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Gender in the EU-Canada Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement: 

Third-Generation Trade Agreement as a Gateway to Policy Coordination? 
 

Crina Viju-Miljusevic 1, Carleton University 

Agnieszka Weinar2, Carleton University 

 

 

 

Abstract 

This article considers the place of trade and gender in EU-Canada relations, with a particular focus 

on CETA and its functioning in a broader sense. More specifically, the authors seek to understand 

the process of defining the trade and gender agenda under the CETA framework and the practical 

ways the EU and Canada have sought to respond to them. The authors examine the challenges and 

opportunities related to women’s participation in the EU-Canada trade flows, what the instruments 

developed to support them were, what tools were at their disposal, whether CETA had had a real 

impact on their business activities, as well as the dynamics of the policy exchange and learning. 

The authors find that CETA delivers solid structures to design and implement concrete actions, 

leading to more policy coordination between the EU and Canada on trade and gender issues. 

However, there are still several gaps that need to be addressed, with the lack of disaggregated data 

being the most important. 

 

 

 

  

 
1 Crina Viju-Miljusevic is an Associate Professor in the Institute of European, Russian and Eurasian Studies at 

Carleton University.  She is also the Associate Director of the Centre for European Studies at Carleton University. 
2 Agnieszka Weinar is a Research Adjunct Professor at the Institute of European, Russian and Eurasian Studies at 

Carleton University. 



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1. Introduction  

The Canada-European Union Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement (CETA), signed in 

2016, was a groundbreaking agreement in many ways. It has been touted by some (Rioux, Deblock, 

and Wells 2020; Leblond and Viju-Miljusevic 2022) as a third-generation trade agreement, i.e., 

including provisions that build and deepen the multilateral trade commitments far beyond the 

agreement on tariffs.3 Besides the unprecedented fact that it removed 98 percent of all tariffs 

between the two parties a year after being signed, CETA included a broad range of solutions that 

facilitated business exchanges between Canada and the European Union (EU), such as standards, 

procurement rules, or even policy alignments.4 Still, CETA does not have a specific chapter on 

gender like the more recent trade agreements signed by Canada. However, in a rather extraordinary 

show of mutual understanding and value alignment, leaders from EU and Canada agreed to push 

for an increased uptake of entrepreneur roles among women and support women-led businesses in 

the context of CETA (Statistics Canada 2018).5  

Since the core CETA text does not have a clear reference to gender and trade, the EU and Canada 

agreed to Recommendation 002/2018 on Trade and Gender.6 Most importantly, it was among the 

first decisions of the CETA Joint Committee taken after the provisional implementation had been 

agreed, which testifies to the political importance of the issue. This political direction was justified 

by data showing that women-led businesses are significantly less numerous, smaller, and less 

internationally minded than those led by men. Both parties agreed that the challenges women face 

when engaging in business are mainly related to logistical, border, and administrative obstacles as 

well as wide-ranging gender discrimination, which can limit opportunities (Government of Canada 

2020). The statistics provided by the Global Affairs Canada report “Trade and gender” outline that 

“two-way Canadian merchandise trade with the EU averaged $94.7 billion CAD annually during 

2018 and 2019...up by 25.5% compared to 2016 – the last full-year before preferential tariff 

treatment under CETA was applicable” (Government of Canada 2021). Women-owned and equally 

owned Canadian businesses make up a larger portion of importers as compared to exporters, but a 

smaller portion of imports compared to exports by value. In 2017, women-owned and equally 

owned businesses comprised 18 percent of export value, 17.5 percent of import value, 21.4 percent 

of exporters, and 26.2 percent of importers. The number of jobs directly or indirectly supported by 

goods exports occupied by women is 36,032. This number includes Canada’s 11 largest EU export 

partners: Germany, Netherlands, France, Italy, Belgium, Spain, Ireland, Finland, Latvia, Poland, 

and Sweden, which accounted for about 92 percent of exports to the EU in 2019. The information 

is aggregated without providing details about age, immigrant status, degree, or country. The 

information was presented only for the year 2017, thus not allowing for an assessment of the 

impact of CETA. 

 
3 For a description of third-generation trade agreements see Leblond and Viju-Miljusevic 2022.  
4 European Commission. n.d. EU-Canada Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA). Accessed August 

2, 2024. https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/eu-trade-relationships-country-and-region/countries-and-regions/canada/eu-

canada-agreement_en.  
5 Initiatives to promote women’s business ownership have been promoted by different countries, including Canada 

and the EU member states, as the literature has shown that business ownership is an important trigger for growth, 

innovation and employment (Adema et al. 2014; Coleman and Robb 2012).   
6 CETA Joint Committee issued Recommendation 002/2018 on Trade and Gender: CETA Joint Committee. 

Recommendation 002/2018 of 26 September 2018 of the CETA Joint Committee on Trade and Gender. 2018. 

Accessed July 10, 2024. https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-

commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/rec-002.aspx?lang=eng. 

https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/eu-trade-relationships-country-and-region/countries-and-regions/canada/eu-canada-agreement_en
https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/eu-trade-relationships-country-and-region/countries-and-regions/canada/eu-canada-agreement_en
https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/rec-002.aspx?lang=eng
https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/rec-002.aspx?lang=eng


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Since 2018, the EU and Canada have engaged in a series of activities and initiatives focusing, on 

the one hand, on supporting women entrepreneurs to take advantage of CETA and, on the other, to 

stir the debate on women and trade in international fora, leading by example. In fact, the authors 

can argue that the very fact of giving CETA open-ended, deliberative structures, typical for third-

generation trade agreements, has made such policy cooperation possible.  

