of the 41 -- FLORIm MUSEUM OF aNArURAL HISTORY SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES IN FIVE TUPI-GUARANI LANGUAGES (EASTERN AMAZONIA) William Ba16e and Denny Moore Biological Sciences, Volume 35, Number 4, pp. 209-262 1991 - - =,m. S S * 1 S_- I mB'h ./ 4.- 5 % 8 4* r , 1 6 5 I . . f " .9 5 .: 4 4 UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA GAINESVILLE Numbers of the BULLETIN OF THE FLORIDA MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, are published at irregular intervals. Volumes contain about 300 pages and are not necessarily completed in any one calendar year. F. WAYNE KING, Editor RHODA J. BRYANT, Managing Editor Communications concerning purchase or exchange of the publications and all manuscripts should be addressed to: Managing Editor, Bulletin; Florida Museum of Natural History; University of Florida; Gainesville FL 32611-2035; U.SA. This public document was promulgated at an annual cost of $2900.20 OR $2.900 per copy. It makes available to libraries, scholars, and all interested persons the results of researches in the natural sciences, emphasizing the circum-Caribbean region. ISSN: 0071-6154 CODEN: BFSBAS Publication date: March 6,1991 Price: $2.90 SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES IN FIVE TUPI-GUARANI LANGUAGES (EASTERN AMAZONIA) William Ba16e and Denny Moore* ABSTRACT This paper examines similarity and variation in plant words in five Tupi-Guarani languages of eastern Amazonia. These languages are Arawetd, Asurini, Ka'apor, Tembd, and Wayapi. The paper attempts to explain why words denoting certain plants are nearly the same in most of these languages whereas words for other plants are highly variable from one language to another. A total of 625 plant names from these languages were elicited for 167 botanical species, divided among non-domesticates, semi-domesticates, and domesticates. Plant names are of two basic types, metaphorical/descriptive and literal. The results show clearly that (1) the more intensively managed plants have higher rates of similarity in their names from one language to another; (2) a nomenclatural system appears to intervene between degree of plant management and similarity of names--the types of names which the nomenclatural system assigns to domesticates strongly tend to be literal, the types assigned to semi-domesticates show an increasing proportion of metaphorical terms, and the majority of those assigned to non-domesticates are metaphorical; (3) the literal pIant terms strongly lend to be much more similar from language to language than are metaphorical terms, regardless of degree of domestication of the referents; and (4) the ratio of literal to metaphorical plant words, combining names from all plant management types, is not significantly different between the five languages. It is suggested that cultural factors of plant management and the plant naming system combine with the linguistic properties of names and diachronic linguistic processses to produce similarity and variation in plant vocabulary. RESUMO 0 presente trabalho investiga similaridades e varia®es de nomes para plantas em cinco linguas Tupi-Guarani da Amaz6nia oriental. Estas !Inguas sao Arawet6, Asurini, Ka'apor, Temb6 e Way*i. Faz-se uma tentativa de explicar por que palavras que se referem a certas plantas sao muito similares enquanto que palavras para outras plantas variam muito de uma lingua para outra. Foram registrados um total de 625 nomes de plantas destas Ifnguas para 167 especies • The senior author is an Associate Researcher and Head of the Departamento de Ecologia at the Museu Paraense Emflio Goeldi, Av. Perimetral, s/n, Cain Postal, 399, 66040 Beldm - Par; Brazil. The junior author is Head of the Divisao de Linguistica, at the same address. All reprint requests should be addressed to the senior author. Ba16e, W., and D. Moore. 1991. Similarity and Variation in Plant Names in Five Tupi-Guarani Languages (Eastern Amazonia). Bull. Florida Mus. Nat. Hist., Biol. Sci. 35(4):209-262. 210 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 35(4) botanicas, divididos entre plantas nao-domesticadas, semi-domesticadas e domesticadas. Nomes para plantas sao de dois tipos basicos, metaf6ricos/descritivos e literais. Os resultados mostram que (1) nomes para as plantas mais intensamente manejadas ttm taxas mais altas de similaridade de uma lingua para outra; (2) um sistema de nomenclatura parece intervir entre o grau de manejo das plantas e a similaridade dos nomes - os tipos de nomes que o sistema de nomenclatura compartilha entre plantas domesticadas apresentam uma tendBncia a serem literais; os tipos compartilhados entre semi-domesticadas mostram uma proporgao crescente de termos metaf6ricos e a maioria daqueles compartilhados entre nao-domesticadas sao metaf6ricos; (3) os nomes literais para plantas demonstram forte tendEncia a serem muito mais similares de uma lingua para outra em compara~ao com os nomes metaf6ricos, independente do grau de domesticagao dos referentes; e (4) as propor®es de nomes literais e metaf6ricos para todos os tipos de manejo nao variam significantemente entre as cinco linguas. Prop6e-se que fatores culturais de manejo de plantas e o sistema de nomenclatura das plantas em combinagao conn as propriedades linguisticas de nomes e processos de linguistica diacr6nica produzem similaridades e variagao no vocabuldrio das plantas. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introri~,rtinn 210 Acknowledgemenk 213 Data and Methodg 214 Data Sn„//pe Data Fornist 214 214 Methods of Comparison ............,................„„,-,...........„„„„„.......,.„,~„........~~- -„................... 215 Result. 243 Discii.inn 257 Nntr. 259 Literature Cited 261 INTRODUCTION We may note, in passing, that the double or compound names are the most doubtful. They may consist of two mistakes; one in the root or principal name, destined almost always to indicate the geographical origin, some visible quality, or some comparison with other species. The shorter a name is, the better it merits consideration in question of origin or antiquity; for it is by the succession of years, of the migrations of peoples, and of the transport of plants, that the addition of often erroneous epithets takes place. (from ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE, Origin of Cultivated plants [orig. Fr. 18861)· Why is it that within a family of genetically related languages (i. e. descended from a common mother language) words denoting certain referents or concepts are nearly the same in most of the languages whereas words for other referents or concepts are highly variable from one language to another? For example, in the Tupi-Guarani family, the words for 'bacaba' are similar in BAL£E & MOORE: SIMILARrrY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 211 five languages: Arawett (Ar) pinuwa-'4, Asurini (As) pinuwa-'iwa, Ka'apor (K) pinuwa-'4, Temb6 (T) pinuwa-liw, Wayapi (W) pino. By contrast, the words for 'moela de mutum' are bewilderingly different: Ar iwa-pedi, As iwa-kaw- liwa, K kupapa-'iran-4, T iwa-zu-'iw-ran, W mitu-'ay. This paper attempts to answer this question, at least partially, for the semantic domain of ethnobotany, by investigating similarity and variation among words for a given corpus of plant species in five different languages of Tupi-Guarani. These five languages are spoken in a broad arc in lower Amazonia. The possible factors that may a priori help explain why words for some plant species are similar while words for others vary across languages of the same family include (1) cultural ones, such as plant utility and/or management; (2) geographical ones, such as proximity and similarity of environments; (3) diachronic linguistic ones, such as borrowing and degree of genetic relatedness, as well as (4) the linguistic properties of the words used to designate plants, including their morphological or semantic structure. An investigation of such factors, to our knowledge, has never before been carried out with regard to South American languages. We have collected data on similarity and variation of words for 167 botanical species native to the neotropics in the Arawett, Asurini do Xingu, Ka'apor, Tembt, and Wayapi languages of eastern Amazonia (Tables 1, 2, and 3). Although these data were collected initially for non-linguistic purposes, they are highly appropriate for the investigation of factors involved in similarity and variation in plant words among different languages of the same family. First, the five languages are dispersed in four linguistic sub-groupings of Tupi-Guarani (A.R. Rodrigues 1984/85; A.R. Rodrigues, pers. comm. 1988), with only Wayapi and Ka'apor being classified in the same sub-grouping. Second, these five languages are spoken in three ecologically diverse regions: the Xingu River basin of north-central Brazil for Arawett amd Asurini, the Gurupi/Turiagu River basins of extreme eastern Amazonia for Ka'apor and Temb6, and the Oiapoque River basin of northern Amazonia for Wayapi. Third, although all five groups are horticultural, they exhibit notable differences in crop staples and patterns of utilization of non-domesticated species. For example, the Arawet6 rely heavily on maize, in contrast to the other groups who are more dependent on tubers; the Asurini traditionally eschewed hog plum (Spondias mombin L.), which is an esteemed edible fruit of the other groups. Fourth, collections and determinations of voucher specimens for most of the 167 species in our sample have been obtained for the five languages. Finally, the corpus of data is large enough to test statistically propositions regarding similarity and variation in plant words across the five languages. Some years ago, Brent Berlin and his colleagues (Berlin et al. 1973) published a pioneering paper on the retention of plant words in two Mayan languages. They proposed that such retention refected the cultural 212 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISIORY VOL. 35(4) 55°W 200 4005-( \SIN Kilometers ~ Suriname ), French - 34) »; Guiana » ~ '' ),44 CS··· Atlantic Ocean3 Brazil 9 450W TEMBE.