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Ethiopian Jewish Migrants into Israel 
Jasmine Gaytan 

Department of Sociology 
 California State University, Los Angeles 

 
CONTEXTUAL OVERVIEW 

With the influx of Jewish migrants into Israel from all 
over the world, Israel has become a settler society for persons of 
Jewish origin. According to the PEW Research Center, as of 2010, 
3 million Jewish migrants have ended up in Israel. Additionally, 
in 2021, The Jewish Agency for Israel helped 28,601 Jewish 
immigrants enter Israel, marking a 31% increase compared to 
2020. Through a sociological perspective on religious migration 
and identity, this paper intends to discuss the Ethiopian Jewish 
migration processes into Israel. According to the Migration Data 
Portal, Israel is a top country for Ethiopian migrant destinations, 
with 78,000 Ethiopian immigrants in 2020. By analyzing how 
religion and identity can motivate migration, this paper intends to 
discuss the structures that facilitate Ethiopian Jewish migration 
into Israel. Previous research has shown that heterogeneity within 
the country of origin has influenced Ethiopian migration. Also, 
with limited microdata analysis involving individual Ethiopian 
demographic characteristics, large-scale data shows migration 
trends for Ethiopian migrants. More so, research has shown there 
is growing religious intolerance that Ethiopian Jewish migrants 
have endured in their country of origin and how cultural 
differences have created challenges for Ethiopian Jewish migrants 
in Israel. Lastly, the population in the movement defines 
themselves both in the sending and receiving country as Ethiopian 
Jewish migrants. The Ethiopian Jewish identity is shaped by 
religious and racial intolerance both in the sending and receiving 
countries. Finally, this paper aims to explore the motivations and 
challenges of Ethiopian Jewish migration to Israel as it is essential 
to understand historical and contemporary issues surrounding 
departure, transit, and arrival conditions for Ethiopian Jewish 
migration into Israel. Recommendations to improve conditions 
and human rights can be inferred.  
 
 



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DEMOGRAPHIC PORTRAIT 
As the country of origin, Ethiopia is in the Horn of Africa, 

which is a large peninsula in the East Africa region between 
Sudan, Somalia, and Kenya. The demographic population of 
Ethiopia has been shaped by Western influence, both critical 
political as well as rural upheaval, and natural disasters like 
drought and famine. The historical complexities of Ethiopia have 
shaped the population to be highly heterogeneous regarding 
ethnicity, education, and religious beliefs. For instance, Ethiopia’s 
society is ethnically stratified, whereas “one group dominates the 
others” (Tuso 1982:270). Ethiopia is ethnically heterogeneous, 
whereas ethnicity plays a crucial feature in “governance, power 
and resources, development, and management of public affairs 
(Mberu 2006:512). 

Similarly, Ethiopia’s educational system is 
disproportionate to that of pre-revolutionary Ethiopia, as those 
who were more socially and economically advantageous could 
benefit from the opportunity of modern education. Tuso 
(1982:280) states, “Government schools were built to educate the 
children of these groups and not the rural masses, who are usually 
non-Amhara.” More importantly, Ethiopia’s religious beliefs have 
a long cultural and historical relationship to the practice of 
Christianity and Islam. For instance, Ethiopian Jewish migrants 
faced religious persecution for practicing Jewish and Zionist 
activities (Terrazas 2007), such as when “The Derg made 
emigration illegal, closed Ethiopia’s borders, and banned religious 
practices.” Moreover, a brief description of migration processes 
based on large-scale data will give insight into the overall 
demographic characteristics of Ethiopian migrants. 

Macro-level data analysis has provided insight into the 
dynamics of Ethiopian migration. There are limited microdata 
involving individual Ethiopian migrant characteristics. The 
majority of Ethiopian migration data is based on large-scale 
processes. An example of macro-level research regarding 
migration trends amongst Ethiopians is conducted by authors 
Kuschminder, Anderson, and Siegel (2012:31). In contrast, the 
study examines the primary motivation for Ethiopian migrants 
emigrating to the Middle East, including work, and the primary 
reason for choosing the destination country is due to network 