Using trade leverage as a tool for policy change is not new. In fact, European integration is a prime 

example of such dynamics, as are the trade agreements signed by the EU with many other countries 

around the world.7 What is, however, unusual in the case of CETA is that the EU has not been the 

coordination proponent. Canada, as its partner, has used CETA as a gateway to develop a new 

direction of EU-Canada cooperation, leveraging a trade agreement with a powerful partner to boost 

its policy profile on gender equality promotion on the international scene. Quite 

uncharacteristically, the EU followed suit.  

Six years on, and with COVID in the rearview mirror, how much has this dynamic achieved? What 

are the prospects of the trade and gender policy coordination to make a lasting impression on the 

Canada-EU trade? This article considers the place of trade and gender in the EU-Canada relations, 

with a particular focus on CETA. More specifically, the article analyzes the process of defining the 

trade and gender policy coordination agenda under the CETA framework and the practical ways 

the EU and Canada have sought to respond to the requirements of Recommendation 002/2018.  

The article is structured as follows. It begins with a brief review of CETA as a third-generation 

trade agreement and a discussion of the analytical framework and research methodology 

employed by the authors. The next section analyzes the policy developments, which is followed 

by the conclusion. The article aims to present a broad-brush picture of EU-Canada policy 

coordination on gender and trade under CETA, a first attempt to map this issue.  

 

2. Canada and EU approaches to trade and gender in preferential trade agreements (PTAs)  

2.1 Canada and EU approaches to gender and trade 

Canada sought to consider gender mainstreaming in its Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) by 

introducing gender equality chapters and other gender-related provisions into trade agreements 

early on during Prime Minister Justin Trudeau’s first mandate. Canada-Chile (2017) and Canada-

Israel (2018) were the first examples of that policy trend. In addition to a specific chapter, gender-

related provisions are found in chapters on investment, labour, and cooperation, as well as the 

preamble (Government of Canada 2023). Other trade agreements with no specific chapter on trade 

and gender, such as the Canada-US-Mexico Agreement (CUSMA) signed in 2019, include 

comprehensive gender provisions in chapters on labour, investment, and small and medium-sized 

enterprises.8  Additionally, in 2020, Canada, Chile, and New Zealand signed the Global Trade and 

Gender Arrangement (GTGA)—the first cooperation agreement on trade and gender, which 

includes more detailed gender-related provisions.   

 
7 See among others, Vogel 1995, Meunier and Nicolaides 2006, Young and Peterson 2006, Drezner 2008, Bach and 

Newman 2007, Dür and Zimmermann 2007, Bartels 2007, Antoniades 2008, Newman and Posner 2015, Poletti and 

Sicurelli 2018, Ferraris 2020, Velluti 2020, Lenz 2021, Pelkmans 2021. 
8 Government of Canada. 2019a. Canada-United States-Mexico Agreement (CUSMA). Trade and gender provisions 

summary. Accessed July 10, 2024. https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-

commerciaux/agr-acc/cusma-aceum/gender_equality-egalite_sexes.aspx?lang=eng. 

https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/cusma-aceum/gender_equality-egalite_sexes.aspx?lang=eng
https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/cusma-aceum/gender_equality-egalite_sexes.aspx?lang=eng


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The EU has committed to gender mainstreaming in its external policy since 2020 with the EU’s 

Gender Action Plan III and the Gender Equality Strategy 2020–2025.9 In December 2022, Chile 

and the EU concluded negotiations on a modernized Association Agreement, which includes a 

dedicated chapter on trade and gender.10 The gender chapters in these trade agreements focus on 

women’s participation, women’s rights, and gender mainstreaming.11 Despite being considered 

progressive, as they acknowledge the intersection between trade and gender, gender chapters in 

trade agreements are criticized for their inability to result in meaningful changes. Some of the 

reasons for such limited impacts are related to exclusion from dispute settlement mechanisms, 

being stand-alone chapters which do not apply to other areas of the trade agreements, and lack of 

resources for NGOs that should lobby for policy development (Hannah, Roberts, and Trommer 

2022). 

2.2. CETA as a third-generation trade agreement and its (lack of) focus on gender 

CETA was hailed by the European External Action Service as a “landmark” agreement, “the best, 

the most ambitious and the most progressive form of trade agreement…that the EU has ever 

concluded,” a novel agreement, as well as the template for future agreements, such as the 

Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership and the EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement 

(Delegation of the European Union to Canada 2021). One of the main goals of CETA is to 

minimize non-tariff barriers between the two parties involved. The EU and Canada have adopted 

aspects of the drive for “good regulatory practices (GRPs) through the Regulatory Cooperation 

Forum.”12 CETA’s Regulatory Cooperation Forum (RCF) is unique, as there are very different 

institutional realities in transatlantic economic and political systems. CETA is considered by some 

a third-generation trade agreement. Despite not being a widely used category of trade agreements, 

the authors agree with the scholarship (Leblond and Viju-Miljusevic 2022; Rioux, Deblock, and 

Wells 2020) that considers the innovations of CETA pointing to a third generation of trade 

agreements. CETA is deeper than first- and second-generation trade agreements, it includes the 

liberalization of different policy areas such as investment, government procurement, sustainability, 

and intellectual property rights. It addresses non-trade objectives such as human rights, 

environment, and labour rights, and it includes an extensive institutional framework that facilitates 

cooperation after the agreement has started to be implemented (Leblond and Viju-Miljusevic 

2022). For a complete description see Table 1 in Annex. Although it is still too early to say 

 
9 European Commission. 2020a. Gender Action Plan – Putting Women and Girls’ Rights at the Heart of the Global 

Recovery for a Gender-Equal World. Accessed March 15, 2024. 

https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_20_2184 ; European Commission. 2020b. Gender Equality 