·Imazon yt KA'APOR ASURINI -// ARAWETil 3~- 5•S Map showing approximate locations of Arawetd, Asurini, Ka'apor, Temb6, and Wayapi Indians of eastern Amazonia. BALllE & MOORE: SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 213 importance of the plants designated by those words. The present study differs from that of Berlin et al. (1973) in several ways. First, we introduce comparable data on five languages of the same language family as opposed to two, yielding comparison of 10 pairs of languages instead of one. Second, the present study is organized according to botanical referents instead of indigenous plant words themselves. Whereas Berlin et al. (1973) generally compared folk generic names for botanical species held in common between the two Mayan groups and then counted pairs of similar words, we compare similar and dissimilar words in terms of the botanical species themselves. Third, the present study shows dissimilar as well as similar names for botanical species and all these names are glossed morphemically. As such, our data permit insights into patterns of nomenclature of plants and the relationship of these patterns to culture. Despite the differences, the findings of this study independently support the contention of Berlin et al. (1973) that some cultural process is involved in the similarity of plant words. We suggest, however, that the analysis of Berlin et al. (1973) may be further refined in terms of identifying the exact cultural and linguistic processes at work. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Earlier versions of this article were presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Ethnobiology (Gainesville, 1987), International Congress of Ethnobiology (Be16m 1988), and at the Wenner-Gren Conference "Arnazonian Synthesis" (Nova Friburgo 1989). Grateful acknowledgement is made to the Edward John Noble Foundation, Institute of Economic Botany (New York Botanical Garden), and the CNPq (National Council on Science and Technological Development) for funding of this research. We are indebted also to the CNPq, the Museu Paraense Emflio Goeldi, and the FUNAI (National Indian Foundation) for institutional support in Brazil. We sincerely thank the botanists who made expert determinations of many plants cited herein: P. Acevedo-Rodriguez, W. Anderson, R. Bameby, C.C. Berg, B. Boom, R Callejas, L Constance, D. Daly, A. Gentiy, C. Jeffrey, J. Kallunki, RIM. Maas, A Mennega, J. Mickel, J. Mitchell, M. Nee, G.T. Prance, J. Pruski, and C. Sastre. Several species were also determined by Manuel Cordeiro and Nelson A. Rosa, to whom grateful acknowledgement is made. Helpful comments on the substance of the paper were generously supplied by Aryon D. Rodrigues, Pierre and Fran~oise Grenand, Brent Berlin, and two anonymous reviewers. We wish to express our most profound gratitude to the native speakers of Arawet6, Asurini, Ka'apor, Temb< and Wayapi, whose cooperation was indispensable. Whatever shortcomings this article may contain are attributable solely to the authors. 214 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 35(4) DATA AND METHODS Data Sources A total of 625 names for the 167 botanical species were obtained from the five languages. These data are presented in Tables 1, 2, and 3. Indigenous plant names are divided among the five languages as follows: 114 (Ar), 90 (As), 160 (K), 125 (T), and 136 (W). All 136 names in W are derived from Grenand's published study (1980), and these are supported by his voucher numbers and determinations. Of the remaining 489 names in the other four languages, 399 are represented by voucher numbers on the series Ba16e (voucher specimens are deposited at the New York Botanical Garden with duplicates at the Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi). In other words, 535 (87%) of the plant names in our data are supported by voucher numbers, either by Ba16e or Grenand (1980). Many names that were not documented by voucher numbers refer to species whose identities were unmistakable in the field, especially domesticates. Of the 45 Tembt names not supported by a voucher number, 42 were obtained from Boudin's published dictionary (1978). Other names for some of the 19 species in Arawet6 and 17 in Asurini which were not documented by voucher numbers were obtained from Eduardo Viveiros de Castro (pers. comm. 1988), Aryon D. Rodrigues (pers. comm. 1988), and Velda Nicholson (1982). These names tend to refer to extremely well-known domesticated species. The nine Ka'apor names not documented by voucher numbers were supplied by Balte based on reliable field determinations of species. Each plant name associated with a voucher number in the series Ba16e (for Ar, As, K, and T only) was elicited from several informants by Ba16e at the moment of its collection. Each name was later checked for accuracy in the village. Data were recorded in phonetic transcription. Ba16e is a native speaker of English, fluent in Portuguese, with reasonable speaking fluency in Ka'apor; he has some linguistic training. Data Format Tupi-Guarani is not phonologically difficult. The accuracy of the transcription of plant words in these five languages is reasonably high. For example, the c/6 allophony and the schwa phoneme in Temb6 appeared in Baket transcription as predicted by Bendor-Samuel (1966). There are probably some minor errors in transcription, for example, in i vs. 4, a vs. 4 BALEE & MOORE: SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 215 full vs. partial nasalization, exact quality of labial vs. bilabial fricatives, and vowel/glide distinctions. One standardized orthography is used for the five languages. Stress falls on the last syllable in As, K, T, and W unless otherwise indicated; stress in Ar and As is irregular and has been indicated for each word (1). Morpheme-by-morpheme glosses are given for maximum opportunity to confirm or counteranalyze our results and to use the data for other purposes. Glosses for the most part are supplied by Ba16e, except for W words, the glosses for Which come from Grenand (1980). Many suggestions on glossing and advice on transcription were supplied by A.D. Rodrigues, based on sources unavailable to us. Word boundaries are undetermined. Method of Comparison Measuring similarity and variation of vocabulary between related languages is different from the procedures of historical linguistics-- reconstruction using the comparative method. This paper asks the question, given a botanical species, what are the words for it in various languages of the same family and are these words similar or different? This reflects well the common sense notion of what is meant by similarity and can be quantified in a straightforward way. In diachronic linguistics, on the other hand, one searches for cognate terms showing systematic sound correspondences, allowing, if necessary, a considerable degree of semantic 'shift' of the referent. There is no concern with determining non-cognacy, which is difficult with incomplete collections and without knowledge of the full range of meaning of each word. In order to determine whether words in two languages are similar or different it is necessary to specify a comparable range of meaning for them (such as the biological species) to prevent problems of overlapping (see Alcorn 1984:270). Consider, for example, the Ka'apor and Temb6 names for 'jarana' and 'cagador,' which are two species in the Brazil nut family: E T Lecythis cf. chanacea Berg iwiri-'4 iwiri-'tw Lecythis idatimon Aubl. ya5i-amir iwi~-'*v-pita 216 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISrORY VOL. 35(4) If the range of meaning were not restricted and "looking up and down the list" were permitted, then from the point of view of Temb6, both words would have a similar Ka'apor counterpart, on the basis of the head terms, iwiri. But paradoxically, from the point of view of Ka'apor, only one of the words has a similar counterpart in Temb6. The situation would become yet more confusing when considering five instead of two languages. Further, a skewing would result in that a pair of languages both having relatively complete collections would offer a greater possibility of finding similar words than would a pair of languages both having relatively incomplete collections. So it is necessary to restrict the range of meaning of the referent, then examine whether the words for it are similar or different. We opted to restrict referents to the taxonomic rank of botanical species. This is because one may argue that the botanical species is the most objective level