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VOLUME 7, ISSUE 1 

 2024 
 

TECHNICAL NOTE 

 

Gholizadeh H, Baddour N, Dudek N, Lemaire E.D. A new temporary training prosthesis for people with transtibial amputation: A technical note. Canadian 

Prosthetics & Orthotics Journal. 2024; Volume 7, Issue 1, No.2. https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034 

 

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1 

Gholizadeh H, Baddour N, Dudek N, Lemaire E.D. A new temporary training prosthesis for people with transtibial amputation: A technical note. Canadian 
Prosthetics & Orthotics Journal. 2024; Volume 7, Issue 1, No.2. https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034 

 

 

TECHNICAL NOTE 

 

A NEW TEMPORARY TRAINING PROSTHESIS FOR PEOPLE WITH TRANSTIBIAL 

AMPUTATION: A TECHNICAL NOTE 

Gholizadeh H1,2*, Baddour N1, Dudek N3, Lemaire E.D.4,5  

1  Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada. 
2  AMPOS Orthopaedics Inc, Ottawa, Canada. 
3  Department of Medicine, (Division of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation) and The Ottawa Hospital, University of Ottawa, Canada.   
4  Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada.  
5  Centre for Rehabilitation Research and Development, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada. 

 
 
  
 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION   

Limb amputation is a meaningful event that can have both 

a physical and psychological impact on an individual’s well-

being. After lower limb amputation, comprehensive 

rehabilitation is essential for regaining independence, 

mobility, and enhancing quality of life. Before receiving a 

prosthesis, people with amputation often rely only on 

wheelchairs or crutches for mobility.1,2  

 

 

Prosthetic fitting typically commences between one to six 

months after amputation once swelling has subsided and 

the surgical incision has fully healed. During this phase, 

while the person is awaiting their prosthesis, a temporary 

prosthesis may facilitate early ambulation and enable 

individuals to initiate walking post-amputation.1-3 People 

with lower limb amputation can utilize a temporary 

prosthesis within parallel bars or with the assistance of 

crutches or a cane to enhance residual limb strength and 

endurance. Temporary prostheses or post operative 

prosthesis can play an important role in the overall success 

of rehabilitation for people with lower limb amputation, 

contributing to the prevention of complications associated 

 
OPEN  ACCESS 

ABSTRACT 

BACKGROUND: While waiting to receive a prosthesis, individuals with amputations could benefit from using 

a temporary training prosthesis to expedite the rehabilitation process and prepare them for subsequent 

walking with their prosthesis. 

OBJECTIVES: To design and build a temporary training prosthesis for people with a transtibial amputation. 

METHODOLOGY: Various temporary training prostheses were designed and simulated using SolidWorks 

software, followed by fabricating and testing multiple prototypes. Initial tests were conducted on five able 

bodied subjects without amputation to evaluate comfort, ensure the prototype functioned as intended, and 

to refine the design. The final prototype design had no weight-bearing on the residual limb end and required 

the person to wear a shrinker or silicone liner. 

FINDINGS: SolidWorks simulations showed that the device could tolerate up to 200 kg load. Subjective 

feedback indicated that body weight is primarily supported by the thigh section, while partially utilizing the 

patellar tendon and tibial flares. The thigh section can be shifted 5 cm up or down and 2.5 cm to the front or 

back from the knee joint center (to enhance knee stability or function). Additionally, the thigh angle can be 

adjusted to 0, 5, 10, or 15 degrees to accommodate hip flexion contracture. The shank section width is 

adjustable and can be shifted up or down based on the residual limb shape. All five able-bodied participants 

successfully walked with the non-amputee version of the temporary prosthesis prototype and the device 

withstood walking, sitting, and standing loads. 

CONCLUSION:  An adjustable temporary training prosthesis was successfully designed, and pilot tested by 

five able-bodied individuals. Future testing will involve five experienced prosthetic users before conducting 

trials with individuals with a new transtibial amputation. 