Strategy. Achievements and Key Areas for Action. Accessed March 15, 2024. 

https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/gender-equality/gender-

equality-strategy_en.  
10 Other trade agreements that included a gender chapter: Chile-Argentina (entered into force 2018), UK-Japan 

(entered into force 2021), UK-Australia (entered into force 2023), UK-New Zeeland (signed in 2022). 
11 Gender mainstreaming ensures that gender perspectives are taken into account at every level and in all areas of 

cooperation (Hannah, Roberts, and Trommer 2022). 
12 Directorate-General for Trade (European Commission). 2020. EU-Canada Comprehensive Economic and Trade 

Agreement (CETA). Article 21.6. Accessed on March 14, 2024. https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/eu-trade-

relationships-country-and-region/countries-and-regions/canada/eu-canada-agreement_en.  
 

https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_20_2184
https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/gender-equality/gender-equality-strategy_en
https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/gender-equality/gender-equality-strategy_en
https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/eu-trade-relationships-country-and-region/countries-and-regions/canada/eu-canada-agreement_en
https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/eu-trade-relationships-country-and-region/countries-and-regions/canada/eu-canada-agreement_en


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definitively how effective such cooperation mechanisms are, the case of trade and gender can shed 

light on the pathways to achieve policy coordination and implement policy outcomes.13 

Despite being considered one of the most advanced trade agreements negotiated up to date, CETA 

does not include a separate chapter on gender issues. However, it includes a sub-paragraph related 

to gender and trade in the investment chapter. Article 8.10 2(d) states that “a measure or series of 

measures constitute ‘targeted discrimination on manifestly wrongful grounds’ if…a differential 

treatment based on gender, race or religious belief cannot be justified on the basis of objective and 

legitimate grounds, such as measures that are designed or applied to protect legitimate public 

welfare objectives, including health, the promotion of gender equality, environment (including 

climate protection) or safety.”14 This is considered a milestone as it is the first appearance of the 

word “gender” instead of “women” or “sex” in a trade agreement between G20 economies. 

Additionally, it is the first time when such a provision is justiciable under a dispute settlement (still 

in need of ratification by the EU member states at the current time) (Fabian 2021). Additionally, 

CETA has created the opportunity for the two parties to have regular meetings and propose 

common initiatives that would support women-led businesses to take advantage of CETA.  

 

3. Methodological approaches and data collection  

The analysis is based primarily on three types of sources. 

a)  Policy documents produced post-2018 by the European Commission and Government of 

Canada on the trade and gender agenda as well as relevant policy reports and Action Plans. 

The documents reviewed considered the level of implementation of Recommendation 

002/2018. 

b) Supporting expert interviews with representatives of women-led business organizations. 

The specific inquiry on CETA-related training and mentoring schemes was addressed to 23 

organizations in Canada supporting women entrepreneurship. The choice was driven by an 

online search, starting with the Global Affairs Canada information system, Women 

Entrepreneurship Knowledge Hub database and Export Development Canada’s website. 

Reaching out to these organizations yielded a low response rate, with seven responses in 

total and only three having CETA-relevant trade promotion programs. Experts from these 

three organizations were asked to participate in the study. In the European Union, the 

authors identified Europe Enterprise Network (EEN) and WEGate as relevant 

organizations and conducted an interview with representatives of each organization. The 

 
13 The current assessments of the CETA temporary implementation are mainly focused on the quantitative 

achievements related to bilateral trade increases due to tariff reduction and tariff utilization rates as well as the number 

of SMEs involved in Canada-EU trade (Government of Canada (Office of the Chief Economist) 2020; European Union 

2022). Government of Canada (Office of the Chief Economist). 2022. CETA@5 Delivering Trade Benefits during 

Unprecedented Times. https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/assets/pdfs/economist-economiste/analysis-

analyse/benefits-ceta5-avantages_eng.pdf; GOPA Com. 2022. Five Years of CETA: Sustainable and Reliable Trade in 

Uncertain Times. September 19, 2022. Accessed July 10, 2024. https://ceta-5-years-anniversary-

event.b2match.io/page-861. 

14 Directorate-General for Trade (European Commission). 2020. EU-Canada Comprehensive Economic and Trade 

Agreement (CETA). Article 8.10 2(d). Accessed on July 10, 2024. https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/eu-trade-

relationships-country-and-region/countries-and-regions/canada/eu-canada-agreement_en.  
 

https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/assets/pdfs/economist-economiste/analysis-analyse/benefits-ceta5-avantages_eng.pdf
https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/assets/pdfs/economist-economiste/analysis-analyse/benefits-ceta5-avantages_eng.pdf
https://ceta-5-years-anniversary-event.b2match.io/page-861
https://ceta-5-years-anniversary-event.b2match.io/page-861
https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/eu-trade-relationships-country-and-region/countries-and-regions/canada/eu-canada-agreement_en
https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/eu-trade-relationships-country-and-region/countries-and-regions/canada/eu-canada-agreement_en


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questionnaire focused on trade promotion instruments implemented by the organizations 

that were interviewed, with the interviews being conducted using Zoom. 

c) Supporting expert interviews with trade representatives from the EU member states and 

Canada (Trade Commissioner Service representatives—TCSs). Potential candidates for 

interviews were contacted by email, using the email addresses available publicly on the 

relevant websites. The authors contacted 23 member state trade representatives (EU 

Chambers of Commerce in Canada and trade councillors in EU embassies in Canada). 