of abstraction for distinguishing between individual plants. The species is more objective than higher order units, such as tribes, genera, and families, since "rank is not inherent in supraspecific groups" (Cronquist 1968:31) [2]. Species are natural units, not products of mind (see Gould 1980:204-213). Species, for our purposes, are also more suitable referents for comparing indigenous plant names than taxa of infraspecific ranks. The classification of many neotropical cultivars (i.e., varieties) of a single botanical species is far from possessing taxonomic exactitude. In their taxonomic revision of the genus Manihot (which includes cultivated manioc, Manihot esculenta Crantz), for example, Rogers and Appan (1973:34) observed that "It is impossible to apply formal subspecific taxon epithets to fleeting variants which are not related to some precise geography or ecological region." In an exhaustive study, Albuquerque and Cardoso (1980) discussed several possible means of classifying manioc cultivars. One classification was based on color of the tuber, yielding only three basic types: white, yellow, and cream. Each of these types had sweet, bitter, and sweet/watery sub-types. Each sub-type was further sub- divided into cultivars that had erect stem habits vs. ones that showed branching stem habits. The total number of phenotypically distinct cultivars based on this classification, then, would be only 18 (cf. Albuquerque and Cardoso 1980:138- 139). Another proposed classification scheme, based on floral parts, yielded only 6 possible cultivars. The number of phenotypically distinct manioc cultivars named and recognized by the Ka'apor, however, is at least 19 (Ba16e and Gtly 1989:138); the Wayapi name as many as 29 (Grenand 1980:310). The lack of correspondence between folk species and botanical infraspecific taxa is not limited to manioc. With respect to neotropical cotton (Gossypium barbadense L), Fryxell (n.d .) wrote : "There are many difficulties in determining the identity of individual plants among the tetraploids from the Greater and Lesser Antilles (and elsewhere), where spontaneous and artifical hybridizations among different taxa have blurred the distinctions between them and made a rational classification difficult at best." No "correct" taxonomic BALEE & MOORE: SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 217 criteria exist for distinguishing between categories more or less encompassing than the species (see Gould 1980:206) with the obvious exception of the individual plant. For logistical reasons, it was not feasible to obtain responses in the five languages for individual plant specimens. One of the criteria for including species in our list was that they be of neotropical origin. This is because names for non-neotropical species, clearly, would be most likely introduced and hence of non-Tupi-Guarani origin as well. There is some doubt, nevertheless, about the origins of a few species included in our analysis, all of which are domesticates. These include papaya (Carica papaya L.), bananas and plantains (Musa spp.), and bottle gourds (Lagenaria siceraria Mol.). As for papaya, it has been most recently argued on botanical grounds that it is a New World cultigen (Storey 1976:23); moreover, Sousa (1974: 99) refers to its introduction in 16th century Bahia, indicating that it came from Pernambuco to the north. Although the genetic evidence indicates a Southeast Asian origin for bananas, Smole (1980) argued that Musa spp. existed in the neotropics in pre-Columbian times. Early 16th century explorers noted that the Tupinamba cultivated bananas and called these pakoBa (L6ry 1960:157; Lisboa 1967:122; Sousa 1974:98; Vasconcellos 1865:136), a reconstructable term in Proto-Tupi-Guarani (A.D. Rodrigues, pers. comm. 1988). Bottle gourds were also cultivated by the aboriginal Tupinamba (Sousa 1974:95). The bottle-gourd probably probably arrived in South America via Africa in remote pre-Columbian times (Heiser 1979:114-116). Although it is probably not, therefore, a true native to the neotropics, it seems unlikely that it was introduced by human beings (but see Lathrap 1977). This means that there is no a priori reason to assume that the name for it in modern Tupi- Guarani languages was introduced. Our exclusion of "borrowed" plants is, first, an attempt to exclude borrowed words. All domesticates here included are of sufficient antiquity in the neotropics (i.e., probably older than the five languages in our analysis) that they can be considered for historical linguistic purposes to be neotropical. One other requirement for species inclusion in our comparison concerns the number of responses. Only species for which names in three or more of the five languages were obtained are included. This is to guarantee that each species occurs in at least two of the three ecological regions. If species were included where there were only two or more responses, then the ecological region occupied by proximate groups (the K/T and the As/Ar) perhaps would be overrepresented in the lists of species. It is plausible, moreover, that linguistic borrowings are more likely to exist between neighbors. The three-or- more rule, then, is one more means of controlling the possible occurrence of borrowed words between the five languages in the sample. As will be seen, we are able to draw statistically significant conclusions about similarity and variation in plant words between these languages on the basis of the data. 218 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISFORY VOL. 35(4) Before either of us had read the Berlin et al. (1973) article, and while field collections were being made, it seemed that a pattern of similarity and variation in plant names between these Tupi-Guarani languages was at least partly a function of degree of human management of plants (Ba16e 1987, 1989a). Patterns of plant nomenclature appear to segregate traditionally cultivated and non-cultivated plants. These patterns may be summarized as follows: (1) life-form heads (for example, K mira, ka'a, sipo) are not incorporated into names for traditional cultigens; (2) animal morphemes are incorporated into names for traditional cultigens only when the animals are not ecologically associated with the plants themselves; (3) "obscure" plant names (i.e., names that do not incorporate plant morphemes, such as K akuii-nami 'agouti-ear,' which refers to a rubiaceous forest herb) do not denote traditional domesticates; (4) morphemes referring to divinities (such as K kurupir) and to the state of being 'false' (or 'similar') (K -ran, Ar -ri, As -rana, T -ran, W ra) are only incorporated into words that do not refer to traditionally cultivated plants (Ba16e 1989b). Three basic kinds of plant species can be identified in terms of management. These are non-domesticates, semi-domesticates, and domesticates. Non-domesticates typically occur in primary well-drained forest, archaic vine forests, or swamp forests. These are zones where contemporary human interference in species composition and dominance is, or recently has been, negligible. Well-known non-domesticates from Table 1 include wild cashew (Anacardium giganteum Hancock ex Engl.), Conceveiba guianensis Aubl., and Capparis. Although some non-domesticates may sporadically occur in zones of recent human inteference, such as swidden fallows, they do not appear to gain dominance other than in fairly undisturbed forests. Semi-domesticates, in contrast, do not generally appear to become ecologically dominant without human interference, usually by horticultural fires and/or the seemingly random tossing away of viable seeds. A few of these species (such as Annona montana Macf. var. marcgravii 'araticum' and Tlieobronia grandiflorum Schum . 'cupuagu'--see Table 2) are deliberately planted and carefully protected, by one or more of the five groups, but without cr6ss-cultural regularity and only sporadically. As such, the category of semi- domesticates corresponds very well with that of "protected plants" in Berlin et al. (1973:146). Most of the semi-domesticates in Table 2 are disturbance indicators as well. By their presence and/or dominance, they tend to indicate former sites of human habitation and horticultural fields. These species are also extremely efficient in dispersing themselves and are thus widely encountered throughout the Amazon basin. Disturbance indicators include Spondias mombin L. 'hog plum', Jacaratia spinosa A.DC., 'wild papaya' (Lisboa et al. 1987:55), Didymopanar morototoni (Aubl.) Decne. & Planch 'morotot6' (Huber 1909: 161), Maximiliana maripa (Corr. Serr.) Drude 'inaja' (Pesce 1985:66; Schulz 1960:222), several species of Inga, specifically, Inga alba TABLE 1: NAMES OF NON-DOMESTICATED PLANT SPECIES IN FIVE TUPI-GUARAN[ LANGUAGES' PLANTS 2 ABAWETE ASURINI KA·APOR TB/SE WAYAPI ANACARD]ACEAE (Cashew lamily) 001. Anacardium giganfeum Hancock ex Engl, - - akayu-+ (L) akazu-+w-ele (L) akayu·u (L) cajueiro do malo L · tree L - Iree - lrue Anacardium occidentale- (82282) (81122) big (G220) 002. Askonium lecoinrei Engl, - ka·a-tai-·fwa (M) ara-kanei-·+ (M} Zariklci· IM-'rw (M) - mutraca/lara "rest.spicy·Me macaw-res,n-lee Jaracafia-similar-tree (82449) (82209) (81512) 003. Thrysodium d. sprucnnum Benth. - waruwa-'irAna (M) tatu-mtra (M) manume-ran-'tw (M) antle-wisi (M) castanha do porco refleclor-similar armadillo-lie Agenedus sp. (a lish) bal-leces B A L~E & M O O R E : S IM ILA R IT Y A N D V A R IA T IO N IN P 219 (82364) (8437) similar-tree (G224) (81493) 004. Tapirira guianensis Aubt . takarb · me · e -·a .