ARTICLE INFO 

Received: April 5, 2024 

Accepted: June 3, 2024 

Published: June 30, 2024  
 

CITATION 

Gholizadeh H, Baddour N, Dudek 

N, Lemaire E.D. A new temporary 

training prosthesis for people 

with transtibial amputation: A 

technical note. Canadian 

Prosthetics & Orthotics Journal. 

2024; Volume 7, Issue 1, No.2. 

https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i

1.43034 

KEYWORDS 

Amputation, Training Prosthesis, 

Artificial Limb, Post-Operative 

Prosthesis, Prosthetic Users, 

Rehabilitation, Quality of Life, 

Below Knee Amputation, 

Temporary Prosthesis 

 

* CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: 

Hossein Gholizadeh, PhD, CP (Canada) 

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada. 

E-Mails: hgholizadeh@uottawa.ca, gholizadeh87@yahoo.com  

ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5847-7985 

Journal Homepage: https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/cpoj/index 

Volume 7, Issue 1, Article No.2. 2024 

 

 

https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034
https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034
https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034
mailto:hgholizadeh@uottawa.ca
mailto:gholizadeh87@yahoo.com
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5847-7985
https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/cpoj/index


 

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Gholizadeh H, Baddour N, Dudek N, Lemaire E.D. A new temporary training prosthesis for people with transtibial amputation: A technical note. Canadian 
Prosthetics & Orthotics Journal. 2024; Volume 7, Issue 1, No.2. https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034 

CANADIAN PROSTHETICS & ORTHOTICS JOURNAL 

ISSN: 2561-987X TEMPORARY TRAINING PROSTHESIS FOR PEOPLE WITH TRANSTIBIAL AMPUTATION 

Gholizadeh et.al, 2024 

with prolonged bed rest and promoting early discharge from 

the hospital.2,4-6  

Very few types of temporary or post operative prostheses 

are available on the market. In post-amputation 

rehabilitation, the Pneumatic Post-Amputation Mobility Aid 

(PPAM) is a device designed to improve balance and gait in 

individuals with a new lower limb amputation and aid in the 

reduction of residual limb edema, thereby preparing the 

residual limb for wearing a prosthesis. However, the device 

is very bulky, and donning and doffing is not convenient for 

patients because they require assistance from clinicians, 

cannot manage the device independently, and cannot use 

it at home. Moreover, patients cannot bend their knee and 

gait is not symmetrical.7   

Immediate post-operative rigid dressings with a pylon/foot 

fitting are also employed in rehabilitation. The concept of 

rigid dressings was first introduced by Muirhead Little during 

the First World War.2 Immediate post-operative rigid 

dressings can promote primary wound healing, facilitate 

stump shrinkage, prevent knee contracture, and enable 

early patient mobilization.1,4-6 However, by immobilizing the 

knee, the rigid dressing obstructs knee joint rehabilitation, 

resulting in unnatural gait that contradicts rehabilitation 

goals.8  

The Bent-Knee Temporary Prosthesis (BKTP) is another 

device designed to pad and offload the residual limb.9 

However, a primary concern with BKTP and similar devices 

like the iWalk10 is that the knee is positioned in ninety-

degree flexion, which can lead to knee contracture and 

asymmetric gait. Prolonged use of devices like the iWalk 

can indeed result in significant changes to an individual’s 

gait, causing asymmetrical walking.10 

A simple-to-use, temporary training prosthesis could assist 

individuals with transtibial amputation in learning how to 

walk with a prosthesis and remaining active while awaiting 

to receive their prosthesis. The device should not restrict the 

knee joint and should be easy to don and doff. Additionally, 

weight distribution between the residual limb and thigh 

section is crucial to alleviate pressure on the newly 

amputated leg. Therefore, the objective of this research was 

to develop a new temporary training prosthesis for 

individuals with new transtibial amputations. 

METHODOLOGY 

A temporary training prosthesis model was designed and 

simulated using SolidWorks software (version 2020). The 

prototype design criteria were based on the research team's 

clinical experiences working with people with amputation 

over many years, as well as on a thorough literature review 

and discussions with experts. The main criteria were: 

• The device should allow a knee range of motion of at 

least 120°. 

• Thigh section angle should be adjustable within a 

range of 15°. 