There were six responses: Spain, Austria, Ireland, Poland, Italy, and Germany. Moreover, 

the authors contacted 18 trade commissioners, but only six replied, and three contributed 

to the research with detailed data (Italy/Malta, Poland, and Finland). The interviews were 

conducted using Zoom and followed a pre-approved questionnaire.15 The interviews were 

not recorded, and the answers were anonymous. In several instances, the experts were not 

available for an interview, but they shared general information in writing about their 

country’s trade promotion instruments focused on women in the context of CETA or 

beyond. The relevant list is available in Annex 1. 

The authors encountered several impediments to data collection that have impacted the size of 

their final datasets. For qualitative data, an important obstacle was a lack of openness of women’s 

business organizations to participate in this project. The level of engagement was very low, 

resulting in a less than 20 percent response rate from the population contacted. This behaviour 

might be explained by the extreme fragmentation of the business associations working with women 

entrepreneurs in Canada and by the fact that there are no networks that work as a government-

supported service rather than those based on membership fees. In fact, the most accessible 

organizations were those supported by local governments (municipal or provincial). Moreover, the 

response rate by the EU member states and TCS representatives can be explained by the limited 

resources of the public services—in fact, the authors have received responses stating that there is 

no capacity in the public service to reply to research inquiries. 

In the process of searching and collecting statistical information, the main problem was a lack of 

necessary disaggregated data with detailed ownership characteristics such as nationality, age, and 

geography of doing business. This issue was caused by two main reasons: (i) the Privacy Act, 

which governs the federal government’s collection, retention, use, and disclosure of personal 

information; (ii) the methodology behind data collection of statistical institutions in Canada and 

Europe does not involve the collection of detailed information.16 Based on this research, 

disaggregated data does not exist due to the nature of the methodology used to collect and protect 

personal data, and thus, the authors could not complete a statistical analysis of the impacts of 

CETA.  

 

4. CETA’s gender policy framework in action 

Trade and gender commitments under CETA are based on the core values and policies developed 

by partners over the years. The EU has been actively involved in promoting gender equality and 

addressing gender-related issues through various policies. Gender equality is one of the 

 
15 Ethics clearance 116437.  
16 Government of Canada. 2024. Privacy Act. Accessed August 23, 2023. https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/P-

21/page-1.html. 

https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/P-21/page-1.html
https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/P-21/page-1.html


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fundamental values of the EU enshrined in its treaties. For example, the Treaty of Rome of 1957 

establishing the European Economic Community requires each member state to apply the principle 

of equal pay for women and men. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty on the European Union includes the 

protection of women in the Agreement on Social Policy, while the Treaty of Amsterdam of 1997 

places gender equality as one of the EU’s goals and defines the principle of non-discrimination 

based on gender among other characteristics. For the EU, “[g]ender equality is at the core of 

European values and enshrined within the European Union (EU) legal and political framework. 

The EU and its Member States are at the forefront of the protection, fulfilment and the enjoyment 

of human rights by women and girls and strongly promote them in all external relations, also 

beyond development cooperation.”17 Thus, the EU has portrayed itself as a frontrunner in 

promoting gender equality through its external policies. The literature analyzing the adoption and 

implementation of gender equality principles in EU external relations, including through its trade 

policy and, thus, trade agreements, has developed quickly.18 Canada, on the other hand, was 

portrayed as a champion on gender equality only since the election of Prime Minister Justin 

Trudeau. However, Fabian (2021) and Hannah, Roberts, and Trommer (2022) show that Canada 

has a long history of policymaking in the field of gender and trade that crosses partisan lines.19 

Canada has also been recognized as an international agenda-setting leader for trade and gender. 

For example, it is a key architect of the World Trade Organization (WTO) Joint Declaration on 

Trade and Women’s Economic Empowerment and other WTO initiatives.  

4.1 CETA Trade and Gender Action Plan 

The gender-related policy ambition of CETA was first introduced in September 2018 during the 

inaugural Women Ministers Meeting, a pivotal event attended by prominent figures such as 

Chrystia Freeland, then Minister of Foreign Affairs of Canada, and Federica Mogherini, then High 

Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, and Vice President 

of the Commission. This gathering set the stage for subsequent discussions on the integration of 

gender considerations into trade policies.20 On September 26, 2018, the CETA Joint Committee 

issued Recommendation 002/2018 on Trade and Gender. It was developed and adopted within the 

legal context of Article 26.1.5(t) of CETA, which empowers the CETA Joint Committee to make 

recommendations “suitable for promoting the expansion of trade and investment.”21 The following 

recommendations were made: 

1. “The CETA Joint Committee recommends that the Parties cooperate to improve the 

capacity and conditions for women, including workers, businesswomen and entrepreneurs, 

to access and fully benefit from the opportunities created by CETA.” 

 
17 Council of the EU. 2015. Council Conclusion on the Gender Action Plan 2016-2020 (GAP II) 13201/15. 

https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/24467/st13201-en15.pdf. 
18 Pollack and Hafner-Burton 2000; Bretherton 2001; Lister and Carbone 2006; Hoskyns 2008; True 2009a/b; Ulmer 

2007; Van der Vleuten et al. 2014; Debusscher and Manners 2020. 
19 Please see Fabian (2021) for a detailed description of the key milestones of the Canadian gender and trade 

governance. 
20 IISD SDG Knowledge Hub. Women Foreign Ministers’ Meeting, Montreal, Quebec, September 21–22, 2018. 