·i (?) tayahu - m + ra (M) tata · plrirlk .·tw ( M ) tata -Pllill (M) talapiririca ?·some-lruit-Iree while lipped poccary fire-crackling-tree lire-crackling (81669) tree (81069) (81203) (G253) ANNONACEAE (Custard apple family) 005. Anaxagores don.hocarpa Sprague el Sandw. - 7-/rel herb (G249) teremu..+re (M) pira-iwa-pihun (M) sa'I.melu-ke'a ·(M) fish-fruil·black grandmother-houselly (8937) (81560) 006. Duguetia sp Iwiri.amute (M) pina·'+ (M) - pina:'t.lay (M} envira pindalba Iree-other fish hook-free fish hook-tree-spicy (82063) (82664) ,(G248) 007 . Fusaea longifolia (Aubl ) Sall - - karitu '/;.'+ ( L) pina ·'tw - hu ( M) y :wT-kala ( M) envira prela L-Iree lish-hook-tree-big t.,toise-yam (82885) (81349) (G267) 008. Guatteria chrysopetal/ (Steud.) Miq. taiwi-·1 (L) - tata·iren-+ 04 - twi (M) envira tire-similar-tree lashing material?-Iree (8231)(81752) (G231) 009. Xy/opia ninda Dun. yawl-'1 (L) yawl.twa (L) yawl-'+ (L) tupa-wfia (M) y:WT-'+ (M) bnerwood. envira carla L-Iree L.tree L-'ree thunder·lree lor.ise-tree (82062) (82549) (8344) 81103) (G267) APOCYNACEAE (Dogbane family) 010. Aspidospe,ma sp. iwirbra.'i (L) pepem+ra (?) arar·aka·'tw (M) palekuta-pinG (L} araracanga L-Iree 7 macaw-head-lree L-black (8165) (82491) (81083) (G244) 220 BULLEI'IN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 35(4) PL AN TS 2 AR AW ET E AS U R IN I KA ·A PO R 1 S :5 Sl I- (8 17 59 ) (8 10 15 ) (8 15 55 ) (G 26 6) (8 17 64 ) (8 10 21 ) (8 14 0 ) (6 30 1) (00CD) (6*S le) (00C D ) (59628) loocE)) (6629) (COC28) (0968) V -6 m pa u de c ol he r sp oo n re e Ir e e -s p o o n v la ge -? - 2 'lE ~$Z I. m e ra y. - CL ) z -·a (L al aw al e (L ) ndet,elnul (1) t. Jetsw -- h )· 15 + 1 + Ul . P ew .sonxet, e!1!Jn.W '6~0 3 * Sj JA - 0 0 0 . 0 . ._1 -1 -1 I D .- -1 - 8 (8 28 95 ) (8 11 93 ) 01 3. Ta be rn a/ m on fa ia a ng ui al a M al . . . wa ar uh u- m + ra (M ) p a ka -' a .! + p t (M ) (8 19 55 ) (M 8 13 1) (G 29 7) ts - (Lom) (910,8) (Ipses) (99028) - m . m -1 m. .-i .1*--- . &- : I- 3 -- C I:Hi i] .4 ; H :f : S I -1 . E _, E _, ./ .3 .-1 EJ (8 26 ) (8 10 91 ) OY 01 2. P ar ah an co rn ia a m ap a (H ub er ) D uc ke + .1 .. .r . N I (92228) (2*D E B ) (956LE ) - 0 . E m m, ~ is --I-- I (r,) od -n sn i ew ) 4 4 - -ds B e e p fq e .,v - K lo 5 ts * 1 2 - i: ,/ 4 6 ..I i + (1) U e '. ds ew ouo/9 'L iO I. ?- Ir ee pa ca -tr ee ee l ne = 3 :. .. a.. E , I - -1 r -1 m: -2 25 li0- 4·m E L -_1 E -1 =. IM .4 . emn/eq lum. - E) ·9LO 01 1 La cm e# ea a cu a ta (D uc ke ) M ar ch . AR EC AC EA E (P AL M AE ) (P al m l am 01 A st ro ca ry um m un ba ca M ar t. .m, 8-1 -1 5 3 P"CM Pet,11 92,4 oxe -v e /4 8 10 a : uel e!1.10 8) 3VBO VIN O N D IS : iE 2 m um ba ca E 06 1 & 5 h BU m PLANTS 2 ARAWETE ASURINI KA'APOR 1BBE WAYAPI 022. Pachyptera standleyi (Sieyerm .) Gentry hipa - kara (M ) Ips , Imi ( M) - - yawblem (M ) [vine-yam) vine-creeper tortoile-penis (82021) (82471) (G295) 023. Tabebuia serratifolia (Vahl ) Nichol. tayipa (1) b.·a CL) lay+-po (L) tizfw (.) tayf (L) greenheart, pau d·arco amarelo L L-fruil L-other L L (82347) (82189) (MB249) (G253) BOMBACACEAE (Bombax lamily) 024. Ce,ba pentandra Gaern . tarawiri - rana ( M) wmi ; 51 (l) : wrum --+w ( 1 ) kumaka ( L ) kapok Iree, sumaumeira lizard-similar L L-tree L B A LE E & M O O R E : S IM ILA R IT Y A N D V A R IA T IO N IN P N A M E S 221 (82425) (B2260) (84022) (G236) BORAGINACEAE (80 a q o l-A l!U !/U p 0 4 U lz n o e q 00 - E : ta ,/ - (01) flid -n in x 4.-9525-!An,led (r,1)·eA,j,-11-tdo~r,4 (rl) !.-1/1,/d-0,04 ·ds expeeqw '6£0 :f : 3 60 31 51 0: lu : MS m . :i Z 3 2 2 2 .- 0 2 Sm:I . 03 1. Ca ry oc ar gl ab ru m (A ub l P e i. +k :' a- ,a ni .'+ .. ra n -· :w C 0 - . 2* €V 03 2. C ar yo ca r os um (A ub l Pe rs . (L ) p tk t' a .e le T :5- D - .* -- SO I· 5/ , 0 -tr ee -w h ite E + E -_ 1 -",1 -1 B e J I-1 In d e ·e u !A 1 8 1 6 9 u dim i (01) 1+Mni-+.-1 u ld -9 / -ues ·w suaiseup/ efueo/7 ·9£0 ila r- Ir e e 5.5 2 /2 1 v y n r~ 5 1 )( L ) ~ s~ oa m~ ;~F er 9 + 35 '-. I - B L 18) en6ues ap non'Bul (*969) (668#8) 4 -1 !'1 1 ·N a l-p e d !'1 5 -1 !n il 6 - . E ft - nM nM nw -m~ -41ues evd/oulojejeu 5 5 0a- n-. -- . C -4 .-!0 ·e d !)le / 4051 8 zon ·3) 5/m ae eweo/7 20 e e ll-/1 !4 8 -1 (66428) I . /-. • - E 0 .- .6- S i · 2 -CR . .- I. E25 5 8 5.1 (rd) !.·/49dgpe - I I . -0 PL AN TS 2 C AR YO C AR AC EA E (8 te la m eue,/Inbid 'p,nos s.:Eq bu tle m ul Me e, pi qu ia 03 3. Po ur cu m a gu ia ne ns is Tr ac C H AY S O B A LA N A C E A E (T ro pi ca l ro se l am 03 4. H in el la ra ce m os a La m . va r. ra ce m os a . (Al!11181 8!uio,eg) 3V 307:S n10 i 3 5 3 8 C E C R O P IA C E A E (M ul be rr y fa m E _1 ·ds essn/O ·9£0 5 a 2 ti m - . 5 5 PLANTS 2 ARAWETE ASURINI KA'APOA TBBE WAYAPI 040. Symphonia 9/obuldera L. tralt.'r (M) +rat+-'+w (M) waneni (M) doclors gum. anant wax-[ree wax-tree wax (82973) (M878) (G258) 041 , Tovomita .P yapu -/ tra (M) mail -'* w-ran (M) pasl ·+- wapo (M) sapateiro crested oropendola -tree mango · tree - similar triania exorrhiza· Wei - (8260)(8938) rool (G245) BALI~E & M O O R E : S IM ILA R IT Y A N D V A R IA T IO N IN P N A M E S 223 COMBRETACEAE (Combretum family) 042. Buchenua sp. yakubirl-'+ (L) wakawa- tw.ran (M) kwata-kaya (M) cuiarana L.tree laughing Ialcon-tree- .Ate/es-vulva (8185) similar (G237) (81435) DILLEN[ACEAE (Dillenia family) 043. Do#ocatpus d. guianensis (Aubl.) Gilg, muriel-ti-ipa (M) 1+F+,+.r+mo (M) zapekuramoo (M) tamey..'+ M water vine. cip . d ·:gua Maurilia liexuosa. Ilow - vine L L - Iree grove·vine (8321) (81247) (G289) (819571 EUPHORBIACEAE (Spurge lamily) 044. Aparismmium cordatum (Juss ) Baill. - - ar a - 117'+ (M) uruku-ran (M) a't-meyu {M) mameleiro macaw·chili pepper Bixa orel/ana-similar slo~h-manioc. bread (82696) (81159) (G2191 045. Conceve,ba guianensis Aubl. · tia -+-una (M) arapuha-mtra (M) w+ra·#·.... (M) a·:-mintyu (M) /nga- Iree - black brocket deer- tree tree ·chill pepper- sloth - cotton (82570) (8280) similar (G220) (81221) 046, Mabeacaudata P. el H. - kakima.4 (M) kacirril-·*w (M) awalepune (L) pau de cachimbo pipe-tree pipe·!ree L (82152) (81326) ((3225) 047 . Sapium marmie/ Huber + ka -' 1 ( M ) yuwa - fwa (M) wakura -mtra- hu (M ) tallow tree, murupila Ialex-tree bird lime-tree nighlhawk-tree-big (82061} (82355) (82227) 224 B U LLE T IN FLO R ID A M U S E U M N AT U R A L H IS TO R Y V O L. 35(4) PLANTS 2 ARAWETt ASUAINI KA·APOR led WAYAPI FLACOURTIACEAE (Flacourlia lamily) 048. Casearia javitensis H.B.K. yana .· i [M ) pepemiwi -·* wa (?) arakwi - mi · u -'+ (M)Brazilian snakeroot. piabinha spider-tree ..tree lillie chachalacha-food· (82460) tree (82659) HELICONIACEAE (Heliconia lamily) 049. Hekonia sp pariri (L) parlri (L) tayahu-pako-ro (M} . polm (L)bastard plantain, bananeira do mato L L while lipped peccary- (G284) (81987) (82430) banana-bitter (8845) LAURACEAE (Laurel lamily) 050. Ocofea laidaf. Mel dyu-'1 (L) syu-'twa (L) ayu.'t.pinun (L} azu.+w.plhun (L) anu-+-wilowa (M) louro L.tree L-tree L-tree·black L-Iree-black [kind 09 tanager.Iree. (81662) (82383) (82958) (81579) open nu[ (G226) LECYTHIDACEAE (Brazil nut family) 051. Couraran sp patiml·'1 IM) - ptttm-irem-·+ (M) yeml-'+ (M)lauari lobacco-tree tobacco·telid-tree masked-tree(81855) (8187) (G267) 052. Eschwe#era coriacea (A.P. de Candolle) iii-11,4 (M) i.+ - /+ r ·+wa (M) parawa-'t (M) +wa-wlha.4* (M) -Mart. ex Berg lashing material-?-rree lashing material·?-tree mealy parrot-tree fruit-?·treemalamata branco (81701) (82332) (810) (81588) 053. Lecyfhis d. charraces Berg - yd,+-rana (L) 1-wirl-'+ (M) iw+ri-'+w (M)jarana L-tree-similar Bashing maierial-Iree lashing ma[erial-Iree (82406) (819) (81380) 054 Lecy,his idatimon Aubl. · ya61· anlir (M) 1,+,1-·tw-pit: (M) tala.+Ii (M)caQador 10 , 10 ; se - deceased lashing material - tree- Connarus sp.-lashing[866) red Inalerial (81280) (G251) LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIACEAE (Pea family) 055. Bauhinia acreana Hafms y.pap.-ti (?) yapupeci-ntma (?) akusi-yu.·+ (M)?.white ?·felid agolli-spine-tree (81778) ,(82498) (82887) PLANTS 2 ARAWETE ASURINI KA·APOR TB/EBEE WAYAPI 056. Ba/hinia guianensis Aubt . hipa- p *- pe ( M) .aperer - up4 ( M) yail - stpo · pe (M) +w+ po -pew (M) ina .yulu (M) escada de jaboli vine-Irail-flat ?-river bed lorloise-vine-flat .ine.flat divinily-stairs (81808) (82608) (82750) (81611) (G271) 057, Cassia fastuosa Willd, acicl·rapi (M) - aman.puttr.·+ (M) mallmill (L) mari-mari howler monkey-bow rain-flower-/ree 7 (81748) (82150) (G238) 058. Copadera sp. Lkupa-·+ (L) kupa-'tw (L) kupa+wa (L) purple heart, copaiba L-tree L-lree (81022) (MB109) (G236) 059 . Derris amazonica Killq . acT = ipo ( M) - dmo- ran (L) clmo - ran ( L ) limborana head-vine L-similar L-similar (82010) (81003) (81078) 060. Zonema pamensis Huber yapami (61) iyapem'twa (M) tamaran-+ (M} B A LW E & M O O R E : S IM ILA R rrY A N D V A R IA T IO N IN P N A M E S 225 pau santo war club-Iree war club-tree war club-[ree (81791) (82350) (82672) LEGUMINOSAE·FABACEAE 061. Ajexa sp Iwi*··i (M) a,-toa-rana (M) - - eni (L) melancieira tree-lillie divinity-similar L (81634) (82391) (G224) 062. Dipteryx odorata (Aubl .) Willd . - kumanu .