• The device should accommodate different thigh 

lengths by allowing for a 5 cm shift up or down in the 

thigh section, resulting in a total adjustment of 10 cm. 

• The device should alleviate pressure on the newly 

amputated leg. Users should be able to stand and put 

weight on the device using only the thigh section (i.e., 

shank section is open). 

• The device is easy to don and doff. Users should be 

able to put on and take off the prosthesis within 3 

minutes. 

• The device should be easy to adjust for clinicians. 

Adjustments should be possible using standard tools 

available in most clinical settings, with no more than 2 

different tools required and taking a maximum of 15 

minutes to adjust for different patients. 

• The device should weigh less than 4 kg, similar to a 

transtibial prosthesis with a thigh shell. 

Based on these criteria, a design was developed featuring 

a single upright, with the thigh and shank sections 

unilaterally connecting to the knee joint and prosthetic foot 

(Figure 1). The first prototype featured thigh and shank 

sections made of polypropylene, with the connection 

between the upright and the prosthetic foot made of carbon 

fiber, fiberglass, and aluminium.  

To evaluate comfort and function before testing on 

individuals with amputations, and to determine whether 

design criteria/objectives have been met, this temporary 

prosthesis was adapted for individuals without amputations. 

This approach allowed both the research team and able-

bodied individuals to experience using the device and 

provide subjective feedback to improve the design. 

Therefore, the shank section was made longer to match 

different leg lengths and to add 1 cm clearance between the 

distal end of the foot and the device. Additionally, the 

contralateral leg was elevated by 10 cm using a portable 

shoe sole made of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) foam, which 

can be used with any type of shoe. This configuration 

ensured that only one intact limb and the contralateral 

temporary training prosthesis made contact with the ground 

(Figure 1). 

The research prosthetist wore the first prototype inside a 

prosthetic facility, using parallel bars, and provided 

feedback on various aspects such as comfort during use, 

the ability to adjust the prototype for optimal fit, ease of 

donning and doffing the prototype, and evaluations of 

stability and functionality.  

The thigh and shank could be adjusted using a ratchet strap 

or a BOA system (https://www.boafit.com/en-us/bracing). 

The knee was free, and the length of the device was 

https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034
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Gholizadeh H, Baddour N, Dudek N, Lemaire E.D. A new temporary training prosthesis for people with transtibial amputation: A technical note. Canadian 
Prosthetics & Orthotics Journal. 2024; Volume 7, Issue 1, No.2. https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034 

CANADIAN PROSTHETICS & ORTHOTICS JOURNAL 

ISSN: 2561-987X TEMPORARY TRAINING PROSTHESIS FOR PEOPLE WITH TRANSTIBIAL AMPUTATION 

Gholizadeh et.al, 2024 

adjustable. In the initial prototype, the thigh angle could not 

be adjusted to accommodate hip contracture. Due to the 

flexible nature of the thigh and shank sections, the user 

could not bear body weight adequately, resulting in the thigh 

and shank shells, shifting downward medially, where no 

upright support was present, by approximately 6 cm during 

weight-bearing. 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1: Top: Initial design concept for a temporary training 

prosthesis for people with transtibial amputation; Bottom: The 

contralateral leg was elevated by 10 cm to provide sufficient room 

for the other leg to suspend inside the device. 

 

One solution was to increase the strength of the thigh and 

shank sections (for example, using carbon fiber) to 

decrease or eliminate vertical movement during weight 

bearing. However, this would reduce shell flexibility, which 

was necessary to adjust for different thigh or shank sizes. 

Several ideas were considered to maintain shell flexibility 

while controlling vertical movement during weight bearing. 

In one design (Figure 2) a watch band concept was used to 

make the shells flexible in the horizontal plane while keeping 

them rigid in the vertical direction. However, after trying 

different prototypes, the team was unable to completely 

control vertical movement (i.e., there was still 1 cm 

movement). 

Based on the issues encountered with the first prototype 

and prosthetist feedback, the research team modified the 

design by incorporating two uprights, one medial and one 

lateral, to better control movement in the shells, and added 

an adapter for adjusting the thigh section angle. 