Accessed June 5, 2023. http://sdg.iisd.org/events/women-foreign-ministers-meeting/.  
21 Government of Canada. 2017. Text of the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement – Chapter Twenty-Six: 

Administrative and Institutional Provisions. Accessed July 10, 2024.https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-

commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/text-texte/26.aspx?lang=eng. 

https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/24467/st13201-en15.pdf
http://sdg.iisd.org/events/women-foreign-ministers-meeting/
https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/text-texte/26.aspx?lang=eng
https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/text-texte/26.aspx?lang=eng


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2. “Recognising the need to better understand the impact of trade on gender equality and 

women’s participation in the economy, the CETA Joint Committee recommends that the 

Parties start their cooperation activities by: 

a) Sharing methods and procedures for the collection of gender-disaggregated data, the 

use of indicators, monitoring and evaluation methodologies, and the analysis of 

gender-focused statistics related to trade; 

b) Exchanging experience and best practices for conducting gender-based analysis of 

trade policies; and 

c) Exploring the implication for the design and implementation of trade agreements, 

including CETA.”22 

It is interesting that the first recommendation focuses in general terms on CETA cooperation, while 

the second one, with three sub-recommendations, has a clear international dimension. This focus 

reflects a broader international trend that seeks to bridge the gender gap in trade, aligning with 

global initiatives such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), specifically 

SDG 5 on gender equality. The accent on the international aspect can be interpreted as going 

beyond EU-Canada bilateral trade under CETA. That approach creates some confusion as to what 

“gender and trade” means in bilateral cooperation, what the real scope of the Recommendation is, 

and what the parties really want to achieve. 

Progress achieved on these points was to be reported periodically. The Joint Activity Report from 

September 21, 2020 has been the only such document available publicly to date. 23 The Report 

shed light on nine activities, which had been implemented for 18 months, between 2018 and 2020. 

Three distinct types of initiatives have been implemented: exchanges on policy, stakeholder 

engagement, and collaboration in multilateral fora. 

Exchanges on policy:  Canada and the EU engaged in videoconferences and discussions aimed at 

enhancing the understanding of gender-related issues in trade policies. This exchange of 

knowledge covered topics such as gender equality laws, policies, programs, and the impact 

assessment of trade agreements on gender. These activities focused on policymakers and decision-

makers in both economies, fostering a deeper appreciation for gender-inclusive trade policies. 

Stakeholder engagement: Several initiatives were launched to engage stakeholders and women-

owned businesses. Roundtable discussions, workshops, and webinars were organized to gather 

input and insights from women entrepreneurs. The activities provided platforms for women to 

share their challenges and opportunities in accessing the benefits of trade under CETA. Notable 

events included the Trade and Gender Roundtable, co-hosted by EU Commissioner Cecilia 

Malmström and Canada’s Minister of International Trade Diversification, Jim Carr, and a CETA 

Trade and Gender workshop in Brussels, which included over 80 participants from civil society. 

Collaboration in multilateral fora: Canada and the EU actively participated in international fora 

focused on promoting gender-responsive trade agreements. They contributed to a World Trade 

Organization (WTO) workshop exploring the role of trade agreements in advancing gender 

 
22 CETA Joint Committee issued a Recommendation 002/2018 on Trade and Gender. Accessed June 5, 

2023.https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-

aecg/rec-002.aspx?lang=eng.  
23 OAS Foreign Trade Information System. 2020. “Joint Activity Report to the CETA Joint Committee.” Accessed 

May 28, 2024. 

http://www.sice.oas.org/TPD/CAN_EU/Committees/CETA_Gender_Joint_Activity_Report_09_2020_e.pdf. 

https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/rec-002.aspx?lang=eng
https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/rec-002.aspx?lang=eng
http://www.sice.oas.org/TPD/CAN_EU/Committees/CETA_Gender_Joint_Activity_Report_09_2020_e.pdf


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equality. These collaborative efforts underlined their leadership in shaping global discussions on 

gender-inclusive trade policies. Key partners and stakeholders included various government 

bodies, civil society organizations, women entrepreneurs, and international institutions such as the 

WTO and UN Women. The involvement of both Canadian and EU officials, along with 

contributions from women entrepreneurs, facilitated cross-border knowledge sharing and insights. 

The CETA Trade and Gender Recommendation Work Plan 2020–2021, published also in 

September 2020, did build partially on the previous work plan.24 However, it drifted even more 

away from the core CETA mandate focused on bilateral relations towards a multilateral approach 

and involvement on an international level. Out of the six initiatives, only one focused strictly on 

the business of supporting women under CETA: an exchange of the ex-post assessment of the 

impact of CETA on gender equality. The rest included sharing data methods, developing gender-

responsive trade agreements, applying a gender lens to WTO work, and hosting webinars on 

financing and standards, all involving multilateral relations and not focusing on CETA.25  

The closer analysis of these documents allows for two main conclusions. First, “gender” in “trade 

and gender” specifically means women. This referred to women as a social construct, hence the 

talk about the barriers to entrepreneurship and trade, but also women as a biological entity, hence 

the event on standards in industrial production, such as protective gear. Second, there has been a 

marked change of focus from the political narratives launched in 2018 to the most recent 

documents (2020). The goal of a tangible strengthening of CETA and improving women 

entrepreneurship in bilateral trade has slowly disappeared from bilateral exchanges for the benefit 

of a general debate on trade issues and discussion focused on the recommendations of international 

organizations.26 The bilateral approach has visibly lost steam. From this perspective, the fate of 

the Recommendation is uncertain. Moreover, the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, often 

referred to as a “she-cession,” has brought into sharp focus the formidable challenges faced by 

women in business, particularly those operating SMEs, on both sides of the Atlantic.27 Regrettably, 

the post-pandemic CETA activities between the EU and Canada have not substantively addressed 

this pressing concern. 