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CALIFORNIA SOCIOLOGY FORUM VOL. 6 

effects like “having family or friends in the country of destination 
(26 percent).” Authors Kuschminder, Anderson, and Siegel (2012) 
also state that the feminization of migration is a growing trend for 
Ethiopian migrants, as 68 percent of Ethiopian migration to the 
Middle East is comprised of females. In the East and Horn of 
Africa, which includes Ethiopia (World Migration Report 
2022:264), “females account for the largest share of refugees and 
asylum seekers.” Ethiopian women tend to use the Eastern Route 
through the Horn of Africa for migration. Most female Ethiopian 
migrants use irregular channels through the Eastern Route to reach 
Middle Eastern countries for domestic work. Ethiopian migrants 
in 2021 were the largest nationality in the East and Horn of Africa 
to move into and out of the region with the predominant Eastern 
and Northern routes. The International Organization for Migration 
in relation to the East and Horn of Africa (2021:73) states that 
Ethiopian migrants who used the Northern Route consisted of 
“over half of the population on the move (54%) were between 18 
and 29 years old.” Another large-scale analysis of migration trends 
shows that Ethiopia is a top host country for internally displaced 
persons, with 9.6 million persons as well as 3.6 million refugees 
and asylum seekers. The influx of 5.4 million internally displaced 
persons in Ethiopia is due to “political tensions, terrorist attacks 
as well as prolonged droughts” (International Organization for 
Migration 2021:17). Moreover, a brief description of the 
demographic characteristics of the population in movement is 
relevant to religious challenges Jewish Ethiopians have endured 
in Ethiopia.  

Historical and contemporary complexities in the practice 
of Judaism in Ethiopia determine a key feature of Ethiopian 
Jewish identity. In Ethiopia, Jewish Ethiopians refer to themselves 
as Beta Israel, whereas their neighbors usually referred to them as 
Falasha (Kaplan 1988:1), “landless, wanderers, exiles.” In 
essence, Ethiopian Jewish migrants have historically remained 
outcasts in their own country. For the Jewish community in 
Ethiopia, Ethiopians have historically lived in peace with their 
Muslim and Christian neighbors (Terrazas 2007). However, 
historical events such as the push for Christian conversion in 
Ethiopia, as well as The Derg political repression of the late 19th 
century, have inflicted religious persecution amongst Jewish 



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CALIFORNIA SOCIOLOGY FORUM VOL. 6 

Ethiopians. Again, Judaic Ethiopians have primarily concentrated 
in the northern and northwestern parts of Ethiopia, where the 
Jewish community became increasingly isolated from the Jewish 
World until the historical events of World War II. However, the 
Ethiopian Jewish community did observe traditional practices of 
Judaism (Britannica 2022) like “the Sabbath, practice [of] 
circumcision, synagogue services led by priests…dietary laws of 
Judaism, observance [of] many laws of ritual uncleanness.” The 
practice of Judaism in Ethiopia has made Judaic Ethiopians a 
distinct minority in Ethiopia. The practice of Judaism has 
consistently been a predominant factor in how Judaic Ethiopians 
identify themselves. As Salamon (2003) illustrates, “The Beta 
Israel saw themselves as a distinct group, keepers of a faith…their 
belief was rooted in the Old Testament, whose commandments 
they meticulously observed.” Ethiopian Jewish identity whilst in 
Ethiopia has been shaped by Ethiopia’s historical and 
contemporary complexities.  
 
CHALLENGES FOR SAFE AND SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS 

Challenges for safe and sustainable Ethiopian Jewish 
livelihoods are evident across migration processes and how Judaic 
Ethiopians are racially and religiously perceived while living in 
Israel. Again, Ethiopia’s location is a strategic transit region 
(Adugna 2021) for migrants who aim for Europe and other 
northern destinations. According to the Migration Policy Institute, 
Adugna (2021) references migration patterns throughout Ethiopia, 
stating, “Migration occurs eastward to the Persian Gulf states and 
the Middle East, crossing the Red Sea or the Gulf of Aden; 
southward to South Africa; and northward across the Sahara, into 
Sudan and often Europe.” Jewish Ethiopians are mainly 
concentrated in Beta Israel in northern Gondar, Ethiopia. During 
the Derg governance of 1974, when Ethiopian Jewish migrants 
faced religious persecution, Ethiopian Jewish migrants who 
migrated used two routes: one was out of Sudan and the other 
Kenya. Author Terrazas (2007) states, “An estimated 4,000 
perished during the journey due to the severe conditions” because 
of illegal emigration. In 1989, Ethiopian Jewish migrants were 
able to migrate to Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, because of 
the “reestablishment of diplomatic relations between Israel and 