Throughout this iterative process, the design was refined to 

ensure adaptability to a broader population and meeting the 

specific needs of people with a transtibial amputation. The 

final prototype design includes two aluminium adapters (4.5 

cm height, 3.6 cm length, 0.5 cm width) to connect the thigh 

to the support bars (uprights) on medial and lateral side. 

This adapter has unique threaded hole arrangements to 

allow for front/back shifting, up/down movement, and flexion 

adjustment, (Figure 3). Multiple iterations of this adapter 

were developed and tested clinically to ensure adequate 

adjustability to meet diverse patient needs.  

The thigh shell was fabricated from polypropylene (5 mm 

sheet), with 1 cm Plastazote® foam padding inside the shell 

for comfort. Additionally, a vinyl cover was applied to areas 

that contact the leg to facilitate easy cleaning (Figure 3). 

Two off-the-shelf locking knee joints (Modified Ring Lock 

Knee Joint) from Becker Orthopedic were used 

(https://beckerorthopedic.com/Product/KneeJoints/1000Kn

eeSeries/1002#selection-guide) to provide unrestricted 

knee motion during ambulation, with the option for the 

patient to lock the knee joint if necessary. To connect the 

joint bars to the designed adapter, several holes (one 

centimetre apart) were drilled into the bars to accommodate 

M6 screws. SolidWorks software simulation (using forces 

for a person weighing 100 kg) indicated the need for 

increased durability. Therefore, 8 mm thick medial and 
lateral aluminum bars were riveted to the joint bars using 3 

mm stainless steel rivets. 

 In the shank section, sufficient room between the bars is 

needed to accommodate swollen and/or larger legs. 

Therefore, the width must be adjustable to accommodate 

different shank sizes. The width is adjustable in the shank 

section using four M6 screws, and the shank section can 

also be shifted up or down (Figure 4).  

Ratchet strap or 

BOA system 

Adjustable length 

Free knee joint 

Soft insert 

The 

contralateral leg 

was elevated by 

10 cm 

https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034
https://beckerorthopedic.com/Product/KneeJoints/1000KneeSeries/1002#selection-guide
https://beckerorthopedic.com/Product/KneeJoints/1000KneeSeries/1002#selection-guide


 

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Gholizadeh H, Baddour N, Dudek N, Lemaire E.D. A new temporary training prosthesis for people with transtibial amputation: A technical note. Canadian 
Prosthetics & Orthotics Journal. 2024; Volume 7, Issue 1, No.2. https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034 

CANADIAN PROSTHETICS & ORTHOTICS JOURNAL 

ISSN: 2561-987X TEMPORARY TRAINING PROSTHESIS FOR PEOPLE WITH TRANSTIBIAL AMPUTATION 

Gholizadeh et.al, 2024 

 

 

Figure 2: Watch band concept for the thigh shell. 

After receiving approval from the University of Ottawa 

Research Ethics Board (H-09-22-8410), initial testing was 

conducted with five male individuals (82 kg (SD= 8.2), 43 

years old (SD=12.5)) without amputation to ensure that the 

device functioned as intended and to refine the design, if 

necessary. 

 

 

Figure 3: Thigh shell with aluminium adapter. Left: front view with 

vinyl cover; Right: lateral view.   

RESULTS 

The device fabricated for this study was suitable for able-

bodied individuals and included medium-sized thigh and 

shank shells designed for individuals weighing between 70 

and 95 kg. The device does not require customized thigh or 

shank sections and can be used by able-bodied individuals 

after size and alignment adjustments have been made. All 

adjustments can be completed by a clinician or technician, 

using a 4 mm hex key.  

The designed adapter (Figure 3) enables a 5 cm shift up or 

down to accommodate people with different thigh lengths 

and a 2.5 cm shift to the front or back from the knee joint 

center, enhancing knee stability and/or function (to provide 

proper and safe alignment for ambulation). Additionally, this 

adapter allows clinicians to position the thigh at four different 

flexion angles (0, 5, 10, 15 degrees) to adjust for a hip 

flexion contracture. This adapter was made of aluminum flat 

bar and weighed 57 grams. The overall device weight for 

the non-amputee version was 3,750 grams. 

