which to overwinter, as well as the root
channels underneath palmetto thickets, and may or may not return to the same
winter dens yearly.



TIMMERMAN: CROTALUSADAMUNTEUS ON ORDWAY PRESERVE 155

The eastern diamondback, which is an important predator on rodents and
lagamorphs, is declining in numbers, and like other snakes that possess large home
ranges, will continue to face threats from human development that fragments their
environment. Although the diamondback's real threat to public safety is very low
(more people are killed every year by lightning strikes and bee stings), the
perceived threat by the public is still quite high. Given this situation, the
probability for future diamondback survival anywhere but on wildlife preserves and
other large tracts of land is probably low unless conservation measures are taken.
It would indeed be a tragic turn of events if this magnificent reptile, which figures
prominently in southern legend and literature, should disappear from our
landscape.

Management Implications.- C adamanteus is native to many of Florida's
vegetative communities. These natural areas, and the wildlife in them, have
evolved in the presence of natural fires (Dye 1989). Management practices for
areas containing eastern diamondback rattlesnakes should be consistent with an
ecoostem or natural-resource management approach, similar to the kind
advocated by the Florida Park Service (Glisson and Perry 1994). The control of
exotic plants that invade and threaten ecosystems (Doren 1991) and the use of
prescribed fire gye 1989) should be implemented. In addition, the natural
maturation of riparian areas containing mesic and swamp habitats should be
allowed, since these are often high-use foraging areas for these rattlesnakes. The
gopher tortoise, a keystone species to many sandhill creatures (Eisenberg 1983), is
also important to rattlesnakes at various times. During the winter, snakes may use
the tortoise den as a refugium. During the fall, it is known that gravid females
sometimes use "gopher holes" as parturition sites. Various animals relying on the
gopher tortoise for survival, such as the Florida mouse (Podomys floridanus), may
also be important components in the diet of baby rattlesnakes. Any management
plans under consideration for C adamanteus should include G. polyphemus
whenever present.

All rattlesnake-prey species expected to be found at the Katharine Ordway
Preserve occur there, but population levels are often lower than would be expected
(Eisenberg pers. comm.). Under this situation, rattlesnakes cannot focus their
foraging efforts on Sylvilagus and Sigmodon, abundant prey over most of the
southeast. Here, management schemes must insure the health of small mammal
communities in the mesic and xeric forests, areas shown to be used preferentially
by Ordway diamondbacks.

If unnaturally high numbers of C adamanteus are wished for, managers
should consider artificially raising the numbers of the snake's prey base,
particularly rabbits and cotton rats. I believe food to be the prime limiting factor
for these snakes. Considering the number of winter observations that identified
Daopus burrows as refugia for Ordway diamondbacks, management plans that
may adversely affect populations of the armadillo should be studied carefully. The



156 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 38, PT. 1(5)

types and locations of burrows in an area may also be a limiting factor to this
species.

Conservation.- No demographic study of the eastern diamondback has ever
been published, therefore the extent of its decline is difficult to determine. As early
as 1976, Ross Allen Bet's. comm.) cautioned me that eastern diamondback
rattlesnake numbers had declined drastically over the preceding 20 years in
Florida, due mostly to habitat destruction. One thing is certain--biologists record
fewer and fewer local sightings of this species every year (W. Auffenberg, F.W.
King, R. H. Mount, S.R. Telford, Jr., pers. comm.), yet malicious killing and the
harvest for their skins and curios continues unabated. Enge (1991) felt that this
snake is "the most likely candidate for some form of protection from human
harvest" considering the relatively high scores that it received from a biological
vulnerability ranking system (Millsap et al. 1990). Ernst (1992) felt that ecological
studies of the eastern diamondback should be conducted soon, "as much of its
habitat is disappearing, particularly in Florida, or it may be too late to assure the
suisvivorship of this magnificent beast." Indeed, between 1936 and 1980, Florida's
total forest cover declined by 29% (Bechtold and Knight 1982); an educated guess
of the extant original forest would put the figure at no more than 50% today.
Where once forests were often replaced by agriculture, which can provide at least
marginal habitat for snakes, now most land clearing is linked to housing and
commercial development. The continued destruction and fragmentation of native
habitats can only lead to still greater declines for all of Florida's snakes.

In 1993, the Gopher Tortoise Council formed the Rattlesnake Conservation
Committee. The purpose of the committee is to investigate the biological status of
C admnanteus and promote its conservation throughout the southeast. It has
become evident to the committee members that this species warrants conservation
and management--in some states, perhaps, as a harvestable species, in other states
as an endangered species. In fact, I believe most Florida herpetologists would
agree that there is sufficient evidence to warrant listing the eastern diamondback
rattlesnake as a Species of Special Concern in the state of Florida. According to
the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission's Wildlife Code, a Species of
Special Concern is a species "which warrants special protection, recognition, or
consideration because it has inherent significant vulnerability to habitat
modification...or substantial human exploitation which, in the foreseeable future
may result in its becoming a threatened species...[andl...may occupy such an
unusually vital niche that should it decline significantly in numbers or distribution
other species would be adversely affected..."

The State of Florida has made great strides in conservation in the last 10
years. The Preservation 2000 program for conservation land acquisition places
Florida at the forefront of such activities (Calleson et al. 1993). At the same time,
however, about 1,000 people move to Florida every day--people who know little, or
nothing, about the fragile nature of the Florida environment or of the struggles that



TIMMERMAN: CRO7*LUSADANWAYEUS ON ORDWAY PRESERVE 157

Florida citizens have made over the last several decades to save some of it. The
State could provide critical insurance for future conservation by establishing
mandatory state educational curricula for schools, colleges, and universities. Such
curricula should stress why the preservation of biological diversity is so important
in our own efforts to survive into the 21 st centufy. The stewardship of our natural
resources, including those creatures that are potentially dangerous and often
misunderstood, such as the alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), the Florida
panther (Fe/is concolor cogi) and the eastern diamondback rattlesnake, will be
passed on to future generations. Without the critical information needed to form
unbiased opinions, these citizens of an ever-more complicated world will be unable
to make the proper decisions affecting Florida's quality of life.

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America  Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Massachusetts.
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1988. Habitat use, movements and home range in two species of rat snakes (Genus Elaphe) in a
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160 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 38

Gopher tortoise (Gopheruspolyphemus) entering burrow. Photo by Fiona Sunquist.



BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 38 161

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Eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) in typical posture for ambushing prey. Photo by Walter Timmerman.