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Ethiopia” (Terrazas 2007). Ethiopian migrants have traveled to the 
Middle East at high rates since the 1990s through irregular 
channels. The International Organization for Migration (2021:6) 
illustrates the severity of irregular channels that many Ethiopian 
migrants use, noting, “The irregular journeys remain fraught with 
peril as migrants use multiple smuggler networks, cross dangerous 
seas, pass through war-torn countries and continuously face the 
risk of detention and deportation along the way or at destination.” 
The usage of irregular channels is an extreme reality Ethiopian 
migrants face regularly. Meanwhile, Ethiopian Jewish migrants 
faced significant migration challenges upon arriving in Israel. 

According to Israel’s Central Bureau of Statistics 
(2021:1), the population of Ethiopians living in Israel at the end 
of 2020 consisted of 159,500 residents, of which “88,500 were 
born in Ethiopia, and 71,000 were Israeli born with fathers born 
in Ethiopia.” The Ethiopian Jewish population in Israel is defined 
as those of Ethiopian origin by one or more parents. Moreover, the 
Ethiopian-origin population in Israel is concentrated in specific 
communities within Israel. Such as, in Qiryat Moshe, 3,000 
Ethiopian-origin residents comprise over 56% of the total number 
of residents, and in Rishon LeZiyyon, where 2,700 Ethiopian-
origin residents comprise 53% of the total number of residents, 
according to Israel’s Central Bureau of Statistics (2021:3). The 
concentration of Ethiopian Jewish migrants has led to the 
ghettoization of specific neighborhoods which are based on racial 
and socioeconomic prejudices. The evident increase in the 
Ethiopian-origin population in Israel has culminated in racial and 
religious intolerance, which has reflected the perceived identity of 
the Ethiopian Jewish-origin population.  

For instance, Ethiopian Jewish migrants did not identify 
as Black. However, in the transition from Ethiopia to Israel, 
Ethiopians were racially categorized as Black under Israel’s racial 
construct. Researcher Salamon (2003:9) illustrates the effect of 
the white-black binary within Israel’s racial system: “Race 
hierarchies persist to this day within the Ethiopian community in 
Israel and continue to have deleterious and far-reaching effects on 
Ethiopian racial identity.” To dig deeper, the categorization of 
Judaic Ethiopians as Black under Israel’s racial hierarchy 
fundamentally altered preconceived racial identities within the 



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CALIFORNIA SOCIOLOGY FORUM VOL. 6 

Ethiopian community. In other words, researcher Salamon 
(2003:7) describes Ethiopia’s racial categories, which consisted of 
red (qey), black (t’equr), light brown, and brown skin color 
(t’eyem). In contrast, Ethiopian Jewish migrants referred to 
themselves as qey or t’eyem but never black (t’equr). This racial 
categorization in Beta Israel is based on the historical racial 
oppression of black (t’equr) enslaved people, where Ethiopian 
Jewish migrants have historically owned enslaved Black 
Ethiopians. The transition from Ethiopia to Israel fundamentally 
changed the preconception of how Ethiopian Jewish migrants 
viewed themselves.  

Equally important, Judaic Ethiopians living in Israel faced 
religious intolerance by Israeli society. The disparities in religious 
and cultural practices created difficulties for integration. 
Integration challenges into Israeli society are because Jewish 
Ethiopians were isolated from other Jewish communities for many 
years. As a result, their practice of Judaism differed in many ways 
from the rest of the world’s Jewish population. As author Ben-
Eliezer (2008:936) exemplifies the practice of Judaism by 
Ethiopians, “It is a Judaism that is fraught with elements dating 
from biblical times, intermixed with elements of Ethiopian 
Christianity – the milieu in which they lived.” In other words, the 
Ethiopian population in Israel identifies as Jewish, but their 
Jewishness was questioned because of years of isolation from the 
rest of the world’s Jewish community. 