·+ ( L ) kumaru -'+ W (L ) munu-'+ (M) tonka bean, cumaru L-tree L·tree peanut-tree (8972) (81113) (G241) 063. Machaerium floribundum Benlh . u · l - ruwapa - hai ( M) mailma-,Ana (4 - · inamo .,+wa (M) arrow-?·genera[or ?·simiIar (G272) linamou-lachel (82011) (82648) 064. Taraiea opposititolia Aubl . - - kururu -'+ (M ) kumaru ·' iran -'+ w ( L ) pala -*-wita (14) cumarurana load - tree L - similar. tree Jacaranda·liee-hard (81036) (81100) (G244) LEGUMINOSAE·MIMOSACEAE 065. Newronia suaveo/ens Miq - k Hkt.'+ (L) cimo-'tw (M) · wfla-11 (M] fave,ra lolha lina L - tree Derris utilisaree tree - lelid (82701) (81237) (G259) 066. Parkia pendula (Willd .) Benih . ylp /.· i ( L ) - yup + ( 1 ) yolulu (L ) nitia tree, visgueiro L-tree L-kee L (81850) (835471 (G268) 2PLANTS ARAWETE ASURINI KA·APOR TEM3E WAYAPI | 067. Pithecellobium cautiflorum Mart . Brapa · yi -· i . hete ( M ) pin -: ia -'*wa (M) lair · tia -'+ CL ) Ingarana eel-7-tree·true lish-/nga-tree blue headed parrol· ( 82012 ) (82575 ) Inga-' fee (82825} 068. Tachigali myrmecophila Ducke tact- 1 ( M ) t..1 -'iwa (M) ta : i .'+ CM) teel -'+w ( M)taxi prell Azleca-ant-tree Pseudomyrmax-ant-tree Pseudomyrmax·ant·Iree Pseudomyrmax-anl-rree (81795) (82481) (839) (81508) MARANTACEAE (Arrow rool lamily) 069. /schnosiphon arouma (Aubl.) Koern. urO-1 (M) . warum;1 (L) uruwlw (l) ulu (L)aruma. guaruma baskel-Iree L L L (82066) (8825) (84019) (G290) MARCGFLAVIACEAE (Marcgravia lamity) 070. Souroubea guianensis Aubl . araruhu - wal - rtmo (M ) trakwa - wtpo - pbrai (14 moyu .alila - luway (M)'abl de lilli red and green macaw- Camponatul anl - Me - anaconda . macaw- tail red (81300) ( G281 )tail-creeper 18839) M ELIAC EAE (Mahogany family) 071. Carapa guianensis Aubl. · - yanbro.'+ (M) lant. H .+w (M) yan: (M)crab wood, andirobeira oil·bilter·Iree oil·'bitter-tree oil B U LLE T IN FLO R ID A M U S E U M N AT U R A L H IS FO R Y V O L. 35(4) (82821) (81244) (G263) 072. Cedrela fissilis Veil , - tati - kaci -' twa (M) * rart ( L) - kaisu ( L) Brazilian ..dar ced,/ da mal/ lire.vapor-Iree L (82574) (8965) (G233) 073 . Trichilia d . lecointei Ducke pla .' i (L) +/tra . p + 1 + 1[-'*wa (M ) yaku &; ri -'+ ( L ) waruwa-· iran .·,w ( M) -ii!6 mirim L.tree Iree-?.tree L-tree r'eflector-similar.tree [81698) (82546) (82257) (81096) MENISPERMACEAE (Moonseed family) 074. Abula grandifo/ia (Mari.) Sandw. ihipa·ro-ti (M) . aputi (L) yan+·t-po (M) abula vine-?-while L Carapa guianensis·vine (82009) (8728) (G294) PLANTS 2 ARAWETE ASURINI KA·APOR TBveE WAYAPI MORACEAE (Mulberry lamily) 075. Brosimum aculifolium Huber - murure - et * ( L ) murure -'+ ( L ) - takenl '( L ) cow tree, murur6 L-true L·tree ? (82523) (83006) (G251) 076. Hehcosfyhs romentosa (P. & E) Rusby mit&ci-'1 (?) . akau.+ (l) murure-ran-'+w (L) *wa. pe Chi) ?.tree (8333) inhar* L-iree L·similar-tree tree-flal (81738) (81085) (G230) 077 . Perebea guianensis Aubl . yapatawl . rana (L ) aka~ -·+ ( L ) - yuwa · pi · so (M ) caxingubarana L - similar L - tree Couma sp .-son- like (82468) (82277) (G268) B A LE E & M O O R E : S IM ILA R IT Y A N D V A R IA T IO N IN P N A M E S 227 MYRISTICACEAE (Nulmeg ramlly) 078 . Virola michelli Heckel Iwika -' i (?) - tukwan- mi * u -·+ (M ) hoku -·tw- ran (?) wololo ( L } ucudba da terra lirme toucar-lood-Iree ?dree-similar?-tree (8255) (81345)(81754) (6262) NYCTAGINACEAE (Four-o·clock I.lily) 079.· Neea sp a epect · ri .· i ( M) tepe ¢ i - kuruw-+ (M ) taptil - ktrt -'+ ( M) .. 1( liB·' + w (M) inimo-po ' i - lpi ( M) joao mole rabbit·?·tree rabbil-?-tree rabbil-?-tree laughing talcon-tree thread·Ihin-gliding (82111) (82443) (82274) (81300) (G272) OLACACEAE (0¢ax lamily) 080. Minguarria guianensis Aubl. - ytwoy-+ (M) w/kar 1-·*·w (M) wakati·'+ (M) acariquara boa lillirictor-[ree kind 01 fish-lree kind 01 lish·Iree (81028) (81437) (G256) PIPERACEAE (Pepper family) 081. Piper d. ononoides Jun. yaml-/ha (L) yamfra (L) yamir (L) zamtra (L) .yemi-la (1) jambira L-big L L L L·similar (82087) (82651) (82678) (81592) (G296) POACEAE (GRAMINAE) (Grass family) 082. O/yra sp. te·aka.ci (L) takuwar-+-pinim·0 (L) lekwar-+ (L) SOWO (L) laboca L-while L-water-striped-big L-water L (82083) (82567) (8789) (G287) 228 BULLEI'IN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 35(4) AR AW ET E AS U R IN I KA AP O R W AY AP I -1 2 5fils ZE (2C29) (96628) :19 '04% bil -e 08 3. La cu na a / en m an i (O liv .) D uc ke iw a -p e d ; (M ) + w a .k a w .* w a (M ) ku p a p a . ra n .· + W a- zu - w -ra n (M ) m :t :- if i E9 + 0 . U ./ +I 6 -6 .,1 - I 84:aw,eA em niqem oe la d e m ul um fr ui t- ? Ir u it. ve ss e l- ,r e e L- si m ila re e Ir u i!- ye l w ir e e - - 5&2- 0*0·.4.-nueJU se- {7) 4 ,-E M + 4 '+ A t pucis (04.na) peqng eje¥vue,11 '880 g Ze iii 5?5 dze m (rl) ue. (7) + ,·u /l,-e d e d m i (8 20 39 ) (8 25 93 ) (8 31 00 ) (8 15 4 P '* 2 (r,) e.1+~·,0,140 (,41) 4.-E srld-0~ed (00 = F M M - -40U eld u w p a o equuu/S '0 6 0 W O M 4 2 8 ) /2 m ts .m .2 m*. t- --. - CO *2 -; .-. 9 ; 5 E ae,1-!ino62 p 'W O J ·U O !,d ru e le,JI·LU B A - o p n t C id 'M e s 'u e a q s.e lle u se l':e J n I /- I- -1 +Z : 08 5. C up an ia s cr ob ic ul am L. C. R ic h. s w e ·l e - -r A na (M ) p ly a r+ m a -m tr e (M ) pe rs on -[ ru e- Ir ee · lo ng la ile d ty ra nt re e [8 16 78 ) (8 22 3) (LIOLB) (6888) 828) (/96LS) (£*228)- (6/228) ag o i-t re e to no is e- in ga pi he rb 08 6. Ps eu di m a tru te sc en s R id a ra p u a - r e n a -+ w a M ) ag -w il y a - m tia (M ) br oc ke l de e r .s m in g S o u l- e n e m y- lie ow +s-nu,unM 'ds m ebeS 'Lgo m ....O -p lo t £ - 5/2 E 3 0- (8 18 14 ) (8 23 40 ) (8 28 80 ) si m ila r - 0 - i 4 i 08 4 Ps yc ho t d . po ep pi gl an a M . A rg . ak uc l - w ira (M ) y. .. i.+ C ew '-eoeld IZZ,Ze) 3 E E I Ul e C 2 e C . Im if 5- PL AN TS 2 SA PI N D AC EA E (S oa pb er ry l am ily ) eqnpuw aew P ed lo Dwl Moo 0·1,819 . 0 1.uno 'p e lin e u d '680R U BI AC EA E (M ad de r la m i wet elodeS) BVBOVIOdVS 0 .E uR l esseno) 3VBO VEinO M VINIS .g Q UI IN AC EA E E 0 2 PLANTS 2 ARAWETE ASURINI KA'APOR TB/BE WAYAPI 091 . Stmaruba amara Aubl . - tukurl -' iwo (M ) + wese-'+ ( M) marups-'tw (L) I .:.'+ ( M) bilter damson Iree, marup: grasshopper-Iree manioc gratertree L·tree manioc grater-tree (82566) (8262) (81152) (G231) STERCULIACEAE (Sterculia family) 092 . Sterculia pruriens (Aubl .) Schum . tapl ' I - Bopalmi ·' i ( M ) - tapi ' i - parntr ( M) tapi ' Ir .-pawmi.'.w (M) .., 1 - sT (M) lacacazelro tapir-?-tree [apir.? 'apir·?.tree lashing material-white (81740) (82) (81260) (G232) THEOPHRASTACEAE (Joewood family) B A LE E & M O O R E : S IM ILA R rrY A N D V A R IA T IO N IN P 229 093 , Clavija landolia Benlh . Yani -Bapia (M ) yewci · rupl ' a- rena (M > karume - pttag .·+ CM ) 0-egg lortoise-egg-place tortoise-red.tree (81941) (82423) (8991) TILIACEAE (Linden lamily) 094. Ape,ba fibourbou Aubl aped (L) - ape-·i (L) azao-ktwa-tw (M) ape-·i (L) penle-de-macaco L-tree L-Iree divinity-comb.Iree L-tree (81820) (82681) (M847) (G225) ULMACEAE (Elm family) 095 Ampejocera edentula Kuhlm . yaci - p6pe-' 1 ( M ) iwl-pay6 ( M) tapl ' ilkwipe ·+ (M ) tortoile-claw-tree earlh-shaman white bearded manakin- (81816) (82454) tree (82707) VIOLACEAE (Violel talily) i 096. Rinorea d . passoura (DC ) Kunize yana -· i (M ) wayaw - a ' Ty ( M ) P + wa -'+ CM ) p : wa.·1 (M ) branquinha spider-tree guava-seed [kind oil arrow point- ikind ofl arrow poina (81887) (82654) tree tree (82686) (81172) ZINGIBERACEAE (Ginger lamlly) 097. Reneaffnia foribunda K. Sch kinf - 01, 0 (?) - kirupi -ka ( M) - kulimako - u (1 ) wild ginger. cana brava ?.big (81011) (G277) divinily-sugar cane ?-big (82071) 230 B U LLE T IN F LO R ID A M U S E U M N A T U R A L H IS TO R Y V O L. 35(4) WORD TYPE ARAWETE ASURINI KA'APOR TEM* WAYAPI LINE TOTALS L 22 12 42 27 35 138 M 29 29 50 39 38 185 8 4 0 1 1 14 COLUMN TOTALS 59 45 92 67 74 337 (Tolal no. indigenous names in Table 1) NOTES TO TABLE 1 1. Symbols in parentheses to the right of each indigenous name indicate word type: M = metaphorical word; L = literal word: ? = indeterminate word type. Entries Immediately below each indigenous name are morpheme.by-morpheme glosses (morpheme boundaries being indicated by hyphens): L indicates a literal plant rnorpheme: ? indicates either a non-literal plant morpheme for which a gloss is unknown or a word for which morpheme boundaries, if any, are unknown. Although there are syntactic and minor semantic dilterences between free and bound forms for -tree [e.g.. mira vs. 1 (K) (Balae, 1989b)], for considerations of space, these, differences are not distinguished in glossing. Entries in parantheses below glosses indicate voucher numbers on the series Balee if preceded by ·8'; volume.and page numbers in Boudln (1978), where the gloss is given, if preceded by 'ME,= (T only): and page numbers'in Grenand (1980), where the gloss is given, if preceded by =G· (W only) 2. Plant species are listed in alphabetical order by family, genus, and species. Words below each species name are English and/or Portuguese equivalents. BALllE & MOORE: SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 231 (Sandw.) Willd., Inga auristellae Harms, and Inga thibaudiana DC. (Ducke 1949 : 29), Astrocaryum vulgare Mart. 'tucuma' (Balte 1988: 47; Wessels Boer 1965 : 132), Orbignya phalerata 'babassu' (Anderson 1983), Theobroma speciosu,ii Willd. ex Spreng. 'cacauf (Ducke 1953: 14), Dialium guianense Benth. 