4.2 Between Policy and Implementation 

The official bilateral efforts aimed at implementing the gender and trade priorities within the 

framework of CETA have yielded limited progress. The emphasis on gender, trade, and 

entrepreneurship has predominantly remained within the sphere of Canadian interest. However, 

despite the decline in bilateral interactions, the institutions and organizations on both sides of the 

Atlantic have independently pursued the development of initiatives and assistance for women’s 

entrepreneurship. Below the authors present the initiatives undertaken in the EU and in Canada 

 
24 Government of Canada. 2020. CETA Trade and Gender Recommendation: EU-Canada Work Plan 

 2020-2021. Accessed August 2, 2024. https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-

commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/CETA_work_plan-AECG_plan_travail-2020-2021.aspx?lang=eng. 
25 Unfortunately, there has been no official report on implementation of the work plan at the time of writing.  
26 See, for example, the 2023 Report on Gender Equality in the EU. Accessed June 5, 2024. 

https://commission.europa.eu/system/files/2023-04/annual_report_GE_2023_web_EN.pdf. 
27 “She-cession” refers to the disproportionate impact of the pandemic on the employment of women. See e.g. 

Bluedorn et al. 2021. “Gender and Employment in the COVID-19 Recession: Evidence on ‘She-Cessions.’” 

International Monetary Fund. Accessed August 2, 2024. 

https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2021/03/31/Gender-and-Employment-in-the-COVID-19-Recession-

Evidence-on-She-cessions-50316. 

https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/CETA_work_plan-AECG_plan_travail-2020-2021.aspx?lang=eng
https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/CETA_work_plan-AECG_plan_travail-2020-2021.aspx?lang=eng
https://commission.europa.eu/system/files/2023-04/annual_report_GE_2023_web_EN.pdf
https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2021/03/31/Gender-and-Employment-in-the-COVID-19-Recession-Evidence-on-She-cessions-50316
https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2021/03/31/Gender-and-Employment-in-the-COVID-19-Recession-Evidence-on-She-cessions-50316


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domestically to support the gender and trade agenda. The authors have identified activities that 

could support the implementation of the first recommendation—promoting women’s engagement 

in transatlantic trade. 

4.2.1 European Union Initiatives Supporting Women Entrepreneurship 

At the EU level, the European Commission undertook many initiatives, events, and funding 

programs to support women in business, especially in the post-pandemic period. There are five 

main pan-European networks listed on the Commission’s website.28 Among them, the flagship 

initiative WEgate (2020–2023)—a dedicated online platform aimed at women entrepreneurs.29 

This platform provided a wealth of resources, networking opportunities, and practical information 

tailored to the needs of women-led businesses. It offered guidance on various aspects, from 

business development to funding opportunities, thereby facilitating the growth and sustainability 

of women-owned enterprises.  

Other EU-level initiatives are rather scarce, however, one initiative that can be mentioned is 

Women TechEU—a program that seeks to address the gender gap in the technology sector by 

supporting women-led tech startups. 30 Through grants, mentoring, and training, Women TechEU 

aims to boost the representation of women in the tech entrepreneurship ecosystem, thereby 

fostering innovation and diversification within the industry. 

Information concerning activities aimed at promoting investment and trade under CETA, with a 

specific focus on women, remains challenging to access from the European side. Neither WEGate 

nor the Europe Enterprise Network (EEN) women entrepreneur groups have documented any 

activities specific to Canada. Despite the European Women Association's (EWA) international 

engagements, it does not have a presence in Canada. Clearly, there is ample room for the EU to 

facilitate networking and establish connections between European women entrepreneurs and 

Canadian buyers and that room is, to some extent, taken by the EU Member States. 

As regards data infrastructure, in 2018, the EU supported a specific project with UNWOMEN on 

gender, trade, and CETA. The final report on Gender and Trade concluded that monitoring and 

assessment of factors driving women's and men's participation in trade and their benefits under 

CETA can guide robust trade policy tools.31 It also determined that improving data availability, 

quality, and accessibility is crucial for gender and trade analysis, especially since, despite 

substantial research, studies using microdata directly related to trade participants are limited. Yet 

enhancing such research with better data can establish causal relationships, improving policy 

design. The report proposed three approaches for compiling trade-related statistics: a macrodata 

approach utilizing sectoral statistics, a microdata approach linking detailed data on individuals and 

firms participating in trade, and an in-depth approach involving surveys or interviews. However, 

acting on the recommendations was, in the end, delegated to international organizations and away 

from the EU-Canada bilateral relations on CETA: the data improvements were to be attained 

 
28 European Commission. n.d. Support Tools and Networks for Women. Accessed August 2, 2024. https://single-

market-economy.ec.europa.eu/smes/supporting-entrepreneurship/women-entrepreneurs/support-tools-and-networks-

women_en. 
29 WEgate. 2024. Accessed August 2, 2024. https://www.wegate.eu/.  
30 European Commission. n.d. Women TechEU. Accessed August 2, 2024. 

https://eismea.ec.europa.eu/programmes/european-innovation-ecosystems/women-techeu_en. 
31 UN Women. 2020. Gender and Trade - Assessing the Impact of Trade Agreements on Gender Equality: 

Canada-EU Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-

document/UNWomen_2020d1_en.pdf. 

https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/smes/supporting-entrepreneurship/women-entrepreneurs/support-tools-and-networks-women_en
https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/smes/supporting-entrepreneurship/women-entrepreneurs/support-tools-and-networks-women_en
https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/smes/supporting-entrepreneurship/women-entrepreneurs/support-tools-and-networks-women_en
https://www.wegate.eu/
https://eismea.ec.europa.eu/programmes/european-innovation-ecosystems/women-techeu_en
https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/UNWomen_2020d1_en.pdf
https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/UNWomen_2020d1_en.pdf


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through a collaboration between United Nations Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the WE-