SolidWorks simulations showed that the device could 

tolerate loads more than 200 kg. All five testing participants 

successfully walked with the non-amputee version of the 

temporary prosthesis prototype, and the device withstood 

walking, sitting, and standing loads. The weight-bearing 

load is primarily supported by the thigh section while 

partially utilizing the patellar tendon and medial /lateral tibial 

flares. There was no weight-bearing on the foot that was 

suspended inside the temporary prosthesis. This device 

ensured that only the left leg and contralateral prosthetic 

foot contacted the ground. This setup provided 10 

centimetres of clearance between the floor and the right 

foot. 

 

Figure 4: The temporary training prosthesis adapted for able-

bodied individuals. This version is longer in the shank section to 

provide sufficient room for the leg to suspend inside the device. 

The shank length is adjustable based on the individual’s leg 

length. Additionally, different prosthetic feet can be used 

with this prototype. In this pilot study with able-bodied 

individuals, the Pro-Flex® XC foot was modified, 

(https://www.ossur.com/en-ca/prosthetics/feet/pro-flex-xc), 

creating a very short-profile prosthetic foot to avoid adding 

unnecessary length to the temporary prosthesis (Figure 5). 

The modified foot was intended solely for internal use with 

able-bodied individuals within the research and was solely 

used within a prosthetic facility or a rehabilitation center (i.e., 

no outdoor evaluations were conducted). For testing the 

device on people with transtibial amputation, a shorter 

version of the device will be fabricated that does not require 

any changes to the prosthetic foot. 

Aluminium 

adapter to 

connect 

the thigh 

to the 

support 

bars on 

medial and 

lateral 

side. 

https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034
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5 

Gholizadeh H, Baddour N, Dudek N, Lemaire E.D. A new temporary training prosthesis for people with transtibial amputation: A technical note. Canadian 
Prosthetics & Orthotics Journal. 2024; Volume 7, Issue 1, No.2. https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034 

CANADIAN PROSTHETICS & ORTHOTICS JOURNAL 

ISSN: 2561-987X TEMPORARY TRAINING PROSTHESIS FOR PEOPLE WITH TRANSTIBIAL AMPUTATION 

Gholizadeh et.al, 2024 

 

Figure 5:  A: Pro-Flex® XC foot; B: modified Pro-Flex® XC foot with 

a different adapter. 

DISCUSSION 

In this project, an adjustable temporary training prosthesis 

was successfully designed, and pilot tested by able-bodied 

individuals within a prosthetic facility or a rehabilitation 

centre, with no outdoor evaluations conducted. The device 

was easily adjusted and aligned to the participant and all 

participants successfully walked, stood, and sat with the 

prototype temporary prosthesis. 

To enable use by able-bodied individuals, a longer version 

of the device was developed. The device did not require 

customized thigh or shank sections. This permitted 

repetitive evaluations of temporary prosthesis performance. 

Success with this testing device ensured that future 

evaluations for people with amputations are appropriate 

(i.e., device is ready for clinical evaluation). 

After undergoing several modifications and iterations, the 

final prototype device met the design criteria. The designed 

adapter to connect the thigh section to the uprights, allowed 

for 2.5 cm front/back shifting, aiding alignment adjustment. 

Additionally, it accommodated varying thigh lengths with a 

5 cm up or down movement capability and provided flexion 

adjustment options (0, 5, 10, 15 degrees) to address hip 

flexion contracture. Two off-the-shelf locking knee joints 

(Modified Ring Lock Knee Joint) used in this prototype, 

enabled unrestricted knee motion, crucial for smooth 

ambulation, and featured a safety locking mechanism for 

instances of instability.  

Participants could relieve pressure on the shank section by 

loosening the shank straps to bear weight more or solely on 

the thigh section. Furthermore, after instruction and 

practice, they donned and doffed the device within the 

designated 3-minute timeframe. Fit and height adjustments 

were also straightforward, requiring only a 4 mm hex key 

and approximately 10-15 minutes. The device weighed less 

than 4 kg, even in its longer version for able-bodied 

individuals. Device weight could potentially be further 

reduced in shorter versions, ensuring practicality and user 

comfort. 