'jutafpororoca' (Ducke 1949: 112), Solanum spp. (Lisboa ct al. 1987:55), and Trema micrantha (L.) Blume 'trema' (Lisboa et al. 1987:55). Neotropical plant domesticates (Table 3) are completely dependent on human management for their long-term propagation; most, if not wholly incapable of setting seed, are producers of minuscule quantities of viable seed. These species are often parthenocarpic as a result of human interference--that is, their genotypcs have been altered through domestication. To measure the degree of similarity between two languages, we look at pairs of words such that the word in A and the word in B refer to the same species. The number of such pairs which are "similar" and the number which are "different" are then tabulated, the ratio between them being the degree of similarity. In order to define "similarity' adequately, it is necessary to distinguish "literal" plant words from "metaphorical/descriptive" (henceforth called simply metaphorical) plant words, a distinction which proves to be of crucial analytical importance. In our usage, "literal" plant words are those which contain a literal plant morpheme; they may contain other morphemes as well. Literal plant morphemes are here defined as those which have as their sole referent a specific plant, excluding thereby general life form morphemes such as 'tree' or 'herb.' The word 'oak' in English, for example, refers only to this kind of tree and to nothing else--the association between the word and its referent is purely arbitrary. The terms 'live oak', 'post oak', and 'oak tree' are also literal since they contain the literal morpheme 'oak'. Likewise, in the Tupi-Guarani languages under study, the words for Inga nobilis Willd. (Table 2) are literal in the three languages for which terms were collected: Ar ifia-pa ka -'i 'Inga-long- tree', As yurupi-rana-ga 'throat-similar-Inga' and K ~a-howi-'+ Vnga-blue- tree', since they all incorporate the literal morpheme iaa/42 'ingd: Two literal plant words are considered to be similar if their literal plant morphemes are similar, regardless of the other morphemes occurring in the word. Thus, the three words for 'inga' above constitute three pairs (Ar-As, Ar- K, As-K) of similar words. In our usage, "metaphorical" names are those which do not contain a literal plant morpheme, or if they do contain a literal plant morpheme, it is being used metaphorically (i.e., the class of plants designated by the whole metaphorical term is not a subset of the class designated by the literal morpheme.) In English, 'dogwood' is an example of a metaphorical plant term, since neither 'dog' nor 'wood' refer to a specific plant, as does 'oak.' The term 'poison oak' is also metaphorical, since it is not botanically a kind of oak at all. Similarly, in the Tupi-Guarani data, the Ka'apor word for Tapirira guianensis 232 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISrORY VOL. 35(4) : - - 1 . - (8 25 78 ) (G 23 9) (O ,29) (9258) (8629) (B629) (LOCD) (42928) (00929) C .- U J 09 8 . S po nd ia s m om bi n L. ki yu wa -·t wi ( L ) ta pe r .t wa .' + M ) la we -w a .' tw (M ) ak ay a Aesem (1) at. ".M ,„~+ -1.. ve il e ve ,B io ed,e,ng Co 1 E _1 E -1 E _1 (8 18 97 ) (8 25 69 ) (8 40 32 } M S F-S- 2 = =Dir= - rl) .....4 ....1 (-1) ....L le :'A U A' -E n p e w P er, e,e,91eud B A uS m © ·90 L (O C O E ) (egLL 19) 8 3 ZE iE "11.6!q-1!m i 3 8 J I-1 nbe.q · ns.uqN ./ 2- * .' -U ./ a.-' TA B LE N AM ES O F S E M I-D O M E S TI C AT E D P LA N T S P E C IE S I N FI VE T U P I-G U A R A N I LA N G U A G E S 1 AR AW ET E A S U R IN I KA ·A PO R ol d vi lla g e I r -tr ee ol d vi lla ge -fr ui t-t re e tre e- ?- w hi te sp oo n- si r- tr e e 32 3 - - g - . I . 10 2 . (COCe) (89928) 0ac e 0 0 /0 0 - - m m Em + 4 . . 4 -Ifil £1 13 fZ~ iE 10 0 H im at an th us d . ar tic ul at us W oo ds . tw ir a - t a p i - c i (M ) k iy e · ir a n -'+ (M ) 2 1 L -I re e E Z :1 - - u a. pe cc a 5 5 5-.m r. m -11: 5 5 : a 2 X - ' 2H 2 li im imi & iii :m. EL ./ -_3 .-1 . a. PL AN TS 2 AN AC AR D IA C EA E (C as he w f am ily ) 09 9 An no na m on fa na M a va m ar cg ra v/ 7 ra ci ku - W (L ) -0 AR Y) w io jo io w xeuadow A P !0 - 101 iR A 8 1 .6 1 .A {ifn A ..0 0 .1 .7 ·201 eprua es 00) ed eut sue wnre,v POL E: _0 /54i: 81 AP O C YN AC EA E (D og ba ne la m R N st,4 p Indm oot,ec) ~SO t S * S 5/I . 115 Eg i A N N O N A C E A E (C us ta rd a pp le I - 1 IN IinS V 313M VEIV B dU C H O M CH0 M 15 ° : -1-1 . - E n.. PE PZ 92 6 1 57¥101 N k,10100 .J ca ca o, c ac au Ir e e .I re e re e fe e -I r - - 3 . 0 ~E SO LA NA CE AE lo ba cc o, l ab ac o ST ER C U LI AC EA E (S te la m C 31891 01 531ON eiqe1 8101.1 eeS e iq e l '2 B lo u e e s 2 BALEE & MOORE: SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 243 Similarity between literal plant terms must, in general, be due to their retention in the languages since splits in the proto-language. This is probably also the general cause Of resemblances between metaphorical terms, though in some cases resemblance may be due to independently similar cultural interpretations of the plant. No effort is made here to exclude these, because there are no clear means of identifying such cases and their contribution to the overall proportion of similarity is certainly extremely limited (3). RESULTS The results show clearly that the more intensively managed plants have higher rates of similarity in their names from one language to the other. Combining data from all 10 pairs of languages: All Word Management Type Pairs Similar Dissimilar Source Non-domesticates 441 136 (30.8%) 305 (69.2%) (Table 4) Semi-domesticates 278 164 (59%) 114 (41%) (Table 5) Domesticates 198 159 (80.3%) 39 (19.7%) (Table 6) The differences between the three categories of plants--non-domesticates, semi-domesticates, and domesticates--in terms of degree of similarity (30.8%, 59%, and 80.3%, respectively) are very significant (x2 = 146.483, 2 df, P< .0001). In other words, lexical similarity between the 10 pairs of languages very significantly increase along a scale of increasing human management of plants (see Fig. 1). The results also show that the type of plant name, literal or metaphorical, is also strongly influenced by the degree of domestication: TABLE 4: Pairs of word types for Non·domesticated plant species among the five languages. Similar pairs indicated by asterisk. M = metaphorical and/or descriptive word; L = literal word; ? = indeterminable 244 B U LLE T IN F LO R ID A M U S E U M N AT U R A L H IS TO R Y V O L. 35(4) word type; -- = no data.1 AR = Arawet¢; AS = Asurini; KA = Ka'apor; TE = Temb@; WA - Wayapi. Data from Table 1. SPECIES NO. AR/AS AR/KA AR/TE AA / WA AS/KA AS/TE AS / WA KA/TE KA / WA TE / WA (From Table 1 ) 001 -- -L -L -L -L -L -L LL· LL· LL 002 -M MVI -M MVI MM M - W M M. 003 -M -M -M M MM Mt,1 MM MM 0,4 NM 004 " 11'1 11 11 -M -M ·M W W MM 005 - - -M -M -M M M M W Mui W 006 M- W M· W -M M M. MM' -M 007 L -M -M ·L -M -M LM LM W 008 L - LM L - LM · -M - - -M M- W M 009 LL· ll· LM IM LL LM LM LM LM ~ M/1 010 L? L- LIVI LL ?- W IL -M .L K 011 -M -M -? -M ·M , MM· M? M? 012 ·L -L -L -L -L -L LL LL LL· 013 111 11•'1 71 -M -M -L MM 14 14 014 L- LM LL LL ·M -L -LM. M. LL 015 L- LL· LL LL -M -L -L LL· U LL 016 ·L -L -L ·L -L -L LL ,LL· LL· 017 -L -L -L -L -L -L LL LL· LL 018 L. EL LL· LL· -L -L -L LL· LL· LL· 019 L- LL· LL. LL· -L ·L -L LL' LL· LL 020 L- LL L- LL -L ·L L. LL· -L 021 70 9'Vt I. ?- '?MI ?· ?· M. M- 022 W M - M- W M- M - MM - - -M. ·M 023 LL LL· LL' LL· LL LL LL LL· CL· LL· BALllE & MOORE: SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 245 A R /A S A A /K A A R /T E AR / W A AS / K A A S ,/ TE AS / W A K A /T E KA / W A T E /W A 383= 523=558 =Bd 30#j#3*a333 E21EEE5E;4EEd65 3.EEE 63333 4.90%83:85/66 56.e== ======a =i 6 I e-=3= .6===e===66 e = Id ==32/JEE e :da# d=* ==**===*== 6 5 = ,==d===66 3333 3 - d =idii= E===35 = 5 s @: MEE&55§55§555555*ZEEZE,3. 8E 246 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 35(4) A R /A S A R /K A A R /T E AR / W A A S /K A A S /T E AS / W A K A /T E KA / W A T E /W A 3*665 5 5 3=Jil S9i 9 6 .6 3$EE 6:E .W r,1 .W IN .01,'It3 dz 588 3 3$*_L$.5 jH,=E=$-66 ==d6 3 EZME .4664 ; 6= == i ,=66 = 5 6 661=====Sj=== /5.~66 6 ; 6*:*; 3 3~EEJ$053 i5S 6 = 646== 8363. 5 6 *== 1 ; 3 04 9 05 0 05 1 05 2 05 3 Ln I . . . 0 . . ,0 . N 0 0 0 N 5:55:8680:858885:80 BALEE & MOORE: SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 247 A R /A S A R /K A A R /T E AR / W A AS / K A A S /T E AS / W A KA / TE KA / W A T E /W A 6.Z? E E S j .e 6 : d * 1 5 : d : 6 3 31#589 B6ii63 6*=*3*6d #55 EEz~EEZEd/SE=56 *3$3 82::Esid a===I==J BES=9 =Ed=6=65 44,5.55$ ==a==S , I J =46:5, 8 8 6 == *63=*-1 15,3 imp=:I.==18 =E= 6 ..I i ::mi~.$5 J#68.i~ 91 z z :s 22:2:El. 0000000000 ::ES5§§§M§5§§§ 248 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 35(4) PA IR T YP E A R /A S A R /K A A R /T E AA / W A A S /K A A S /T E A S / W A K A /T E KA / W A TE / W A LI NE T O TA LS .. / . LO . M CO . r> 0 ted ·ou 101) 0 0 0 0 01 <0 Lo . .0.0010 oz C 49 S-TY.LO L' N I'lin 100 I h 0000000 99 *2 H el . 1- . 0 0 0 0 ..0000 . 0 0 0 0 0 10 18 1 N . ( NO . 