Empower Program, UN Women, the International Labour Organization (ILO), statisticians, and 

trade policymakers aiming to identify key indicators for more comparable global insights.32 

4.2.2 The Member States and CETA-Focused Women Entrepreneurship 

In the pursuit of information about mentorship activities for women entrepreneurs focusing on 

CETA from various EU chambers of commerce and trade representatives, the authors came across 

only a handful of countries and their respective activities, namely Italy, which has led a range of 

women-focused initiatives related to CETA in Vancouver, and France, with its numerous activities 

through the French Chamber of Commerce in Toronto as well as its ABEONA Network. Other 

member states’ representatives who shared information, specifically Spain, Austria, and Ireland, 

discussed their general policies supporting women entrepreneurship, but they did not focus 

specifically on CETA. Germany indicated an isolated transatlantic endeavour facilitated by 

national women associations, such as Verband deutscher Unternehmerinnen e.V. in collaboration 

with the Women in Business New Brunswick that have introduced mentoring programs that could 

potentially enhance women's involvement in CETA-related trade. However, such efforts remain 

scarce.  

Simultaneously, some chambers of commerce of select EU member states have displayed active 

support for women in business. For instance, the French Chamber of Commerce in Ontario has 

established the Women in Leadership Forum Annual Awards, while the Irish Chamber of 

Commerce acknowledges exceptional Irish Canadian women in business. However, these 

initiatives primarily honour diaspora women in Canada, who may not necessarily be engaged in 

trade activities under CETA. 

The authors are unable to authoritatively state why the EU member states put so little emphasis on 

inclusive trade under CETA. Based on the interviews, the authors may suggest that the trade 

promotion instruments supporting women are overall a very new policy phenomenon in the EU. It 

is quite understandable that a specific focus on CETA would not be the primary concern at this 

early stage. 

Canadian Approaches  

In the Canadian context, trade promotion instruments targeting women-led businesses are 

implemented in two ways. First, women’s business associations are the only direct contact with 

women-owned businesses in Canada. They implement training and mentoring schemes and 

support trade missions for their members. The governmental bodies support these organizations 

and work with them to reach out to women-led businesses with additional support. 

On this level, the efforts to support women entrepreneurs in reaping benefits from the 

Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) have been limited to the activities of 

several actors: Business Development Bank of Canada (BDC), Royal Bank of Canada (RBC) and 

the Trade Commissioners’ Service (TCS) of Global Affairs Canada.  

The information gathered highlights trade-promoting instruments such as virtual missions, training 

sessions, and trade missions that support women-owned businesses’ internationalization efforts.  

 
32 UN Women. 2020. Gender and Trade - Assessing the Impact of Trade Agreements on Gender Equality: 

Canada-EU Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-

document/UNWomen_2020d1_en.pdf. 

https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/UNWomen_2020d1_en.pdf
https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/UNWomen_2020d1_en.pdf


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- Minister-Led Virtual Trade Mission to France, March 2021: The mission aimed to 

support Canadian businesses’ access to export opportunities in France’s green economy 

and leverage CETA. The mission had both Exploratory and Exporter streams, with 257 

participating companies. It resulted in business deals for several companies, including 

women-owned ones. 

- Francophone Businesswomen’s Trade Mission to France and Belgium, January 2020: 

Organized by the TCS, this mission was the first of its kind and focused on connecting 

women entrepreneurs with buyers in France and Belgium. Eighteen women 

entrepreneurs participated, and the mission resulted in multiple business deals and 

contracts. 

- Second Annual Canadian Women in Tech Virtual Mission to the EU, 2021: TCS offices 

in Warsaw, Brussels, and The Hague organized this virtual mission to target 

opportunities in fintech, healthtech, and cleantech in the EU. The mission included B2B 

meetings and opportunities for Canadian women-owned tech companies to pitch their 

solutions. 

These trade missions aimed to promote Canadian businesses’ internationalization efforts, 

specifically targeting European markets. The COVID-19 pandemic could explain the limited 

number of missions, and the authors could expect a larger number going forward. However, it 

seems that virtual missions garnered more interest than in-person missions. The pandemic can only 

partially explain this. A bigger factor is the fact that European markets are not popular among 

Canadians in general and among Canadian women in particular (I.11, I.12). In fact, despite TCS’ 

endeavours, associations representing women entrepreneurs have not actively taken up the CETA 

agenda. Instead, the associations’ efforts have been channeled towards strengthening business 

connections with Mexico and the United States (I.10, I.12). For example, OWIT-Toronto 

(Organization of Women in International Trade) conducted trade missions, including three to 

Mexico and hosted webinars on trade between Canada and the EU, leveraging CETA. Their 

activities occur annually, with 100 women participating in their webinars, 75 in a webinar with 

Global Affairs Canada (GAC), and 10 in the Mexican trade mission. Invest Ottawa leads 

international trade missions but mostly to the US and Mexico, not the EU. Their training program 

features training on exporting to Europe under CETA. Réseau Femmes d’Affaires du Québec 

(RFAQ) has had a number of training courses on CETA, but it has focused on francophone markets, 

which obviously has limited the impact of its outreach. It was the main co-organizer of the 

francophone TCS mission in 2021. 

All in all, Canadian government’s dedication to the trade and gender policy agenda has resulted in 

increased support for women-led business organizations that implement trade promotion strategies 

and instruments. However, that effort has not translated into a significant increase for the activities 

under CETA. 

 

5. Conclusion  

At the beginning of the article, the authors asked: what are the prospects of the trade and gender 

policy agenda to make a lasting impression on Canada-EU trade? There are no easy answers to 

that question, especially in such early stages of cooperation, which is solely based on the goodwill 

of partners focused on their respective political agendas. The authors can say that CETA indeed 

delivers solid structures to design and implement concrete actions, leading to more policy 



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coordination between the EU and Canada on trade and gender issues. The regulation allows for 

action plans that push partners’ bureaucracies to set measurable goals and deliverables in this area. 