To prevent pressure on the suture line in a newly amputated 

residual limb, weight-bearing in this device primarily occurs 

through the thigh section, with partial support from the 

patellar tendon and medial/lateral tibia flares. Based on the 

design principles and observations during the testing phase, 

where individuals were able to stand using only the thigh 

section, it is believed that most of the patient's weight can 

be tolerated by the thigh section. However, there is a need 

for further quantitative analysis to measure the forces 

applied to both the thigh and shank sections for a more 

comprehensive understanding. In this study, participants 

were able to adjust pressure or weight-bearing on the thigh 

or shank sections by tightening or loosening the straps. 

Evaluation with able-bodied individuals showed that this 

device could completely offload the foot inside the 

prosthesis. Potentially, this non-amputee version could be 

used as an off-loading orthosis in case of ankle or foot 

fractures. 

Compared to the Pneumatic Post-Amputation Mobility Aid 

(PPAM) and immediate post-operative rigid dressing, this 

device does not restrict knee movement, which is crucial in 

rehabilitation.8   

Training with the temporary prosthesis is necessary, similar 

to when a patient receives their first prosthesis. After fitting 

by a prosthetist, a physiotherapist needs to work with the 

patient on gait training inside the parallel bars. For safety 

reasons, the rehabilitation team must teach the patient how 

to use the device, how to adjust the weight bearing on the 

thigh or shank, and how to walk before they can use the 

temporary prosthesis outside the parallel bars. 

In this pilot study, the temporary training prosthesis was 

evaluated on five male able-bodied individuals to ensure the 

device’s safety and functionality. Additionally, the device 

was solely used within a prosthetic facility or a rehab center 

(i.e., no outdoor evaluations). Qualitative feedback was the 

basis for device evaluation. 

CONCLUSION 

Future research will involve testing this temporary 

prosthesis with five experienced prosthesis users who can 

provide experienced feedback on device fit and function. 

Subsequently, a larger cohort of individuals with new 

transtibial amputations will be recruited to verify appropriate 

function in practice. This device is believed to have the 

potential to enhance the rehabilitation of individuals with 

transtibial amputation and could also serve as an off-loading 

orthosis for those with ankle or shank fractures. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This project was made possible due to the generous support from 

The War Amps. Additionally, we extend our thanks to The War 

Amps team for their invaluable support. We also express gratitude 

to Chris Kraft and Adrian Schellenberg at AMPOS Orthopaedics for 

their assistance in providing technical advice and fabricating the 

prototypes.  

A B 

https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034
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6 

Gholizadeh H, Baddour N, Dudek N, Lemaire E.D. A new temporary training prosthesis for people with transtibial amputation: A technical note. Canadian 
Prosthetics & Orthotics Journal. 2024; Volume 7, Issue 1, No.2. https://doi.org/10.33137/cpoj.v7i1.43034 

CANADIAN PROSTHETICS & ORTHOTICS JOURNAL 

ISSN: 2561-987X TEMPORARY TRAINING PROSTHESIS FOR PEOPLE WITH TRANSTIBIAL AMPUTATION 

Gholizadeh et.al, 2024 

DECLARATION OF CONFLICTING INTERESTS 

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to report. 

 

AUTHORS CONTRIBUTION 

Hossein Gholizadeh:  

Conceptualization, design and fabrication of the prototypes, data 

collection and analysis, writing the manuscript, revising the 

manuscript, final manuscript approval, and ethics certification 

application. 

Natalie Baddour: 

Conceptualization, supervision, methodology, reviewing/revising 

the manuscript, final manuscript approval. 

Nancy Dudek:  

Conceptualization, reviewing/revising the manuscript, final 

manuscript approval. 

Edward D. Lemaire:  

Conceptualization, supervision, methodology, reviewing/revising 

the manuscript, final manuscript approval. 

 

SOURCES OF SUPPORT 

This project was made possible due to the generous support from 

The War Amps. 

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https://waramps.ca/home/
https://www.ortho-europe.com/product/ppam-aid/
https://vc.bridgew.edu/undergrad_rev/vol13/iss1/10