0 0 0 0 lelot peteinoleo luoii pepnloxe ioqwills elep ou 41!M 50!JluB CO . . N NO 0 0 . N 0 0 0 0 9£1 :S .1!ed Jel!LU IS le 1 0 1 60 0 NO 0 SOE :si,led Jel!,W p 12101 D 318V1 0 1 3 1 O NM & LM · 35* 8 2=,CE TABLE 5: Pairs of word types for Semi-domesticated plant species among the five languages. Similar pairs indicated by asterisk. M = metaphorical; L = literal word; -- = no data.1 AR = Araweld, AS = Asurini, KA = Ka'apor; TE = Temba; WA = Wayapi. Data from Table 2. SPECIES NO. AR / AS AR/KA AR/TE AR / WA AS/KA AS/TE AS / WA KA/TE KA / WA TE/WA(From Table 2) 098 LL' LIVI LM LL· LIVI IM LL· MM· AL Nt 099 M. M_ NL M- ·L -L -- LL· LL. 100 -M ·M -L MM M- M. M. M. -L 101 L· LL· L LL· -L -· -L L- LL· -L 102 -L -L -L -L -L ·L LL· LL LL B A LE E & M O O R E : S IM ILA R rrY A N D V A R IA T IO N IN P 249 103 it- LL· LL· LL LL LL LL LL· LL· LL· 104 LL LL· LL LL· LL· LL· LL LL LL· LL 105 LL· LL LL' LL· LL- LL· LL· LL· .L· Lt· 106 LL LL LM L- LL LM L- LAI L- M- 107 -L -L -L -L LL· LL· LL LL· LL· LL· 108 LL· LL LL· Ll' LL a LL· LL LL LL· 109 LL· LL· LL· LL LL LL' LL· LL· LL· LL· 110 LL· LL LL· LL· LL· LL· Ll· LL· LL· LL· 111 M- M- AL 14 -L .L -L .L LL 112 L- LL· L- LL· -L - -L L. LL· -L 113 IM LL L- L- M- M M- L- L- 114 M - W M- M M -L M- M -L W LL LL LL· LL U LL· LL LL LL 116 MM· MA MM· M•1 &*,11 MM' k/*.4 ~,11 ~M M\1 117 L. LL· LL· LL· -L ·L -L LL· LL LL· 1,18 LM LL LM LM Ml· MA MvI LAA LM ~.M 119 LL· LL· LL' LL LL· LL· LL· LL' LL· LL· 120 MM' M- M W g M MM L- LM ·M 121 LL LL LL L. LL· LL' L LL' L- L 250 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISFORY VOL. 35(4) - 5:9383313 636838- E Ul - i L :3*5 *63682:#SE A R /A S A R /K A A R /T E A R /W A A S /K A A S /T E AS / W A KA / T E LL · LL · LL · LL · L 6/2/59:665 d:E; .6= = 9..= LL · -13== .==- :0= .11 .11 d . 3==3= $ = 33/ .IN,N .b'kN 3 3 dEZ:i 36,3 /LE I I Em:6=:Em L=:E LL · / 35=:*$35;: %BE ==: 3*af SP EC IE S NO LL · U 12 5 LL ' L - ing :SAZZ: 8 LL BALEE & MOORE: SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 251 N I . PA IR T YP E A R /A S AR / K A A A /T E AR / W A A S /K A A S /T E AS / W A K A /T E KA / W A TE / W A LI NE T O TA LS C O LU M N T O TA LS 24 . 27 30 26 2 32 28 27 8 (T ot al no pa 0- 0 - 0 . r . 0 . . . r No LO €1 0 0 r - p...r- INN - I p . . . 0 .. . r LO 0 co . I p . I - To ta l m ila r pa i 16 4 *L / ed Jellw issip le:01 - 9' {0 . C~ . 0 9 318V1 01 310N ~ eiqel elou ees -1 3d3EESW 252 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISrORY VOL. 35(4) 3d3333 3 .. d.' -1 -1 TA B LE 6: P ai rs of w or d ty pe s fo r do m es tic at ed pl an t sp ec ie s am on g th e fiv e la ng ua ge s. S im ila r pa irs A R /A S A R /K A A R /T E A R / W A A S /K A A S /T E AS / W A K A /T E KA / W A TE / W A LL · · LL LL · LL LL · IL L LL · LL · LL · LL · LL · LL · LL LL · LL ' LL LL · LL LL · U .l IN d#933 323 AR = A ra w et a, A S = A su rin i; KA = K a' ap or ; TE = Te m ; = .W a y ~ d D :t , fr om Ta bl e 3. LL · U LL · LL · EL · LL · LL ' LL · LL ' LL · LL · LL · LL · LL U 3 .. 3 35-1 -1 d 3 33 ·11 .11 .11 .11 .11 .11 .11 .11 11 E: d d .9$3 LL · LL LL LL · LL 17 .11 1 .11 in di ca te d by as te ris k. M = m et ap ho ric al w or d; L = lit e .11 .11 .11 11 I $.L LL LL · LL .11 ·71 -1 9=3-1 dd3 :ds .11 .11 .11,;6833 3735 I -,3-1 . d SP EC IE S NO 9 :B: 5-2 Ie m izez@5: (F ro m T ab le d 3=3=3.,3 -1 P-- --- -- -- ------- BALEE & MOORE: SIMILARrrY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 253 PA IR T YP E A R /A S A R /K A A R /T E AR / W A A S /K A A S /T E AS / W A K A /T E KA / W A T E /W A LI N E TO TA LS 96L 92 92 92 1 i 61 & S ln O IN A n -1 0 0 (F ro m T ab le 3 ) A A /A S A R /K A A R /T E A A / W A A S /K A A S /T E AS / W A KA / T E KA / W A TE / W A 16 5 LL LL · LL · LL · d -ou lejol) 0 0 0 16 6 LL · LL LL · LL · LL 1 20 18 1 . .= 0 N 16 7 LL · LL · LL 0 0 0 0 0 0 . * 0 0 0 . .. 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 0 691 e d 121!U l le :0 1 0 0 0'O N 53103dS 6 £ :S .1!ed iel,LU IS E !P le jo l 9 318V1 0 1 310N p e,01/1 .tou e is 3L*ii 254 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISrORY VOL. 35(4) All Management Type Words* Literal Metaphorical Non-domesticates 323 137 (42.4%) 186 (57.696) Semi-domesticates 175 128 (73.1%) 47 (26.9%) Domesticates 113 110 (97.3%) 3 (02.7%) * The 14 indeterminate words, indicated with ? (Tables 1, 2, and 3), are excluded. The differences between the proportions of metaphorical words in the three categories of plants (57.6%, 26.9%, and 2.7%) are very significant and show that these words were taken from fundamentally different populations (G heterogeneity = 143.482, p < .0001). In other words, the proportion of metaphorical words declines considerably as a function of increasing pIant management (see Fig. 2). Another finding is that the literal plant terms are much more similar from language to language than are metaphorical terms. Overall, the similarity of pairs of literal words compared to metaphorical words is: Total Similar Dissimilar Literal Word Pairs 511 393 (77%) 118 (23%) Metaphorical Word Pairs 211 49 (23.2%) 162 (76.8%) It is important to note that the overall proportions of similarity of literal plant name pairs for each of the three management types are not significantly different (68% for non-domesticates, 78.6% for semi-domesticates, and 80.8% for domesticates). The ratio of literal to metaphorical plant words, combining words from all management types, is not significantly different between the five languages (X2 = 1.7, df=4,p > .05). BALEE & MOORE: SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 255 LEXICAL SIMILARITY FOR PLANT CATEGORIES 100.0% 80.3 80.0% 69.2 5960 -0% 4 40.0% 30.8 ~ 20.0% ~ 197 0.0% -1. •2" •3" ~ SIMILAR ~ DISSIMILAR 1 = non-domesticates 2 = semi-domesticates 3 = domesticates FIGURE 1 256 BULLEI'IN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISrORY VOL. 35(4) Metaphorical/Literal Words Among the Five Languages 200 186 180 No . w or ds a ll la ng ua ge s 160 140 137 128 120 110 100 80 60 47 40 20 0 3 "1 .2. "3" Degree of domestication of plants Literal words Metaphorical words 1 = non-domesticates 2 = semi-domesticates 3 = domesticates FIGURE 2 BALEE & MOORE: SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 257 DISCUSSION The above results are generally in accord with Berlin et al.'s (1973) pioneering hypothesis that cultural importance influences the retention of plant names in sister languages: Degree of Cultural Importance ,-Degree of Retention But our results suggest that this process can be further elucidated by recognizing as analytical variables (1) the degree of plant management (domesticated, semi-domesticated, non-domesticated); (2) a widespread nomenclatural pattern among these languages, in which words for traditional domesticates tend to be literal, words for non-domesticates tend to be metaphorical, and words for semi-domesticates tend to lie between these extremes; and 3) the much higher stability of literal, as opposed to metaphorical, plant names. In this model, the types of names which the nomenclatural pattern assigns to domesticates strongly tend to be literal, the types assigned to semi-domesticates show an increasing proportion of metaphorical terms, and the majority of those assigned to non-domesticates are metaphorical. For some reason, literal terms are more stable over time and hence are more apt to be similar from language to language. That is, to answer the question posed in the beginning, cultural factors of plant management and the plant naming system combine with the linguistic properties of names and diachronic linguistic processes to produce similarity and variation in plant vocabulary: (1) SYNCHRONIC FACTORS: Degree of Plant Management + Nomenclatural System , Proportion of Literal/Metaphorical Terms (2) DIACHRONIC PROCESSES: Differential Retention of Literal/Metaphorical Terms bSimilarity and Variation of Terms In spite of the somewhat different methods, the results of Berlin et al. (1973) are consistent wilh ours. Although we cannot say whether metaphorical names are proportionally more represented in the "wild" vs. "protected" and "cultivated" categories of Berlin et al. (1973), since non-cognates and their glosses in these categories are not shown, it is possible to indicate what proportion of the cognates is literal and what proportion is metaphorical and in 258 BULLETIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISrORY VOL. 35(4) which categories. The literal vs. metaphorical distinctions by our criteria can be obtained from the glosses of Tzeltal plant words given in Berlin et al. (1974). It is interesting that 79 Tzeltal plant names cognate with Tzotzil names are literal, while only 32 are metaphorical (Berlin et al. 1973, cf. 1974). This supports indirectly our contention that literal plant words tend to be cognate at a higher rate than metaphorical plant words. Second, although we cannot test significance of literal/metaphorical word proportions between the four different categories of plants given in Berlin et al. (1973) because of insufficient sample size, it is possible to test significance for the combined categories of cultivated and protected vs. wild-useful and wild-useless plants (see Tables 1-4 in Berlin et al. 1973). For the 111 cognate sample, 43 are cultivated and protected, while 68 are wild. Of the names for cultivated and protected plants, 37 are literaI while only 6 are metaphorical. Of the 68 names for wild plants, 42 are literal while as many as 26 are metaphorical. In other words, the ratio of literal to metaphorical cognates (37 to 6 or 6.2 to 1) in the cultivated and protected categories combined is about four times