Additionally, the question of Jewishness is relative to 
Israel’s non-Jewish Muslims (Jewish immigrants). Ethiopians 
who migrated to Israel in 1993 under the Law of Return were 
converted to Falas Mura. As a result, Falas Muras are not 
recognized as Jewish under Israel’s halakhic law. According to 
researcher Raijman (2020), Falas Mura are “the descendants of 
Beta Israel communities in Ethiopia and Eritrea that converted to 
Christianity.” Israel’s halakhic law does not recognize Falas Mura 
as Jewish because of this ancestral conversion out of Judaism. 
Again, Falas Muras identifies (Raijman 2020) as “ethnically 
belonging to the Beta Israel community, with many practicing 
Jewish faith rituals.” They are considered non-Jewish migrants 
under Israel’s halakhic law. Finally, challenges for sustainable 
livelihood amongst the Ethiopian Jewish population living in 



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CALIFORNIA SOCIOLOGY FORUM VOL. 6 

Israel are shaped by religious and racial intolerance. By 
understanding the challenges to the sustainable livelihoods of 
Ethiopian Jewish migrants, recommendations to protect their 
human rights can be inferred.  

 
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVED CONDITIONS 
 Recommendations to protect the human rights of 
Ethiopian Jewish migrants may be inferred throughout the 
migration process, as well as Ethiopian Jewish livelihood in both 
Ethiopia and Israel. The unfortunate reality concerning the 
migration processes worldwide has led to increased migration 
governance. The Migration Data Portal discusses the Internal 
Organization for Migration’s (IOM) usage of the Migration 
Governance Indicators (MGI) tool. The MGI is a way to help 
countries understand and develop migration policies and 
practices. The MGI uses 90 indicators to help facilitate migration 
governance with three main objectives (2022:2), “Generate a 
dialogue on well-managed migration policies. Identify gaps to be 
addressed to inform the formulation of comprehensive migration 
strategies. Help establish baselines to track progress on national 
and international commitments.” The MGI (2019) for Ethiopia 
indicates numerous well-developed areas and the potential need 
for further development related to six different dimensions of 
migration governance. For instance, a possible need for further 
development within MGI’s safe, orderly, and regular migration 
indicator includes Ethiopia’s Proclamation No. 909/2015. 
Ethiopia’s Proclamation to Provide for the Prevention and 
Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants 
is limited. According to MGI (2019:19), “There are no formal 
cooperation agreements with other countries on the identification 
and tracking of missing migrants…revision to include…a national 
referral mechanism meant to assist victims of trafficking and other 
vulnerable migrants and returnees.” Ethiopia’s Proclamation for 
the Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and 
Smuggling of Migrants needs to be thoroughly addressed to 
protect the human rights of trafficked persons in and out of 
Ethiopia.  
  In addition to the IOM’s MGI for further development in 
Ethiopia’s policies and procedures, immigration services in 



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CALIFORNIA SOCIOLOGY FORUM VOL. 6 

Ethiopia have helped service Ethiopian Jewish candidates for 
Israeli approval. The Jewish Agency for Israel has provided 
services for Aliyah, another term for the immigration of Jewish 
descent to Israel, in Ethiopia’s Addis Ababa and Gondar. In 
contrast, The Jewish Agency for Israel (2021) has helped with 
departure, transit, and arrival in Israel; for instance, they have 
helped Ethiopian immigrants integrate into Israeli society by 
providing transitional housing that is dedicated to the “unique 
cultural needs of Ethiopian olim [immigrants on Aliyah to Israel].” 
Additionally, Israel’s 1950s Law of Return has encouraged Jewish 
migration to Israel, as stated by Palmer and Kraus (2017:3). This 
policy has significantly influenced Ethiopian Jewish migration, as 
it policy allows immigration into Israel for anyone who can prove 
their Jewish ethnicity. For instance, Operation Moses and 
Operation Solomon were two pivotal movements under Israel’s 
Law of Return for Ethiopian Jewish immigration. Under 
Operation Moses (Kruger 2005), 8,000 Judaic Ethiopians came to 
Israel under a “covert removal of Ethiopian Jews who had fled to 
Sudan,” and 14,000 Ethiopian Jews arrived in Israel under 
Operation Solomon when “Eritrean and Tigrean rebels challenged 
the Ethiopian Government in 1991.” Again, these are only a few 
policies and procedures that help protect human rights throughout 
the Ethiopian migration process; innumerable policies and 
procedures on the macro and micro spectrum can help protect the 
human rights of Ethiopian migrants during the migration process. 