There are still several issues the partners could address in their work in this area in order to leave 

a lasting impression and serve as a model for other agreements to come. The most prominent have 

been those related to data collection and closing the knowledge gap. At the moment, the Canadian 

side is more advanced in this respect in general terms but still unable to gather reliable data on 

women in trade under CETA in particular. The lack of gender-disaggregated data was discussed 

earlier, in 2019, during the second and third Canada-EU CETA meetings on Trade and Gender.33 

The representatives highlighted that due to the gap in relevant data, it is challenging to assess the 

impact of trade agreements on women entrepreneurs and to implement an official strategy.34  

As regards data infrastructure, efforts since 2018 have seen the Women Entrepreneurs Knowledge 

Hub in Canada monitoring data adjustments. Some progress has been made, including 

incorporating gender as a category in entrepreneurship databases. However, several 

recommendations from 2018 remain partially unresolved. The absence of clear data definitions 

impedes the measurement and evaluation of gender aspects of CETA. While data on women 

entrepreneurship exists broadly, it remains a challenge to precisely gauge gender-specific trade 

flows, investment stocks, and flows pertaining to the EU, both on the Canadian side and in the 

opposite direction. 

Other issues relate to encouraging more women in trade under CETA, which has been missing 

from bilateral work. If CETA is to serve as a model, it must cater to women in trade first and 

foremost. Without setting an example of cooperation, Canada will find it more and more difficult 

to leave a mark internationally in the area of trade and gender. 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 
33 Government of Canada. 2019. Report: 2nd Canada-European Union Comprehensive Economic and Trade 

Agreement (CETA) Meeting on Trade and Gender by Videoconference, Ottawa and Brussels, June 14th, 2019. 

Accessed August 2, 2024. https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-

commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/2019-06-14-trade-gender-commerce-genre.aspx?lang=eng. 
34 Government of Canada. 2019b. Report: 3rd Canada-European Union Comprehensive Economic and Trade 

Agreement (CETA) Joint Committee Recommendation on Trade and Gender by Videoconference, Ottawa and 

Brussels, October 24th, 2019. Accessed August 2, 2024. https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-

agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/2019-10-24-trade_gender-commerce_genre.aspx?lang=eng.  

 

https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/2019-06-14-trade-gender-commerce-genre.aspx?lang=eng
https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/2019-06-14-trade-gender-commerce-genre.aspx?lang=eng
https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/2019-10-24-trade_gender-commerce_genre.aspx?lang=eng
https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/2019-10-24-trade_gender-commerce_genre.aspx?lang=eng


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Annex 

Table 1: Three generations of trade agreements35 

 
35 Table from Leblond and Viju-Miljusevic (2022), pp. 108.  

 1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation 

Background • Development of 

regionalism 

• Rise of trade in services 

• Emergence of global 

value chains (GVCs) 

• Digitization of the economy: 

increasing 

deterritorialization of trade 

• Growing dematerialized 

world trade 

• Interconnected world 

economy 

Characteristics • Focus on tariff 

barriers 

• Easy to implement 

• Focus on non-tariff 

barriers 

• Internationalization of 

firms 

• A regulation and 

integration model based 

on contractual approach 

 

• Attempt to liberalize other 

policy issues that affect 

trade in goods and services 

(e.g., investment, people, 

ideas, sustainability, data) 

• Non-trade objectives (e.g., 

human rights, gender 

equality, climate change) 

• Necessity of wider and 

deeper cooperation 

• A renewal of economic 

regulation 

Examples • EEC 

• EU-Switzerland 

• EU-Mexico  

• NAFTA 

• EU-Switzerland 

• EU-Colombia-Peru-

Ecuador 

• CETA 

• Updated EU-Mexico  



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Innovations • FTAs 

• Custom unions 

• Inclusion of social 

clause 

• Protection of intellectual 

property rights 

• Dispute settlement 

mechanism 

• Institutions to assist 

implementation 

• Government 

procurement provisions 

• Provisions on labour and 

the environment 

• Mixed agreements 

• Precautionary principle  

• New “Regulatory 

Cooperation Forum” 

• Deepening and widening of 

regulatory cooperation 

(issue-specific committees)  

• Investment court system 

• Enhanced protection of 

intellectual property rights 

• Adoption of negative list 

approach 

• Updated public procurement 

processes 



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List of interviews 

Experts from embassies and chambers of commerce, responsible for trade: 

I.1. Austria, embassy (June 20, 2022) 

I.2. Germany, embassy (August 12, 2022) 

I.3. Ireland, Chamber of Commerce (August 12, 2022) 

I.4. Italy, Chamber of Commerce (June 1, 2022) 

I.5. Poland, embassy (September 15, 2022) 

I.6. Spain, embassy (August 20, 2022) 

 

Experts from pan-European bodies supporting women in business 

I.7. WEGate/European Enterprise Network (October 10, 2022) 

 

Interviews with the Trade Commissioner Service 

I.8. Trade Commissioners’ Service in Helsinki (July 26, 2022) 

I.9. Trade Commissioners’ Service in Poland (August 24, 2022) 

I.10. Trade Commissioners’ Service in Italy/Malta (June 15, 2022, in writing) 

 

Interviews with business-support organizations in Canada 

I.11. Invest Ottawa (June 21, 2022) 

I.12. Organization of Women in Trade Toronto (August 2, 2022) 

I.13. Réseau Femmes d'Affaires du Québec (October 3, 2022)  



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