higher than the corresponding ratio (42 to 26 or 1.6 to 1) for the combined "wild" categories. This difference is very significant at p < .01, x2 = 7.0, df = 1). In other words, a nomenclatural pattern similar to that which we have Observed for five Tupi- Guarani languages appears to exist as well with respect to Tzeltal/Tzotzil plant names. In addition, a nomenclatural pattern that lexically distinguishes between cultivated and non-cultivated plants has been explicitly noted for Mayan speakers of the Yucatan penihsula (Marin et al. 1976:472). The factor of plant management correlates very highly with the retention of plant words in Tzeltal and Tzotzil. Although the sample proportion of cultivated to protected plants in Berlin et al. (1973) is too small to test significance of cognacy rates, it is possible to test overall significance of the proportion of cognacy for cultivated and protected vs. wild plants. Of the 52 word pairs obtained for cultivated and protected plants (see Table 5 in Berlin et al. 1973:161), 43 are cognates. Of the 205 word pairs for wild plants, only 68 are cognates. That is, managed plants have a cognacy ratio about two and a half times higher than non-managed plants. The question remains whether plant utility, aside from plant management, as we have defined it, would more economically explain the proportion of similar plant words among the five Tupi-Guarani languages in our sample. We quantified the uses of non-domesticated species (see Prance et al. 1987) for the Ka'apor. The uses were (1) food, (2) construction material, (3) tool, weapon, utensil or container, (4) medicine, and (5) adornment. Fuel and game food were excluded as uses, since these are extremely widespread among forest species. Each use is of two types: major or minor. A major use has a value of 1.0, a minor use of 0.5, and no use, 0 (cf. Turner 1988). Given that literal plant words tend to be cognate in other languages, while metaphorical words tend not to be cognate in other languages, we asked BAL6E & MOORE: SIMILARITY AND VARIAnON IN PLANT NAMES 259 whether literal plant words in Ka'apor refer to highly useful plants in a higher proportion than Ka'apor metaphorical plant words. We limited this question to the non-domesticated plant category, where the factor of use can be isolated from that of plant management. A high use value for any species would be 1.0 or above; a low use value would be 0.5 or below. Of 92 names in the Ka'apor sample of non-domesticated plant names, 25 refer to plants with a high use Value and 67 refer to plants with a low use value. Of the names denoting plants with a high use value, 13 are metaphorical, while 12 are literal. Of names for plants with a low use value, 37 are metaphorical while 30 are literal. The relative proportions of literal to metaphorical plant names in the two categories, high and low use value, do not significantly differ (x2 = .08, p > .05, df = 1). This means that the usefulness of a plant is not a factor in why its name is literal or metaphorical and, by inference, in why its name is retained or not. Why are literal plant terms more stable? One hypothesis is that of Alphonse de Candolle: they are shorter. While there may be some truth in this, there is probably more to it, since the shorter metaphorical words in our sample (one morpheme excluding any life-form or common plant part morpheme) do not seem to have a higher similarity rate than the longer words (two or three morphemes, excluding any life-form or common plant part morpheme). Another possibility is that the literal terms endure because of their arbitrariness--the metaphorical terms involve a cultural int6rpretation of the plant which is susceptible to change. In spite of the strong correlations observed in the section on results, there still remains some degree of unpredictability and possibly still unidentified factors at work in determining naming patterns. For example, some undomesticated species (in particular, several palms) show stable literal names. It is not yet clear what causes such exceptions. The general patterns explained above, however, appear to be also present in the Mayan Tzeltal and Tzotzil as well as in the Tupi-Guarani languages studied. Perhaps this is the general case in Neolithic societies. It would be instructive to see whether similarity and variation in other semantic fields, such as birds, fish, or mammals, can be analyzed along the same general principles. NOTES 1. The standardized symbols for consonants are as follows: p, t, 4 kw (labialized velar stop), ' (glottal stop), b, d, g, c (dental affricate), ~ (alveopalatal affricate),s, 5, z, d (voiced interdental fricative), h, m, n, 8, g (velar nasal), aw (labialized velar nasal) w, r, 1, and y. The vowel symbols are: i, e (mid or low-mid front 260 BULLEFIN FLORIDA MUSEUM NATURAL HISrORY VOL. 35(4) vowel), +, (high central vowel), a (mid central vowel) a, u, and o (mid or low-mid back vowel). In all of these languages, the nasals have homorganic prenasalized voiced stops as subphonemic variants, e.g. m is sometimes [mb]. The Wayapi phonemicization (Grenand 1980) is retained, although the symbols are standardized. The (surface) phonemes are: p, t, k, ', s, m, n, h, g, w, 1, y, i, e, a, u, 0,-4-, and nasalization. The Ka'apor data are presented in the phonemicization by Kakumasu (1986:399-401): p, t, 4 kw, ', s, 5, h, m, n, g, gw, w, r, y, i, e, 4, a, u, and o. The phonemicization for Tembt is taken from Bendor-Samuel (1966) recognizing as phonemes the following: p, t, 4 kw, 9, c (alveolar or alveopalatal affricate), z (alveolar or alveopalatal affricate or palatal Continuant), h, m, n, 6 gw, w, r, i, e, *, a,a, u, and o. For the Asurini language, we have only a very tentative phonemicization (Irmazinha Edith 1987:5-7) and some unpublished transcriptions by Sidney Facundes of the Museu Goeldi. Although the sounds J, fi, andy are possibly allophones of the same phoneme, as are g and a, we employ a broad phonetic transcription rather than risk an undifferentiated preliminary analysis. The symbols, then, are: p (bilabial stop, Vfricative, or affricate), t, c, 14 ', j, g, m, n, ln, g, w (bilabial semivowel or fricative), r, y, i,+ e, a, u, and nasalization. There is no phonemicization available for Arawet6, although some information appears in Viveiros de Castro (1986:145). The broad phonetic transcription for Arawet6 uses V . rrthe following symbols: p, t, 14 ',b, d, c, c, n, fl; m, n, n, w, r, y, 1, a , e, i, + , a, u, 0, and nasalization. 2. Cronquist (1988:18) later reaffirmed this, stating that: "It is perfectly clear that natural, recognizable groups of species, and groups of such groups, exist. The ranks at which these groups should be received are not inherent in the nature of the group, but depend on subjective individual judgment . . . any evaluation of the importance of the characters marking a [supraspecific] group is likely to be difficult and subject to unresolvable differences of opinion." 3. It is interesting to compare this with Berlin et al. (1973), whose methods differ somewhat from ours. They explicitly intended to exclude as possible cognates "compound names which appear to BALfiE & MOORE: SIMILARITY AND VARIATION IN PLANT NAMES 261 be the result of identical responses to the same stimuli" (1973:153). Careful study of glosses of Tzeltal plant names in Berlin et al. (1974), however, shows this not to be entirely the case. Example #88 from Table 4 (Berlin et al. 1973:159), ibil?ak in Tzeltal, is glossed as 'itchy vine' in Berlin et al. (1974:374). They stated "The sap derived from the leaves is a well-known skin irritant, hence the plant's name" (Berlin et al 1974:374). As such, the similarity between Tzeltal and Tzotzil names for this species could be a result of "identical responses to the same stimuli" and, by this criterion, should have been excluded from comparison. Other examples include #29, Pis te (Berlin et al. 1973:156), a thorny plant elsewhere glossed as 'spine tree' (Berlin et al. 1974:191) and #41, tus7'ak, the word for wild onion, elsewhere glossed as 'stink grass' (Berlin et al. 1974:458). In fact, our analysis explicitly includes such names, as long as the referents are of neotropical origin. LITERATURE CITED Albuquerque, M.,and E.M.R. Cardoso. 1980. 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Noticia do Brasil. Departamento de Assuntos Culturais do MEC, Sao Paulo. Storey, W.B. 1976. Papaya, Carica papaya (Caricaceae). Pages 21-24 in N.W. Simmonds, ed. Evolution of crop plants. Longman, London. Turner, N.J. 1988. "Ille importance of a rose": Evaluating the cultural significance of plants in Thompson and Lilloet interior Salish. Amen Anthropol. 90(2):272-290. Vasconcellos, S. 1865. Chronica da Companhia de Jesu no Estado do Brasil. A.J. Fernandes Lopes, Lisbon. Wessels Boer, J.G. 1965. Palmae in J. Lanjouw, ed. Flora of Suriname, vol. V, Part I:1-172. E.G. Brill, Leiden. Contributions to the BULLEI'IN OF THE FLORIDA MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, may be in any field of biology. Manuscripts dealing with natural history or systematic problems involving the southeastern United States or the New World tropics are solicited especially. Manuscripts should be of medium length--circa 35 to 200 pages (10,500-60,000 words). 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