Meanwhile, there are considerable recommendations that 
protect the human rights of Ethiopian Jewish migrants living in 
Israel. Growing research shows the everyday cultural racism 
Ethiopian Jewish migrants experience while living in Israel. The 
Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI) has helped protect 
the human rights of Ethiopians living in Israel as there is an 
emergence of Ethiopians experiencing painful discrimination in 
many sectors of Israeli society. For instance, the ACRI recently 
filed a claim against the Israeli Police for racial profiling of a 16-
year-old Ethiopian boy. As reported by ACRI (2021), “We argued 
that the behavior of the officers violated the boy’s right to equality 
and dignity, unjustifiably revoked his freedom, and invaded his 
privacy.” Racial discrimination against Ethiopians persists 
amongst many different sectors of the Israeli community, and the 



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CALIFORNIA SOCIOLOGY FORUM VOL. 6 

ACRI is just one example that helps protect the civil and human 
rights of Israeli society.  

Lastly, recommendations for improved Ethiopian Jewish 
livelihood can be made based on the religious intolerances 
Ethiopian Jewish migrants encounter while living in Israel. As 
previously mentioned, Ethiopian Jewish migrants face integration 
challenges because of the differences in the practice of Judaism in 
comparison to their Israeli neighbors. Again, Judaic Ethiopians 
have been the victims of discrimination while living in Israel. 
However, specific advocacy groups like the Israel Association for 
Ethiopian Jews have helped the absorption of Ethiopian Jews into 
Israeli society. The Israel Association for Ethiopian Jews offers 
programs in the forms of community empowerment, employment, 
technical training, and law. For example, in an article by World 
Israel News written by Paul Shindman (2020), “President Reuven 
Rivlin and Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu joined 
[Ethiopian] community leaders to remember the estimated 4,000 
Jews from the African Country who perished…trying to reach 
Israel.” Services to commemorate Ethiopian Jewish migrants have 
helped bring attention to Ethiopian Jewish integration into Israeli 
society. 

 
CONCLUSION 
 To effectively protect the human rights of Ethiopian 
Jewish migrants, recommendations for migration processes 
through migration tools like the Migration Governance Indicator 
and immigration services like The Jewish Agency for Israel may 
be utilized to ensure the safety of Ethiopian Jewish migration into 
Israel. The irregular migration channels and the severity of natural 
circumstances surrounding the realities of migration processes are 
inevitable. However, these harsh realities can be significantly 
decreased by implementing migration governance. Additionally, 
to effectively provide a sustainable livelihood for Ethiopian 
Jewish migrants’ advocacies like The Association for Civil Rights 
in Israel and Israel Association for Ethiopian Jewish migrants are 
prominent instruments that promote Ethiopian Jewish integration 
into Israeli society. Recommendations for sustainable livelihood 
for Ethiopian Jewish migrants living in Israel are comprehensible 



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CALIFORNIA SOCIOLOGY FORUM VOL. 6 

if the information is publicized through written text and various 
media sources.  
 

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festival-2021.aspx 

Kaplan, S. 1988. “The Beta Israel and the Rabbinate: law, ritual and politics.” Social 
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Palmer, Zachary D, and Rachel Kraus. 2017. “‘Live in Israel. Live the Dream: Identity, 
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Jasmine Gaytan (She/Her): I have my A.A. in Administration of Justice 
from Pasadena City College. I also have my B.A. in Sociology with an 
emphasis in Law and Society from California State University- Los Angeles. 
I am in my last semester for my M.A. in Sociology here at California State 
University- Los Angeles. My research of interest includes education, 
pedagogical practices, race and ethnic inequalities. I am currently submitting 
my research on the topic “What role does Whiteness have in the opposition 
of Critical Race Theory (CRT) in Florida’s K-12 public education?” which I 
hope to be published in an academic article. It is my intention to promote 
awareness of the social phenomenon of anti-CRT legislation by 
understanding the role “Whiteness” has in opposition to CRT.


	Ethiopian Jewish Migrants into Israel - Jasmine Gaytan



